1. style and fashion
2. footwear
3. shoes

COMPILERS NOTES
The following is a faithful digitalization of volume I of F.Y.
Golding’s BOOTS AND SHOES.
I have taken the liberty of using this original blank page to
comment on the material within. Insofar as I was able, I have
endeavoured to preserve the appearance, formatting, kerning,
spacing, etc,. of the original work. Sometimes, however, this was
simply not possible. The typefaces used in the original text are not
precisely duplicated in any of the font sets to which I have access.
Then too, the spacing between chapter, paragraph, and graphic
elements is often inconsistent within the original text. Sometimes a
chapter heading will be set an inch and a quarter below the edge of
the page, sometime an inch and a half. Sometimes, using a given set
of paragraph styles, a page would format almost to the exact word at
the bottom margin...and then the next page would run over or come
up substantially short. Nevertheless, I have preserved page numbers
and the contents of those pages to fairly close extent.
Additionally, there are some illustrations that I have “re-drawn,”
so to speak. This process involved “tracing” the original (as
faithfully as is humanly possible) in order to clarify a drawing, or
areas of a drawing which, because of “shading” or other “textures,”
would not have displayed or printed well. I had some initial qualms
about this but, in the end, felt that the result was no different than
substituting a contemporary typeface for one that was no longer
available. Presenting the information in a clear forme is the whole
point, after all.
Beyond that, nothing has been added or subtracted from the text as
it is contained in the original volumes in my possession. It is my
fervent hope that this work will help to preserve the Trade and make
this invaluable resource more accessible to those students seeking to
learn from the past masters.
DWFII – 28 June 2007
BOOTS AND SHOES
THEIR MAKING
MANUFACTURING AND SELLING
VOLUME I
PATTERN CUTTING AND MAKING
GORDEN R. GLANVILLE, A.B.S.I.
THE MAKING OF LASTS
BERESFORD WORSWICK, D.I.C., A.R.C.Sc.,
BOOTS
AND
SHOES
THEIRMAKING
MANUFACTUREANDSELLING
A WORK IN EIGHT VOLUMES
DEALING WITH PATTERN CUTTING AND MAKING.
UPPER LEATHERS AND CLICKING, CLOSING THE UPPER,
MATERIALS FOR BOTTOMING, CUTTING AND PREPARATION,
LASTING AND MAKING, ATTACHING, FINISHING, SHOE ROOM
WORK, FACTORY ORGANIZATION, ANATOMY, MEASURING
AND OBTAINING DATA FROM THE FOOT, THE
MAKING OF LASTS, THE FITTING UP OF LASTS,
BESPOKE BOOKMAKING, HANDSEWN
BOOTMAKING, RETAILING AND
SALESMANSHIP
EDITED BY F. Y. GOLDING. F.B.S.I.
FOR OVER THIRTY-EIGHT YEARS PRINCIPAL OF THE
CORDWAINERS’ TECHNICAL COLLEGE, LONDON
VOLUME I
THE
12
&
NEW
14
ERA
NEWTON
PUBLISHING
STREET,
HOLBORN,
CO.,
LONDON,
LT D .
W.C.2
PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN
AT THE PITMAN PRESS, BATH
EDITOR’S PREFACE
I AT first hesitated when I was approached by the publishers to
undertake the responsibility of editing a larger and more
comprehensive work of reference on Boots and Shoes than
had been attempted before. But learning that a serious attempt
was to be made to produce something far in advance of
previous publications, and that the work was to be published
in weekly parts as well as in volumes, I consented to undertake
the task. All aspirants in the industry will now be able to
possess a very useful work of reference and study that should
stimulate them to a more complete knowledge of the various
sections or branches in which they are engaged. To have the
views, experiences, and opinions of others, and thus be able to
bring a wider knowledge to bear upon the task immediately to
hand, must make for progress. From the foot, through the
retailer, back through all the stages of making or manufacture,
is a chain of great magnitude, and the value of the whole
depends upon each link. It is hoped that information may be
gleaned from this publication that will materially help in this
direction.
My colleagues who are responsible for the different
sections of this enterprise have entered upon their task in the
spirit that was required, with the result that an amazing mass
of information and experience has been condensed into the
space allotted them. Their writings will be found to be both
interesting and free from verbosity. The illustrations have
been carefully chosen to clarify the text.
It has been found necessary slightly to deviate from
v
vi
EDITOR’S PREFACE
the strict order of manufacturing routine in presenting the
sections, so as to allow space for some of the major sections,
and to keep the volumes of similar size.
PATTERN CUTTING AND MAKING deals with a complete system of construction based upon proportions, and thus
will be the foundation for any developments that may arise
from further research. New methods of forme construction
will be of special interest to those developing modern
mechanization.
THE MAKING OF LASTS is written by a very able writer,
and is the result of serious study, and covers a wide range. It is
well illustrated by drawings made by the author.
UPPER LEATHERS AND CLICKING deals with the production of leathers used for shoe uppers, and describes and
illustrates the principle and practice of leather cutting.
Departmental management and costing are included in
dealing with the subject of clicking.
CLOSING THE UPPER will be a guide to those seeking
broad information on this very important branch of the trade,
and the illustrations have in many instances been especially
drawn for the occasion.
The author of the section dealing with MATERIALS FOR
BOTTOMING : THEIR CUTTING AND PREPARATION,
has succeeded in condensing up-to-date matter and
illustrations that will be of suggestive value to those seeking
clear information on modern practice.
FINISHING has been dealt with, both for the hand and
machine processes.
LASTING AND MAKING is a full treatise of thoughtful and
useful information, and will greatly interest and arouse
discussion among those who follow this art. It is well
illustrated, many of the drawings being the work of the
author, who has a considerable reputation for fine work.
THE FITTING UP OF LASTS has been dealt with on
EDITOR’S PREFACE
vii
a systematic basis, the result of a very long experience in the
West End of London and of pioneer teaching of the art.
ATTACHING is a section full of instruction, especially to
operators on the machine used in this modern department, and
deals with a large variety of attachments.
SHOE ROOM WORK is without doubt the best written
work that has appeared upon this department of the modern
factory.
BESPOKE BOOTMAKING is written by a man who has
successfully built up a reputation for efficiency in this still
important division of the industry, while HANDSEWN
MAKING is from the pen of an author who was the first to
train disabled men of the Forces, many of whom took seats of
work in the West End of London bespoke trade.
ANATOMY OF THE FOOT is dealt with by a writer who
was trained in the technology of boot and shoe manufacture,
and subsequently was awarded the Gold Medal for a
chiropody course.
RETAILING AND SALESMANSHIP is well worth the
study of all engaged in this division of the trade, and will also
be of great service to those whose experience is confined to
the manufacturing side of the industry.
FACTORY ORGANIZATION is a carefully-prepared and
well-written section, and all in executive management, or who
aspire thereto, cannot but be stimulated with the contents of
the author’s treatment of the subject.
In the last section I hope to suggest many new ideas
regarding the old practices of “taking the measures of the
foot,” and show how more reliable data can be secured.
In conclusion, while there is a continuity between the
seventeen sections, the various authors depict their own
specialized viewpoints, which will be valuable to
viii
EDITOR’S PREFACE
the reader who desires to have all views of the Boot and Shoe
Industry.
I wish here to place on record my thanks to the contributors,
publishers and their staff, and all those who have so readily
helped to make this publication possible, and of the standard
near to the aim of the producers. In these thanks I include
those who have loaned blocks or photographs, or placed
information at the disposal of the authors and editor.
F.Y. GOLDING
CONTENTS
PAGE
EDITOR’S PREFACE ·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
V
SECTION I
PATTERN CUTTING AND MAKING
CHAP.
.
.
I . C U T T I N G F O R M E S B Y VA R I O U S M E T H O D S
P R E FA C E
.
.
.
.
.
.
I I . T H E C O N S T R U C T I O N O F S TA N D A R D S
I I I . C U T T I N G C O M P O N E N T PA RT S
.
5
.
.
12
.
.
27
I V. S TA N D A R D C O N S T R U C T I O N F O R M E N ’ S S H O E S
V. S L I P P E R PAT T E R N S
3
32
.
.
.
.
.
39
V I . W O M E N ’ S S TA N D A R D S
.
.
.
.
42
V I I . W O M E N ’ S S H O E S TA N D A R D S
.
.
.
46
VIII. OTHER WOMEN’S SHOE DESIGNS .
.
.
51
I X . C H I L D R E N ’ S ( 7 ’ S T O 1 ’ S ) A N D I N FA N T S ’
S TA N D A R D S .
.
.
.
.
X . “ R I G H T S a n d L E F T S ” PAT T E R N S
.
.
.
.
62
67
XI. OTHER DESIGNS.
.
70
.
.
.
.
X I I . A LT E R AT I O N S M A D E F O R D I F F E R E N T M AT E RIALS, CLOSING OR LASTING PROCESSES .
77
X I I I . C U T T I N G T H E PA RT S
.
.
.
.
.
82
X I V. L I N I N G PAT T E R N S
.
.
.
.
.
87
X V. PAT T E R N A L L O WA N C E S F O R M A K I N G A N D
CLOSING
.
.
.
.
.
.
94
XVI. FINDING THE POSITIONS FOR THE INSIDE
J O I N T S , F O R S TA N D A R D C O N S T R U C T I O N ,
BY A GEOMETRICAL METHOD .
.
.
XVII. DESIGNING
.
.
.
C H A P.
.
.
.
98
103
PA G E
ix
x
CONTENTS
X V I I I . L O N G W O R K S TA N D A R D S
·
·
·
·
107
X I X . B O T T O M S T O C K PAT T E R N S .
.
.
.
122
.
.
.
X X . G R A D I N G PAT T E R N S I N T O S E T S
XXI. GRADING CHILDREN’S
( 7 ’ S T O 1 ’ S ) S TA N D A R D S
139
154
X X I I . G R A D I N G S E T S O F I N N E R S O L E S A N D O U TSOLES FROM ONE STENCIL
.
.
.
157
X X I I I . T H E C O M PA R AT I V E S Y S T E M O F G R A D I N G
.
164
X X I V. G R A D I N G M A C H I N E S .
.
167
.
174
.
.
.
X X V. M A K I N G B O A R D , Z I N C , O R M E TA L - B O U N D
W O R K I N G PAT T E R N S
.
.
.
SECTION II
THE MAKING OF LASTS
P R E FA C E .
.
.
.
.
.
.
183
1. WOODS USED
.
.
.
.
.
.
185
II. STRUCTURE OF WOOD
.
.
.
.
192
I I I . T O O L S U S E D I N H A N D L A S T- M A K I N G
.
.
198
I V. M A K I N G L A S T M O D E L S B Y H A N D .
.
.
209
.
.
214
V I . A L L O WA N C E S A N D D E D U C T I O N S F O R L A S T S
223
V. M E A S U R E M E N T S F O R A L A S T
VII. KNIFING THE LAST
.
.
.
.
.
.
V I I I . S P R I N G, P I T C H , T W I S T, A N D R A N G E I N L A S T S
I X . L A S T M A N U FA C T U R I N G
.
246
X . C O - O R D I N AT E D L A S T S A N D PAT T E R N S .
.
257
.
.
241
.
XI. TYPES OF LASTS
.
232
.
.
.
.
270
.
.
.
.
285
XIII. CROSS-SECTIONS OF LASTS
.
.
.
300
.
.
.
305
XII. LAST MEASUREMENTS
INDEX
.
.
.
.
SECTION I
PA T TER N C U TT IN G A N D
MAKI N G
BY
GORDON R. GLANVILLE, A.B.S.I.
Two years Assistant Master, Leather Trades School
Twenty-eight years teacher at
the Cordwainers’Technical College
Twenty years manager of the Upper Departments
for Messrs. A. & I. Weber, London
PREFACE
THOSE who practise the art of pattern cutting should possess
judgment and skill as well as a general knowledge of the
shoemaking craft. A goodly number of scientific principles,
carried out with artistic ability, are essential to modern
conditions. For convenience of treatment we shall deal with
the cutting of formes, the standards, and the component parts
of several general designs. Bottom stock patterns, followed
by methods of grading into complete sets of patterns, will also
be treated. The section will be applied to men’s, women’s,
children’s, and infants’ work, and include long work. In
dealing with this subject, I must at this stage acknowledge my
indebtedness to Mr. F. Y. Golding for much of the original
matter which enabled me to work out and practise the methods
I shall describe.
Acknowledgments are also gratefully tendered to the
undermentioned for the loan of blocks—
Messrs. Livingston & Doughty, Ltd.
The British United Shoe Machinery Co., Ltd.
GORDON R. GLANVILLE.
3
SECTION I
PATTERN CUTTING AND
MAKING
CHAPTER I
CUTTING FORMES BY VARIOUS METHODS
IT is important that the correct type of last be selected for the
work for which the forme is required, as it is of little use
cutting well-designed patterns if the last is not suitable. For a
description of lasts for different classes of work see Section II.
The word forme is derived from the French word for last,
but the term is used in pattern cutting to signify the shape that
is produced to represent the area of one side of a last. There are
therefore two formes for a last, one for the inside, and one for
the outside. From the formes we can produce the standards,
instead of cutting direct to the last, when only measurements
of the last can be used.
When cutting formes, it will be observed that a
mathematical fit is almost impossible to obtain, owing to the
flat material used and the difficulty of making flat surfaces
conform to all the contours of the last in the same plane.
In the early days of factory production, it was usual to select
two pieces of actual leather—often bazil—and cut them as
near as possible to the required shape. They were then closed
at the front and back, and after wetting to mellow them, were
subsequently lasted over the last. When dry the leather was cut
off close to the
5
6
BOOTS AND SHOES
feather edge of the last, and the shape obtained took the place
of the modern forme. Although this may at the first
appearance look a good method, it was difficult to flatten the
moulded leather to produce a flat pattern. Further, such a
shape would have the stretch removed, and it could not
therefore be used to cut leather satisfactorily, owing to the
stretch remaining in the uncut skin. This method, however,
had one feature of merit, i.e. it used material of a substance
FIG. 1. METHOD 1
thicker than paper.
METHOD No. 1
Soule’s system of forme cutting has been described by Mr.
F. Golding* as the simplest and most mechanical method of
cutting a forme, and for beginners is to be recommended. This
method is illustrated in Fig. 1. The last is taken, and by the aid
of a flexible rule, or even a strip of cardboard, a line is marked
down the front and back of the last. Two pieces of paper are
trenched out, leaving about 12 in. to 34 in. beyond that required
to cover over the central lines. The pieces of paper are slotted
or mitred as shown, and then fixed by drawing pins or tacks to
the last.
* The Manufacture of Boots and Shoes, p. 120
CUTTING FORMES BY VARIOUS METHODS
7
The serrated portions are laid over the lines, including the
feather, piece by piece, and cut off close to where the paper
overlaps. This operation is repeated, for the other side of the
last, and two formes are obtained. If the two formes are laid
one over the other, an average forme can be produced.
METHOD No. 2
“The marking and measuring system,” described by Mr,
Golding, “requires the knowledge of the curves and
K
V
t
T
A
I
t1
J
FIG. 2. METHOD 2
proportions obtained, by practice of the previous methods.
The principle of the system is that the points of measurement
on the last and pattern are identical, and are all measured from
a fixed point.” Such a point may be, say, A in Fig. 2. Again
quoting, “The greater the number of points used, other things
being equal, the better.” The positions selected may be, say,
toes, joints, instep, at the top and bottom of the last (see
Fig. 2, t, V, K, on the top portion, and t1, J, I at the bottom, as
indicated).
After these position points are decided, and marked on the
last with a pencil (or a tingle is inserted to indicate them), the
last is taken (left foot one for preference) and laid upon a
suitable sheet of paper. All the
8
BOOTS AND SHOES
points marked on the last are reproduced on the paper in the
same relation thereto. From A are measured the distances to K,
V, and t, and I, J, and t1, and the cross-measurements are made
to interlock each in turn as shown in the illustration. The
measurements can be taken from point to point round the last,
and half the amount applied for the forme, as shown in Fig. 2.
The length of the forme can be checked by measuring from
the feather edge at the toe, up the puff, to the back, and return
again, and the half used as the length of the forme at T. If the
measuring is done by a non-stretchy cord on the last from
point to point, it will be easy to obtain similar positions on the
paper.
METHOD NO. 3
This method, if carefully performed, produces a forme that
enables a standard to be cut, that will provide uppers which
can be lasted with ease.
If the substance of the strips used is equal to that of the
outside of the upper to be produced, then there will be no need
to add amounts haphazard on the instep and seat to give the
extras required for “seats-up” methods of machine lasting.
From Fig. 3 it will be seen that the principle underlying this
method is that : (a) the substance used in measuring is the
same as the upper, and (b) all measurements are taken in as flat
a position as possible on the last.
Take a piece of leather of the same substance as that to be
used for the upper, and rub in on the flesh side an adhesive
(such as Seccotine) and then lay this piece of leather over a
strip of the material of the substance of the to-be-lining. Rub
well in contact, and when dry, cut off strips 41 in., or
thereabouts, wide. After the last to be used is “centralized,”
tack one end of the reinforced strip to the centre of the back of
the last at the counter-point, and lay it tautly over the puff of
CUTTING FORMES BY VARIOUS METHODS
9
the last, to the feather edge, and fasten it thereto. This strip
should be taken as straightly as the last allows and with a
slight tautness.
While in this position, put across the affixed strip, at right
angles to its top edge, cross-way strips (skiving them where
they pass over the heel-to-toe, first attached strip). Each
FIG. 3. METHOD 3
cross-way strip must be kept square with the heel-to-toe strip.
A little suitable adhesive, where they cross over each other,
will ensure that the strips as they are attached remain “put.”
Pull each strip over the centre-line and feather edge in turn,
and cut off.
When removed from the last the forme thus produced will
give a really good fitting one that will determine the
allowance for the substance of the upper.
METHOD NO. 4
A similar result to that described in Method No. 3 can be
obtained by cutting a cover (in the material to bp used for the
lining of the upper) from a correctly produced forme, such as
by No. 2 method, and after
10
BOOTS AND SHOES
closing it, lasting it up over the last. This will represent the
lining of the boot or shoe.
Over the lasted-lining fit a toe-puff and stiffener that have
been suitably skived and moulded. If interlining and
side-linings are to come between the lining and outsides, then
place them in their position on the lasted-lining.
Now take a piece of leather of the same substance as the
outside will be, and use this leather to produce a forme over
the stiffener, toe-puff, etc. This latter forme will give the
outside pattern with all allowances in their proper places. For
“seats-up” and pull-over machines the results obtained are a
joy to the lasting operator. If the last model used is iron plated,
a feathered insole can be put to the last before lasting the
lining, and so the exact amount required according to the
substance of the innersole be provided for.
By using a “substance-tape,” consisting of a measure tape
to the back of which are attached strips of materials equal to
the substance of the upper, and measuring the last as in
Method No. 2 (see Fig. 2)—keeping the tack-on tape outside
when measuring—a similar result can be obtained as in the
latter method just described.
METHOD NO. 5
The following method, recommended by the author, is
practised at the Cordwainers’ College.
A last is taken and “central” lines are marked on the front
and back. The insole shape is indicated, unless the last has an
iron bottom plate. Two pieces of paper are trenched out with a
suitable margin over the approximate forme of the last. The
paper is fixed to the last with pins or tacks in such a manner as
to make the paper take as flat a plane as possible.
To prevent the tacks pulling out, paper or leather washers
are used. In Fig. 4 a line is placed on the
CUTTING FORMES BY VARIOUS METHODS
11
paper from heel-to-toe TC, which will be a guide when testing
the paper to the last, so that it takes up a flat plane without
twist. After the paper has been thus fixed to the last, and not
before, a few slits are made in the paper, as shown in Fig. 4.
Only the smallest number of slits should be made, and then
C
T
FIG. 4. METHOD 5
only cut far enough in from the edge to allow the paper to bend
to the last.
After the paper has been folded to the “central” line and
feather edge it is removed, and the designation of the last, size,
and if inside or outside forme, etc., is marked thereon and cut
out.
If tracing cloth can be used instead of cartridge paper, the
obtaining of the required shape is facilitated and any position
points used on the last can be reproduced.
CHAPTER II
THE CONSTRUCTION OF STANDARDS
A STANDARD is a pattern representing the design of a boot,
shoe, or slipper, which fits or suits the last on the upper
portion, together with an allowance for the attachment of the
upper to the bottoms. From the standard, the component parts
are cut, such as vamps, quarters, etc., and afterwards marked
on the standard with underlays and all essentials, so that they
can be stored for future reference. Standards are sometimes
called “models.” They were originally cut direct to the last,
but now are usually cut from formes.
There are various systems of standard construction in
vogue, good. bad, and indifferent. Some systems are based on
too many arbitrary measures, that leave much to the individual
to reproduce, and often necessitate calculations for other sizes
than, say, size 7’s men’s, or size 4’s women’s.
The desirable system should be based upon average
proportions, and thus eliminate as much as possible arbitrary
measures. If the proportions used coincide with those existing
in the foot and leg, so much the better, because of the
alterations made in the last to suit the foot. By working to foot
proportions any deviation in the last can be checked up; and
errors circumvented.
Let us examine Fig. 5, which depicts a leg and foot. JV
represents the joint-line, KI the instep-line, KP the long
heel-line, HP the heel-line, AA1 the ankle line, and QQ1 the
calf-line: we note how the heel-line makes an angle to the
base or ground-line. The angle made determines the “type of
foot”—whether “flat,”
12
THE CONSTRUCTION OF STANDARDS
13
“medium,” or “arched.” The angles vary from 34° to 46°. In
the pattern, the heel angle is not exactly the same as that
corresponding with the foot. This is due to the fact that lasts
are made with certain alterations, such as the thinning of the
sides ; providing for the pitch; and so on (see “The Making of
Q
Q
CALF LINE
1
ANKLE LINE
A
A
1
H
K
T
IN
JO
E
LIN
TEP
INS
V
HE
EL
LO
NG
HE
EL
LI
NE
LI
NE
NE
LI
I
P
J
FIG. 5. LEG
AND
FOOT
Lasts,” Section II). As a general rule the angle of the heel-line
is 2° greater than in the corresponding foot.
The same foot gives different heel angles, according to the
elevation of the seat above a horizontal line, and, hence, when
heel measures are taken from the foot, the seat should be
raised to a height corresponding to its position in the boot or
shoe, i.e. the pitch of the last should be recognized and used
(see Section XVI).
14
BOOTS AND SHOES
Note also in Fig. 5 the position of the inside joint or ball. This,
in our pattern construction system, is put at five-sevenths of
the length of the foot. We make the line VJ at an angle of 65°
to the base-line.
Often when constructing standards for stock patterns, the
heel measure of the foot suitable is not available, so there has
been devised a method of obtaining the heel measure of the
pattern from the last instead of from the foot. The same
remarks apply to the heel and ankle measurements. In our
system we obtain the essential measurement positions in
relation to the foot, so that if errors are existent in the last or
forme, they can be apprised and avoided. Much more could be
said on this aspect of the subject, but the reader will be able to
see for himself how this is dealt with in the succeeding pages.
As the major construction lines used are based on the foot, it
will readily be seen that the system can be applied to bespoke
work.
MEN’S BOOT STANDARD CONSTRUCTION
Men’s boot standards have different characteristics as
compared with women’s, due to their relatively lower height,
and the inclination of the front line. The curvature is also
bolder and masculine.
In Fig. 6 the horizontal base-line is made as BL, and at right
angles is the line LU. From L is marked the pitch of the last,
LP. The pitch-line is drawn from P towards the base-line. To
obtain this point of contact, the length of the foot is taken
(assuming for a standard length of last that the foot of size 7’s
men’s* is 1 in. shorter than the last). Five-sevenths of the
foot’s length, plus one-ninth of the distance PL, is marked
from P, and J is obtained. At J the joint-line, a line
* For other sizes see p. 99 and Fig. 61.
THE CONSTRUCTION OF STANDARDS
15
at 65° to BL, is made, giving JV. The toe-line T is usually
made at 55° to the base-line, and is situated from J the
remainder of the last length after the pitch-line has been
deducted. If the heel measure angle of the foot be not
provided, and stock-patterns are being cut, then the pitch-line
U
G
Y
G1
A
5
X
A
1
O
H
1
H
K
M
C
V
S
P
I
J
B
T
1
T
L
FIG. 6. MEN’S STANDARDS
PJ is divided into three equal parts, and at the division nearest
J, a line is made parallel to VJ. This is the pattern instep-line,
IK.
Take the inside forme, and lay the seat to the pitch point P,
and, keeping it in this position, lower it until the swell of the
joint portion of the forme touches tangentially the base-line.
Trace on the standard the outline of this forme. Next take the
outside forme and again place the seat to point P, but this time
ignore the base-line, and make the toe of the forme coincide
with the toe of the inside forme, thus putting below the
base-line the excess of the outside forme at J. Trace round the
second forme. When thus treated the difference between the
two formes is apparent, and can be dealt with intelligently.
Where the two formes cross
16
BOOTS AND SHOES
the instep-line, near K is used to determine the position to find
the long heel-line, KP. As the long heel-line in a pattern varies
according to the substance of the upper and its stretchiness,
the method of lasting employed, “hoisted” or “seats-up,”
boots or shoes, so we are able to select either the outside,
mean, or smaller forme for point K.
This variation will be dealt with as we proceed in this
section, but for the present pattern we select midway between
the two formes at K, and make KP the long heel-line. The
heel-line, under the conditions previously stated, can be
ascertained by making a line 10° to the long heel-line, i.e. H 1 P
is 10° more than KP. To obtain the measurement of the pattern
heel-line, a distance according to the size of boot (see page 99,
Fig. 61) is deducted from H 1 (in this case size 7’s equals 38 in),
giving H, and HP becomes the pattern heel-line. The centre
of this line is taken and M is obtained. Through M, and at right
angles to the base-line, a perpendicular is made, in height
corresponding to half the heel measure, as MP or MH. At X
thus obtained the ankle-line is provided, at 95° to the left of
the perpendicular line MX. The ankle measure is applied, one
moiety to A and the other to A 1 . If the ankle measure is for
stock patterns, it can be taken as one-third of the heel measure
HP, applied each side of X. From A, the front of the ankle-line,
a perpendicular is made to the base-line, and G is obtained. At
right angles to AA 1 (the ankle-line) a line is made, and where
it cuts the top line at Y the centre of the leg-line is obtained.
The height of the boot required at the back (in this case 5 41 ") is
measured from P in the direction of U, and at this position a
line is made parallel to the ankle-line AA 1 , or at 95° to UP.
The distance GY is measured from Y, and G 1 is found.
Connect G 1 to A l and continue it below Al the distance
THE CONSTRUCTION OF STANDARDS
17
equal to the lasting-over allowance to be used for the pattern;
this provides point 0. Connect 0 to P, and indicate C midway.
Add to the front G (in this case 38 in.) what is required to make
the front higher than the back, which varies according to taste
or fashion or shop custom. The inclination backwards
required for men’s (here 91 in.) is marked from G, and the front
of the pattern drawn. From above A sketch in (or cut if
experienced) to H, and thence on to the instep.
Average the two formes (where they cross a line parallel to
the pitch-line through C) down to the pitch-point P. The curve
thus obtained of the mean of the formes between C and P
reversed, will usually provide the curve for C to 0. Add
making allowances to the formes at the bottom, and the
standard can be cut out on the larger of the two bottom
measurements, retaining the smaller ones inside, and so
provide for cutting “rights and lefts ” when required.
If the formes when marked on the standard, constructed as
directed, protrude beyond the toe-line, it is a sure indication
that some unusual proportion exists, such as extended toe
lasts. The amount of the toe extension in the last can be
measured with a size-stick and placed beyond T, and a line
through this extended point can be drawn parallel to T as T 1 to
check the forme length.
Any other irregularity can be traced and provided for. The
toe-spring of the pattern S is determined according to
circumstances, and is dealt with hereafter, but for many cases
it can be made equal to half the joint-line plus 31 in., or
determined from the formes, as shown in Fig. 6. V is the
vamp-height regulator, from which position, or above, or
below, is made the selected termination of the vamp.
The standard designed as here described is a normal
standard, and would be suitable for hand-lasted,
18
BOOTS AND SHOES
machine-sewn work. If the standard is required for
machine-lasted work “seats-up,” then the long-heel measure
can be made to the outside forme at K, and the after
description followed from this long-heel measure. For
hand-sewn methods the long-heel can often be taken from the
smaller forme at K. See also Chapter XII, “Alterations, etc.”
Stiffener allowances will be required outside the
mean-forme curve from C to P, the amount depending upon
the substance of the stiffener, length, and the “give” of the
upper leathers, and also upon whether the “seats-up” or
“hoisted” methods of lasting are used. H can also be obtained
from KP by making a line at 70°. This is shown in Fig. 6 by a
broken line from H.
M EN’ S D ERBY B OOTS
Before cutting standards for this design, it is necessary to be
sure that the last used is suitable for making Derbies. The
hollow below the instep of the last must be easy, and full
enough to overcome the tendency for the vamp edge to bind
on the last and foot. The correct toe-spring of the standard is
also important, as too much spring will cause the upper to
“tie” at the vamp edge, while too little will cause a fullness at
this juncture, and therefore offer a temptation to the laster to
pull it across excessively.
The standard is constructed as described for men’s
Balmorals, except that V 1 is taken at 38 in. above V. From V 1
make a line parallel to the joint-line, and indicate V 2 at a
distance of five-twelfths of V 1 to V 3 . To indicate V 3 a point
between the two formes is selected, as shown in Fig. 7. The
length of the wing of the vamp or quarter W, is obtained by
making it 38 in. beyond I. The curve can be obtained by
making a line from V 2 parallel to the pitch-line, and from W
THE CONSTRUCTION OF STANDARDS
19
to the instep-line as shown in the illustration. To obtain the tab
portion of the vamp, 34 in. can be indicated above V 1 and the
curve designed as shown. The underlay of the vamp under the
quarter is shown in Fig. 7 by the broken line. Owing to the
tendency of the free end of this tab and vamp to pull forward
2
G
H
H2
V
2
V
P
W
I
J
V3
F IG. 7. M EN’ S D ERBY
when lasted, it is usual to allow for this either in selecting V 1
and the tab length, or in reducing the length of the standard at
the toe end, as shown. Any fullness between the crease-line
and standard below V 1 is compensated for by reduction on the
standard at the joint, so that the uppers will be lasted down to
the “wood.”
The length or depth of the cap is usually longer in a Derby
than two-thirds of the vamp, for the same reason given for
reducing the standard length.
THE HALF-BELLOWS WATERTIGHT TONGUE
Obviously for watertight purposes, the tongue should be
cut whole, and blocked to the correct shape. When
20
BOOTS AND SHOES
soft leathers are used for tongues, they can be cut whole and
not blocked.
Take the standard shown by Fig. 7, and design the tongue,
making H 2 equal to two-sevenths of the heel measure from H.
From H 2 make a line as
shown to the position
between the tab
and
underlay allowance.
From H 2 to the top G
sketch in the shape of the
top of the tongue required.
Cut out the shaded portion
shown on the standard to
FIG. 8. TONGUE
facilitate the production of
the tongue. Fold a suitable piece of paper, and, keeping the
folded edge downwards, lay it in contact with the lower line
from H 2 and reproduce the salient features from the standard,
leaving a closing seam on the front of the quarter. This is
shown in Fig. 8. Cut this
out as marked, and open out
the folded paper. In Fig. 9
the second stage is shown,
H
the standard having been
laid from H, and the curve
of the front to vamp tab
FOLDED EDGE
indicated. The underlay is
H
put on below the tab, as
shown, and the closing
seam from the top to H
removed, continuing to the
FIG. 9. SECOND STAGE
tab edge as shown. The
incision made at the left-hand side is to allow the tongue to
pass under the vamp when closing. Fig. 9 shows the guide or
rounding pattern complete.
H
FOLDED EDGE
H2
3/
16
2
To produce the casting pattern, take the opened
THE CONSTRUCTION OF STANDARDS
21
tongue shown in Fig. 9, and lay it over a piece of folded paper,
so that the instep portion, from H to the tab end, coincides with
the folded edge, and mark as shown in Fig. 10. Reverse the
rounding pattern so that H
meets H 2 , and opposite the
top end put the rounding
H
pattern again reversed, and
the outline shown gives the
H
casting pattern.
If the
tongue cut from this
pattern is for machine
blocking a little fullness
FIG. 10. TONGUE CASTOR
can be left at H 2 to
prevent the machine
tearing the tongue, but if the tongue is to be hand-blocked it
would be advisable to leave on all round, say, 81 in. to allow for
tacking on the block.
2
When cutting, a facing is placed on the quarter to join the
tongue, and continued to the top of the quarter.
If the tongue is to be cut from soft thin leather, and not to be
blocked, more curvature can be made at H 2 .
Another form of tongue can be provided by using the
half-section of Fig. 9, without seam, and after cutting out in
leather, a strip 38 in. wide can connect the two sections down
the front.
C UTTING THE Q UARTER , OR S INGLE L EG P ATTERN
For heavy or stout work that is unlined, the bottom portion
of the quarter is reinforced with a counter, or pocket for the
stiffener.
To produce such a counter, the proportions would be
governed by the depth of the stiffener to be inserted—which
for average purposes could be taken as equal to one-fifth of
the standard length of last, marked
22
BOOTS AND SHOES
upwards from point P (Fig. 7). The counter may be joined at
the side, say, at a distance of one-third of the bottom edge of
the quarter, and is shown in the diagram. The back curve of the
counter to the top of the quarter is also shown. The broken line
at the back curve shows how the back of the counter could be
cut whole, and how the allowance is made for the substance of
the stiffener. Side linings are also cut, and if capped work is
being catered for, the side lining should extend to, and come
under, the toe-cap.
When the lining is cut to clothe the inside of the quarter, an
outside stitched counter is often provided, and the marker for
this is also shown in Fig. 7. The outside facing marker could
be cut 169 in. wide, and when it turns at the curve of the quarter
it could be extended gradually to the width desired.
MEN’S LATCHET BALMORAL
This design is also known as the open tab Balmoral, and to
produce such a standard the instructions given
V1
C
V
2
P
I
J
j
FIG. 11. MEN’S OPEN TAB BALMORAL
THE CONSTRUCTION OF STANDARDS
23
when describing the cutting of the Derby can be followed,
making V 2 five-twelfths of V 1 j . Connect V 2 to C as shown.*
Below the line V2, indicate an amount to allow for two or
three rows of stitching as required. The remainder of the
pattern can be made as shown in Fig. 11. If it is required to
make a three-quarter golosh, the position of the seam on the
inside can be found by using half the distance between J and
P, or in some cases the instep line could be used.
M EN ’ S B UTTONED B OOT S TANDARD
Often men’s button boots are produced direct to a Balmoral
standard by simply leaving closing seams on the front and
back. This method is obviously not a good one, because lace
boot standards are designed to allow for stretching when
lacing. But with button boots we have to provide for the
substance of the button piece and lining, and they must, when
made, fit round the foot. So when producing a button boot
standard, we proceed as was described for the lace boot, but
make the long-heel measure 81 in. or so fuller to allow for the
substance, or increase the long-heel measure to the outside
forme at K. The vamp or golosh height requires consideration.
If made high, or much above V, the entrance of the foot into
the boot may be impeded, so we keep V 1 as low as possible to
V consistent with the design. One-quarter of an inch above V is
suitable, unless the joint of the last is very large, when V
should be reverted to.
To design the button piece, select H 2 as two-sevenths
of the heel-line HP, and V 2 as one-third of VJ. G 2 is
obtained by using four-ninths of the top of the leg G G 1
* C can also be obtained by taking the midway distance between one-fifth and
one-sixth the length of the standard last.
24
BOOTS AND SHOES
in Fig. 12. These are connected with straight lines as shown,
and they form a guide for the curves designed surrounding
them. Note the greater distance away from the line below the
instep. This increased curvature in the lower portion of the
button piece enhances the appearance of the design. The
design having been made on the standard, it is best to prick
G
G2
G1
H
H2
V V
V2
P
J
FIG. 12. BUTTONED BOOT
through the salient positions on to a suitable piece of paper.
This done, mark from the curved edge of the button piece, say,
5
in. for the positions of the buttons, and to allow for worked
16
buttonholes.
The width of the stem of the button piece at the vamp would
be, say, 169 in. The position of the first hole should be, say, 1 in.
from the vamp, and it is important when deciding this not to
fix it too far from the vamp, as it will not only be inartistic, but
will necessitate the stay being made too high, thus producing a
strain on the vamp seam. After the first hole has been fixed,
next fix the top one, say, 38 in. to 21 in. from the top edge. Now
place a hole on the heel-line, and then the others between can
be easily determined.
THE CONSTRUCTION OF STANDARDS
25
Provide a closing seam to the front, and the underlay beyond
the stem, and the button piece is completed.
Springing a Button Piece. When paste-fitting is in vogue,
and the button lining is cut the same as the button piece, the
button piece pattern is cut with the idea of setting up tension
along the edge and so disguising the effects of the increased
substance of the incorrectly shaped button lining. Such spring
H
H
2
/
3O
8
FIG. 13
FIG. 14
is not required, when the inside of the button piece is made to
fit the outside. If necessary, to spring the button piece, mark
round from H to H2, and, using H as a pivot, move the button
piece to, say, 38 in. at the seam. This is clearly shown in Fig. 13.
To cut a button piece lining for the “Held-together” method
of closing, when the button piece is not cut with spring, take
from the standard the button piece as described in relation to
Fig. 12, and from just below where the top band would be
situated, remove gradually down the front an amount to, say,
3
in. At the bottom of the stem this may be increased to, say, 38
16
in. and the button lining completed, as shown in Fig. 14.
26
BOOTS AND SHOES
If the lining is to be seamed care should be taken that the
seam does not cross a buttonhole, but is made between, as
shown in Fig. 14, thus preventing a bulky appearance, and the
risk of needle damage when working or stitching the
buttonhole.
Quarter Pattern’s. It is usual to cut two patterns, the smaller
one to fit under the button piece for the outside, and the larger
one with the seam on for the inside quarter. This is shown in
Fig. 12. The smaller quarter is also reduced, as illustrated,
below the top edge of the button piece to prevent any tendency
for the quarter to extend above the button piece when closed.
[All patterns illustrated in this Section are photographed
from actual patterns cut by the author, and can therefore be
enlarged by proportional compasses to compare with patterns
cut by the reader.—ED.]
CHAPTER III
CUTTING COMPONENT PARTS
WHOLE GOLOSHES
THERE are three general ways in which whole goloshes can be
produced, and before we design the golosh we should
consider the determining limits to which these three methods
confine us. Goloshes may be cut to the standard, so as to
produce the design, or as it is called “for style.” On the other
hand, the interlocking of the wings may be of primary
importance. The third condition may be the production of
whole goloshes to cut from material having a limited area. The
simplest method of the three mentioned is to design the golosh
free from restrictions, other than appearance, where the
golosh is cut “dead” to the standard. In the second case, there
is a limit to the width of the wings, as interlocking is the
controlling influence. In the latter instance, design and depth
of wings have full play, but owing to the large amount of
spring introduced into the pattern, the nature of the upper
materials controls the adoption of the method.
Cutting to the Standard. Construct a standard, either for
lace or buttoned as desired, as explained in the previous
chapter, and determine the vamp or golosh height, bearing
in mind that it is usual to make this a little higher when a cap
is used than would be the case with a capless vamp. Let V1
indicate the height required, in this case 38 in. above V.
Make V1J1 parallel to the joint-line. Locate V2 at
five-twelfths of V1J2, or equal to one-third of the joint-line.
The next step is to determine the height of the
27
28
BOOTS AND SHOES
golosh at the back. Several rules are used to assist in this
decision: (a) a line from V 2 parallel to the pitchline gives a
low back golosh; (b) a fixed amount above the counter point,
the latter being found by taking one-fifth of the standard
length of last; (c) in character with the type of foot, i.e. arched,
medium, or flat—if the latter is desired, C in our system
V
D
B
T
3
V
V2
I
J
J
J
2
FIG. 15. WHOLE GOLOSH
provides this automatically if the standard has been produced
in relation to the heel angle of the foot; or (d) as illustrated in
Fig. 15, where it is indicated as the mean between one-fifth
and one-sixth of the length of the standard last length.
Connect the golosh back height with V 2 and the range of the
golosh wings is determined.
The design of the cue should be in harmony with the toe of
the last. If required, it can be done geometrically by taking V 2
as centre and radius V 1 , and cutting the range of the golosh as
illustrated. With this intersection and V 1 as centres, make
intersecting arcs as shown, and with the same radius, and
intersecting arcs as centre, describe V 1 to V 3 . This method of
CUTTING COMPONENT PARTS
29
designing will do for any suitable standard, and can be applied
also to women’s and children’s, and the style adapted to suit
any taste or demands.
The golosh is cut to the standard by putting the folded edge
of the paper to the crease line V1T and marking through the
design upon the paper beneath.
This golosh, being cut dead true to the standard, is suitable
for use with such leathers as patent, crup, etc. The golosh may
require some reduction in length at the back to allow for
stretch, if fitted on the round or block method. Stiffener
allowances are made as previously explained according to the
circumstances existing.
Interlocking Goloshes. Proceed as in the previous
description, except that as the wings will have to be provided
so that they interlock, their depth will be limited, and style
sacrificed for economy.
To obtain the wings to fulfil this condition, extend the
crease-line of the vamp, as shown in Fig. 16, to the back of the
standard. This is shown by a broken line. At about 1 in. from
V1 make a line at right angles to the extended crease-line. This
must catch the fullest part of the bottom of the standard as
illustrated. Divide this line into three equal parts, and measure
up from the bottom of the back two of these divisions, and the
range of the golosh may be produced as shown. The cue is
obtained as previously described.
A sheet of folded paper is taken, and the standard laid over
the folded edge, so as to coincide with V1T, and then the
standard marked on the folded paper from T to pass J1. A
needle is placed through the standard at V3, and the standard
lowered until the range of the golosh is parallel with the folded
edge. While in this position mark through the remainder of
the wing of the golosh, back and along the bottom, till it
crosses the line previously made from J to pass J1. To obtain
the correct length of golosh, put the standard
30
BOOTS AND SHOES
back to its first position, but this time pivot at J1 and the
standard will indicate the correct length at the back. (See Fig.
16.)
Wings Closed Up Together. Repeat the previous method,
using the first pivot point again as V3, but this time bring the
standard upwards until the golosh back just touches the folded
paper, and mark round. For the second pivot use J1 and bring
V
V
3
V
T
J
J
FIG. 16. INTERLOCKING GOLOSH
the standard up and so take off the excess length produced by
pivoting.
This latter method is only suitable when very soft leathers
are to be cut from, owing to the excess toe spring given when
the upper is on the last. But if the suppleness of the leather
allows this method to be adopted, it enables small area
superfine leathers to be used for whole goloshes.
JOCKEY OR BOSTON BACKS
This design of back does away with the back seam of the
golosh and the junction between the ordinary
CUTTING COMPONENT PARTS
31
outside backstrap and the top of the golosh. It is produced
either with a straight or curved side seam, which can be closed
or lapped, the former being the neater when the material used
is suitable for closing.
After the golosh has been designed by any of the methods
previously described, indicate c and p (Fig. 17). This area
K
C
P
I
FIG. 17. JOCKEY BACKS
FIG. 17A
FIG. 17B
may be of varying widths, but we may use one-fifth of the
range line from the back to the instep-line at the top, and
one-fifth of the pitch-line to the instep-line at the bottom.
Should a wider strap be desired, one-quarter of the line
specified will be suitable. This latter would be used for heavy
work.
After the design is made, as indicated in Fig. 17, a piece of
folded paper, as shown, can be used to take off this sectional
pattern. In Figs. 17A and 17B is shown how to compensate for
the curve at the back of the standard cut off from the folded
edge of the paper in Fig. 17. The backstrap portion is treated in
a similar way.
CHAPTER IV
STANDARD CONSTRUCTION FOR MEN’S SHOES
O XFORD
OR
L ACE S HOES
IN the first instance, having produced the necessary formes,
proceed as described for the men’s boot standard up to the
determination of the instep point K. For this particular shoe
we will take the mean of the two formes for K in Fig. 18,
although at times a better result can be obtained in hand-lasted
or hoisted work by using the smaller forme.
Make the long heel-line KP, and at 5° higher indicate the
pattern heel-line HP. Where the heel-line from P crosses
between the two formes at the spot indicated is the front of the
shoe. Most shoe fronts come between the long heel position
and the heel-line, according to the cut of the shoe desired, and
by making 5° instead of 10° this is obtained. Connect the front
of the shoe with a straight line to V 1 , the vamp height.
Next determine the height of the back of the shoe C1. For
average purposes this height is not made lower than
one-fourth of the standard length of last. It can be made a
certain amount above the counter point, or a proportion of the
instep line, or even made equal to the joint-line if a
small-fitting last is used.
To obtain the quarter range, select two-fifths of the pattern
heel-line: this is shown as H 3 . It is well to take the last and
measure from the toe, up over the puff, and straight to the back
of the last, and check the length, as shown in Fig. 18 by the
broken line.
The lasting-over allowance can be added, not overlooking
the provision of an ample allowance at the
32
CONSTRUCTION FOR MEN’S SHOES
33
waist, to compensate for the longitudinal strain taken in
lasting, and any transverse shortening thus produced across
the instep. The front of the quarter can be designed to any
curve as fancied, or a coin used to obtain the outline.
Designing the Vamp. Indicate the vamp height, say, 165 in.
from V as V 1 and at the wing a similar distance from the
H
K
C
2
C
V V
H
V
V
3
2
3
P
W
I
J
FIG. 18. OXFORD
AND
BROGUE
bottom of the instep-line as W. Connect WV 1 . Mark on this
line nine-sixteenths of WV 1 , and obtain V 2 , and design the
curve of the vamp, as shown in Fig. 18.
Designing the Cap. This may generally be taken as
two-thirds the depth of the vamp when made. If the cap
desired is to be “straight,” then, having indicated its length,
complete the curve with the segment of a circle, made with an
8 in. radius. If the cap is desired to be oval, then a circular
marker can be used, with a 6 in. radius to construct the circle.
If folding machines of the Booth or Boston types are in use
in the factory, it is advisable to take a copy of the curve used in
the machine for caps. By using this curve as a template it will
prevent the cap being incorrectly folded or turned in.
34
BOOTS AND SHOES
BROGUED SHOES
This design of shoe is made from various leathers, and is
worn, with variations, as a strong shoe for shooting, golf,
fishing, and hiking.
One striking characteristic of the brogue is its fold-over
fringe tongue, put up in various ways, such as with slits and
punching, punched and gimped at the bottom, etc. Another
characteristic of this shoe is the width of the welt.
The upper has a long wing cap and a deep vamp. The wings
of the cap should, in width, take cognisance of the thickness of
the last used, so that the foot is not discomforted. If the system
described in these pages is followed, these allowances are
provided for. The quarters were originally cut through, but
now they are cut to underlay the golosh, the underlay being
regulated to the amount required by the punching.
In the method described for designing the tongue, any
variety can be produced, whole or joined. If the tongue is
joined it is possible to lay the flesh side of the leather inside
the shoe, in contact with the sock or stocking. Complete sets
of tongues are not always graded, one size being adopted for
two sizes, or four half-sizes, thus saving the cost of clicking
press knives and the cost of labour.
Proceed with the standard as for an Oxford or lace shoe,
noting that the curve of the front of the quarter below the ankle
bone can be designed as required.
It is not usual when cutting the standard to cut it to the
forme’s shape from the top of the joint to the toe, but to cut to
the crease-line of the vamp, thus avoiding the dip of the curve.
Designing the Vamp and Cap. Make V 1 165 in. above V, and for
the wing, W, use also 165 in. from I, as indicated in Fig. 18. To
obtain the front of the wing cap use three-quarters of the vamp
depth, when made.
CONSTRUCTION FOR MEN’S SHOES
35
V3 is determined by taking half of the joint-line, and the end of
the wing of the cap, half-way between the joint-line J and the
wing of the vamp W. When designing the wing of the cap
keep its curvature in harmony with the curvature of the vamp.
The back golosh is designed as required, say, from the top
3
V
V
H
2
E
FIG. 19 PRODUCING THE BROGUE
TONGUE
H2
3
8
of the back is marked forward a point
in. to 21 in., as indicated by C 2 , and a
broken line is then made from P to the
top of the “puff.” The other broken line
shown can be obtained by making a line
parallel to the pitch-line.
These
positions will provide guide lines when
BROGUE
designing the golosh, as shown in Fig. FIG. T20.
ONGUE
18.
The facing marker, giving a guide for the punching, is
shown below the instep, and can be made 169 in. or 58 in. wide at
its narrowest part.
The Brogue Tongue. Fold a piece of paper, and, placing the
folded edge upwards, proceed as follows: Indicate V the vamp
height and H 2 41 in. above the front quarter height. To the left
hand below V mark 21 in. as V 3 . Transfer the distance V 3 H 2 to
the right of H and indicate E. Make lines at right angles to the
folded edge at V 3 , H 2 , and E, as shown in Fig. 19.
Mark off from V 3 l 78 in., and at E mark off 34 in. and connect
these marked positions, as shown in the diagram. Curve the
terminations at V 3 and E as
36
BOOTS AND SHOES
shown. If the pattern is now opened, the line H 2 will give the
position of the fold of the tongue. From this pattern any design
can be produced.
Fig. 20 shows the completed tongue, where H 2 shows the
fold-over near the top of the quarter front.
To make a pieced tongue, mark from this fold-over line a
distance of 38 in. Remove the curved portion indicated in the
diagram, and add allowances for either closed seams or
lapping when producing the working pattern.
MEN’S DERBY SHOES
Many modifications can be introduced in the design of this
shoe, which can easily be made from the one we are about to
describe. The “Lorne” shoe,
which preceded this design,
V
had the tongue and vamp cut
in one piece, necessitating the
front being blocked.
V
Produce the standard
for the Derby shoe in the
W
I
same manner as that
described for the Oxford
shoe, making V 1 165 in. away
from the joint-line. Indicate
W 165 in. from I. At V 1 make
FIG. 21. DERBY SHOE
a line parallel to the joint-line
and continue it to the pitch-line (or the mean between the
formes), which latter position will provide for a deeper tab.
Indicate five-twelfths of the line selected as V 2 . The broken
lines from V 2 and W, made parallel to the pitch and
instep-lines respectively, will furnish guide lines to design in
the curve of the vamp. The tab of the vamp above the point V 1
should not be too long, say, 34 in. for size 7’s.
I
2
It is advisable to reduce the front of the quarter down
CONSTRUCTION FOR MEN’S SHOES
37
the instep, to allow for the stretching that takes place in lacing
during wear. This is shown in Fig. 21.
The uppers should he lasted with the quarters laced open to
the required amount. The underlay at the corner of the vamp in
the waist can be rounded if desired, or cut across, as shown in
the illustration.
The cap height can be increased by 81 in. above the
two-thirds proportion given for an Oxford, for reasons set out
in cutting Derby boot standards. To design the tongue see
Chapter XIII, “Cutting the Parts.”
CAMBRIDGE SHOES
This popular style of shoe can also be produced in youths’
2’s to 5’s, and in boys’ 11’s to l’s, and the design should be
H
K
I
H
I
H
2
V
P
FIG. 22. CAMBRIDGE SHOE
such that the shoe will retain its shape during wear without the
tendency to slip while walking, often due to an incorrectly
designed gusset.
The formes and standard are produced on the same lines as
dealt with under Oxford shoes, keeping the long-heel measure
on the snug side.
The front of the shoe is made as a mean between K and H.
Take one-seventh of the heel-line HP to indicate the gusset
H 1 , and from H 1 measure for size 8’s
38
BOOTS AND SHOES
1 41 in. for H 2 , or, alternatively, a proportion of
three-sixteenths of the heel-line may be used to find H 2 . Make
lines from H 1 and H 2 to the vamp curve, at right angles to line
HP. (See Fig. 22.)
Where the line from H 1 to the vamp crosses the range-line
of the quarter, make a straight line on the top at right angles to
the line H 1 so that the gusset may function as designed. The
bottom of the gusset may be made narrower, if desired, to the
extent of 61 in., as shown in Fig. 22. The standard is then cut
out, leaving about 41 in. below H 1 H 2 to keep the pattern intact
(this is shown by the shaded portion in Fig. 22). The piece
removed from the gusset can be used to make the gusset
pattern, by leaving on an underlay allowance, such as 31 in.
To obtain the instep pattern, fold a piece of paper and lay the
folded edge to V 1 K, and then trace the vamp curve, gusset
edge, and top, and cut out, after making allowance for the
underlay of the vamp, and for turning in if that is required.
When cutting out the lining, a portion similar to that used for
the pattern near the top edge of the gusset must be retained to
prevent the gusset being unduly stretched in lasting.
Sometimes a piece of tape is utilized for the same purpose. this
can be removed in the shoe room.
CHAPTER V
SLIPPER PATTERNS
STANDARDS for these designs, such as the “Albert,” can be
produced from formes or cut direct to the last. The latter
method gives a pattern that accommodates itself better to
lasting methods, and ensures a better fit under the ankles when
the slipper is worn. We will therefore describe the latter
method.
ALBERTS
Make a line TH equal to the smaller side of the last in this
I
T
I
T
V
V
H
2
I
V
H
I
P
FIG. 23. SLIPPER PATTERN
direction, measuring from the feather at the toe, up the puff,
and on to the back (see Fig. 23). Make V one-half the standard
last’s length from H. Indicate V 1 at one-fourth of V to T.
Make lines at right angles to the top-line at V 1 and V. Take the
last and lay it on the pattern, so that the toe and back of the last
and drawing coincide. While in this position mark the
locations of lines V 1 and V, top and bottom, on to the last.
The last can then be measured at the marked points, and
transferred to the pattern, making them
39
40
BOOTS AND SHOES
either symmetrical or “rights and lefts” as circumstances
determine. On V l indicate five-twelfths of the line from V l
and obtain V 2 . From V 2 make a line parallel to the top line, as
shown in Fig. 23.
At the bottom of the instep-line I, make another line
parallel to the top line. By laying the last on the pattern at I in
each, and keeping it level with the seat,
the back curve can be indicated, and H 1
marked on the last. Measure the last on
the shortest side, as shown in Fig. 23, by
broken line TH 1 , the line TP being
measured as previously described for
obtaining the pattern length line. This is
also shown by a broken line.
The side seam should be cut
FIG. 24. SLIPPER
curved to prevent “bagging.” This is
SEAM
shown in Fig. 24, and the amount
removed is best settled by trial with two pieces of leather from
which the upper is to be cut. As a guide, try 323 in. At the
bottom of the seam it may be necessary to refrain from making
the same allowance as at the top of the seam, for with some
lasts this would reduce the bottom edge too much. Sometimes
the curve at the sides can be made the same shape as the back
curve of the standard, to prevent any errors of identification
when closing. A similar curve at the back and side seam is an
advantage when press knives are made, as it will not be
necessary to have “rights and lefts” quarter knives, or to resort
to turning over the skin when cutting, if only one knife is
available.
Slipper standards may be designed with closed-up wings,
the same as for whole goloshes or court shoes. It should be
noted before we pass on that at T 1 the toe may be left square
instead of round (see Fig. 23). If this be located in line with the
range of the quarter,
SLIPPER PATTERNS
41
then it will be a guide to the laster or maker where to pull to
ensure a good tension on the top of the slipper quarter.
GRECIANS
There are several varieties of this design in vogue, and the
one selected for description can be used as a basis for the
V
5/ ”
8
H
3/ ”
4
I
V
I
I
I
I”
W
P
FIG. 25. GRECIANS
others. This design is made with whole-cut counters or backs,
associated with plain vamps or fronts. The fronts may be
overlaid with a collar, off-times cut from patent leather.
Produce the standard as described for the Albert, making W
equal to one-quarter or one-fifth of IP. Connect V to W, and
take V 1 as one-third of the line. The counter can be obtained
by designing from H to V 1 and continuing it to I or I 1 , as
shown in Fig. 25. The remainder of the pattern can be
completed as shown in the illustration.
If the lasts used for making slippers or Grecians are “comb
or cone” lasts then “shovers” must be used, and allowance
made for them when cutting the pattern. A reduction in length
often has to be made in slippers, and especially Grecians, for
lengthening when lasting.
CHAPTER VI
WOMEN’S STANDARDS
IN Fig. 26 we show the method of construction of a Balmoral
or lace boot standard. This method of construction will be
suitable for boots up to 7 in. or 8 in. high, and for any size. If
the heel angle of the foot is obtainable that should be used, but
if not, we must make our calculations from the last and
formes, using as far as possible proportions based upon the
foot, for reasons previously described.
Make the horizontal base-line BL, and at L erect a suitable
perpendicular LU. At P indicate the pitch of the last to be used.
The height (in this case 7 in.) can be measured from P, and G1
determined. Make the pitch-line from P to J. This will be
equal to five-sevenths of the length of the foot for which the
last is suitable, plus one-ninth of the pitch from P to L. (From
the standard length of last two and a half sizes are deducted to
obtain the foot’s estimated length.)
Where the pitch-line meets the base, J is determined, and
from J, the remainder of the foot’s length, after the pitch-line
length has been deducted, is indicated on the base-line, as F.
From F, still on the base-line, the extension of the last over the
foot’s length is indicated as T.
The joint-line is made at 65° to the base-line, and the
toe-line at 55°. Trisect the pitch-line in I, and draw the
instep-line IK parallel to the joint-line.
Take the inside forme and place the seat on point P, and
lower it until it touches the base-line. When thus placed mark
its outline on to the standard, as shown in Fig. 26. Place the
outside forme at P, and
42
WOMEN’S STANDARDS
43
"
level with the toe at the top of the previously traced forme, and
mark its outline. It will usually be found that the outside joint
of the latter forme comes below the base-line, and will
indicate how the pattern is to be subsequently dealt with.
3
8
/
G
U
Y
I
G
A
90°
90°
x
95°
85°
I
A
O
I
H
K
H
70°
C
M
S
P
I
B
65° J
55°
T
L
F
FIG. 26. WOMEN’S BOOT STANDARDS
Another advantage of placing the formes as described is that
the leg inclination is not deflected owing to the increase of
measurement of the outside joint of the last.
At K we use the mean for the long heel-line, reserving for
future treatment variations in selecting this position. Make
the long heel-line KP. At an angle of 10° to KP, make H 1 P.
This gives the pattern heel-line.
44
BOOTS AND SHOES
To obtain the measurement of this line proceed in one of the
following ways: either (a) deduct 165 in.* for size 4’s from H 1 ,
to indicate H ; or (b) draw a line from K at 70° to KP, and
where it crosses H 1 P indicate H. The latter method gives an
angle suitable for all sizes.
The centre of HP is taken as M. From M erect a
perpendicular to the base-line equal to one-half of HP, i.e.
MH or MP, and indicate X. At an angle of 95° to XM make the
ankle-line AA1. To obtain the measurement of the ankle, take
one-third of the pattern-heel measure, and mark from X, A and
A1 respectively.
From A erect a perpendicular to the base-line, and terminate
it at about G. From the centre of the ankle-line X erect a
perpendicular to AA1, and Y can be indicated. From the 7 in.
back height G 1 make a line parallel to the ankle-line, and
make YG 1 equal in width to GY. The front at G can be raised
as desired, and the top of the leg produced, as shown in Fig.
26.
To complete the pattern connect G1 to A1, and continue
onwards to 0, making the distance A10 equal to the lasting over
allowance used for the standard. From 0 connect to P,
indicating C midway. Sketch in and complete the standard.
S TANDARD C ONSTRUCTION
FOR
H IGH L EG W ORK
When standards are required over 7 in. or 8 in. high, then
we proceed as for ladies’ Balmoral standard construction up to
the positioning and measurement of the ankle-line.
Then refer to Fig. 26, and continue the upright line U to the
desired height, say, 11 in., and make at this point a line parallel
to the ankle-line. Through
* For other sizes see Fig. 61, Chap. XVI.
WOMEN’S STANDARDS
45
G continue the front-line at right angles to the base. At the
height selected mark forwards to the direction of the toe 61 in.
for the forward inclination. To obtain the width of the leg at
the back make a line from A1 at an angle to AA1 of 100°, and
the back of the top of the leg is indicated.
CHAPTER VII
WOMEN’S SHOE STANDARDS
IN this chapter we will deal with a standard, for an Oxford, or
lace, shoe, not for an “Oxfordette,” and the method described
will be found suitable for the production of any size of
standard required.
Construct the standard as described for women’s Balmoral,
as far as the instep-line. To obtain K use the mean for the
formes at the instep, and make the long heel-line. Indicate a
line 5° above the long heel-line. Connect H to joint, to get the
instep portion of the pattern, as described in men’s Oxfords.
Use one-quarter the length of the last for the back height ;
otherwise continue as for men’s shoe standard construction,
not forgetting to supplement the allowance for lasting in the
waist of the pattern.
WOMEN’S DERBY SHOES
This design is not greatly in vogue at present for women,
but is often produced in very light leathers with modifications,
such as the “Gibson.” Formerly, the Gibson had three large
eyelets, but they now have four or five smaller ones. For other
details reference can be made to the cutting of men’s Derby
shoes.
ONE-BAR SHOE STANDARDS
This type of shoe, although pleasing in design and popular,
requires thoughtful consideration to avoid discomfort and
injury to the wearer’s foot. The bar or strap must be correctly
located in relation to the foot it is to clothe, and also to
counteract its movement
46
WOMEN’S SHOE STANDARDS
47
during lasting operations. The width of the bar must be
sufficient to prevent any cutting in or contracting tendency
when on the foot, and also to accommodate the buttonhole.
The slant or direction of the bar should be designed to keep the
foot back into the shoe. The openings or cut-outs above the
vamp should be of such a size (is to prevent large expansion
during lasting and wear.
To design a bar shoe proceed with the standard as for an
Oxford shoe, as far as the stage of making the long heel-line,
when its length can be made to the mean of the two formes at
the instep, as shown in Fig. 27 as K. Make the heel-line at 10°
to the long heel-line. Somewhere between K and H is the
portion to locate the bar positions for the various designs. The
design illustrated is located at the front edge as K, and its
width made 41 in. from this point. A line from V through K
will indicate the fold-line of the bar, as shown.
The height of the back quarter C may be one-quarter of the
length of the standard last of the size of the pattern being
designed. Indicate the line from S 1 to the back height, as
illustrated in Fig. 27, and check its length against the smaller
side of the last. If any reduction is required to meet the
measurement taken, it should be gradually blended to the
centre of the back curve, so as not to throw a snugness at the
top edge only. Add on lasting over allowance according to the
attachment demands, not forgetting an ample amount in the
waist to compensate for any transverse shrinkage that takes
place when “pulling-over” the upper.
To obtain the range of the quarter, take two-fifths of the
long heel as K 1 and sketch in a suitable curve as illustrated.
The curve from the vamp to the front of the bar is now
designed, and when doing this remember that curves taken
below the line S 1 to C are subjected
48
BOOTS AND SHOES
to more distortion in shape than those designed above that
“draft” line. The design shown is made by connecting V to I,
and bisecting V I , when V 2 is obtained. Sketch from K to the
line from S 1 C, leaving enough room at the bar to
accommodate the buttonhole at the end of the strap, continue
to V 2 , and design the vamp curve, as shown in the illustration.
H
C
K
TON N
BUTOSITIO
P
I
K
V
l
S
P
2
V
I
FIG. 27. BAR SHOE
Produce the bar by folding the paper as indicated at K, and
then mark the button position from the standard, and cut out
the folded paper to the vamp height V 2 . Shape the end of the
bar as indicated in Fig. 27. The toe-spring is also illustrated,
and requires no further description. The small or outside
quarter is made about 21 in. above the button, as is shown by
the broken curved line.
BUCKLE ONE-BAR SHOE
The same method of construction can be employed for this
design, as described in the previous design.
For slide buckles the width of the strap is governed by the
width of the buckle. The position for the
WOMEN’S SHOE STANDARDS
49
attachment that holds the sliding part can be made from the
buttonhole. A fold-over must be made to hold the attachment,
for light work about 38 in., whilst the bar will be lengthened
beyond the buttonhole shown at the end of the bar in Fig. 27
from 34 in. to 1 in.
Pronged buckles have the same considerations as for the
slide buckle, but only 58 in. for the pull-through is required
beyond the position of the button shown in Fig. 27.
TIE SHOES
There are variations in design both for those having one
eyelet and for those having two eyelets, but the following
description can be modified as required.
Produce a standard as described for an Oxford shoe,
but after arriving at K, mark for the one-eyelet shoe oneK
/25
V
K
V
2
2
P
I
J
I
I
FIG. 28. TIE SHOES
half the width of the bar required, say, 163 in. each side of
K. Make V 2 nine-sixteenths of VI. K 2 would then be just
below one-half of the instep-line KI. Locate two-fifths of
the line KP for the range of the quarter to pass through, and
complete the top quarter curve, as shown in full line in Fig.
28. At the instep, below K,
50
BOOTS AND SHOES
make a line parallel to VK, at, say, 163 in. away, to allow for
the stretching of the quarter during lacing; but if the forme is
produced from a special last made for this design, omit this
reduction, as it would have been made in the last. Complete
the pattern, as shown by full lines in Fig. 28.
For the two-eyelet design shown in broken lines in the
same illustration, make the width of the bar five-sixteenths
each side of K, and make a curved line to I 1 , this being
situated at one-seventh of the distance I to J. For the back
portion of the cross-strap the curvature should match the
front portion, and its width may be taken as one-third of the
distance I to P. In the illustration V2 is nine-sixteenths of the
line VI, and the straight broken line to the front of the
cross-strap shows the vamp shape. On the other side of the
cross-strap the broken line is continued to the back height, as
shown in Fig. 28.
The sectional parts can be cut from this standard in several
ways. The vamp and quarter can be cut to underlay the
cross-bars, or the shoe may be cut whole, like a whole cut
court, with the cross-strap forming a loose strap, and only
affixed to the upper at the lasting over edge, or in the
allowance made for lasting over. The cross-bars can be
provided with various embellishments, such as cut-outs, or
stitched with fancy designs, and punching or perforations.
When embellished, the vamp and quarters should be
similarly treated to make a balanced design.
CHAPTER VIII
OTHER WOMEN’S SHOE DESIGNS
O F the numerous other designs of ladies’ shoes we
select a few typical ones, which will be found adaptable to
many other designs that there is not space to deal with in
detail.
THE COURT SHOE
This was originally made for indoor evening wear, but in
modern manufacture it is a popular design for everyday wear,
indoors and out, often to the detriment of the wearer’s foot;
therefore, it behoves us to minimize as far as possible such
features as cause discomfort and pain to the wearer.
It goes without saying that a correctly-formed last for this
design is essential, the back from the seat to the line of contact
being correct for the foot, according to the height of the heel
used. Also the curvature at the top of the vamp edge should be
easy, so as to prevent a cutting-in tendency at this juncture. A
close waist, or past joint measure, to prevent the foot moving
forward is an advantage. The top of the quarter is designed to
give a good grip below the ankle, and compensation is made
for the stretch of the quarter during manufacture, according to
the material used and the method of treating the edge of the
quarter. The design described can be modified to suit the
many variations made for plain and fancy designs.
Take formes from the special last, and proceed in the same
way as described for cutting Oxford lace shoe standards. For a
change the pitch is illustrated as 3 in. By trisecting VJ, the
point V 1 is determined, and
51
52
BOOTS AND SHOES
this can be connected to the back height of the quarter desired.
The last should be measured from the “puff” to the back, and
often reduced as much as 61 in. To allow for stretch, and the
long quarters. The amount stated would be suitable for glace
kid. For a vampover the cue of the vamp is taken to I, as shown
in Fig. 29.
If the shoe desired is to have a side seam its position can be
CE
WAN
LLO
GA
DIN
FOL
V
V
P
2
3
V
I
V
J
I
FIG. 29. COURT SHOE
found by taking one-quarter of the distance from V 1 to the
back height, and a line drawn parallel from this point, V 2 , to
the joint-line (see Fig. 29). The curved top range can be found
by bisecting the distance from V 1 to V 2 , and, using this
distance from the shoe quarter height, a curve can be made,
reaching its maximum of 323 in. at the centre, as shown by the
broken line in the illustration.* The shape of the side
* The object of this curve is twofold. It prevents sag in lasting, and allows
for the bulk of the foot in wear, preventing the appearance of a lower curved
range on the foot as seen in badly-made shoes.
OTHER WOMEN’S SHOE DESIGNS
53
seams, if closed, should be as explained in the chapter dealing
with slippers.
Whole-cut court shoes can be cut with the wings close
together, a useful method in cutting skins of small area. V 3 is a
good pivoting point for this purpose, and the procedure should
be as described for closed wing whole goloshes. If the top
edge is to be folded or turned in, the top of the quarter should
be kept the distance away from the crease-line that is required
for folding over. (See Fig. 29.)
S EAMLESS S HOES
Although this design of shoe has seams for closing and
attaching the instep piece and facings, it is known as
“seamless,” because there are no seams to come into contact
with tender portions of the wearer’s foot. The design shown in
Fig. 30 was originally intended for soft leather uppers and for
folk with bunion tendencies, etc. This style is now modified in
modern manufacture to make it suitable for sports shoes, such
as cycling, running, and even cruising shoes. Canvas cricket
and tennis shoes are cut upon the same principle. A reduction
in the normal toe-spring is often an advantage when the design
is for fabric shoes.
The standard is produced as for an Oxford shoe. The back
height will depend upon the “fitting” of the last; for 5 or 6
fitting it is a good alternative rule to make the back height
equal to three-quarters of the instep-line of the formes. Fix the
vamp height at V, and obtain V 1 as one-third of the joint-line.
Continue the vamp crease-line from S to V and beyond, as
shown by the broken line in Fig. 30, and mark K 1 below the
crease-line, as shown for the turning-in or folding allowance if
such is required. Join V 1 through K 1 , as shown by the broken
line. If this latter line is bisected as V 2 it will
54
BOOTS AND SHOES
indicate a position for the curve to be drawn, as shown in Fig.
30.
The whole pattern can now be produced, as illustrated in the
sketch. The instep-piece can be cut from the standard, and
allowances made for underlays and seam, if the instep-piece is
closed under the vamp edge. For the outside facings design
the required facing instead of the instep-piece, and put the
V
I
K
2
S
V
I
V
FIG. 30. SEAMLESS SHOE
underlays on the whole cut part, or bring the front of the
outside facing lower than V to the amount required. For
canvas work outside back goloshes can be provided, and
joint-straps designed across the vamp.
O X F O R D A N D W H O L E - C U T V A M P O N T H E I N S I DE
Produce a shoe standard and design thereon the vamp as for
an Oxford shoe. Fold a piece of paper and lay it level with the
crease-line of the vamp, as V in Fig. 27, and when in this
position mark through the vamp curve. Open out the paper
and cut out, leaving
OTHER WOMEN’S SHOE DESIGNS
55
the quarter and vamp in one piece. An ordinary quarter is
required for the outside.
WOMEN’S SPORTS SHOES (DERBY STYLE)
Construct a Derby shoe standard as previously described.
This can be modified in curvature or in design and produced in
various combinations of leather, to give an almost endless
variety of models.
The chief difference
V
between that shown
V
in the illustration,
Fig. 31, and the
V
ordinary Derby, is
that the tongue or tab
lays over the vamp
and the quarter
FIG. 31. SPORTS SHOE
may be sectioned,
so that different leathers may be used to make a contrast.
I
2
Indicate V1 21 in. below V, the ordinary vamp height, and
mark V 2 38 in. from the curve of the vamp, shown in Fig. 31.
This latter position is five-twelfths of the joint-line. The
width of the tab can be indicated at one-quarter to one-third of
the instep-line of the formes. When cutting in the parts from
the standard, the fullness shown above V must be allowed for
in selecting the vamp crease-line, etc.
SKI
OR
APRON-FRONT SHOE
This design is another modified Derby. The standard is
produced as for the Derby, but making S 2 as one-third of S 1 V.
A curve is made, as shown in Fig. 32, through V 1 , the latter
point being five-twelfths of the joint-line. The wing is
designed to I. For the tongue or front in one piece, place the
folded edge of a piece of paper level with S 1 V and continue it
beyond the
56
BOOTS AND SHOES
front (about 38 in.) of the quarter, as shown in Fig. 32. Make
K 1 one-fourth of the instep-line KI, measured from the
crease-line. The end of the tongue is shown as 38 in. away from
K
3/
II
8
V
S
I
S
2
K
VI
3/
I
II
8
I
FIG. 32. SKI SHOE
V . As the apron is laid over the vamp, the underlay allowance
is added to the latter.
1
GILLIE SHOES
These shoes are made up in a combination of various
leathers. Formerly they were made with seven loops, but the
present fashion is for five loops. Some styles have plain
vamps, while others have a wing cap. Owing to the facility of
lacing, they are sought after for golfing and hiking. In Fig. 33
is shown a seven-loop shoe.
Make the construction lines as for an Oxford. To allow for
lacing make a line parallel to the quarter front 163 in. away from
the line passing from V to K. The front of the shoe should not
be higher than 5° away from the long heel-line. In the sketch,
Fig. 33, it is made 165 in. away from the instep-line. V 1 is
five-twelfths of the joint-line, and through this point make a
line parallel to the front quarter-line, as shown by a broken
line in Fig. 33. For the quarter range two-fifths of the long
heel-line may be used as a guide. For a guide in designing the
bars make the width
OTHER WOMEN’S SHOE DESIGNS
57
3
8
in. and the openings between as 165 in., modifying if narrow
bars and larger spaces are desired. For the front of the quarter,
which is made quarter-over vamp, design as shown in Fig. 33,
using the line VW as a guide. For the overlay on the quarters
make the width 41 in., as shown in. the illustration.
The piece above V is made
3
8
in. long, so as to fold over to
K
V
2/
5
V
I
W
FIG. 33. THE GILLIE SHOE
form the loop. The width of the loop is 41 in. or 81 in. on the
half-pattern. When cutting out make the total length at least
1 41 in., being 34 in. for the fold and the balance to go under the
vamp. The fold-overs on the instep are indicated by the
broken lines and should be 38 in. from the revised front line. A
tongue is often laid under the bars or loops for winter wear.
T HE M ONK S HOE
This is another shoe that has been modernized from its
original character. Like the Cromwell, this was formerly
a quarter-over shoe, but latterly they have been produced
vamp over the quarter, with the addition of an elastic gusset
under the tab.
Design the standard as for an Oxford shoe as far
58
BOOTS AND SHOES
as the heel-line, this being made 10° over the long heel. Then
the line H 1 P can be taken as midway between K and H, or as
5° over that of the long heel-line. V 1 is made as
nine-sixteenths of the line V to I (Fig. 34). Two-fifths of the
line H 1 P will give a point for designing the quarter range
curve. The height of the tab can be taken as the centre of H 1 H
H
H
I
K
2/
V
V
5
2
V
I
V3
I
F IG . 34. T HE M ONK S HOE
and the tab width can be made as 1 21 in. or three-sevenths of
the instep-line. V 2 can be taken as one-third of VI.
The width of the strap is governed by that of the buckle
used. The front of the strap can be taken as half the distance
between V and K, and the back portion from that, made the
width of the strap required, less 321 in. for clearance.
The length of the strap is found by folding along the instep
and cutting it to the edge of the vamp curve, as shown by V 3 in
Fig. 34. It is further shaped at its end as shown. Indicate the
position on the strap
OTHER WOMEN’S SHOE DESIGNS
59
for the buckle prong, starting the first hole, say, 58 in. below
the top end and making two others at a distance of 41 in.
from this first hole and each other. A slit is made from V 3
on the inside quarter, and 41 in. underlay at least is provided
for. To the outside quarter the buckle is attached, either by
stitching direct or by marking a slit into which is inserted a
small strap to hold the buckle.
To obtain the gusset, continue the crease-line of the vamp
from V to the top of the quarter. Other details can be obtained
from the illustration, Fig. 34. When cutting the linings, allow
a strip at the top of the gusset, as explained in the Cambridge
shoe, Fig. 22.
Should a longer strap be required than shown, the vamp
design can be lowered at V 1 to accommodate it.
C ROMWELL P ATTERNS
This buckle shoe has been modified considerably since its
inception. Originally it was a quarter-over style, with a strap
across the front, at the vamp height, to accommodate the
buckle. Nowadays the strap is dispensed with, and the buckle
attached to the tab. In addition, an elastic spring is fitted at the
top of the instep-line, to assist in the fitting at the heel.
To construct the standard, the method adopted would be
similar to that used for an ordinary Oxford, with the front of
the shoe finishing at the top of the instep, whilst the tab,
spring, quarter, and linings can be designed as for the Monk
shoe (see Fig. 34). Some of these shoes are fitted with a form
of arch support on the inside. The proportion across the
standard would be three-sevenths of the instep-line, from the
waist. The length can be located by using at the front end the
bottom of the joint, extended to the back, at a position located
from P, as one-quarter the length of
60
BOOTS AND SHOES
a standard last. This shape would be cut from upper leather,
being laid on the vamp and quarter linings, thus forming a
pocket into which is fitted selected bottom leather. To fit
the pocket properly, the pattern for the bottom leather
should be made 81 in. lower at the top edge than the pocket.
SANDAL SHOE
Sandals can be designed to fasten either by a buckle or
button. They are known with slight modification as Modern
K
H2
H3
V
V
I
P
I
I
I
J
FIG. 35. A SANDAL
Roman, Charleston, Brooklyn, etc. The centre strap from
the vamp to the bar can be lapped over or under the vamp. It
is important to make the strap that goes up the instep long
enough to allow for the strain given in lasting, and so
prevent the bar being diverted from its designed position.
Make the construction lines as previously described for
shoes as far as the pattern heel-line. Indicate the vamp 21 in.
above V. The point K at the instep-line will be the centre of
the bar, which can be made 165 in.
OTHER WOMEN’S SHOE DESIGNS
61
wide one-half each side of K. Indicate H 2 as two-fifths of the
long heel-line, for the quarter curvature to pass through.
Connect V 1 to the instep, and design a tab, as shown near VV 1 .
Indicate on the “draft” line near the region of crossing the
curved quarter range the position of the prong of the buckle as
H 3 . Design the bar curve from the instep to 34 in. beyond H 3 .
Indicate I1 as one-quarter of the instep line.
The remainder of the design can be produced as in the
illustration, Fig. 35
CHAPTER IX
CHILDREN’S (7’s TO 1’s) and INFANTS’
STANDARDS
PROCEED in standard construction as described for women’s
lace boots, but reduce the standard last length by two sizes to
obtain the relative length of foot, of which five-sevenths is
used for the pitch-line. To obtain the long heel-line, take the
mean between the formes at the instep, and then 70° from the
long heel measurement cut off the pattern heel-line, which is
to be taken at 10° from the long heel-line. (See also page 99,
Fig. 61.)
Make the height of the back, say, 5 21 in., but otherwise
follow the directions given for women’s boot standards. For
the vamp use 163 in. above V the top of the joint-line, and use a
similar amount from the bottom of the instep-line to obtain the
wing of the vamp. The cap should not be lower than two-thirds
of the vamp when made. A suitable curve for the latter would
be taken from the segment of a circle with an 8 in. radius.
CHILDREN’S (7’s TO l’s) OXFORD STANDARDS
Proceed as for ladies’ Oxford shoes with the modification
given in girls’ boot standards above. Take the back height as
three-quarters of the instep-line. The same proportions for
vamp design given for ladies’ Oxfords can be used in this
instance.
CHILDREN’S (7’s TO l’s) DERBY SHOES
The instructions are similar to those given for women’s
Derby shoes. The vamp height should be V
62
CHILDREN’S AND INFANTS’ STANDARDS
63
at the top of the joint-line. If the vamp is to carry a cap, then
make the vamp height 41 in. above V.
GIRLS’ (7’s TO l’s) ONE-BAR SHOES
By following the description given for designing a ladies’
one-bar shoe, together with the modifications given for the
H
K
V
9
/
16
P
I
J
FIG. 36. GIRLS’ ONE-BAR
children’s lace shoe, and the illustration provided in Fig. 36,
this design should be easily produced.
For a one-bar slide buckle shoe, or prong buckles, proceed
as shown in dealing with ladies’ of the same design.
INFANTS’ STANDARDS
Refer to the construction of ladies’ lace or Balmoral for the
construction of an infants’ lace boot, with the following
modifications.
Take the length of foot as the standard last less one and a
half shoe sizes. Indicate the heel-line at an angle of 42° to the
pitch-line, then at 10° lower indicate the long heel-line, and,
taking the mean of the formes at the instep, draw a line parallel
to the joint-line. If the heel measure is not known, it can be
obtained by a
64
BOOTS AND SHOES
line at 70° to the instep seat-line constructed as above. Make
the height of the back 3 34 in. for size 6’s or as required.
In other respects follow the lines and methods given for
women’s standards. The vamp position should be V, and the
wing length at the bottom of the instep-line.
I NFANTS ’ O XFORD S TANDARDS
Draw a base-line BL and a perpendicular LU, and indicate P
as the pitch of the last. Take five-sevenths of the length of the
U
H
K
V
H
I
P
L
J
B
FIG. 37. INFANTS’ SHOE
foot (the length of the last less one and a half shoe sizes).
Draw the pitch-line to J. At P indicate an angle of 37° to the
pitch-line, and draw HP. Make the long heel-line 5° lower
than the heel-line, and where it crosses the formes draw a line
parallel to the joint-line. Make the back height three-quarters
of the instep-line. For the range of the quarter indicate H 1 as
one-third of H to P. Complete as shown in Fig. 37.
I NFANTS ’ 4’s
TO
6’s G IBSONS
The construction for this design is as described for an
infants’ lace shoe. Indicate V 1 as five-twelfths of VJ, and
from V 1 draw a short line parallel to the pitch-line to assist in
designing the vamp curve to I. V 2 is
CHILDREN’S AND INFANTS’ STANDARDS
65
made 38 in. away from V. Do not increase the vamp height
when a cap is used, but make the cap two-thirds of the distance
from S 1 to V, Fig. 38.
V
2
V
I
S
I
V
P
I
J
FIG. 38. INFANTS’ GIBSON
INFANTS’ 4’S TO 6’S ONE-BAR
From the method about to be described, any variation in
design can be made. It is, of course, important that the width of
the bar shall be such that it will not unduly compress or hurt
the foot of the little wearer.
After the usual base-line construction has been done as
far as the joint-line, indicate the heel-line at 42° to the
H
K
I
/
3
FIG. 39. INFANTS’ ONE-BAR
pitch-line. At 10° lower draw the long heel-line, and where it
crosses the formes is the position to draw the instep-line,
parallel to the joint-line. From K the width of the bar can be
indicated, and the remainder of the shoe completed, as shown
in Fig. 39.
66
BOOTS AND SHOES
I NFANTS’ A NKLE S TRAP
Ankle straps can be cut by the aid of formes, but we shall
show here how they may be produced direct to the last without
formes. The pattern is produced in Fig. 40 for 4’s to 6’s, but
this design is also suitable for “children” and “maids.”
Fold a piece of paper, and on the folded edge transfer the
length of the last from the feather at the toe to the back of the
last as SH. Indicate V as one-third of this line SH, and K as
S
V
V
H
K
I
V2
KI
J
I
C
H
I
P
FIG. 40. ANKLE STRAP
one-half of SH. At these positions make lines at right angles to
the folded edge of the paper. Place the last on the drawing,
and, having made it coincide with the toe and V, transfer from
the pattern to the last the positions, top and bottom, of the lines
V and K. Measure the last at these indicated spots and transfer
the measurements obtained to the pattern. Indicate V 2 as
five-twelfths of VJ, and make a line parallel to the folded edge
of the paper. Repeat at I.
Obtain from the last the broken lines from S to the back of
the pattern, and design the back curve. Bisect V and V 2 and
obtain V 1 , and make the strap-line. Complete as shown in Fig.
40, and when cutting out finish the cut at H 1 , which can be
one-fourth of Y 2 C. In larger sizes they can be three-quarter
cut, and this section can be obtained at K 1 as indicated. The
strap is folded over along the chained line, and so forms its
lining.
CHAPTER X
“RIGHTS AND LEFTS” PATTERNS
WHEN patterns are cut “rights and lefts” one of the uppers cut
therefrom will only suit one of the lasts, i.e. the upper for the
right foot last will only be suitable for that last. Similarly, with
the left foot last.
All modern lasts, strictly speaking, require right and left
patterns, as they avoid trouble in lasting, and ensure the seams
not going awry. Some produce their patterns to fit the outside
joint of the last, thus leaving surplus to the inside, but if the
system of designing described in these pages be followed,
there is no need to do this, as the extra trouble involved is
compensated in the economy of the material used. Of course it
is realized that the closing room can in certain designs, such as
button boots or shoes, put on the vamps the wrong way round,
but this can easily be avoided in well-organized rooms.
Four reasons can be given for producing rights and lefts.
Firstly, the uppers fit the lasts properly. Secondly, the
comfort of the wearer is increased by preventing over-strain to
get the vamps to the last. Thirdly, there is an economy of
materials. Fourthly, the matching of parts cut from coloured or
reptile skins is facilitated, thus affecting the cutting, closing,
and lasting departments. In the latter department this is a
boon, as it is possible to make shoes in pairs. The difference
between average and rights and lefts is visibly shown in Fig.
41, where A is the average of the formes and B the average of
the making allowance.
There are two general ways practised in dealing with this
question, one to cut different standards, or parts
67
68
BOOTS AND SHOES
suitable for each side of the lasts, and the other to confine
attention to the vamps and goloshes where the differences are
most apparent.
If a standard be produced, as described in this section, and
we cut the joint, etc., to the outside forme, and at the same time
mark round the inside forme with a blunt awl, an impression
will be given on the paper, enabling us to remove the correct
A
A
B
FIG. 41. RIGHTS AND
LEFTS
FIG. 42. RIGHTS AND
LEFTS
amount for the inside forme. The lasting-over allowance can
be added in each case. In Fig. 42 is shown how this difference
can be provided for on the standard by a small cut-out shown
in shaded lines.
Some lasts are prominent over the inside joint and thinner
on the outside, and the vamp cue when lasting has a tendency
to follow the last, rather than remain at the conventional
“level.” To obviate this an amount may be taken away on the
inside curve of the cue, as shown in Fig. 42 as A. In the same
illustration is shown how the vamp on one side of the wing can
be treated to compensate for the difference in the length of the
upper on the inside as compared with the outside of the last.
In Derby-cuts the latchet often becomes displaced when
lasting. This can be prevented by cutting two quarters, and the
vamp marked to show the inside and
“RIGHTS AND LEFTS” PATTERNS
69
outside, and fitted accordingly. The same applies to the cap
wing.
H EEL C OVERS OR R ANDS
When rand patterns are required for cutting covers for heel
covering, the following method will be
found suitable.
A
Fold a piece of paper of suitable size, as
AB in Fig. 43. Take the heel and measure
its back curve, from the centre of the back
of the top-piece to the centre of the seat,
and indicate CD on the pattern. Measure
the remainder of the heel and transfer to
FIG. 43. HEEL
RAND
the pattern. Add on the amount for
lapping over, and complete as shown in Fig. 43.
C
D
B
CHAPTER XI
OTHER DESIGNS
THERE are a great many designs not dealt with specifically in
this section, but most of them can be produced on similar lines
to those we have described. Thus for seamless Balmorals or
seamless Buttoned, we can use the construction systems
described for lace and buttoned respectively. A seam front
boot can be obtained from the ordinary standard by omitting
the crease-line of the vamp and marking a seam allowance.
Whole-cut backs such as the Blucher, Navvy, or Miners’
boots can be taken from standards produced as for Derbies.
Elastic sides or Congress boots can be produced as described
for lace boots. The top divided into four equal parts will give
the two centre divisions as the width of the top of the gusset.
The pitch-line, from where a line through H made at right
angles to the base crosses it, to P, divided into four equal parts,
at its first division near the front gives the centre of the gusset
line, 39 in. and 49 in. respectively for women’s and men’s will
indicate each side where the gusset line for the back and front
should be taken.
The long heel-line will be a guide for the crescent shape
position at the bottom of the gusset.
P ATTERNS FOR F ACTORY B ESPOKE
Patterns for bespoke work, often termed specials, are
produced when the wearer’s foot is different from the average,
and also to meet the demand in higher-grade work for perfect
fitting footwear to an individual foot or feet. The pattern
cutter’s aim must be to assist in producing the perfect fit, and
to produce
70
OTHER DESIGNS
71
“abnormal” measures to look as near the “normal” as possible.
Instructions for specials may be received in the following
ways—
(a) Measurements only.
(b) A draft of the foot with measurements.
(c) A draft with impression and measurements.
The methods that can be used in cutting in the factory are—
(a) Altering
stock
standards to
meet
requirements.
(b) Cutting direct to the last.
(c) By using formes in the ordinary way.
specific
(a) Altering Stock Standards. Select a standard from
stock of the nearest approach to the “special” required and
duplicate it on paper, indicating the joint-line, heel, and ankle,
etc. Take the measurements supplied, and modify the standard
accordingly.
When applying the heel measure of the foot to the standard,
allowance should be provided for the “squareness” of the
seat of the last over that of the foot. Usually this amounts to
1
in. If the stock standard selected is of the same heel angle as
2
that required for the foot, and the heel measure sent with the
“special” will not “fit in,” then it is necessary to ignore the
error in construction. But before making such a drastic move,
be sure the standard is really suitable for the type of foot, as
often the “wrong” heel measure is not due to faulty
measurement, but because the standard selected, as well as the
last, is not what the “special” calls for.
Note that if the joint-line is added to on the top, then half
this addition should go to the toe-line, or the pattern will be too
short to go round the extra width of joint of the last, caused by
the increased fitting.
(b) Direct to the Last. Make the construction lines for
72
BOOTS AND SHOES
the design required as described in this section for normal
patterns, but omit the formes, and instead of drawing the
instep-line, proceed direct to the heel-line, making this as
suitable for the foot, which will range from 38° for the flat
type, to 42° for average, and 45° for arched.
Transfer the measurements taken from the last to the
V
I
P
I
J
S
55°
E
65°
A
C
FIG. 44. “SPECIALS”—TO LAST
joint-line and make the toe-line equal to half the length of this
pattern joint-line, plus 13 in.
After all the measurements required, for the last have been
transferred to the pattern, and the construction completed as
previously described, take the last and lay it to the pattern to
make sure no error has crept in. Fig. 44 will assist in following
this description.
P ATTERN M ARKERS
Many sorts of pattern markers have been used in the trade to
facilitate the producing of the standard and its parts, or even in
the same way as French curves are used by draughtsmen.
OTHER DESIGNS
73
The photograph shown in Fig. 45 is a reproduction of an old
pattern-constructor marker, probably made in 1800, loaned
from the Cordwainers’ College Museum. It is made from
brass, and consists of three movable parts, slotted and
provided with nuts to fasten when adjusted to the
measurements required. Obviously patterns marked out with
F IG . 45. O LD M ARKER
this tool are practically all of the same shape, and those who
have the opportunity of inspecting ancient boots and shoes
will notice that they are practically all of one shape in a given
period, the closer and maker only making such differences as
were required to suit the lasts then in vogue. We cannot afford
space here for a description of all the subsequent markers
produced, but the following is an account of a “Modern
marker” designed by the writer of this section.
M AKING THE M ODERN P ATTERN M ARKER
This marker is based on average requirements, and is a
modification of Mr. F. Y. Golding’s pattern marker.*
* The Manufacture of Boots and Shoes, p. 172.
74
BOOTS AND SHOES
Its chief object is to eliminate mistakes in standard
construction and the use of mathematical tools. It is suitable
for ordinary standard construction as well as bespoke work,
and, moreover, its use saves time. It can be used for all the
designs shown in this section, and by its means we can cut a
standard without having the last at hand.
8
I0 9 8 7 6
5 4 3 2 I
I 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 I0
°
70
°
45
°
40
42
°
35°
I00°
5
6
7
TH
4
32°
30°
3
BC
6
Q
5
2
6
5
4
4
3
3
I
T
2
2
I
II I0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 I I3 I2 II I0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 I 0
A
I
J
0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 I0 II I2 I3 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 I0 II
C
B
F IG. 46. M ODERN M ARKER
On this marker the toe-line is T, the joint-line J, the
long-heel positions 30° to 35°, and the heel angles 40° to
45°. The angle of 70° is for indicating from the top of the long
heel a line cutting the heel-line and giving the heel measure of
the pattern (see Fig. 46). The angle of 100° is the angle
applied from the back of the ankle-line to give the measure at
the top of the leg.
The scale at the top is for applying the ankle measure when
used for bespoke measures. The scale on the right side is an
ordinary inch measure.
In using the marker the joint-line is taken in relation to the
length of the foot.
The cut-out portion Q, at the top edge, is a guide for
OTHER DESIGNS
75
designing men’s shoe quarter curves, the lower edge for
women’s, both for average purposes.
BC is an average back curve, and TH the curve at the front,
between the instep and the ankle, and used as a French curve.
Further additions may be made to the marker by marking
useful data thereon, such as last measurements, etc., for easy
reference.
T O C ONSTRUCT
THE
M ARKER
Make the base-line 13 in. long, and the line at right
angles 9 in. high (see Fig. 46). C from B equals size 11’s
adults, the net length of a standard length last, i.e. 12 in.
Indicate the inside joint-line J (at an angle of 65°) for size
11’s. This position is found by taking the length of the last as
12 in., less three sizes, which gives the length of the foot and
leaves 11 in. As five-sevenths of this for average purposes
gives the inside joint position, which is fairly constant, J
would be as 7 67 in. from B.
From B indicate 0 as 2 21 in. away from J. Size 0’s infants’
equals 4 in. of the standard length last, and this less one and a
half sizes gives the length of the foot.
To find 0’s on the left, apply 1 21 in. from J. This with the
2 in. to the right makes the standard length last for that size as
4 in.
1
2
Divide 0 to C and 0 to B into twenty-four equal spaces to
give the necessary twenty-five sizes, 0’s infants to adults’
11’s.
Make J line 3 58 in. long, and T line 2 34 in. long.
Indicate lines from B at angles of 30°, 32°, 35°, 40°, 42°,
and 45°. The length of the 45° line is 7 41 in., that of the 40° line
8 21 in., and that of the 42° line 7 58 in.
Make the top line approximately 5 41 in. at 95° to CB.
76
BOOTS AND SHOES
Design or trace the curve TH, and connect from the 40° to
the toe-line with a suitable back curve.
On the joint-line indicate a half scale in inches.
The toe-line T is made at an angle of 55°, and the No. 1
division is made 127 in. from the base, being half the joint
measure with an allowance of a shoe size. Division No. 6
should be made 1 78 in. from No. 1, and the space between
should be divided into five equal parts.
Remove the portions where shaded on Fig. 46 to enable
ready marking out.
Make a half scale at the top of the marker.
The marker should be made in zinc or pattern board.
CHAPTER XII
ALTERATIONS MADE FOR DIFFERENT
MATERIALS, CLOSING OR LASTING PROCESSES
WHEN dealing with the methods of standard construction
described in the previous chapters, we have for the most part
suggested that they should be produced to the last, without
much variation, and that this normal standard would be
suitable for the hand-lasted, machine-sewn method of
attachment. Some modifications have been indicated, but we
now wish to supplement this information to suit other special
cases. The formes used in most cases were cut to the last in
paper, on methods such as No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, and No. 5
described in Chapter I. In Nos. 3 and 4 we dealt with methods
to arrive at the substance taken according to the upper to be
produced. In this chapter will be shown how modifications
can be made for the substance of the upper over that of the
paper, the effects of lasting methods upon the pattern,
economy practices, and so forth.
Let us assume a pattern suitable for glace kid, and that when
used for skins averaging 66 ft. to the dozen it is found to be
economical. We now have to provide patterns for skins, say,
averaging 40 ft. to the dozen. We have to realize that the
smaller the pattern in relation to the size of the skin the better
chances we have of getting them of the required quality. So
when cutting up small area skins, vamps which are cut from
the prime parts should be as compact as possible. This was
hinted at when dealing with close wing goloshes. In cases
where the nature of the material permits it, we may introduce
more spring into the vamp, and thus
77
78
BOOTS AND SHOES
close together the wings. In Fig. 47 this device is shown,
where the vamp is pivoted at V and at the toe T a distance is
selected above the normal S (according to the material), the
broken line showing how the wings are brought closer
together. If instead of increasing the spring of the toe the
vamp crease-line below the normal is taken, we produce the
opposite effect, and make the wings spread more, thus
W
V
DT
S
DT S
FIG. 47. SPRINGING VAMPS
allowing the toe of one vamp to go into the cue of
another—often an economical method of cutting rows of
vamps from large sides of clear leather. Note that the more
spring introduced the greater the length-line round the feather
edge, and vice versa.
The nature of the materials used for uppers, i.e. their
substance and stretch, often means a different position of the
vamp height, cap depth, and even in some cases the quarter
depth, and pattern cutters have to be alert to anticipate these
changes. A study of the substance tape and its underlying
principles is therefore strongly recommended.
The factory processes also require consideration, as
ALTERATIONS FOR DIFFERENT MATERIALS 79
when uppers are “mulled” they give more, and patterns should
be reduced accordingly.
When cutting such materials as reptiles one is often
compelled to reduce again the size of the pattern. This may he
done by using a seamed portion just beyond the feather-line of
the last cut from another material, and of course it goes
without saying that the seam must not be visible when the
upper is lasted.
Patterns that are cut for paste-fitted methods of closing will
not be suitable for holding together closing systems, but if
constructed from standards based upon the substance of the
upper, and the linings and fittings are made to fit the outside as
required for holding together patterns, then the latter patterns
can be used for paste fitting.
When patterns are cut for stout upper materials not only are
more seam allowances required, but also fuller measurements
to provide for the increased substance of the materials. This
shows once again the necessity for a study of the substance
tapes.
D IFFERENT M ETHODS OF M AKING
Different methods of attachment and making demand
modifications in the pattern to circumvent the effects thereof
upon our normal standard pattern.
For brief treatment we can classify the above as (a)
hand-sewn, (b) hand-lasted as for M.S. and machine-welted,
or (c) machine pulled-over. If a normal standard were used
for all three cases (a), (b), and (c), the resultant upper when
made would be different, even though we allowed over the
edge of the feather different lasting-over allowances, and
especially so if we cut from paper formes only. Hand-sewn
work is drafted with the upper placed down the last, i.e.
hoisted, so that the upper moves forward when lasting, and
when subsequently pulled up, the position of the
80
BOOTS AND SHOES
leg and long heel is retarded from the position the pattern
designer wished it to be. For hand-lasted the “hoist” given is
not so much—generally only lowered to just below the seat.
Hence the distortion is not so great. In the machine
pulled-over the seats are lasted as “seats-up,” i.e. they are
tacked over at the seat first, and compared with the other
K
FIG. 48. SEATS-UP, NORMAL AND HOISTED
methods just described, the long heel and leg are held back.
The patterns have to be cut to recognize this fact.
Fig. 48 shows a normal standard pattern in plain outline,
and the broken line in front of the central line from the centre
of the heel to the ankle has in the first instance been made 91 in.
(or other amount necessary according to heavy or light
materials) more forward. This would do for machine
pulled-over. The other broken line has been carried, say, 91 in.
backwards, and would do for hand-sewn horsed or hoisted
methods of lasting.
After this adjustment of the lines mentioned the normal
standard construction can be proceeded with. At the instep K
(Fig. 48) the effect on the long heel,
ALTERATIONS FOR DIFFERENT MATERIALS 81
heel, ankle, and leg, as well as the leg position, can be seen
when using either the smaller forme, mean, or larger, as
mentioned in the description of standard construction.
Hand-lasted for Machine-sewn and Machine-welted. The
standards would be produced in the ordinary way, no
modifications being required.
Machine-drafted. The standards would differ from those for
hand-lasted, the top forme being used for obtaining the long
heel-line, and the system carried out as normal. This has the
effect of automatically bringing the leg forward, and fitting
the instep properly, otherwise, if produced from the mean of
the formes, the upper would bind at that position, causing the
edges of the upper to spread out like the wings of a “broody”
hen.
The leg position should not be confused with inclination.
The latter means the relation of the front of the profile above
the last to the ground, or the front line of the standard to the
ground. Thus for men’s ordinary weight boots we have a
backward inclination, for long work a forward inclination.
Leg position means the relation of the leg to the foot-covering
portion, and it is not only affected by the making, but by the
type of foot and the pitch of the heel, a flat foot being suited by
a forward leg position, an arched by a backward one. But if the
system of pattern construction here described is used and the
last is suitable for the type of foot, or the heel angle is made to
suit the foot, this is automatically provided for.
CHAPTER XIII
CUTTING THE PARTS
WHEN standards have been cut for the purpose required,
the cutting of the sectional parts follows. These may be
designed, of course, directly on the standard, as shown in
many of our descriptions, or they may be cut separately, in
which case they should be afterwards marked on the
standard for useful reference. This will avoid any
deviation from the salient features of the original when
making further designs from the same standard. It also
enables many of the sections to be standardized, and
where press clicking knives are installed, keeps their
number down to the minimum.
THE VAMP
For average purposes the vamp height, or depth, is fixed
at, or near, the top of the joint-line. The wings of the
vamp, if an ordinary curvature be used to connect the
vamp height thereto, may terminate near the bottom of the
instep-line. Often the same allowance made to increase
the vamp height above the average is used to increase the
wing from the average.
By designing the vamp in this manner a ready means is
afforded of producing vamps for other sizes by adopting
the same proportions. For instance, if 41 in. above V is
used for, say, size 4’s, and a size 7’s vamp is required to
the same proportion, then 41 in. above V for size 7’s would
give that proportion, so that when made up it will fall upon
the same relative position on the last. This is often alluded
to in certain circles as co-ordinated patterns.
The vamp height V and wing length W having been
82
CUTTING THE PARTS
83
decided upon, connect them with a straight line, and then
ranging between a half and five-eighths of this line VW will be
found a suitable location for the vamp curve to pass through. If
proportional compasses are not available to obtain this
subdivision, then the proportion of nine-sixteenths often
advised can be obtained by first of all bisecting VW, and then
V
V
3
I
2
V
I
V
A
W
D
W
FIG. 49. THE VAMP
subdividing this bisection into eight equal parts and marking
through the first of the divisions.
Having provided V 1 , by means of a line parallel to the
pitch-line, make from W a line parallel to the joint-line. This
is shown in Fig. 49. From V 1 , with radius V, make an arc V 2 ,
and from V 2 with the same radius make an arc which can be
intersected with one using the same radius from V, giving V 3 .
The intersecting arc is the centre for the vamp cue. When
grading a set of patterns it is only necessary to grade V and V 3 ,
and the curve on each pattern can be quickly and accurately
produced. The bottom, or wing, curve can be obtained in the
same way by using the radius of WW 1 , as shown in Fig. 49. Of
course, experienced designers would be able to sketch in the
curves freehand, and in so doing express their own individual
desires !
84
BOOTS AND SHOES
This method can be applied to a piece of folded paper by
first laying the folded edge to the crease-line of the standard
and pricking through V and W, and then designing on the
folded paper. From the proportions given others may be
adopted by adding or taking away fixed amounts to give the
required result.
THE TOE-CAP
A straight cap must not be made simply at right angles to the
crease-line, as when lasted the cap would make a bow or dip in
Z
X
B
UNDER
LAY
FITTING HOLE
E
Y
FIG. 50. CAP DESIGN
its centre. For average purposes the curve made can be
obtained from an 8 in. radius; or a 6 in. radius may be
sometimes used. If the depth of the cap is made two-thirds of
the vamp depth it gives a good proportion, permitting of
crimping between the vamp and cap height. Fig. 50 shows the
cap curve being taken from a templet, XYZ.
A winged cap can be produced from the straight cap, and is
shown in Fig. 18, dealing with brogue shoes.
THE QUARTER
This is produced by marking through the standard, near V
and W, and along the top and bottom, adding to the top any
fold-over required, and to the back
CUTTING THE PARTS
85
curve a seam according to demands. The vamp is taken and
laid to the pricked marks near V and W, and the curve marked.
An underlay is put on, fitting marks indicated, and the quarter
cut out. Owing to its simplicity no illustration is needed.
Seams can be added to the underlay at the bottom of the
quarter-front for closing, when required.
THE GIBSON OR DERBY TONGUE
This is so clearly shown in Fig. 51 that little description is
needed. The width of the tab from the crease-line may be 1 in.,
”
/I 4
B
E
A
F
C
D
FIG. 51. GIBSON TONGUE
or one-quarter of the instep-line, and the remaining points can
be obtained from the standard, except the top end of the
tongue, which will be about 41 in. above the quarter.
Another method is to cut the tongue so that it sits up. This is
accomplished by making a curved seam from a whole-cut
front and taking out a curve, in the same manner as was shown
in connection with the side seam of the men’s slipper, except
that the curvature is greater at the centre. This is often termed
“drafting” the tongue.
86
BOOTS AND SHOES
LEATHER QUARTER LINING
Fig. 52 clearly shows the slit for enabling the lining to fit
under the tab. This prevents the closing-room operator using
her “discretion,” which may depend upon a whim of the
moment.
FIG. 52. QUARTER LINING
The vamp lining may be produced as illustrated in Fig. 53,
or if a whole lining is desired the procedure is as for cutting for
a Derby boot.
FIG. 53. VAMP LINING FOR DERBY
CHAPTER XIV
LINING PATTERNS
THE cutting of linings and fittings is an important feature in
modern shoe factory practice, as distinct from the older
method used, when paste fitting was more in vogue. If the
standards are produced, taking into account the substance
of the outsides, or covers, then the linings and fittings must
be suitably reduced to fit the covers; or if not, and the
standards arc simply reproduced, then the linings and
fittings will have to go to paste-fitters before they are
machined, to remove the effects of the linings, etc., being as
large as the covers.
WOMEN’S BOOT LINING PATTERNS
The width of the facing may be taken as 58 in., and
allowances made for trimming or folding over. The depth of
the top band may be as required, say, 1 41 in. If the facing goes
to the top, as shown in Fig. 54, then the top band is provided
with one-quarter of an inch underlay. If the top band is
required for a button boot then it would be extended beyond
that shown for the lace boot until it meets the quarter.
The reduction at the back for the lining in relation to the
standard is shown in broken line, and the pattern can be
completed by reference to the illustration.
DERBY BOOTS
These fittings often cause trouble to those who are called
upon to produce them for the first time, hence they are shown
in detail in Fig. 55.
The facing width is
3
4
in., graduated as shown at the
87
88
BOOTS AND SHOES
bottom to, say, 1 in. The top band is made at, say, 1 in.,
and 38 in. up the front is allowed for the underlay of the
D
B
4
G
3
TOP B
AND
FACING
H
E
C
2
FITTING MARK
V
M
T
I
VAMP
UNDERLAY
N
FIG. 54. FABRIC LINING
I
C
H
D
F
G
S
K
J
A
B
E
W
FIG. 55. DERBY LINING
facing, where it passes over the lining. The other parts can
be cut by reference to Fig. 55. When the
LINING PATTERNS
89
linings are required, in section, the quarter is made with an
allowance of, say, 41 in., and the vamp lining produced, as
shown in Fig. 56. A straight tongue can be cut instead of the
A
D
B
C
FIG. 56. DERBY FABRIC VAMP LINING
varieties of half watertight or bellows by making sure that it is
wide enough to fit under the tab properly.
CUTTING SHOE LINING PATTERNS
Machine-sewn, Machine-welted, and Hand-sewn. Let the
continuous lines ACB, Fig. 57, represent the quarter. Then
D must be located inside C, at the bottom edge, for average
purposes (say a Persian lining) 41 in. for size 4’s, and other
sizes in proportion. The amount of reduction varies according
to the substance and stretch of the lining, e.g. a men’s size 7’s
may have a russet lining, and would require probably 38 in. On
the other hand, a women’s size 4’s, instead of having a
Persian lining may be fitted with a white lamb; in this
instance, owing to the stretch of the leather, 38 in. may also be
required. D is located inside to permit of the insertion of the
stiffeners without producing a fullness. Obviously, the
thicker the stiffener the greater the reduction at D.
When the position D is fixed, take the standard or quarter
and connect from the top to D. The lining is prepared at the
back.
Turnshoes. Owing to these tops having the inside outside
when on the last during the first lasting, no reduction is made
as at D, but the back of the quarter is
90
BOOTS AND SHOES
used net, or an addition is made as at E. The amount for
average purposes is 81 in., graduated by using the standard or
quarter from the top to E. (See Fig. 57.)
A
C
D
B
E
FIG. 57. QUARTER LINING
I
F F
GI
G
FIG. 59
FIG. 58
INSIDE BACKSTRAPS
FOR
SHOES
Fig. 58 represents a folded straight backstrap, for placing at
the back of the quarter lining, and in Fig. 59
LINING PATTERNS
91
F and G show the shape required for the back after allowing
for the stiffener, etc. Then by slitting the edge of the
backstrap, as shown in Fig. 58, the curve that the backstrap
will make when bent to its position can be obtained. Make the
edge take to the quarter shape, piece by piece, and as it is
adjusted mark its edge. The line obtained is the curve wanted,
F1G1. The underlay to this curve is also shown in Fig. 59 in
broken line.
OXFORD QUARTER LININGS
Take the quarter and put on the front and top curve the
amount required for turning-in, folding, or seams. The front of
the quarter lining should have added to it for the lining about
3
in. so as to prevent two seams coming together.
32
The back will require reducing in the lining to allow for the
stiffener used and the stretch, or otherwise, of the material.
(See Fig. 57.)
LINEN VAMP LINING
This is cut so that its crease is 41 in. below that of the vamp
crease-line at the toe, to ensure a clear lasting lining.
ALLOWANCES
FOR
EDGE TREATMENT
In linings for held-together closing these allowances are
important. For “ bagged” edges, where the quarters are closed
together at the top edge, allow on the quarter the seam
allowance. If the lining is to be pulled over inside a certain
amount, add that, and put the amount both on the quarters and
the quarter linings, so that they can be closed together—but
the lining so cut must be reduced at its bottom edge. A
rolled-over edge will require the amount given to be
92
BOOTS AND SHOES
increased to allow for the roll-over, and whatever is allowed
on the top, so the bottom must be reduced accordingly.
ONE-BAR SHOE LININGS
In Fig. 60 the continuous lines represent the lining, and the
broken lines the standard. It is a leather quarter lining, with a
fabric vamp lining.
A
LEFT TO PREVENT
STRAIN IN LASTING
V
B
D
G
J
I
V
FIG. 60. LINING FOR ONE-BAR
Mark round the standard, adding a closing seam at the back,
and indicate the vamp curve V, D and V 1 , and the top of the
under quarter as A. All trimming allowances are made where
desired, if the outsides are turned in. The other details required
can be easily seen from the diagram.
If the lining is for sew-rounds or turnshoes, add to the
outside of the quarter at the stiffener position the amount
suitable, as the turnshoe is made inside-out, and the lining
during the first lasting is outside.
LINING PATTERNS
93
TOP BANDS, FACINGS, TONGUES, AND BACKSTRAPS
These should present little difficulty in cutting, but as a
guide to beginners, practical measurements for average
requirements are here given.
Top Band Depths. For leather work make the men’s 1 in.
and the women’s 1 41 in., with children’s at 1 in ; for silks and
poplins make deeper than this. For stamped top bands, the
depth will be governed by that of the stamping or die.
Facing Widths. For men’s these can be made 34 in., and
women’s and children’s 58 in. For outside facings less is
required, say, 58 in. for men’s and 21 in. for women’s and
children’s.
Tongues. (Full measurements, not the half-section only.)
For men’s, 34 in. at the bottom, graduated to 1 34 in. at the top, is
suitable for ordinary walking heights of boots. For women’s,
make the tongue 34 in. at the bottom, graduated to 2 in. at the
top, for a 7 in. boot. Make children’s 7’s to l’s 58 in. at the
bottom, graduated at the top to 1 21 in., for 5 21 in. work.
Backstraps. (For insertion inside and given in full
measures.) For boots, straight backstraps, 21 in. top, 58 in.
bottom; bottle shape, 21 in. top, 1 81 in. bottom; counter shape,
1
in. top, 4 in. bottom.
2
Note that the top band depths and facing widths given are
net, necessitating allowances to be made for turning in or
trimming.
CHAPTER XV
PATTERN ALLOWANCES FOR MAKING AND
CLOSING
Over the Formes for Method of Making. This is often termed
“lasting-over allowance,” which is likely to prove misleading.
Lasting allowance, strictly speaking, is the amount required
beyond the innersole to give sufficient seam for the method of
attachment. This amount varies, less being required for a
sew-round upper than for machine-lasted.
The provision to be made for the full lasting-over allowance
for formes cut in paper is—
(a) The substance of the innersole used.
(b) The substance and “stretch” of the upper leather and
linings.
(c) The method of (attachment, as for sew-rounds,
machine-sewn, machine-welted, and hand-sewn welted.
One method of finding the amount required is by the use of
substance “tapes,” which are cut from the same material as the
lining and the cover, say, 21 in. wide, and stuck together under
an inch tape. Attach the innersole to the last. Fit the tapes
round the joint inches side outwards, similar to lasting,
bending over the innersole with sufficient allowance for the
method of attachment. Take the tapes off, and compare with
the cover pattern at the joint position on the formes. The
difference in measurement gives the extra allowance required
for making to the feather edge. (See also “Cutting Formes,”
Chapter 1.)
Another method is first to make allowance for the substance
of the outside, lining, and anything inserted in between (as
side linings), and then to add the amount
94
ALLOWANCES FOR MAKING AND CLOSING 95
for making. This latter allowance varies according to the
quality of the leather, its resistance, and breaking point, in
pulling or lasting over the innersole. The amount also varies
according to the district the shoes are made in, some
preferring the uppers tight, others full. One reason given for
the tightness is to obtain quality in lasting, and another to
effect economy in the cutting.
The two methods just described contain all the principles
underlying the subject, but the general method adopted is to
average all these requirements and express them in inches and
fractions.
AVERAGE ALLOWANCES OVER FORMES OR
MEASUREMENTS OF LASTS
The amounts given are for average purposes, and will
require modification according to the inequalities in substance
and stretch of the leather, the varying degrees of tightness
required in lasting, and the different thicknesses of innersoles,
etc.
Sew-rounds. Women’s light glacé kid 163 in; patent 41 in.
For turnshoes on the Goodyear principle, 161 in. extra to
those given.
Hand-sewn. Women’s light glacé kid 41 in; patent 165 in.;
stouter leathers 38 in. Men’s glacé 38 in. ; box calf 167 in.
Machine-welted. Women’s glacé kid 38 in.; Forepart, 21
in. to 169 in. round seats (nailed seats). Men’s glacé kid 21 in.;
forepart, 58 in. (nailed seats).
Machine-sewn and Littleway and Welding Processes,
Machine-drafted, and Lasted. Women’s glacé kid 21 in. To
9
in. Men’s 58 in. Stouter leathers in proportion.
16
Machine-sewn Hand-lasted. Women’s glacé 21 in. Men’s
in. Light riveted. Women’s 21 in. Men’s 58 in. Pegged seats 58
in. Veldtschoens, say 21 in. Poplins and satins at least 21 in.
5
8
96
BOOTS AND SHOES
For heavy work, such as wax split and kip, 81 in. would be
added to the previous amounts, and in some cases even 41 in.,
for example, for extra stout outsides and linings.
ALLOWANCES FOR CLOSING SEAMS
Seams are generally closed, lapped., welted, overseamed,
or openstitched.
Closed seams are those stitched as close as possible to the
edges, providing the result is solid. Welted have a narrow welt
of leather placed between the two edges while closing, thus
adding to the strength. Openstitched are closed on the edges,
with a reinforcement of webbing, and additional rows of
stitching each side, as seen in the back seams of many boots
and shoes. Overseamed seams are where the two edges are
connected flush, and overstitched or “zig-zagged” as in a
toe-joiner, underneath the cap. Lapped seams are seen where
a vamp is stitched on top of a quarter, the portion under the
vamp when stitched being known as the underlay.
Allowances for Leather (average substance). Very light
leathers for top bands 321 in. Glacé kid, cabrettas, and matt kid
1
in. Matt calf, patent sides, patent calf, imitation reptile calf,
16
reptiles, box calf, willow calf, black and coloured sides, and
levants 121 in. Kips 81 in. Note that no allowance is required for
overseaming.
Allowances for Fabrics. Average linen 41 in. Satins, silks,
and poplins according to the way they fray, at least 41 in. Felt
cloth, canvas, and reinforced poplin 81 in. Felt linings 41 in.
Underlays. For one row of stitching on vamps, quarter, or
quarter linings 41 in. Two rows 165 in. To carry punchings, the
underlays are governed by the width of perforation, from 38 in.
to 21 in.
ALLOWANCES FOR MAKING AND CLOSING 97
VAMP AND GOLOSH HEIGHTS OR DEPTHS
In the absence of any fixed amount being given for vamp
heights, we can with safety work to the top of the joint-line, at
any rate for plain vamps. This gives a pleasing effect when
made, takes cognisance of the bend of the foot, and is
satisfactory when lasting. It is an especially useful rule when
cutting to a new model.
For vamps with caps, to give the best appearance the vamps
should be made higher than when without caps. For men’s
work, make the vamps 165 in. higher than the joint-line, for
ladies’ 41 in., and for 7’s to l’s 163 in. higher. This usually gives
the changed appearance desired for caps. If the work is
quarter-over vamp, to maintain the same appearance when
made as the plain vamp over, it is usual to cut the vamp 323 in.
lower.
Vamps for different heights of heels may require some
modification, but if the system described in this section is
strictly followed, the allowance is given automatically for
general work, as the higher the heel the longer the pitch-line,
and vice versa for a last of lower pitch. In this way the top of
the joint-line is automatically regulated.
CHAPTER XVI
FINDING THE POSITIONS FOR THE INSIDE
JOINTS, FOR STANDARD CONSTRUCTION,
BY A GEOMETRICAL METHOD
INSTEAD of making arithmetical calculations or having to
resort to proportional compasses to obtain the five-sevenths of
the length of the foot, the following method will be found
useful. If a complete chart is made of all sizes any size
required can at once be obtained.
In Fig. 61 a double scale is shown made as follows: First
draw a line GH, and thereon make as many equal divisions (of
any convenient unit) as the range of useful sizes. In this
instance twenty divisions have been chosen. Number them as
shown from 4 to 11. Secondly, at size 6’s infants’ erect a
perpendicular to the base, and make it one and a half shoe
sizes (i.e. 36 in.). At the 7’s adults make another perpendicular equal to three shoe sizes or 1 in. Thirdly, connect
the top of 6’s infants’ to the top of the 7’s adults’ by a straight
line IJ. By making perpendiculars from the other divisions to
the line IJ the relative amounts for the other sizes are obtained.
This scale gives the amount for deduction from the standard
length of last, and we can now proceed to show how the foot’s
length is obtained.
Make a line AB (Fig. 62) equal to the standard length of last
to be used. Take from the scale (Fig. 61) the distance shown
for the size required, and mark from A as AC (Fig. 62). Now
we have to find five-sevenths of the line CB. To do this make
a line CE 7 in. long at any convenient angle from C. Mark off
F as 2 in. from C.
98
POSITIONS BY GEOMETRICAL METHOD
A
Connect B to E, and through F draw a line parallel
to BE, cutting CB at G. GB will then be
five-sevenths of CB. This method can be used for
any size. By taking the results thus
G
K
obtained for the smallest and the
4
largest sizes, placing the distances
5
I
obtained on a straight line, and
6
subdividing them, we can produce a
7
8
scale for all sizes, handy for future
9
reference.
I0
An alternative method for finding
II
the
heel measure deduction for the
I2
heel
pattern-line from the
I3
long
heel measure is
I
shown
in
Fig. 61 by the
2
bottom scale. Instead of
3
using a line at 70° to the
4
long heel in standard
5
6
construction, Fig. 61 at the
J bottom gives from the
7
8
base to the K line the
9
amounts that can be
I0
deducted from the long
II
H
heel measure to give the
E
pattern heel measure.
99
A
C
F
G
FIG. 61
At the 4’s infants’ mark up 81 in. as K,
and at size 7’s adults’ mark up 38 in., and
connect the points as shown.
D
PROPORTIONAL COMPASSES
A proportional compass is a desirable
adjunct in pattern cut ting and grading,
and no modern
FIG. 62
B
100
BOOTS AND SHOES
pattern cutter should be
without one. Such compasses
are made divided for lines,
plans, solids, and circles. For
the present use, all that is
required is one divided
into “lines” only, and it will
be found to be cheaper to
purchase than a fully
divided compass.
By using proportional
compasses, much guesswork and approximate
methods will be obviated,
such as folding pieces of
paper to obtain proportions,
and for those not sure of
arithmetical calculation the
chances of inaccuracy will
be minimized.
The compass illustrated in Fig. 63 has “line”
divisions only, and the
manner of using it is to
manipulate the ratchetcontrolled nut A to the
figure marked on the legs
showing the proportion
required. If, for example,
the division required is
one-third, then the nut
would be
POSITIONS BY GEOMETRICAL METHOD
101
adjusted to the one-third mark on the leg, and then tightened.
If the legs at points DD are opened so that the distance to be
divided is spanned, then the points EE would span one-third of
the distance DD.
Any proportion given in this section can be put on the
compass for further use. For instance, if the large legs are
opened to span exactly 7 in., and by trial the previously
loosened nut is moved so that the short legs span exactly 2 in.
at the same time, then we can scratch on the legs opposite the
index two-sevenths, and that additional proportion will be
available whenever required. If 9 in. in the large legs is taken
at the same time as 4 in. in the short legs, we obtain
four-ninths; 5 in. in the short legs and 12 in. in the long gives
five-twelfths, and so on.
If the compass is too small to span these amounts, then
half-inches can be used, say 5 half-inches and 12 half-inches
in the proportion just quoted.
These compasses can be obtained in various lengths, but
one not shorter than 8 78 in. is recommended. They can be
purchased in brass or electrum from Messrs. Livingston &
Doughty, Ltd., Leicester.
BACK CURVES
Back curves should not be designed geometrically as arcs of
circles. It is better to use the back curve of the average of the
forme as a French curve is used, i.e. select the portion required
to suit the curve to be made between two points. The curve
above the top of the last for a boot can be usually suited by
using the forme curve reversed.
In our standard construction system the full back curve
varies from pattern to pattern, according to the conditions
given in the proportions. It will be remembered that it is
advisable to make a distance below the ankle-line equal to the
making allowance. If, say, 21 in.
102
BOOTS AND SHOES
is put below the ankle-line for the making, then a curve is
obtained that will usually be suitable for the material used for
the upper. If 58 in. below the ankle-line is used instead of the 21
in. then the curve best suited to the altered straight line will be
more acute, and this is what is required for a stouter leather,
which does not stretch so much in lasting as a lighter leather.
The leg position varies in the boot pattern according to the
heel angle and the height of the pitch, and therefore the
distance at the back below the ankle will be higher or lower
accordingly, thus providing for the altered curvature
automatically. A flattish foot requires more curvature than an
arched foot, and a high heel more than a low heel, and the
system described in this section gives the constructions
calculated to provide for these factors.
Certain portions of the pattern give parabolic curves that
can be selected when sketching in the curves of other patterns.
They should, however, be used intelligently like French
curves, and not simply copied between points without
consideration of their continuity with the remainder of the
pattern.
CHAPTER XVII
DESIGNING
DESIGNING, in the meaning of originality, is in greater demand
to-day than heretofore, especially in the ladies’ section of the
trade, where “snappy” designs aid the selling department. To
enable designs of new combinations to be balanced, the reader
will have gathered from our description of standard
construction the essential proportions of certain sections, and
will be able to make new blends and sections that will not
offend shoe-making principles. There are many so-called
modern shoe designers who can draw a pretty picture of a shoe
upon paper, but such designs very often are impractical for
making shoes, because the vamp seams, say, are in the
incorrect position to allow the last to be withdrawn, or to allow
of the ingress or egress of the wearer’s foot. A sketch on the
flat often looks quite different when placed round the last, so
perhaps the safest method would be to last up a leather or linen
cover upon the last, and thereon make the design by drawing
the curves in pencil or ink, until a well-balanced shoe has been
produced. After the design has been approved, the cover can
be sectioned, and from the sections the pattern can be
produced.
If designing on the flat paper is preferred, then the different
lines laid down during the exposition of the systems described
in this section will, when used, enable us so to design our new
shapes that we shall not venture so far from the conventional
as to produce patterns that bear little relation to the essentials
of pattern construction. When designing curves in the
103
104
BOOTS AND SHOES
sections of the patterns, we should bear in mind the difference
in appearance between the curvature on the flat and its
relation to the curvature of the last. Designs with open cuts
change their shape during lasting, and this fact must therefore
be compensated for when designing.
The nature and character of the materials used in the upper,
and their effects upon the character of the design, call for
attention.
Curves when used must harmonize with each other and the
last, and curves suitable for a small, slim-fitting last will
require adjusting for lasts of a broader fitting. It does not even
follow that designs suitable for one last will necessarily suit
another.
COLOUR SCHEMES
Generally speaking, colour schemes are a matter of taste,
for while one connoisseur may consider a certain combination
good another will despise it. But a knowledge of colour theory
is useful, and will prevent atrocious combinations. Primary
colours are used in theatrical and infants’ work, but little
generally. The best colours for average purposes comprise the
secondary and tertiary, from which many tasteful
combinations can be made. A good method of acquiring a
sense of proportion relative to colours is to fold different
coloured skins, and then lay them together and judge the
effects of contrast or harmony.
COPYING “SKETCH” DESIGNS
Copying from one’s own sketches should provide little
difficulty, but when a sketch from other sources is supplied,
from which a pattern for a certain last is to be produced, it is
not so easy.
In Fig. 64 a sketch is given which it will be assumed has
been handed to us to produce a pattern from for
DESIGNING
105
the last supplied. If we have by us a standard for, say, a
two-eyelet shoe for the same last, we can reproduce the
outline of the standard, and first decide the vamp length by
seeing what proportion it makes on the drawing. Its sectional
proportion will give us what we require, because all lines
visible on a section in its entirety can be proportioned to the
FIG. 64
length section. Thus the vamp length, opening on the instep,
width of tab, and back height can be so related.
Proportions that go round the outsides of the lasts must be
computed on the section, and the allowance for the perimeter
of the last must be considered. Sometimes the task allotted is
made more difficult by having fixed measurements supplied,
together with a last not suitable for the design.
COPYING A MADE-UP SHOE
Proceed on similar lines to the previous description, but
make use of tracing cloth or paper to obtain sections of the
pattern. When using such rubbings, we must allow for any
change in curvature caused during the lasting, or different size
of last and shoe, and variations in the shape of the lasts.
THE ART OF THE PATTERN DESIGNER
It is claimed that if the subject-matter of this section be put
into practice it will be found that we are
106
BOOTS AND SHOES
proceeding on scientific lines and making a sound basis for
future development.
Undoubtedly pattern cutting is an art, and the ideal pattern
cutter a scientific artist. To-day, he is called upon to make
many more different designs than years ago. Not only does he
have to design patterns on paper, which are affected by the
after-processes, and therefore necessitate at least a theoretical
knowledge of the various processes of boot and shoe
manufacture, but he is expected to have a practical knowledge
of the principles of closing and lasting. For no matter how
artistic a pattern cutter may be in designing on a sheet of
paper, if he does not understand the after-processes, all his
great artistry will be defeated in the final results. The art of
pattern cutting requires skill, anticipation, sound judgment, a
cultivated style, and natural taste.
Mathematics are no use without the art, hence the pattern
cutter should be a scientific artist. “Pattern cutting is a branch
of the industry that repays more than any other a careful
theoretical study.” A certainty of fit should be the aim, and
with the knowledge of the difference between the flat paper,
the material used, and its stretch, and the difference in
curvature when on the last or foot, the designer can proceed
without undue worry to the production of further designs.
CHAPTER XVIII
LONG WORK STANDARDS
THE term “long work” is used to describe all kinds of boots
that fit the calf and reach above it. Most of them have
closed-in fronts, i.e. no opening down the front of the leg, so
suitable provision must be made in the leg for the passage of
the long heel measure through the heel-line of the boot. Types
that come under this heading are: Polo, Hunting, Riding,
Butcher, Jack, Field Marshal, Jockey, Coachman, Napoleon,
Mosquito, and Plain Regulation and Dress Wellingtons. The
other kinds of long work are made with an open front, and are
designed to produce a boot smarter in appearance and
conforming more to the leg. They comprise the old Elcho
type, now modified and known as Sportsman’s and Field
boots.
For the closed-in front designs a special last is necessary, or
one fitted up and differing from an ordinary boot last. For long
work the chief characteristics of the last are well-formed
instep, full heel measure provided at the top of the comb, and
straighter shape at the back. For Jockey and Coachman’s and
similar types the last should not be too wide at the top of the
comb, the idea being to assist the upper to stand up when
made. There should also be a neat drop in the front below the
instep. The waist should be flat and full on the outside, and the
last should have a low pitch. A special characteristic of long
work is the forward inclination of the front of the leg and the
forward leg position, the former providing for the comfort of
the wearer in the top front portion, and the latter allowing the
back to be as straight as possible so
107
108
BOOTS AND SHOES
as not to emphasize the calf protuberance, except in those
specially fitted to the leg, such as the Field boot.
JOCKEY AND COACHMAN BOOTS (Golding’s Automatic
System)
These designs can be cut from formes or cut direct to the
last, according to circumstances and the experience of the
cutter.
Make the base-line BL and erect a perpendicular LU. Make
the pitch-point P and indicate the height of the boot from P as
required, say, for size 7’s or 8’s, 15 in. Make the pitch-line
equal to five-sevenths of the foot’s length plus 91 of LP. Make
the joint-line at an angle of 65° to the base-line. Trisect JP in I,
and make the instep-line parallel to the joint-line. Place the
formes in position as described for men’s boot standards, and
trace round. Take the mean of the formes at the instep K, and
make the long heel-line PK. Make the heel-line 8° more than
the long heel, and its measurement the same as PK. Find the
centre of the heel-line M, and through M erect a perpendicular
to the base, making its height equal to half the heel measure.
This is shown as X in Fig. 65.
At H and X make lines parallel to the base. Indicate the
calf-line height from the measure supplied by the measurer. If
this is not available, estimate it by using the heel measure of
the foot to give the calf position. Alternatively, eight-ninths of
the heel measure of the pattern will give the approximate
height of the calf. This height is shown as E, and through E
make a line parallel to the base. At the front of the calf E 1
make 41 in. to the left, and connect this latter position with
a straight line to H. This line provides the forward inclination
necessary in long work. Make the line from H equal to 21 in.
less than the heel measure of the pattern, and the line passing
through X 41 in. less than
LONG WORK STANDARDS
109
U
I5
EI
II
E
X
C
H
K
V
M
C
P
B
J
I
FIG. 65. COACHMAN’S BOOT
L
I
110
BOOTS AND SHOES
the pattern heel-line. Make the calf measure 7 in., and the top
of the leg 6 7/8 in. If a line is made midway between the
calf-line and the line through X, and its width made to the
mean difference between the measurement of the calf-line and
line X, then an additional line will be provided to help in
shaping the back curve. Connect the back at C1 with a line to
P, the pitch-point, as shown in broken line, and at the centre
obtain C, and
1/8 in. away is
the position for
the curve to
pass through.
Note that the
curve at the
throat H should
be very sharp,
quite in contrast
to short work.
FIG. 66. FRONT CASTOR
The calf measure includes the allowance for fitting over the breeches,
which, of course, the measurer would provide for when
measuring.
G
V
K
M
M
C
E
H
A
Z
To obtain the height of the tongue of the front, one-third of
the distance between the X line and the H line may be used.
The side above M can be found as one- third of M to line HC1.
The counter is taken as one-third of the H line to X, and the
remainder of the pattern may be completed, as shown in the
diagram, Fig. 65.
To produce the casting or castor pattern, take a suitable
piece of paper and fold it. Lay the folded edge level with the
instep VK, and mark round. At the joint-line select a first point
E midway VA, lower the front down to the crease-line, and
mark out the forepart. Fit portion G below the crease-line at C.
LONG WORK STANDARDS
111
Then reverse the tongue, bring it to the crease-line, and mark
its outline. Leave on a little if the front is to be hand-blocked
for the tack holes. (See Fig. 66.)
To produce the counter pattern, take the crease-line of a
folded piece of paper, and place it on the standard shown in
Fig. 65. Allow for stiffener
substance, and cut out as
shown in Fig. 67.
Jockey Tops. These are ”
I
generally bought all ready
made, and are known as
“Hubert” tops. They are
made in various colours—
white, apricot, pinks, straws,
A
J
I2”
I”
B
C
I
8
4”to 5”
I
I”
4
I
D
S
G
FIG. 67. COUNTER
FIG. 68. JOCKEY TOP
natural, and browns—and two shapes are provided. The
depths range from 4 in. to 5 in. (See Fig. 68.) The line J is the
top of the standard, and the line along AB is the same in
measurement so as to fold over the top.
Many other designs can be produced on the same system"
as that shown in Fig. 65, for example, the Mosquito boot worn
in tropical climates. This, however, is produced without a
counter or fold-over top. To keep out the pests a suitable net is
attached. Jack boots are the same in design as Fig. 65, but
with no
112
BOOTS AND SHOES
fold-over top. Butcher, Riding, Hunting, and Polo boots can
be produced as in Figs. 65 and 69. They should have high
fronts and counters, and for Riding, Hunting, and Polo boots
the back should be raised. In addition, for the Polo boot a
buckle and strap of the measurement of the top should be
A
FIG. 70. LADIES’ RIDING
FIG. 69. BUTCHER
attached to the back. The strap A in Fig. 69 is not designed for
Riding and Polo boots.
Ladies’ Riding boots can be cut as shown in Figs. 65 and 70,
the latter indicating the style. No fold-over top is necessary.
Such boots may be produced in all patent or morocco legs and
patent front and counter, with the front and counter designed
lower in proportion. The Newmarket design can be based
upon the system shown in Fig. 65, a small band of leather
being
LONG WORK STANDARDS
113
substituted for the fold-over top. The leg portion would be cut
from drab cloth.
In Fig. 71 is shown the Field Marshal or Napoleon top. The
front is cut high enough to reach the knee, and the back low
enough to come under the bend of the leg. The knee can be
taken as, say, 19 in., with 4 21 in. less for the back.
The Hussar boot top is shown in Fig. 72, and is cut like the
Jack boot. The curvature of the top is different from that of the
A
FIG. 71. NAPOLEON
FIG. 72. HUSSAR
Napoleon. A regimental curve is shown in broken line in the
same figure.
W ELLINGTONS
In the plain, or ordinary, Wellington, there is no seam at the
back or front. The seams are made instead at the sides, at the
inside and outside of the leg and foot. When made such a seam
appears straight, but in the pattern this is not actually the case,
as a piece is removed from the bottom to about the ankle
height to give it a draft. The top of the seam is also drafted to
prevent the top of the leg being too large or baggy.
The standard is constructed similarly to that for the Jockey
or Coachman’s up to the heel-line. The height of the back is
made from P to about, say, 14 in.
The calf position and its measurement were described when
dealing with the Coachman’s, and do not therefore need
repetition here. The forward leg position is provided for, and
the top of the leg is made to the same measure as the calf-line.
Allow beyond P for the
114
BOOTS AND SHOES
stiffener, etc., and connect the latter position with a straight
line to the calf-line, and. so to the top. The standard can then
be cut out.
Bisect the calf-line in Z (Fig. 73), and through this point
make a line at right angles to the base-line for the side seams.
Where it cuts the top line, place equally on either side half the
amount required to reduce the top to less than the calf measure
of the pattern, and curve this reduction, as shown in broken
line in Fig. 73. The gusset or draft curve at the bottom of the
seam line can be taken as half the length of the foot from the
base-line, and at its centre the curve shown is 163 in. This is its
maximum, and it is reduced gradually each side, as shown in
Fig. 73 by broken lines.
After these broken lines top and bottom have been
removed, we can next proceed to obtain the blocking pattern
for the front as previously described for blocking or
casting-out patterns. The back is produced by using a folded
paper and placing the fold level with the back line. Seams are
added at the sides as required—if for hand-flat seam none will
be required—and when closed a closing seam on the front and
back of the side seam. A welt is sometimes inserted when
closing, but this does not add much, if anything, to the seam
allowance.
A top lining and counter and side lining are provided if the
legs are unlined, but the design is often leatherlined, according
to the materials used for the outsides or covers.
The amount of 163 in. given for the draft would be for stout
work. For lighter leathers it can be increased to 165 in.
DRESS WELLINGTONS
This boot often forms part of a military officer’s outfit. The
leg portions are made from morocco, and the fronts and
outside counters from patent leather.
LONG WORK STANDARDS
115
I4 ”
H
A
B
Z
E
T
P
S
FIG. 73. WELLINGTON
116
BOOTS AND SHOES
The standard is produced on similar lines to the Wellington,
and the front and counter are similar to the Coachman’s
design.
The top is generally straight, but can be designed as shown
in Fig. 74.
FIG. 74
HALF-WELLINGTONS
These are designed as for Wellingtons, but are cut lower in
the leg and may have curved tops.
FIELD
OR
SPORTSMAN’S BOOTS
This style of boot was originally designed as an
improvement on those already in existence. At that period
most long work was closed in down the front, necessitating a
fullness in the back of the leg, to permit of the passage of the
long heel. The introduction
LONG WORK STANDARDS
117
of the Field boot enabled a pattern to be produced that
conformed more to the shape of leg at the back and front, and
thus presented a smarter appearance. Cut with the four-fold
tongue, it makes a water-resisting boot for sporting purposes.
During the War there was a
great demand for this kind
of boot, both for officers
and men. Some were of the
plain Derby design, others
had a golosh as well.
Fig. 75 represents a
Mounted
Field
boot.
Generally three rows of
stitching are made to attach
the quarter to the vamp.
The legs are lined or
unlined, according to the
substance of the outsides.
Originally they were cut
from brown or black hide,
but nowadays they are cut
from
various leathers.
Formerly, the top of the leg
was made parallel to the
ground; now the back is
FIG. 75. MOUNTED FIELD
raised, giving a better
BOOT
appearance to the shape of
the calf. The characteristic
of the boot is the four-fold tongue, which requires an
allowance to be made in the standard, from the vamp height
upwards.
To obtain the best fitting calf, the position from the ground
should be ascertained when measuring, as the calf and its
shape fluctuate considerably. In the absence
118
BOOTS AND SHOES
of this information one must perforce work to an average
proportion.
To construct the standard, proceed as given for men’s
I5”
Y
W
H
K
I
H
I
V
R
Y
M
P
J
FIG. 76. FIELD BOOT
standards up to the long heel-line K, which is increased to
allow for the tongue according to its substance, say, 81 in. This
is shown in Fig. 76. Make the
LONG WORK STANDARDS
119
pattern heel-line at 10° more than the long heel, and obtain its
length from the long heel-line by making a line from K at 70°,
adding for the increase caused by the tongue substance.
Bisect the heel-line and erect a perpendicular equal in height
to half the heel measure as Y. On either side of Y make
one-third of the long heel-line, which includes the allowance
V
I
H
D
G
H
I
FIG. 77. FIELD TONGUE
for the tongue. From H erect a perpendicular to the base-line,
and indicate the height at the back, say, 15 in. Find the calf
position as given in the description of the Coachman’s boot.
At the front of the calf-line indicate 41 in. for the forward
inclination. The calf measure an be taken as 7 in., and the top
of the leg as 6 34 in. Raise the back at the top, as shown in Fig.
76. The rest of the design can be completed as described for
men’s Derbies and shown in Fig. 76.
The marking pattern for the four-fold tongue is shown in
Fig. 76, where H to H 1 is taken as two-sevenths of the
heel-line. Transfer the same width for the top of the tongue, or
if a wider tongue is required make the
120
BOOTS AND SHOES
top equal to one-third of the top of the leg. The rest of the
construction can be followed from the illustration.
Fig. 77 illustrates how the casting-out blocking pattern is
I
3
7
FIG. 79. GUSSET AND STRAP
3
of height
II2
I
I
II2
FIG. 78. OPEN TONGUE,
FOUR-FOLD
FIG. 80. THREE STRAPS
obtained, and Fig. 78 how it appears when cut and opened. For
economy the tongue may be pieced between the heel and calf
positions.
ELCHO BOOTS
The foregoing description will also apply to the cutting of
the Elcho boot, which has a front strap fitted down to below
the calf, the strap being widened
LONG WORK STANDARDS
121
at its termination to provide for the width of the tongue. In
Fig. 79 the broken line shows the gusset and its position,
together with the strap.
Alternatively, three straps and buckles can be provided, as
shown in Fig. 80.
To block a four-fold tongue the two outside edges should be
closed together before blocking, and then the blocking of the
doubled material proceeded with as though it were only one
piece. After blocking, the seam allowance should be removed.
CHAPTER XIX
BOTTOM STOCK PATTERNS
THE cutting of bottom stock patterns is a very important
adjunct of pattern cutting, because the design of the shoe is
incomplete unless the bottom stock design balances with that
of the upper. It is just as important that components of bottom
stock should be suitable for the last as that the uppers should
be fitted to the last. Economies in materials and labour and
even in dies, knives, lasts, moulds, etc., can be sought for, if
the same discretion and thought is introduced into the
production of bottoming patterns as is generally adopted for
uppers. Insole and outsole knives bought already designed to
save trouble are often the cause of endless after-troubles. It is
not enough to buy good moulded stiffeners if they do not fit
the lasts or do not lock in with other components.
In the hand-sewn method of attachment insoles are blocked
and shaped to the last, but each worker puts his own design
into such a shape—a condition of affairs not tolerable in a
fa.ctory. Therefore, knives are produced to fit the lasts, so that
all insoles shall be alike, and to obtain correct knives correct
patterns must be produced.
INSOLE PATTERNS
The method employed by the hand-sewn maker—except
perhaps the blocking—can be used to obtain the first pattern
or model. Or a piece of suitable paper can be fixed to the last,
and a small piece of sandpaper passed sharply over the feather
edge to give its outline. A fine file can be used, but often this
122
BOTTOM STOCK PATTERNS
123
leaves the shape with a rough outline that requires
reproduction.
Last-makers are often able to supply the shapes that were
used for cutting the plates of plated lasts, or those used for
finishing the bottom, and after testing these to the last, they
may be used for producing insole patterns for bottom stock,
or, better still, the insole shapes may be first designed and lasts
made to fit them.
To cut an insole to a last see, in the first instance, that the
outline of the feather is distinct, and if it is not mark on the last
its outline in pencil. If the last is for machine-sewn the plate on
the bottom may be taken for the outline required. If the waist
is not defined but the forepart and seat are clearly defined,
then it is best to reproduce first what is defined, and afterwards
design the waist to taste and circumstances.
The method of taking an insole pattern from a
plated-bottomed last will first be described. Take the last and
lay it over a rough-casted piece of suitable paper. Raise the
paper at the toe to the last, and while in this position mark the
outline of the last, leaving a margin of 81 in. If more is left on
the shape it will not be likely to be so accurate as when little is
left on.
Once the forepart outline is obtained proceed to the seat and
perform a similar operation, i.e. mark round the seat, leaving a
margin of about 81 in. Rough out the waist as near as possible
to the iron plate previously mentioned.
Affix the paper to the last by using tacks supported with
washers (leather or paper), and make sure the paper is laid to
the last without transverse twist. It must be in a flat plane.
When well fixed, the paper which projects 81 in. over the
feather at the forepart and seat should be sharply pushed over
without disturbing it, the left hand being used to support the
tacks.
124
BOOTS AND SHOES
The waist may present some difficulty, depending upon its
“drop,” and also on the closeness of the roughing-out of the
paper to the actual outline. If this difficulty is present, a few
slits can be made, as shown by A and Al, Fig. 81, taking care
that they do not enter into the area to be occupied by the shape.
This will enable the paper to be rubbed over the outline of the
waist.
After the outline of the forepart, seat, and waist has been
taken, the paper is removed from the last and cut out carefully.
It is better to cut to the outline that was next to the last, rather
than the outside outline, to avoid the error due to the thickness
of the paper used.
If the last is a wooden model without a plate, the forepart
and seat should have their outline clearly marked. Then
proceed to take the insole, as described for the plated bottom,
as far as the forepart and seat are concerned. When this has
been obtained and removed from the last, it may be cut out and
the waist designed.
The design of the waist is conventional to a great degree. It
is customary, for instance, for heavy boots to be made with
wide waists, while lighter boots are made with narrower
waists, because the function of the waist is to hold the forepart
and seat together, and not to fit the curvature or support the
arch of the foot. Further, it is customary to make waists vary
according to the height of the heel of the shoe; the higher the
heel the narrower the waist, and vice versa. This rule is often
modified, as for instance in a ballet shoe with no heel, where
the waist is very narrow because the foot in dancing assumes
the digitigrade, and has the effect of a high heel.
As a guide to this subject we show in Fig. 82 an illustration
of a shape taken from the last and cut out to the forepart and
seat, with the waist left to be
BOTTOM STOCK PATTERNS
125
designed to blend with the forepart and seat. A skilled
designer would be able to do this by merely sketching in, or
even in some cases cutting it out according to his cultivated
taste! The beginner, however, should make the centre of the
toe and seat connect with a straight line, as shown in Fig. 82,
I
X
2
X
B
I
A
3
F
A
K
W
G
E
4
FIG. 81. INSOLE
C
D
FIG. 82. WAISTS
and draw a line at right angles to the centre line, at the waist
position. This can be located, as explained in relation to Fig.
83 if so desired, and E located between B and D with FE at
right angles.
From point W in Fig. 82 distances of, say, 81 in. (or 91 in.)
should be made. Four such distances are shown. The first
division gives a position for 1 in. heels, the second for 2 in.
heels, the third for 3 in. heels, and the fourth for ballet shoes.
The outside waist has been drawn through the third division to
show the idea.
126
BOOTS AND SHOES
The outside of the waist having been determined, the next
step is to obtain the inside. The waist width may vary from
one-half to seven-eighths of the seat width, the former for
ballets and the latter for, say, men’s. For average purposes,
say, 1 21 in. heel, women’s insole waists are made
three-quarters of the width of the seat, i.e. if the width of the
seat be 2 in. then the waist width will be 1 21 in. Fig. 82 shows
the inside waist completed. It must be understood that this is
given as a guide only, as the waist is largely a matter of design.
T HE O UTSOLE P ATTERN
Outsole patterns are still required in shoe factories in spite
of the introduction of the rough-rounder and the use of master
knives. For machine-sewn and other work produced in mass
quantities, it is the most economical method to cut outsoles by
press knives.
Certain factors require consideration. Firstly, an allowance
over the insole has to be made for the substance of the upper,
its lining, and insertions between the lining and outside, such
as puffs, side linings, interlinings, and stiffeners. Often a
reduction has to be considered for the thinning of the materials
caused when stretching in lasting. Secondly, beyond the upper
an allowance has to be made for the width of welt to be shown
when the boot or shoe is made, and we have to consider in this
connection the effect upon its apparent width due to the
flatness or bevel of the welt. A narrow welt looks wider if it is
cut out at an angle in finishing. Thirdly, an amount has to be
removed during the finishing process, this being at the
minimum when highly-skilled labour and good preparation
conditions are in vogue, and at the maximum with careless
preparation and poorly-trained and inefficient operators. A
fourth factor can be touched upon in passing,
BOTTOM STOCK PATTERNS
127
namely, the provision for badly-designed lasts and the
wearers’ habits. This often means an addition to the outsole,
for treading over during wear at certain spots, such as the
outside joint.
In workshop or factory practice it is customary to aggregate
these allowances into “averages.” and apply them—often
without any consideration of how they were compiled—direct
to the insole concerned.
Allowances for Substances of Uppers and Insertions—
Average
Toe .
Forepart
Waist
Seat .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Men’s
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1
8
3
32
3
32
”
”
”
1
” to 16 ”
8
Women’s
1
12
1
16
1
16
1
8
”
”
”
”
Allowances for Width of Welt over above allowances—
Men’s
Blind welt
.
.
Close weltt .
.
Medium welt .
.
Half-wide welt
.
Full welt .
.
.
Medium-wide welt .
Wide welt
.
.
Full-wide welt
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1
16
2
16
3
16
4
16
5
16
6
16
7
16
8
16
”
”
”
”
”
”
”
”
Women’s
1
32
2
32
3
32
4
32
5
32
6
32
7
32
8
32
”
”
”
”
”
”
”
”
Allowance for Finishing. This will vary from 321 in. to 81 in.
according to workmanship, stock preparation, materials, etc.
Prepare the insole pattern, if it has not already been done, by
finding the centre of the toe and the centre of the seat, and
connect by a straight line PT, as shown in
128
BOOTS AND SHOES
Fig. 83. Indicate J by taking five-sevenths of the length of the
foot, plus 181 in. for each 21 in. of pitch of the last. (For 1 21 in.
heel this distance would be approximately two-thirds of the
standard length of the last.) Indicate S as one-sixth of the
T
I
2
A
3J
A
4
2
I
J
I
3
5
W
6
4
7
S
5
8
P
FIG. 83. OUTSOLE
FIG. 84. SEW-ROUND SOLE
length of the foot. Both these positions are located from P.
The waist position line can be obtained by taking half the
distance between the tread-line J and the seat-line S. Lines at
right angles to PT should be made across the insole shape at J,
W, and S, as shown in Fig. S3. J 1 is obtained by making a line
at 15° to the line J.
Having thus prepared the model, trace its outline upon a
suitable piece of paper, and then add the total allowances,
given in the tables above, to the toe, forepart, seat, and waist.
After the allowances are placed
BOTTOM STOCK PATTERNS
120
to the credit of the respective parts use the innersole pattern as
a French curve is used, blend the allowances into one another
in an artistic manner, and then cut out the completed outsole
pattern.
SEW-ROUND OR TURNSHOE SOLE PATTERN
For this method of attachment no insole is required, the
upper being sewn to the sole and then turned. The space
between the two seams is filled by what is known as a “filler.”
The sole is produced in a similar way to that described for
the insole, except that the allowance made from the feather
edge of the last is more uniform than when casting out the
paper for the insole. The allowance beyond the last for the
forepart is 81 in., and 61 in. for the seat, with the waist blended
into them. The allowances given would be suitable for glacé
kid.
To obtain the “filler,” an allowance of, say, 165 in. can be
marked inwards from the sole edge. (See Fig. S4.)
For wood heels, excepting the Louis heel, omit the
allowance given at the seat. Instead place the heel on the sole
shape and mark its outline. Remove at least 163 in., but if the
heels are to be attached by the latest machines on the
market more can be removed. (See Fig. 85.)
Sole for Louis XV Heel Sew-rounds. The sole is produced as
described for the turnshoe. It is split at the seat, the flesh
portion going under the heel and the grain portion up the
breast of the heel. The seat portion is removed to the shape
required for the breast of the heel, as shown in Fig. 86.
MACHINE-SEWN LOUIS HEEL
When cutting the sole pattern for this class of work omit the
allowance at the seat except for the substance
130
BOOTS AND SHOES
of the upper and stiffener. Place the heel on the pattern and
take the shape of the sides and the top. This may be rounded,
as shown in Fig. 87. When the leather is split the part shown in
broken outline is used for the attachment of the heel.
When the height of the heel to be used is greater than can be
obtained from the ordinarily cut sole, such as would be the
A
A
P
FIG. 85
FIG. 86
FIG. 87
case with a 3 in. Louis heel, an allowance must be made on the
outsole for the lengthened breast of the heel.
MACHINE-WELTED OUTSOLES
Patterns for soles to be used for machine-welted can be
produced, but an additional allowance should be made for
rounding the sole to the welt after attachment and before the
stitching is done.
SOLE CASTORS
Sole castors or block knives, for soles and insoles, often
called master knives, are greatly in vogue to-day. Compared
with cutting by the direct method by means of knives or dies,
they are preferable for finishing purposes. Ordinary press
knives invariably produce one of the soles with a slight bevel,
and therefore in comparing the finished soles of a pair often
one is
BOTTOM STOCK PATTERNS
131
found to be a fraction less in measure than the other. By the
castor method the soles are first cut by a press knife, and then
rounded by machines of the Julian, Planet, or Champion type.
This rounding results in a square edge for both rights and lefts
(See Section V, on Materials for Bottoming for method of
producing master knives.)
MIDDLE SOLES
These are often alluded to as clumps in some centres of
D
C
E
A
FIG. 88. MIDDLES
manufacture. They may be cut as “throughs,” that is from the
toe to the seat, or as half-middles.
The pattern for a middle may be produced from the outsole
pattern, adding below A, in the waist, 21 in. for women’s
and 58 in. for men’s, or, better still, an amount to bring the
middle well back past the joint-line—shown in Fig. 88—to
allow for skiving, which will be according to the substance of
the cut middle. The graft may be straight or curved for
interlocking
132
BOOTS AND SHOES
purposes. If the leather to be used for middles is soft or
inclined to shrinkage it would be well to allow for this by
cutting them fuller at the forepart when taking the pattern
from the outsole. About 161 in. should suit average conditions.
Skeleton middles can be cut to interlock for economy, as
shown in Fig. 88, C D E. (See also Section V, on Materials for
Bottoming.)
SHANK PATTERNS
These are endless in variety of shape, but should all be cut to
go under the heel and over the middle sole, and skived
accordingly.
A
SEAT PIECES
B
C
These arc used for common imitation
Louis heel work, the length being
approximately one-quarter the
standard
length of last, and the width the same as that
of the innersole. The sole is not split to go
under the heel, therefore the scat piece is
made as described.
SOCK PATTERN
D
Sock patterns are of varying lengths, the
two principal types being the full-length sock
and the seat sock. In the diagram, Fig. 89, the
continuous lines show both kinds.
For the full-length sock, for ordinary
boots,
shoes, and slippers, A would be 61 in.
FIG. 89. THE
shorter than the innersole, thus allowing a
SOCK
certain amount of freedom when fitting the
sock. At the waist BC 81 in. can be added, graduated from the
joints to the seat. At the seat, should the leather of the insole
spread when the
BOTTOM STOCK PATTERNS
133
heel is attached, a corresponding allowance must be made.
For seat socks, D can be located from the back as
one-quarter the standard last’s length, whilst waist socks can
extend from the back to the usual tread position, or the
position where a middle sole would finish.
STIFFENER AND SIDE LINING PATTERNS
Stiffeners and side linings support the hinder portion and
sides of boots and shoes. Formerly, the leather for the
stiffeners and the leather or fabric for the side linings were
given out unshaped, the maker having to shape them himself.
The general rule now is for the stiffeners, or counters as they
are often called, to be supplied for making already skived and
moulded to the required shape. This method in contrast to the
previous practice is economical, and more uniformity in
results is achieved. On the careful construction and selection
of a stiffener a good deal of the success in boot and shoe
manufacturing depends.
Stiffeners. Generally speaking, stiffeners are made by firms
specializing in their production. They are moulded and
skived, and a position is indicated at the seat for centralizing
the stiffener when lasting.
Stiffeners vary in shape, even for one style of design. They
range from a small sandal to a hunting boot, but typical styles
arc shown in Figs. 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, and 95.
Fig. 90 represents a boot stiffener for an ordinary style, such
as for an Oxford style of vamp. Fig. 91 is a golosh boot
stiffener, the height of which is governed by the golosh depth,
which varies (see Goloshes). Fig. 92 is a Derby stiffener, the
front portion following the line of the quarter, but sometimes
the corner at the top is rounded. Fig. 93 is an ordinary shoe
stiffener,
134
BOOTS AND SHOES
G
FIG. 90. ORDINARY
BOOT STIFFENER
FIG. 93. SHOE STIFFENER
H
FIG. 91. GOLOSH
STIFFENER
I
FIG. 94. COURT SHOE STIFFENER
J
FIG. 92. DERBY STIFFENER
FIG. 95. CUT-OUT STIFFENER
BOTTOM STOCK PATTERNS
135
Oxford style, and would be less in measure at G than for a
boot, so that it readily fits snug to the last at that position. In
Fig. 94 is shown a court shoe stiffener. This should not be cut
too short in length, and adequate support must be given at the
sides. For a whole-cut court it is made longer on the inside as
H, the outside being shown by I. In Fig. 95 is shown a sandal
B
G
H
I
F
S
D
C
A
FIG. 96. DESIGNING A STIFFENER
type for a cut-out quarter. At J it must be cut to clear the
cut-outs in a practical manner.
Method of Designing a Stiffener. The lengths of stiffeners
range from one-half the length of the standard length last
down to two-fifths, the latter proportion being an average. For
sandals that have cut-outs, and cheap forms of canvas shoes,
the proportion may be less than two-fifths.
Fold a piece of paper as AB (Fig. 96). Make the line CD
equal to two-fifths of the last’s length. (This, for size 5’s
adults’, would be 4 in.) Make S to D equal the making
allowance, and D to H the height of the stiffener, i.e. one-fifth
of the standard length of last. (For size 5’s this equals 2 in.)
Make a line at
136
BOOTS AND SHOES
right angles to AB through H, and construct the parallelogram
HDCG. To draft the stiffener remove 21 in. from C to F. I is
made equal to one-fourth of the line G to S (see Fig. 96). Join
up through the points obtained as shown, and a stiffener for an
Oxford shoe is produced for hand-method lasting.
Side Lining Patterns. Side linings are not so much in use as
formerly, particularly in making women’s fashion shoes of
the cheaper varieties. The use of a combined vamp lining
A
C
B
G
FIG. 97. SIDE LININGS
bought in rolls has been thought to give sufficient support to
the sides of the shoe without adding side linings.
A side lining pattern should be made to fit beyond the puff
and stiffener, but where a toe-cap is used as well as the puff the
side lining may terminate just under the cap. If the vamps (are
stitched through, the side lining should be fitted to go under
the vamp seam. AB (see Fig. 97) would be designed to meet
the stiffener, whilst the average proportion from G may be 125
of the joint line.
When cut for hand-lasting the side lining can be cut with
spring, with the idea of ensuring a tension on the top edge, but
for machine pull-over this should not be attempted.
BOTTOM STOCK PATTERNS
137
T OP P IECES AND L IFTS
Although simple, these seem to present difficulties to a
good many. Top pieces and lifts required for men’s and
children’s heels, which are mostly square, are easier to
produce than for women’s, where the heels cover a variety of
heights and shapes and economy of plant has to be considered.
Where lasts are designed to factory conditions, and insole
shapes are produced from which the lasts are made, a good
deal can be done to help by certain standardizations of the rear
portions of the lasts. There is no substantial reason, for
instance, why all the back portions of lasts for, say, 1 21 in.
heels should not be the same, and for other height heels the
backs could bear some definite relation to the 1 21 in. heel last.
To obtain the lift patterns it is a good practice to have the
seat of the boot or shoe for which it is required to take off lift
patterns shaped up at the seat of the sole in relation to its
nearly finished form, and then to build a heel in leather or
pulp board of suitable substance. Shape the heel desired,
knock the lifts apart, and from each take a pattern, numbering
these from one onwards. In a good many heels several lifts
will be found to be duplicates of their neighbours, and these
duplicates can be eliminated forthwith. Take careful patterns
from those remaining. The seats of the outsoles of the larger
and smaller sizes and the outsole used for building the lifts can
be taken and compared with the model, and it should be easy
from this comparison to obtain the bottom or seat lift for all
the sizes concerned.
Of course a similar heel to the model can be produced for
the largest size, and that taken apart and used for comparison.
When this is done the largest and smallest lifts can be selected
and then the intervening lifts produced.
138
BOOTS AND SHOES
Make an outline of the largest lift B, with an allowance for
trimming, say 161 in. or so, and. inside this largest lift mark the
smaller lift CD. By using a centre like A in Fig. 98, radiating
lines can be cut through the principal curves of the two shapes
as shown. The intermediate lifts can be obtained by
subdivision. By using the central line AR only one-half of the
B
B
A
E
D
B
F
D
C
A
FIG. 98. LIFTS
C
FIG. 99
lifts need be graded, as the paper can be folded when taking
each pattern off and placed level with AB.
For a non-symmetrical heel. proceed as shown in Fig. 99.
The top pieces often bear no direct relation to the shape of
the bottom lift, and are designed separately, but having
obtained the top piece pattern and bottom lift for a particular
heel the same procedure may be adopted as that described to
obtain the intervening lifts.
[It is, of course, possible to draw cross-sections of a given
heel and divide them into sections with parallel lines of equal
distance to the substance of a lift, and from these projectors to
the base-line determine the outlines of each lift. This would be
an exercise for the applied science class rather than for the
average workshop, but if the knowledge has been acquired it
is extremely valuable in designing heel lifts. ED.]
CHAPTER XX
GRADING PATTERNS INTO SETS
TO grade (Latin, gradus, a step) is defined as “to arrange in
regular series,” and this aptly describes what pattern grading
is. It is the production of a series of patterns from the original
model in a regular progression from that model, so that all the
patterns resemble the model and yet conform to a regular
increase. If patterns were produced individually to each last,
even if such a system is used as has been described in this
section (the best of its kind for the purpose), we should fail to
produce that regularity desirable for modern patterns, and
certainly it would take a much longer time than grading a set
would take. But there would be compensating advantages.
Should the lasts have been made with the same pitch and/or
the same spring throughout the set, then our patterns would be
suitable each for each. Of course such a result can be obtained
by an application of the adapted geometrical system, which if
properly understood can grade or hold up to any requirements
demanded.
By grading we maintain the characteristics of the original,
and if the method of grading is properly selected, the boots
or shoes will reproduce all the original features of the models
as far as the grading of the lasts permits. To test this objective
it is not only advisable to compare the extreme sizes on a set of
graded patterns, but also to compare the made-up boots in the
same way.
Various methods of “grading” have been advocated and
employed from time to time, but even in the hands of experts
systems like the old one-sixteenth or
139
140
BOOTS AND SHOES
“shifting” are found wanting, and leave much both in
shape and measurement that cannot be commended.
We therefore recommend what is known as the geometric,
geometrical, or adapted geometric system. The principles are
the same in each case, whatever the name used, and identical
results can be obtained by using a radial tool, set-square,
parallel rule, proportional compass, sector, pantograph or
grading machine. The latter, however, is often supplied with
gadgets to adapt the geometric to arbitrary deviations, to suit
lasts and individual demands.
Grading machines are considered a necessary proposition
in modern factories with a fairly large output of patterns. Of
these there are the Hartford, Preston, Reed, and Universal. All
are the same in principle, being mechanical methods of giving
geometric grades, with “hold-ups” where geometric increases
are undesirable for one reason or another. Incidentally, there
are large factories where hand-grading is still in use. It would,
therefore, seem important that the principles of the geometric
system should be mastered, because the machine has to be
operated in accordance with its laws. If a pattern has to be
graded by hand, and adapted to the requirements of the last
grades, or trade customs, it is no use making such adaptations
indiscriminately off the top or bottom of the pattern,
whichever seems easier. Such adaptations must be made on
geometrical proportions, or the balance of the pattern will be
lost.
The adaptations generally made are to fit the lasts, as they
are graded, or not graded, to suit trade or factory requirements
in the back heights of boots or shoes; to keep bars or straps the
same width throughout all the sizes, so as to make one-size
buckle do for the set, and so on.
Let us further examine the geometric system so as
GRADING PATTERNS INTO SETS
141
to arrive at its principles. If we wish for proportions based on
the foot, then we must take the foot’s length to determine the
ratio. If we take five-sevenths of the length of the foot and then
straight away take five-sevenths of the length of the last, we
are NOT using the same proportion in the latter case, because
the last is longer than the foot, either a standard last, i.e. one
that is marked what it measures on the size-stick, or an
extended-toe last, i.e. one that measures more on the size-stick
than it is marked.
Sometimes the proportion cannot be taken from the foot or
the last length. This case is where the proportion is of the
perimeter of the last, i.e. the length of the forme. The reader is
advised to take one-quarter of the length of the foot,
one-quarter of the length of a last, and one-quarter of the
length of a forme of the same shoe size denomination, and
compare the results.
It is thus necessary to adapt the regularity of the geometrical
methods to meet trade requirements existing in the industry.
When making such adaptations we should, as far as possible,
adhere to geometric principles. Hand-grading allows this to
be done with intelligence, but most grading machines have
adjustments, which, in the hands of competent operators,
enable such modifications to be exercised as desired. Folding
machines, such as the Boston or Booth, are provided with
templates, and to save multiplicity of dies this brings in a
problem, but grading can be adapted to meet such rigid
circumstances.
G EOMETRIC G RADING
The pure geometric system without any adaptation is not so
extensively used as formerly, one of the reasons being the
increase made in the joints of lasts to provide for the enlarged
feet due to more walking and outdoor exercises, coupled with
the spreading effect of
142
BOOTS AND SHOES
lightly-lasted shoes and low cuts, courts, bar shoes, and
such-like.
To ascertain if the geometric system without adaptation can
be used, take the measure of the joint of the pattern, and if it
equals that of one-fourth of the standard’s length, with or
without lasting-over allowance, then the geometric system
can be used as far as the joint of the standard is concerned. If
the length is to be increased one shoe size, the grade required
for the joint-line is one-quarter of 31 in., i.e. 121 in. (We will
discuss later if it is correct to increase the pattern by a shoe
size when the pattern is longer than the last.)
In the case of children’s and infants’, where the last grade is
three-sixteenths, the ratio of the joint-line to the length of the
pattern should be three-sixteenths if the geometric system is to
be used.
To obtain what the geometric system will give when using it
without adaptation, we can make use of the following
formula—
Let L = the length of the pattern
U = the length of unit
W = the length of part
G = grade of part
then
U ´ W
L
= G
For example, let L = 12 in. length of pattern, W = 3 in. width
of joint-line, and U = one shoe size if that is desired. Then 3 x
1
= 1, which divided by 12 = 121 in.
3
GRADING A SET OF OXFORDS GEOMETRICALLY
Take the standard to be graded and closely mark its outline
upon a sheet of paper, together with any parts that have to be
graded. Fig. 100 shows a vamp VW marked on the standard.
GRADING PATTERNS INTO SETS
143
Indicate a “radial centre” or “zone” as C. As the set about to
be graded is to be strictly geometrical, the radial point or
centre may be selected at any position, and the ultimate results
will be the same, i.e. the grade is not influenced by the position
I
S
R
K
V
T
C
P
X
W
J
FIG. 100. GEOMETRIC
of the radial centre. For convenience, however, the position
selected is such that it cuts as many of the curves as sharply as
possible. The centre of the back is selected in this particular
case.
From this radial centre C lines are drawn through all the
salient parts of the standard, including the vamp height and
G
F
A
D
E
H
C
B
FIG. 101. THE RADIAL TOOL
wing, so that they may serve the double purpose of indicating
the standard and the sections marked thereon. This is shown in
Fig. 100.
The next step is to make a radial tool. Let AB (Fig. 101) be
made equal to the longest line of the standard. From B to C
mark the length of the last.
144
BOOTS AND SHOES
D from A is the lasting-over or making allowance. At A, D and
C make lines at right angles to the base AB. On C make the
grade used for last lengths, i.e. say, five shoe sizes, E. Connect
E to B. and continue to F. Transfer DF to A and obtain G.
Divide GA into five equal parts and join to B. When cutting
out leave a portion of paper as H to protect the point B, and
also to prevent the wrong edge of the “tool” being used.
To use the radial tool, lay it on the standard so that AB of the
tool coincides with CT of the standard. Where the base-line of
the tool crosses the point T make a mark, and turn the tool at
right angles to its base. The subdivisions at the folded edge
can be transferred from T on the standard, three above and two
below.
Repeat this operation at all the other lines required. The
illustration shows the application of the tool to the vamp
height V and the folded edge.
When the grades have been indicated at I, S, K, R, P, W, J,
and X the “stencil ” is complete.
To produce the several patterns from the stencil, take a
suitable sheet of paper and lay it under the stencil. With a fine
point, such as a needle, mark through the extreme outside
points at the end of each radial line on to the paper below.
Remove the stencil, and the holes on the under sheet are the
positions of the largest-sized pattern. Repeat this with the
second hole at each radial line on another sheet of paper, and
the holes for the second largest size are obtained. Repeat for
each of the other points in turn, and if the size is marked on
each paper, as the points are indicated, it will be possible to
pick out the pieces of paper with the holes showing for any
size required.
If the original standard used is duplicated by pricking
through the holes on the stencil of this size, we can lay over
the holed paper the original standard and mark
GRADING PATTERNS INTO SETS
145
round. This will give a copy of the standard with half-holes
where the lines of the standard pass through the holes marked
from the stencil.
Then take the holed paper for the size next largest to that of
the standard (see Fig. 102), and, using the standard, mark,
between each hole of the larger-sized paper, the curve of the
similar part on the standard. Proceed thus all round till the next
I
S
V
T
K
R
X
P
J
W
FIG. 102. ONE SIZE LARGER
largest size is indicated. To obtain the next size larger repeat
the operation, using the newly-found one size larger that has
been cut out, as the standard was used, for marking out. For
sizes smaller, proceed in the same way, only using the original
standard on the size smaller for tracing purposes, and so on.
The vamps are treated in the same way, but if desired it is
possible to use the standards cut to obtain each of the bottoms
of the vamp, leaving only the cue and wing curves to be dealt
with as explained in marking out the standards. The vamp
paper will, of course, be folded when pricking through from
the standards, and it is advisable when the vamps are cut to
mark them on their respective standards for future reference.
The quarters, after the vamps are marked thereon,
146
BOOTS AND SHOES
can be cut direct from the standard, and seams and folding
allowances added as required. The underlay is obtained by
pricking through the vamp graded holes, and then, by taking
the vamp, correctly marking its outline on the quarter, leaving
an easy way of providing for the required underlay.
Linings. When linings cannot be produced direct from the
standards, owning to some reduction having been made for
holding together or stiffeners, such reduction can be marked
on the standard before grading, or, better, the amount taken off
the model standard can be taken off each standard in turn. This
is easy to do exactly if the duplicated model is reduplicated
with the allowance, and the allowance is cut off and used to
mark all the other standards or parts. Although “fiddling” to
hold, it is accurate, and will give the same allowance for the
set as is required in the model.
PROPORTIONAL COMPASSES
FOR
GRADING
Prepare the stencil as far as the radial lines as described in
previous paragraphs. Then take the compass (if long enough),
and in the long legs span the length of the standard, while
adjusting the short legs so that they span, say, three shoe sizes.
Tighten the nut when this adjustment has been attained.
From the radial centre in turn span the radial lines to where
each crosses the outline of the pattern. Invert the compasses,
and in the short legs will be found the required grade for the
line spanned. After completion of all the lines, adjust the
compasses to, say, three, and take each graded line in turn in
the long legs. In the short legs will then be found the grade for
one size. Mark smaller any sizes below the model as required.
If short compasses are used, the radial point or
GRADING PATTERNS INTO SETS
147
zone call be fixed, in the centre of the pattern, say the middle
of line TC, in Fig. 100, and the lines radiated from that point.
The compasses will then be adjusted to take, say, three
half-sizes before the nut is tightened. Otherwise the procedure
is as described for the longer compass.
GRADING BY USING THE PARALLEL RULE
Mark radial lines from a radial zone as previously
I
K
K
I
V
V
I
T
T
FIG. 103. THE PARALLEL RULE
described. (A few are illustrated in Fig. 103 so as not to
confuse the description.) On the radial line that passes through
T indicate the number of sizes required to grade as T 1 . Close
up the parallel rule, and make its top edge coincide with points
T and V on the model. Hold securely the bottom ruler, and then
move the top ruler so that it just touches T 1 . Where it crosses
the radial line through V, V 1 will be indicated, the required
grade for V. This is so because the broken line from T 1 to V 1 is
parallel to the line from T to V.
To obtain K 1 from K, proceed in the same way by placing
the edge of the ruler at V and K. Holding the bottom ruler
firmly, move the top ruler so that it just touches V 1 , and K 1
can be marked as the grade for K. Or make the top ruler
coincide with T and K and move to T 1 when K 1 is found. If
this does not give the same
148
BOOTS AND SHOES
result, it will be because the bottom ruler has been allowed to
slide when moving the top rule. Any two points on the model
may be connected, and the same result will be obtained. The
largest size is taken in preference to one size only, because any
minute personal error made in, say, three sizes, is afterwards
subdivided into three and not enlarged by three, as would be
the case if only one size at the time were used.
SET-SQUARES
Two set-squares, or one set-square and a straight-edge, can
be used in the same way as the parallel rule, and the same
results obtained.
Instead of the edge of the ruler, put the edge of one side of
the set-square to T and V. Place another set-square or a
straight-edge to one convenient side of the first set-square,
and, holding the second set-square or straight-edge firm and
still, slide the set-square forward till T 1 is reached. Where the
moved set-square crosses the radial line through V, V 1 is
indicated.
The results obtained from the radial tool, proportional
compass, parallel rule, and set-square are identical. This
statement can be tested by using first one and then another on
the same stencil.
To obtain half-sizes the subdivisions should be increased
accordingly. They should be in half-sizes, not, as is often
done, over-sizing the quarters, for this is a bad policy. For
whatever is gained in the cost of cutting the patterns is lost
in the trouble in fitting the parts in the closing room, with often
an ill-fitting result.
Sometimes by the “geometric,” one may grade with the
“turning-in” allowances on the pattern. The difference
between what is required and what is produced is really
inappreciable, for 81 in. in relation to the length of pattern
produces very little increase in relation to the length grade.
This also applies to bar
GRADING PATTERNS INTO SETS
149
shoes that are not restricted to one width of buckles. For the
slight grade, produced in the extreme sizes, it looks better than
if the 7’s had the same width of bar as the 2’s.
ADAPTED GEOMETRIC SYSTEMS
The geometrical system can be adapted to comply with
conditions demanded by non-proportional last grades, or the
demands of fashion, trade customs, and other caprices. It is
important to realize that adaptations must be properly made,
so as not to upset the value of the geometric method.
Take the standard to be graded, and mark thereon, if not
previously done, the joint-line, the instep-line, the heel-line,
the ankle-line, and the lasting-over or making allowance. The
radial centre should be the pitch-point of the pattern P, as it is
not desired to grade the lasting-over allowance. From the
pitch-point make a line through the toe of the standard less the
making allowances. Next make a line through the bottom of
the joint-line, less the lasting-over allowance, J. Repeat this at
the bottom of the instep-line I, and also draw radial lines
through the other salient parts of the pattern, as shown in Fig.
104.
Now proceed to the line passing through the bottom of the
joint-line, and continue it towards the toe T. From the
pitch-point mark the length of the last on this line as T. From
the end of the toe of the standard, less the making allowances,
connect to the end of the line indicating the last length T.
Add on to the line from the pitch-point P, passing through
the joint-line J (less making allowance) beyond where the last
length is indicated T, as many shoe sizes as required for the
largest-sized pattern to be graded, T 1 . From T 1 make a line
parallel to TS, and T 1 S 1 is found. The distance S to S 1 can
now be used
150
BOOTS AND SHOES
to grade the position line J and I, and at the graded points
found lines are made parallel to the joint and instep-lines
respectively. From J 1 can be measured the joint-line from J
plus the grade required to meet the adaptation. Connect the
two joint-lines with a short line. From the new joint-line of the
largest size make a line parallel to VS, and the toe spring of the
pattern can be corrected for the adaptation of the joint as S 1 .
I
V
S
I
V
S
I
I
I
T
JI
I
J
T
FIG. 104. ADAPTED
The instep can be adapted in the same way, and also the heel
measure if required, as the position is the same for the largest
size as the model. To adapt the ankle and top of the leg make
lines parallel to the lines on the model, and adapt them the
same as was done for the joint and instep. The lasting or
making allowance is marked on J and I, and also on J 1 and I 1 ,
and joined by a short line. This will hold up the grade. Repeat
at the toe end, and subdivide to obtain intermediate and
smaller sizes in the same way as in the geometric system. The
stencil is then ready for producing the graded adapted
standard.
GRADING PATTERNS INTO SETS
151
It will be noticed that the grade given to the standard is
slightly more than the shoe size given to the last, which is as it
should be, because of the greater distance round the perimeter
of the last. This can be tested by producing formes for the
extreme size of the model and checking.
In Fig. 105 is shown how the leg can be adapted without
spoiling its balance or upsetting the inclination of the front.
Lines are drawn parallel to the
original ankle-line and the top of F
B
the leg at a distance equal to the
height of the adaptation required.
A line is also drawn parallel to E
A
the front of the leg to the required
front grade, and where these two
lines cross each other at F and E
FIG. 105
radiating lines are drawn
corrected for the adaptation
required. The broken lines represent what is produced by the
geometric system, and the full lines the adapted positions.
D
C
GRADES
To find the grade required on the standard at the joints
and instep, and assuming the total grade of the lasts at these
parts is 41 in., take the grade of the width of the bottom of the
last, say, 121 in. Deduct this from the total 41 in. and 122 in. is
left, this being divided according to the proportion the inside
and outside joints bear to each other.
At the instep various amounts are called for in the pattern,
depending upon the width of the waist of the insole shape, a
smaller waist width requiring less grade than a wider waist.
Let AB in Fig. 106 represent the tread width, and AC the width
of the waist. Let BD
152
BOOTS AND SHOES
equal the grade for three sizes. Then CE will show what is
required for the waists.
If the waist is wider the grade would be more, and
conversely for the smaller waist, than that shown in Fig. 106
as CE.
Other Adaptations. Very often, especially in men’s work, it
is found that if the standard is graded without lasting-over
allowance, the required
D measurements to suit the
E
last can be obtained by
B using the geometric
C
A
system, i.e. the net
FIG. 106. GRADES
joint-line is equal to
one-quarter of the net standard, and when this is the case the
one-twelfth grade will be given.
RESTRICTING THE GRADING OF BARS
To show the principle of adapting to fit a fixed dimension
H
H
2
3
I
H
H
K
I
K
K
I
2
B
I
I
R
FIG. 107. ADAPTING BARS
applied to all sizes, we will take the case of a bar shoe and
show how the bar is adapted to retain
GRADING PATTERNS INTO SETS
153
the same width throughout the set, so as to fit the same size
buckle as the one used for the model.
Make the stencil in the way previously described for the
“geometric” and “adapted geometric.” Let KK 1 represent the
top of the smaller quarter. We have shown the usual radial line
through K. Through K 1 make a line parallel to the radial line,
as shown in broken line, Fig. 107. Make a line parallel to
KK 1 through the graded point obtained by the geometric on
the radial line, and where this parallel line crosses the broken
line is the new adapted point for the bar width. Proceed with
the top of the bar in the same way. H and H 2 are the two
positions as obtained by the geometric. Make H 1 H 3 parallel
to HH 2 , and H2H 3 parallel to HH 1 , and H 3 is the adapted
grade point for H 1 .
To blend the bar to the quarters, place the parallel rule level
with KK 2 , and move forward to K 1 . Where the edge of the
rule crosses K 2 line is the grade. B is obtained in the same
manner from K 2 . Subdivide the grades into as many sizes as
required, and proceed to mark out standards as previously
described.
CHAPTER XXI
GRADING CHILDREN’S (7’S TO 1’S) STANDARDS
THE grading of children’s patterns is not often dealt with in
technical publications. Children’s from 7’s to l’s standards
are not so readily dealt with as adults’ patterns, as the joint and
instep grades required are not given by the geometric system.
To overcome this sometimes two patterns are cut, one for 9’s
and one for 12’s, and from the 9’s a set is graded 7’s to 10’s,
and from the 12’s a set for 11’s to l’s, or the comparative
system is used, taking the 9’s and 12’s as the two patterns
concerned.
The following shows how a set of 7’s to l’s can be obtained
on the same stencil.
Mark the standard, vamp, etc., on a, sheet of paper, with the
salient position lines as shown in Fig. 108. Fix the radial
centre at S, and produce radial lines as required and previously
explained. Determine and fix the length grade as described in
previous chapters, and from this determined point transfer the
grades to the other radiating lines.
To adapt the patterns measure the instep round the model
last in a position corresponding to that of the instep-line on the
pattern, and repeat this for the largest size last. The difference
shows the grade required. Lasts for children’s are generally
graded to give a 163 in. grade for joints and insteps. The
treads or bottom widths at the joint are graded 161 in. The
grades of the waists of the insole vary, and we can obtain the
grades required by adopting the method explained and shown
in relation to Fig. 106.
After the pattern grade for the instep has been
154
GRADING CHILDREN’S STANDARDS
155
decided, transfer the grade proportionately above and below
the line from the radial centre to the top and bottom of the
largest instep-line position, as given by the geometric system.
This is done by making a fresh radial centre, which will have
the effect of deflecting the geometric, to give the desired
measurements, adapted in a proportionate ma.nner, as shown
by E and F (Fig. 108). This is on the lines given by Mr. F.
II
7 8
I0
I2
9
I3
B
E
3
A
I4
I
5
6
2
D
S
G
F
C
4
K H
FIG. 108. CHILDREN’S GRADING
Plucknett, F.B.S.I., in his first book, but whereas the first
radial centre was given behind the instep-line, the author of
this section works from the seat.
To find the new centre G—
1. Connect D through the bottom of the instep-line as DH;
2. Connect B through S and on to the line from D to H, as K;
3. At K draw a line parallel to the instep-line, givingG.
With G as centre, cut through the initial instep-line, giving
lines E and F. Also with G as centre, radiate
156
BOOTS AND SHOES
through the top and bottom of the joint-line and 1 and 2 of the
vamp.
For the grade at the joint and the vamp curve, connect the
proportional compasses or radial tool to the original centre S,
and the amount of grade applied as 3, 4, 5, 6.
For the leg, let S to 7 equal the total height of the boot when
made, and 8 the grade for three sizes, say, for 7 in. work ( 161 in.
per size), which would be 21 in., and connect to S. This can be
done by using the radial tool form, or the proportional
compasses adjusted with the large legs S to 7, and the smaller
ones registering 7 to 8, the grade for three sizes.
Connect the tool or the compasses to 9, 10, 11, 7, 12, 13,
14, and apply the respective grades from these positions.
Split the positions for the various sizes, and the stencil is
complete to use for grading the set.
GRADING CHILDREN’S (7’S TO 1’S) SHOES
This is done on similar lines to the children’s boots.
CHAPTER XXII
GRADING SETS OF INNERSOLES AND OUTSOLES
FROM ONE STENCIL
WHEN grading sets of sole shapes note that in adults’ lasts, as
2’s to 7’s women’s, or 6’s to 11’s men’s, the bottom width is
increased size by size by 121 in. In 4’s to 6’s infants’, and 7’s to
l’s, 161 in. is the grade of the tread. Bottom widths vary, and
thus we can have two lasts the same in length but different in
width, e.g. for size 4’s in length, one with a tread width 2 21 in.,
another with 2 58 in. Obviously, if we grade on strictly
geometric lines, the wider width will produce a bigger
difference in the grade, which is not wanted, as the difference
in the tread of the last (no matter what the measure) is, size by
size, made the same. The method following is somewhat on
the lines laid down by the late Mr. E. C. Swaysland, the chief
difference being that of applying the system by using the
proportional compasses instead of a radial tool.
The system recognizes that different widths produce
different grades, and to obviate this, theoretically our pattern
should be reduced to a proportion that scientifically gives the
correct amount; e.g. for adults’ 121 in. is required at the tread,
with other parts in proportion. To find the proportion of the
tread to obtain this grade for adults’ sizes, the length grade is
1
in., the tread grade 121 in. Therefore, 121 x 31 equals 41 , this
3
giving the ratio of the width to the length.
Fours to 6’s and 7’s to 1’s. The length grade is 31 in., the
tread grade 161 in. 161 in. to 31 in., or 161 x 31 equals 163 , this giving
the ratio of the width to the length.
157
158
BOOTS AND SHOES
METHOD OF APPLICATION.
Using proportional compasses, for a set of women’s 2’s to
7’s, take the outsole and mark it round on a suitable piece of
paper. Then place the insole inside the outsole in the position
it should occupy in relation to the outsole. Connect A to B,
extending in the direction of T and C. Indicate the tread
position TR, at a distance from A equal to the pitch-line of
a standard upper pattern for the last. Failing this, apply
five-sevenths the length of the foot, plus 181 in. extra for each
one-half elevation of the seat from A. (See Fig. 109.)
Indicate S as one-sixth the length of the foot from A, and
make W midway between TR and S, this giving the waist
position. F is made midway between TR and B. (Note that B
from A should be indicated at a distance equal to the standard
last’s length. Thus, if the last is an extended toe, B would be
located inside the shape, whilst in the case of a short forepart
last, B would be obviously outside the shape.) Line 5 to 6 is
located at right angles to AB, and positioned to enable the
shape of the toe to be preserved in grading.
At F, TR, W, and S, draw lines at right angles to the
longitudinal line AB. Note that the outside of tread OT is found
by a line at an angle of 15° from the inside of tread, and where
it touches the outside a line is drawn at right angles to AB as
GOT.
To reduce the tread width to the right proportion of
one-quarter the length of the last, let D to F equal the tread
width of the innersole (see Fig. 109A). Make F from E at right
angles. In measurement FE is the difference between
one-fourth the length of the shape and the full width of the
tread. This is all that is required at this stage; the completed
diagram being for grading by the radial tool, and known as a
width grader.
GRADING INNERSOLES AND OUTSOLES
159
T
With the long legs of the
compasses spanning DE,
regulate till the short ones
register E to F (Fig. 109A).
With the long legs connected
from TR to E (Fig. 109) apply
the amount in the short legs
inside as 2. Repeat this
operation all round the
innersole from F, G, W, S, 5,
and 6, and from the inside of
TR. Numbers 1 to 11 are then
obtained.
From these positions draw
small lines radiating from the
centre A, and draw lines
parallel from the edges of the
insole and outsole, inside and
outside the shapes. Adjust
the proportional compasses
so that the long legs span the
distance A to B, and the short
legs contain the grade for
three sizes, i.e. 1 in. With the
long legs spanning A to B,
apply the grade of the short
legs to X for the innersoles.
For the outsoles, use the same
grade and apply on the line T,
starting from the initial
outsole as Z.
With the long legs spanning
A to 5, transfer the
Z
X
Y
B
5
6
3
F
4
2
I
TR
D
E
7
G
8W
S
I0
0T
9
II
A
C
FIG. 109. GRADING INSOLES
AND OUTSOLES TOGETHER
160
BOOTS AND SHOES
amount in the short legs from the outlines of the innersole and
outsole respectively, as shown by Y.
Repeat all round at the points described, noting that the seat
of the outside below A remains constant. The stencil is
completed by splitting up the points obtained for the
intervening sizes as at Y. To perform the latter, set the
proportional
compasses
at
one-third,
and
with
the
long
legs
F
distanced from Y to the initial
D
E shape, apply the grade of the short
legs between, and then make two
FIG. 109A
divisions inside the initial lines.
If the radial tool is used first proceed on the same lines as
for the proportional compasses. Next make use of a width
grader as in Fig. 109A, DE being the width of the tread and EF
at right angles. From E the difference between one-quarter the
length of the innersole shape and the full width of the tread is
marked as F. Connect D to F, make the protective edge as
shown by the broken lines, and cut out. With the width grader
connect D to TR (Fig. 109),, and where it crosses the outline at
E, the amount above at right angles is the amount the insole
has to be reduced, as shown by the line marked 2. Proceed all
round the insole, drawing the short radiating lines and the
parallels as done for the proportional compasses.
A radial tool is made as described for upper patterns and
applied to the insole, at the reduced inside points, each in turn,
and across the tool at the folded edge is found the grade to be
applied to the line made parallel at the original insole edge
and to the line made parallel at the outsole edge, thus holding
up the grades of the insole and welt to correspond to the grade
obtained for the smaller insole made inside the original.
GRADING INNERSOLES AND OUTSOLES
161
GRADING INSOLES INTO FITTINGS
When we grade widths for fitting we deal with the widths
only, and do not grade the pattern in length. There are
occasions in the workshop when one has to produce from an
existing shape another pattern that is wider or smaller in the
width. Whatever difference is made in
B
the tread width, the differences made
at the waist, seat, and forepart should
F
be in strict proportion to the tread’s
H
increase or decrease.
When we refer to the fittings in
insoles, we refer to the measures
across the last, not right round the last.
For instance, a total fitting of a last
may be 41 in., but for width fittings of
insoles it would only be 81 in. or 91 in.
Prepare the insole as shown in Fig.
110, and duplicate it in paper
extending the width lines outside the
initial shape.
J
E
T
D
C
OT
G
W
To prepare the innersole connect the
S
toe (and the seat by a straight line. Let
A to B equal the length of a standard
length last. Indicate C as five-sevenths
the length of the foot. This gives the
A
FIG. 110. GRADING
inside joint position as C from A. To
FITTINGS
locate T, the tread, add from C for the
line of contact (which is based upon the rule that for every
inch elevation of the seat the line of contact goes forward 91
in.) Assuming the pitch to be 1 21 in., indicate T 61 in. from C,
and draw a line at right angles to the longitudinal line.
Indicate the position of the seat as S (one-sixth the length of
the foot), and make the waist midway between
162
BOOTS AND SHOES
the tread T and seat S, as W. Locate F as midway between T
and the standard length of the last, B. At these positions draw
lines at right angles to the longitudinal line.
For the outside of the tread OT, indicate a line as shown, at
15° to the tread line T, and where it crosses the shape, draw a
line at right angles to the central line as G to OT.
Prepare the width grader (Fig. 111), making AB equal to the
width of the initial shape, and make C from B at right angles.
C
A
B
FIG. 111. TOOL FOR WIDTHS
Up BC, from B, mark off the fittings required, say,
women’s and 81 in. men’s.
1
9
in.
Assuming we have a 3’s fitting insole and require two
fittings larger and two smaller, mark off four spaces, and
connect to A (Fig. 111). At A make a protective edge for the
tool (otherwise it may curl up), as shown in the illustration.
To make the stencil take the radial tool, turn it over, and
connect A at T. Let the grader be flush to the line, as shown in
Fig. 110, then fold back. The divisions shown are the grades
for the respective fittings, and would be pricked through on
the end of line T, shown in Fig. 110. Repeat similarly from F
to the edge of the shape, and likewise all the way round, and
the stencil is obtained.
The graded shape in the diagram is for two fittings larger.
GRADING INNERSOLES AND OUTSOLES
163
T O U SE THE P ROPORTIONAL C OMPASSES
Open the long legs, space the width of the tread T, and
regulate the short legs till they register the grade required, say,
for two fittings above the initial one. From T, span with the
long legs to the outside on the line from T, then the short legs
will give the grade as D. Repeat for other positions. Split
between D and the initial shape, and mark two inside, and
repeat all round the pattern.
Alternative Method. Regulate the compasses with the short
legs recording the width of the original shape, and the long
legs spanning the width of two fittings greater. Then fit the
short legs on the widths of the transverse lines (from the
longitudinal line AB). The long legs will now record the
proportional increases at the various parts.
CHAPTER XXIII
THE COMPARATIVE SYSTEM OF GRADING
THIS method is a good. one. because it only grades exactly
what is desired, and the standard construction system we have
described is ideal for the practice of this system of grading.
For children’s, infants’, and other patterns that have to be
much adapted, or where the pattern cutter lacks geometrical
knowledge, comparative grading is an asset.
First of all two standards (or parts) are required as remote
from each other in size as possible, say, the largest and
smallest patterns respectively.
Having produced the two patterns, mark the larger one on a
sheet of paper, and inside the marked pattern place the smaller
pattern. A little forethought in placing the patterns will enable
quicker and better results to be obtained. For instance, if
similar lines exist in both patterns they can often be placed
together, as shown in Fig. 113.
We will illustrate the method by taking two quarter
patterns, as shown in Fig. 112. Make lines at F and G, from
the corners of the top and seat of the back curve, and produce
them till they meet at H. From H draw as many lines as
required to divide the back curve into reasonable divisions.
They can be drawn at will without any special identification.
Repeat at I and A, connecting with straight lines similar
positions, and produce the lines to J. From J radiate lines to
cut the curve between A and I. From B produce a line until it
meets the line from A, and at C, the intersection, draw lines to
cut the front curve between A and B.
164
COMPARATIVE SYSTEM OF GRADING
165
Repeat at B and F, and find point E, which can used to give
any points required between B and F. The top being straight,
in this case no intervening lines will be needed between B and
F.
Split up the lines between the patterns at A, B, F, G and I,
and the intervening lines into as many equal divisions as there
B
F
E
H
C
A
J
G
I
FIG. 112. COMPARATIVE SYSTEM
are sizes required, and the stencil is available for treatment as
in producing patterns by the geometric methods.
Two toe-caps are shown in Fig. 113, where the folded edges
are placed level. A line is made passing through the edges of
the caps at BA, and where it joins the folded edge at C is the
point to use for any subdivisions between E and A—in this
case none. This same point
166
BOOTS AND SHOES
can be used for positions between C and A round the
lasting-over allowance, as F and G. Split up into the number
of sizes between as shown—in this case one, for simplicity of
illustration. If sizes larger or smaller than the original patterns
D E
C
F
G
B
A
FIG. 113. GRADING TOE-CAPS
arc required, they can be obtained by marking outside or
inside the grade ascertained.
This method can also be used where the vamps are not
required to be graded by the geometric method. For example,
if for economical reasons vamps in a set are required as near to
the model length, we can produce the large size vamp with the
restrictions desired, shorter vamp height and shorter wing, and
then grade them by using the comparative method.
CHAPTER XXIV
GRADING MACHINES
THE first machines introduced for cutting and grading patterns
were of the pantograph order, which gave enlargements and
reductions strictly proportional to the model. Then levers
were applied, so that the pantograph could, where and when
desired, be moved either in a horizontal or in a vertical
direction. This enabled widths of legs grading and heights of
boots to be restrained in the amounts of the grades achieved.
Then followed the combination of two pantographs, one for
the horizontal and one for the vertical. The later machines
effect all the preceding movements, with the addition of a
motor to drive the machine and a vibrating cutter. By
changing the business end of the machine, markers, knives,
and punches can be used at will.
T HE “H ARTFORD ” C OMBINATION S OLE
G RADING M ACHINE
AND
U PPER
This machine, operated without power, is really an
elaborated pantograph, travelling on a double set of wheels,
adapted for the boot and shoe trade. It grades and cuts paper on
a plate-glass bed, or grades and marks sets on board or zinc. It
grades upper or sole patterns rapidly. It can be adjusted to
grade different widths to suit the different grades of lasts, and
either sizes or half-sizes in length. It can be changed from
soles to uppers, and vice versa, in a few minutes. The latest
type of machine is fitted with improved switches, the latter
enabling the operator to make any desired
167
GRADING MACHINES
169
restrictions, including bar widths, underlays, and heights.
If we wish to grade a set, the model is generally reproduced
in metal and clamped down the right of the machine, as shown
in Fig. 114. the set being produced on the left-hand side.
THE “ REED ” POWER GRADING MACHINE
This type of machine is admirably adapted for large
factories where the output and variety are great. It is a power
machine operating on the pantographic principle, grading
and cutting the pattern in one operation.
By courtesy of Messers. Livingston & Doughty, Ltd..
F IG . 115. “ R EED ” G RADING M ACHINE
170
BOOTS AND SHOES
The cutting mechanism consists of a punch and die, making
3500 strokes per minute, and cuts board and metaL On this
machine the greatest variety of work can be accomphished.
Further, it can be set to restrict grades, so that it meets the
last’s and trade requirements. In cutting it ensures an even
edge, entirely doing away with filing or sand-papering. All
laps and seams can be produced uniform in all sizes, this
applying also to facings and top-band patterns. Heights of
boots and shoes can be restricted to any practical grade, or can
be increased as desired. The most fancy designs can be cut as
readily as plain patterns.
The machine can be installed with motor fixed to head or
for belt drive. (Sec Fig. 115.)
No. 5 G RADING M ACHINE
This power-driven machine grades and cuts patterns from
sheet metal or pattern board. Being more rigid than the earlier
Preston machine, it produces finer grading and cleaner-cut
patterns. It can be adjusted for restrictions, and for cutting out
‘’insertions" the punch is raised out of action without stopping
the machine, and is lowered again when the pattern is in
position for an “insertion” to be cut out. (Sec Fig. 110.)
Provision is also made for cutting narrow patterns, such as
collars, etc., without having a ‘’holding" piece to be
afterwards removed by hand shears.
When driven from a line or floor shaft, the electric motor is
displaced by a countershaft.
U NIVERSAL P ATTERN G RADING M ACHINE
M OTOR D RIVE
WITH
This machine (Fig. 117) operates on a two-direction
pantograph principle, and grades and cuts the pattern
GRADING MACHINES
171
in one operation, in paper, board, or sheet iron. The two
pantographs may be set to grade either proportionately or
length and width independently, so that a full range of sizes
FIG. 116. NO. 5 PATTERN GRADING MACHINE
and fittings may be cut from the one model.
Laps, seams, and folds may be kept constant on all sizes,
one setting only being necessary, which can be applied in any
direction round the contour of the pattern. Allowances for
seams and folds may be added,
172
BOOTS AND SHOES
or taken off, and backer-patterns cut from their vamp or
quarter models.
Bars may be kept the same width on all sizes, and in this
By courtesy of the British United Shoe Machinery Co.
FIG. 117. UNIVERSAL PATTERN GRADING MACHINE
connection an entirelv novel feature is incorporated.
A simple adjustment enables bars of irregular width to be
kept the same width as the model both in the widest and
narrowest portions.
Another new feature enables a cut-out or group of
GRADING MACHINES
173
cut-outs to be kept constant in all sizes, and also where
necessary, certain lines on a pattern, for fitting the die for
fancy-designed punching.
An additional feature enables high-legged hoots to have the
height condensed without mutilating the shape, and then to
blend into the correct width grade for the foot portion. The old
method of restriction merely cut a margin from the top of the
leg on a large size, and was useless for button scallops or other
cases of a similar nature. This feature may also be applied on
shoe quarters where the height is made up of several parts and
the total grade requires condensing. Each piece will take its
correct proportion to the total height without calculation or
measuring the separate pieces.
The machine will take a full standard sheet of board
40 in. x 28 in., and a positioning attachment enables the board
to be cut to the best advantage with a minimum of time in
placing. In addition to the machine, a paper-cutting
attachment can be supplied if it is desired to cut paper patterns,
such as for sole and insole shapes.
CHAPTER XXV
MAKING BOARD, ZINC, OR METAL-BOUND
WORKING PATTERNS
WHEN a design is required to be made into a set for the clicking
department, it can he cut in one of various materials, amongst
which arc pulp or mill hoard, zinc, and sheet iron, or metal
hound, the latter being board bound with a metal rim, either of
brass or steel. Most patterns now in use are cut from board, for
designs do not have so long a run as formerly, the frequent
changes of style in ladies’ work not warranting their
production in zinc or metal bound.
CUTTING BOARD
This is done either by hand or machine, and different
colours can be used to denote different lasts, fittings, or
half-sizes. When cut by power grading machines, such as the
Preston, Reed, and the Universal, the model or initial patterns
are generally duplicated in metal, and graded and cut direct
into sets from the desired board.
If they have to be cut by hand, which obviously is a slower
process, the following method can he adopted. Mark round the
pattern with a scriber or fine-pointed awl, and then cut out
with a suitable knife or shears, only touching the inside of the
tracing and cutting the edges square. After cutting out, if
necessary, lightly sand-paper the edges. After the edges are
smoothed, mark round near the edges, by using the spring
dividers or a gauge, an amount which will show how much
has been removed during the after-process of clicking, and
show by the cut-away parts when to
174
MAKING WORKING PATTERNS
175
renew them. Make the gauge a standard one for the factory,
say 323 in.
C UTTING M ETAL P ATTERNS IN S HEET I RON OR Z INC
Of the metal patterns in use zinc is generally preferable.
They are quicker to cut by, in comparison with board patterns,
and certainly they lay closer to the skin and permit of a cleaner
cut, these two factors being recognized by the “Federation”
and the “Union.”
For the shoe trade, generally speaking, the numbers or
weights of zinc range from 9 to 14, No. 12 representing a
good medium substance for ordinary work. The zinc can be
cut by power grading machines or by hand. In the latter case,
after being marked out by an awl or scriber, it can be cut by
shears. Sometimes a pair known as “bent snips” are used for
the curves of a pattern, but, generally speaking, the ordinary
straight ones are sufficient. A better method is to cut them by
the “Hartford” pattern shears. The zinc should be cut as true
as possible with the shears, and if this is done carefully, there
will be little trouble in finishing off, otherwise unnecessary
labour will be involved. The edge should not require more
than smoothing round with a fine file. If there are any
irregularities, they must be filed away and then the pattern
compared with the original before finishing.
The holes for pricking purposes and those for keeping the
set together should be made at this stage and filed smooth,
removing the burr set up.
The final smoothing should be done by emery paper, and
the patterns marked either by stamping or by writing on them
with a preparation made from blue stone and hot water. The
face of the zinc is cleaned with emery before applying blue
stone.
Sheet iron can be treated very much in the same way as
zinc, but naturally is more difficult to cut, and the
176
BOOTS AND SHOES
shears do not leave such a fine edge. This necessitates more
filing and finishing by a dull file and emery to produce
something like a burnished edge.
METAL-BOUND PATTERNS
Patterns can be bound in either br.ss or steel, the brass being
preferred, as it lays closer to the edge. The advantages of
brass-bound patterns are well known, the chief being that in
the event of the binding wearing in use it can be easily
renewed.
If the board patterns are not cut direct by a power grading
machine the type of shears recommended is shown in Fig.
118. These shears are suitable for cutting the lightest zinc or
cardboard, as well as heavy iron as used for last bottom plates.
The most fancy curves can be cut without bending or twisting
the material, and the latest type of shears is so well balanced
that it is possible to cut metal as easily as paper. This
machine can be readily turned and adjusted to the height and
sight of any operator. An extra provided to this machine is a
slotting attachment, which enables the operator to cut slots
and fancy cut-outs.
Arrange the patterns to be cut on a sheet of pattern board by
planning them as closely as possible, not omitting to leave a
small margin between the patterns to allow of their being
casted out by hand shears. It is necessary to keep the patterns
flat to the board when marking them out. After marking out
take the board to be cut in the left hand, place the corner to the
blade of the shears shown in Fig. 118, and cut out. The curves
can be negotiated by keeping to the cutting edge of the
specially shaped point. Do not make too deep a cut, but only
just allow the blade to go through the material. Short cuts are
in such a case effective.
After the patterns are cut out they should be trued up by
removing any superfluities with sand-paper. All
MAKING WORKING PATTERNS
177
the edges of the same outline can lie placed in a vice, and the
lot more easily and quickly sand-papered at the same time.
Remove any burr left on the face or back office edges of the
pattern.
FIG. 118. “HARTFORD”
SHEARS
Holes are punched and eyeletted for the fitters or machnists,
indicating the points, and the patterns are ready for binding.
Suitable lengths of binding are cut to fit the patterns to be
bound. They can be measured from the pattern by means of
string, or use can be made of the latest pattern strip-forming
machine (Fig. 119). This machine
178
BOOTS AND SHOES
moulds a flat metal strip, supplied in coils, into the necessary
“ U ” shape for binding the edges, and cuts the exact length
required for the pattern. It is operated bv hand, and includes a
F IG . 119. P ATTERN S TRIP-FORMING M ACHINE
reel for holding a coil of metal strip, rolls for moulding the
strip, shears for cutting off the strip when rnoulded, and a 36
in. rule fixed to the bench for measuring the length of the
moulded strip as it leaves the moulding rolls. This method
obviates cutting from the 8 ft. lengths of moulded strip, with
the unavoidable ultimate result of waste pieces. Metal strip in
coils is much more convenient to handle and to
MAKING WORKING PATTERNS
FIG. 120. “ HARTFORD ” BINDING MACHINE
FIG. 121. CORNER CUTTER
179
180
store, less
economical.
BOOTS AND SHOES
liable
to
damage and
obviously
more
BINDING THE PATTERN
First commence to bind near a corner of the pattern, using a
machine as shown in Fig. 120. Place one foot on the pedal
(not shown) to open the
binding wheels. Insert the
board pattern with the
binding attached to it, then
release the pedal, and
the pattern is clamped
between
the
binding
wheels. Slightly press the
binding against the feed
wheels,
keeping
the
pattern
at
right
angles.
By courtesy of Messrs. Livingston &
Doughty, Ltd.
Turn the handle and let the
FIG. 122. PYRAMID
rnachine do its work. Stop
binding before a corner is
reached, mark the position of the corner on the binding, and
cut out at this position on the corner cutter (Fig. 121). After
cutting the corner carry on to the completion of the pattern.
When outside curves are encountered the binding should be
shaped on the Pyramid machine, as shown in Fig. 122. The
finishing off should be accomplished with as little hammering
as possible, and the corners of the binding should be filed
square. The corners are so correct as to be sharp, and they
should therefore be soldered to join the edges of the binding
together.
Other machines can. be used, such as the slotting machine
for cutting deep slots in ankle-straps, etc., binding press for
pressing binding into difficult corners, and binding clarnp to
enable binding to be shaped to difficult angles.
SECTION II
THE MAKING OF LASTS
BY
BERESFORD WORSWICK, D.I.C., A.R.C.SC.,
B.SC., A.B.S.I.
Principal of the Cordwainers’ Technical College
Formerly Physicist to British Boot, Shoe, and Allied Trades
Research Association
PREFACE
THE principles involved in the making of lasts, and in their
shape, obviously have a close relation to the shape of the
human foot. Dr. Ellis has stated that “the last should be the
shape of the foot,” but this apparently simple truth is only a
partial solution of a complicated problem. As we know, the
foot has many shapes; a different shape in repose to that in
activity, with many variations in the latter state. The question
therefore arises, if Dr. Ellis’s statement is correct, which
shape question Every person does not perform the same uses
with the foot, and it is the prevailing use and the most constant
form of the foot which determines the correct shape of last.
We may have two people whose feet are alike in relation to
shape and dimensions. But, for example, suppose one is a
navvy and the other an office worker. Owing to their
occupations, a different shape in the footwear becomes
necessary, and, consequently, a different shape of last.
Then, of course, we must consider the factors which enter
into manufacturing footwear on a large scale. It is necessary
in many ways to alter the “normal” last so as to facilitate the
methods of process and permit of economic manufacture.
Further, “Fashion” has her say—not that we should
sacrifice truth to this powerful dame. However, even with her
interference, it is possible to make, say, a pointed-toe shoe.
and yet give proper provision for the function of the foot.
So far, this only touches the many considerations that are
involved in the production of lasts, and it is as
183
184
BOOTS AND SHOES
well that the serious student realizes at once its many
complexities.
However, if a student has a good knowledge of the
construction and action of the foot (see Section XIII), he can
proceed in a systematic way to produce suitable lasts. The
objects here are to give an account of the various materials,
tools and machines used in lastmaking, and of the various
methods of last production. The older hand methods are far
from obsolete, from the student's point of view, and,
consequently, will be considered first.
Acknowledgments for the loan of blocks (or originals)
are gratefully tendered to the undermentioned firms:
The British United Shoe Machinery Co., Ltd. ; Messrs.
George Care, Ltd., and the National Trade Press. Ltd. ;
Messrs. Mobbs & Lewis, Ltd.: and Messrs. Gilman &
Son, U.S.A.
SECTION II
THE MAKING OF LASTS
CHAPTER I
WOODS USED
IDEAL WOOD
THERE is a large variety of woods to selct from, but a suitable
wood should possess distinct characteristics.
1. A clean cutting wood, i.e. a wood which cuts “clean ”
under the knife, with no tendency to fray. Ash and oak have
the latter tendency, but beech has not.
2. A wood free from knots. The presence of knots
presents great difficulty in cutting, and, of minor importance,
is unsightly. Again, after a time the knots are liable to fall out,
and, consequently, may destroy the outline of the last. Beech
and charme are singularly free from this affliction.
3. A wood not liable to split. Liability to split would make
knifing very difficult, and such an accident at salient points of
the last would undo in a second hours of endeavour. Further,
nails and rivets are driven into lasts, and these would quickly
destroy a last with a tendency to split.
4. A wood which has hardness of texture. This is
necessary to ensure that the last does not dent due to any blow.
and that defined edges on the last keep their shape during wear
and tear.
5. A wood which is close grained. This property ensures
a last which will take a high polish.
6. A wood which is not hydroscopic.
185
All woods are
186
BOOTS AND SHOES
hygroscopic but some much less than others. However, lasts
can be polished with wax, or enamelled with cellulose, and
such treatment protects the wood against the atmospheric
conditions.
No wood satisfies all these ideals, but a careful selection of
the wood and its proper treatment will lead to a satisfactory
approach to them.
The wood that has had a great use in England is English beech,
but maple and hornbeam have been used in necessity. All
these woods are suitable for lastmaking, provided necessary
care is taken in their preparation. Later charme, or, as it is
more commonly known, French wood, became very popular,
and beech was largely displaced by it. Now North American
maple is the most widely used. The change, from one wood to
another is not due so much to the difference as regards
suitability for lasts, but to considerations of uniformity in
quality and price, and whether for handmade models or
turning in a lathe. In England there is still the hand process
of last-making, and beech and charme are favoured for this
purpose.
BEECH
This wood is very suitable for last-making, although it
varies to a considerable extent, depending on the soil and the
rate of growth. If grown on a sandy soil it produces a tough
uneven wood not favoured by lastmakers. The beech tree will
grow best in a temperate climate and prefers a clay soil. It
grows straight to a height of about 100 ft., and to produce
good wood must grow quickly.
The first property of beech which strikes one is its slight
reddish-brown colour. Also if a piece of beech is looked at, in
the direction from the bark, there are a series of little black
dashes running with the grain. The dashes are definite
identification marks for beech.
WOODS USED
187
Beech is hard and does not split, and although it is singularly
free from knots it is not so close grained as charme.
From the felled tree only the boughs are generally used for
last-making. Suitable boughs are sawn into lengths of from 36
FIG. 1. SHOWING ANNULAR RINGS AND MEDULLARY
RAYS
in. to 39 in., and left on the ground for three months or so.
During this period the wood shrinks, and the direction of
shrinkage is indicated by the annular rings, and in the cracks,
as shown in Fig. 1, it will he noticed that the shrinkage is
greater nearer the bark than at the centre or pith. This fact has
FIG. 2. SPOKE
an important bearing on the way the wood should be utilized,
for lasts. This will be considered later.
By driving a wedge into these cracks the cut logs are split
into triancular pieces called spokes (Fig. 2). The
188
BOOTS AND SHOES
cross-section of a spoke, therefore, is a sector of the
cross-section of the original log. Three or four such spokes
are cut from one log, depending on the size of the log.
SEASONING
The seasoning of the wood is the next important proceeding.
The spokes are stacked with a good air space between each
one, on a damp-proof surface. If dampness reaches the wood it
rapidly deteriorates, becoming soft and spongy. A dry airy
place is chosen free from direct sunshine or heat. It is essential
to control the temperature of the seasoning, since intense heat
would tend to warp and crack the wood at the ends. For this
reason a drying place is chosen with a northern or shady
aspect. Beech, when considered seasoned, will still absorb
moisture and swell again under its influence. Consequently, it
ought to be kept in a suitable conditioning chamber before
use. To prevent after-shrinkage the beech for lasts is
sometimes steamed. This is a much shorter process than air
drying and completely drives out the sap. The result is a softer
wood, which can be “worked” more easily in the last turning
machine than is the case with an air-dried block. The colour is
changed to a pinkish tinge, and it is considered that no further
shrinkage will take place. It is very important, however, to
keep wood so treated in a suitable dry atmosphere, since the
process it has undergone renders it susceptible to rot from
dampness. Last-makers generally object to steamed wood for
the reason that it is too soft and has lost much of its “nature.”
All woods require a similar treatment to tliat described for
beech, but various methods are used. A consideration of the
next wood, North American maple, gives the opportunity to
describe another method.
WOODS USED
189
MAPLE
This is sometimes known as the sugar maple. The sap can
yield a considerable amount of sugar, but this amount depends
to a large extent on the climatic conditions during growth.
The tree is remarkable for its white bark, and the wood itself
is white, but usually acquires a pink tinge on exposure to air.
The grain is fine and of close texture, and when finished has a
silk-like appearance or lustre.
The increased use of this wood for lasts is due both to its
suitable qualities and its cheapness. These two factors
together are due to a definite system on which the wood is
produced. The tree is grown specially for last-making
purposes in North-West America, and is usually cut down
when from twelve to fifteen years of age. This ensures that
only young trees of approximately the same diameter are
utilized. The autumn is the period for felling, and after the
trunk has been cut into lengths of 6 ft. to 10 ft., these are left,
with the bark still on, on the ground for three months. At the
end of this period these sections are cut into shorter lengths
and split into three parts or blocks, and in this fact is one of the
definite advantages of the system. As all the trunks are of
approximately the same size, this allows every last to be a
bark-bottomed one. The true significance of this fact will be
appreciated later when the suitable cutting of lasts from the
blocks is considered.
ROUGH-TURNED BLOCKS
The blocks are turned roughly by machines which can
complete as many as 1,600 per 10-hour day (Fig. 3). After this
they are stacked in rainproof sheds and allowed to air-dry for
three years. When imported into this country, the immediate
preparation for turning into lasts varies in some details, but the
general idea
190
BOOTS AND SHOES
is to stove-dryv them for three months. This treatment is such
that the time and temperature are progressively increased.
For example, half-an-hour at a moderate temperature is the
order for the first day; then at a higher temperature and for a
FIG. 3. MACHINE FOR ROUGH TURNING
longer period the next time, and so on. Finally, the blocks are
in the oven for the whole of the day at a temperature of 90° C.
The reason for this gradual stoving is to prevent splitting of
the wood, and even with this controlled method about 15 per
cent of the blocks are spoiled. However, if this care was not
taken it is possible that 75 per cent would be the loss.
After this treatment, the wood will not materially shrink, but
may swell if not kept in a suitably dry place.
WOODS USED
191
CHARME
Charme, or French wood, is of the same species as the
English tree hornbeam. There are, however, great differences
in the two types due primarily to climatic conditions. The
French type grows more quickly, and perhaps for this reason
produces a better wood in that it works more easily. Charme is
nearly white in colour, close of texture, hard and singularly
free from knots. It is considered to have the majority of
properties necessary for good last-making wood. It is very
carefully selected, cut and dried, and this no doubt has its
effect on the uniform result.
Charme is imported either in blocks roughly shaped or in
the form of turned blocks. That is, the rough blocks have been
put through the last-making lathe to remove as much of the
superfluous wood as is possible. This incidentally saves the
hand-maker a lot of the heavier work.
ALDER
This wood has never been popular for the making of lasts.
Its chief use is for clog soles, and even to-day beech is
replacing it for that purpose. Alder is considered a very
suitable material for clogs, inasmuch as it possesses great
resistance to water. This property was utilized in London and
other cities when water-pipes were made from this wood.
CHAPTER II
STRUCTURE OF WOOD
THERE is a strongly-established set of conditions which govern
the characteristics of lasts, and some of these depend on the
structure of wood in general. The trees that have been
considered belong to a group known as Exogens. This means
that the new wood grows between the bark and the old wood,
and, consequently, as long as the tree grows it will increase in
girth. This accounts for the broken appearance of the bark in
some trees, since it is obvious that, unless the bark is elastic, it
must break to accommodate the increased bulk inside. With
beech the bark is sufficiently elastic and has sufficient vitality
to permit its growth. In some cases the wood of a tree can be
judged to some extent from the appearance of the bark. A
quick-growing tree will have a rougher bark than one which
grows slowly. The former will produce a less dense wood,
and, consequently, one much easier to work.
SAP WOOD
The new wood or sap wood that is nearest the bark will be
less dense than the inner wood or heart wood, hence it will
shrink more on drying, and subsequently be more affected by
temperature and humidity changes.
ANNULAR RINGS
Each season’s growth of the tree can be distinguished by the
markings of rings, which are concentric in a section of the
trunk (Fig. 1). These are known as annular rings, and their
number in the cross-section of a trunk gives (an indication of
the age of the tree.
192
STRUCTURE OF WOOD
193
Consider then a cross-section of an ordinary tree, and the
following points will be displayed. In the centre region will be
a soft, useless core, the original pith. Outside this, and forming
the greater proportion, the heart wood and the sap wood. Both
have annular rings. Finally the bark. As the tree gets older the
rings are larger and to a degree proportionally closer together.
The pith and heart wood immediately near it are rejected by
the last-maker. He utilizes only the sap wood and such of the
heart wood attached to it as will satisfy his conditions.
MEDULLARY RAYS
Besides the annular rings, the section usually shows narrow
rays radiating from the pith to the bark (Fig. 1). These are
known as medullary rays and are usually very noticeable.
As shown in Fig. 1, wood when cut and allowed to dry
cracks. This cracking is due to the shrinkage of the wood, and
the shape of the crack is a definite measure of the amount of
shrinkage. It is seen, therefore, that the shrinkage is the most at
the bark, and graduates to comparatively nothing at the pith.
Again the direction of shrinkage is circular and approximately
at right angles to the medullary rays. The shrinkage in any
other direction is small enough to be negligible.
BARK BOTTOMS
AND
BARK SIDES
What effect then can these conditions have on lasts ? Unless
great care is taken lasts cannot be relied upon to keep their
shapes and always have the same measurements. They may
shrink in a dry atmosphere and expand in a damp one.
Consequently, since the sap wood (nearest bark) shrinks the
most, it is very important to have the lasts of a pair cut in the
same direction
194
BOOTS AND SHOES
from the wood. The bottoms of the pair must be cut from the
sap wood, or the sides of the pair cut from the sap wood. The
FIG. 4. BARK-BOTTOMED LAST
Front view.
FIG. 5. BARK-BOTTOMED LAST
Side view
former are called bark-bottomed lasts (Figs. 4 and 5), and the
latter bark-sided lasts (Figs. 6
STRUCTURE OF WOOD
195
and 7). Consequently, with a bark-bottomed last the
maximum shrinkage will be across the width, whereas
bark-sided lasts will have the maximum shrinkage in the
height. Experiments have shown that this shrinkage can he as
much as 41 in. in the girth measurements, and would be even
more if the wood was not thoroughly seasoned. Any
shrinkage that takes place could be adjusted by suitable
fittings, and since it is an easier matter to adjust the height than
the width, bark-sided lasts are often preferred. Another
disadvantage of a bark-bottomed last is that the top is cut from
the heart wood of the spoke (Fig. 4). This results in the wood
at the top being more liable to split, thus spoiling the last.
Generally speaking, the nature of the spoke decides the way
the lasts are to be cut, but for a pair of lasts they must both be
either bark-sided or bark-bottomed. This initial sorting into
pairs should have great attention so as to ensure as far as is
naturally possible that those of a pair shrink the same amount
in the same directions. Obviously this lessens the possibility
of having odd lasts after a period of time.
To forecast the directions in which a last is likely to shrink it
is necessary to be able to identify it as either bark-bottomed or
bark-sided. Remembering the structure of wood, it is an easy
matter to distinguish a last that is bark-bottomed from one that
is bark-sided. With the former the annular rings of the wood
will run transversely across the bottom (Fig. 5). Where there
is more curvature, such as the forepart and the waist, more
annular rings are exposed, and hence at these points the
striations are more numerous and closer together. Regarding
the medullary rays, they will be along the sides of a
bark-bottomed last. A further indication is that on looking at
the back of a bark-bottomed last the annular rings run parallel
to the bottom of the last.
196
BOOTS AND SHOES
With a bark-sided last the rings will be shown
longitudinally along the bottom and sides (see Figs. 6 and 7).
Along the bottom the rings will appear as almost straight lines
FIG. 6. BARK-SIDED LAST
FIG. 7. BARK-SIDED LAST
and nearly as close together as in a cross-section of wood. The
medullary rays will run transversely across the bottom. At the
back of the
STRUCTURE OF WOOD
197
last the annular rings will run in the direction of the height, or
nearly perpendicular to the bottom. By looking at the back
of a last a clear indication should be obtained at once of the
way the last was cut from the wood.
Consequently, whatever care is taken in seasoning wood for
lasts, they are certain to be more or less affected by changes of
temperature and/or humidity. Therefore, they should be stored
in a suitable place where conditions are practically the same
throughout the year. Lasts are finished nowadays by means of
wax and cellulose varnishes, and this prevents to a large extent
effects due to atmospheric variations. However, as the last
plays a very important part in the making of footwear both
from a utility and an appearance point of view it should be
treated with respect, and not thrown about as one often sees
to-day.
CHAPTER III
TOOLS USED IN HAND LAST-MAKING
IT is possible for a student to possess, at very little cost, the
necessary tools for last-making. They are comparatively
simple and few in number, and those set out here can be varied
to suit individual ideas.
FIG. 8. CHOPPED OR SAWN BLOCK
FIG. 9. ROUGH-TURNED BLOCK
Consider the very first stage with a log which has been
correctly seasoned. This log has to be split up into spokes, and
for this an iron wedge or betel and sledge-hammer are needed.
However, nowadays, the last-maker himself very rarely uses
these tools since he can obtain his wood in the form of a
chopped block (Fig. 8) or a rough-turned block (Fig. 9). It is
necessary,
198
TOOLS USED IN HAND LAST-MAKING
199
however, to use a hand-saw to cut these blocks to the required
length. A few words on the principle of a saw would not be
out of place here. The construction is
simple but must be correctly made to
produce the best results. Primarily
there is the cutting of the teeth, and Fig.
10 illustrates their shape. One edge,
AB, is inclined to the direction of
cutting, and the other edge, BC, is
perpendicular to the direction
of cutting. Hence, when the
saw is drawn over the wood in
the direction P, the inclined
planes, AB, etc., slide over it
and produce no cut. If the saw
is moved in the direction Q the
vertical edges, BC, etc., cut
FIG. 10. TEETH OF
into the wood and remove that
SAW
obstructing them. Hence, the
cutting is only produced on the thrust stroke (direction
Q), and not on the return stroke.
SAW TEETH
The teeth of the saw and the blade are not arranged in
the same plane. If one looks down on the top of the
blade, the teeth are seen to protrude in rotation on each
side (Fig. 11). In other words, the teeth are inclined to FIG. 11.
each other, and this inclination is called the ‘’set" of SET OF
SAW
the saw. The teeth are so arranged to allow enough
wood to be removed during cutting for a clear passage of the
blade. When the saw blade is flexible and liable to vibrate in
the wood, more space is required
200
BOOTS AND SHOES
and, hence, more inclination given to the teeth. The teeth are
then said to be “coarse set.” On the other hand, for a rigid saw
the teeth are “fine set,” that is, less inclination is given. It is
obvious, therefore, that during sawing some of the wood is
removed to allow for the movement of the saw, and a
coarse-set saw will remove the most. Hence, when cutting to a
definite length, this must be taken into consideration.
COACHMAKER’S AXE
The chopper or coachmaker’s axe (Fig. 12) can be
considered the next tool. It is used for shaping the wood into a
FIG. 12. COACHMAKER’S AXE
rough block (Fig. 8). Nowadays, however, a power saw is
used for this purpose in the majority of cases. Nevertheless,
the chopper possesses decided advantages over the saw from
a hand-worker’s point of view. When chopping wood the
direction of the grain is always kept along the length of the
block, and this facilitates knifing in the letter stages. With a
saw however, it is possible to cut across the grain and, when
knifing such a piece, the wood is liable to split off in the wrong
direction.
The blade of this axe is ground only on one side, the other
side being a perfect plane. When chopping, the flat side is
presented nearest the wood. This ensures a clean cut and
prevents the blade from turning into the wood, as would
certainly happen if done the reverse way. Another feature is
the position of the handle
TOOLS USED IN HAND LAST-MAKING
201
relative to the blade. The direction of the handle is not in the
same plane as the blade. This gives clearance for the hand
when chopping.
LAST-MAKER’S BENCH
Next comes the last-maker’s bench, and the drawings (Fig.
13) show the design and dimensions of a suitable one. The
l ll
ll
l
7
ll
24
0
ll
l8
ll
l
l
24
ll
l8
ll
ll
ll
2
ll
ll
l
l l2
ll
l
ll
l
24
ll
2l
TO
2
ll
l
l
FIG. 13. LAST-MAKER’S BENCH
height can be adjusted to suit the worker, but about 23 in. is the
maximum height required. It is essential that the bench should
be firm and rigid, and to ensure this the legs are splayed
outwards so that the effective area covered by the legs is equal
to the area of the top. The top must be designed to give as
plane a surface as is possible. If one piece of wood is used,
there is a liability to warp, and to lessen this effect
202
BOOTS AND SHOES
as much as possible the top is made of two or three pieces
glued together. Birch is the wood preferred for this purpose
since it shrinks very little.
The patch is the piece of wood fastened on to the top of the
bench. Its chief objects are : (1) it acts as a stop for the wood,
hence, giving greater rigidity when the knife is presented; (2)
it gives two adjustments for a working level, either on a level
with the bench top or on a level mith the top of the patch; and
(3) preserves the top of the bench from damage by the knife.
Some workers do not use the patch on their benches but
prefer to work to the level of the top. When this is the case a
rough groove is usually cut out to prevent slipping of the last
when knifing. However, the use of the patch has greater
possibilities than the latter method.
The bench top in front of the patch is notched along the
length of the patch. One face of the notch is vertical, and the
other inclined to be horizontal. This affords a good
non-slipping grip for the wood when being worked. It is
advantageous to rub the patch periodically with chalk to
prevent slipping. The type of chalk used should be coarse and
of a gritty nature, not soft like flour. It is known as lump
chalk.
Sometimes at the back of the bench, and on a level with the
eye, is fixed a trying shelf. This is used for visual comparison
of the models and other work in hand. It consists essentially of
a perfectly smooth surface fixed usually in a well-lighted
place. A piece of plate glass or marble slab makes an excellent
trying shelf. Being on the eye level, the respective contours
and curves of lasts can be compared with greater ease and
accuracy.
To hold the work when sawing or rasping, etc., use is made
of the last-maker’s vice. This is attached securely to the
bench and in such a position as not to
TOOLS USED IN HAND LAST-MAKING
203
interfere with knifing. The vice consists of four main parts:
(1) The long piece which is fixed to the bench, (2) the short
piece which is moved by the screw, (3) the runner on which
the short piece moves, and (4) the adjusting screw for the
Screw
ll
24
I
I
36
II
3
22
I
II
3 I2
II
II
b
a
FIG. 14. LAST-MAKER’S VICE
width of jaws. The diagram (Fig. 14) shows the various
elevations and plan of the vice and suitable dimensions.
When using the vice, the long and short pieces must be
approximatelv parallel, and, to prevent slipping of the free end
of the short piece, wooden stops are placed on the runner
between the two upright pieces. The free end of the short
piece has a rectangular groove which fits over the breadth of
the runner. The groove is wedge-shaped at the top as shown
by line ab in the diagram. The object of this is that when the
screw is released the action of gravity causes the short piece to
fall outwards and, hence, automatically follow the action of
the screw.
204
BOOTS AND SHOES
It is obvious that the vice should be made from wood which
is a little softer than the wood used for lasts. This prevents
bruising the lasts when clamped in the vice. To increase
further the “softness” of the jaws they can be roughed with a
rasp and chalked. An ideal wood for such a vice is limewood,
but owing to its scarcity birch is often used.
The design of the jaws is another important feature. They
are not square but are curved to taper off at the top (see
diagram). The type of these curves depends largely on
individual ideas, but the object is to give a minimum surface
of contact with the last. Hence, whilst giving a firm hold, the
jaws do not tend to damage the last as sharp-edged jaws would
most certainly do.
LAST-MAKER’S KNIFE
The next and one of the most important tools used in
last-making is the bench knife. Its chief parts are the blade, the
back, the stem, and the hook. Fig. 15 illustrates the shape and
dimensions of a bench knife. The knife is built in two
sections. The hook, the back, and the stem are of iron in one
complete piece, and the blade or cutting edge is of steel
welded on to the back. ‘The knife has concave curvature at the
front and convex curvature at the back. However, the
curvature varies, and the number of the knife indicates the
amount of curvature. The blade itself is ground and sharpened
on the convex side (see Fig. 15). The object when grinding is
to obtain a hollow bevel, AB, and not a plane bevel. The reason
for this bevel is that when sharpening the blade the oil stone,
CD, moves along the edges A and B, and not over a plane
surface between AB. Hence, the stone can be kept in the same
plane, with no fear of rolling on to the edge, as it is worked
from one end of the blade to the other. Consequently,
TOOLS USED IN HAND LAST-MAKING
205
the result at A is a true edge, and any burr on the front side of
the blade is easily removed by long light sweeps of the stone.
The stem or handle is not in a straight line with the top of the
blade but is dropped below this level. Usually the extreme end
of the stem is about 6 in. below the level of the knife top, but
this, of course, varies with the individual worker. The object
II
3
I5
II
II
6
2I
II
D
B
A
C
FIG. 15. LAST-MAKER’S KNIFE
of this drop is to enable the knife to be presented to the wood
when the arm is in its best working position—not too high or
too low. In this way the maximum power is derived from the
arm and the body. At the end of the stem B and at right angles
to it at A is a wooden handle DC. The handle being so placed
enables the user to exercise a better control over the
movements of the blade.
The knife is attached to the bench by the hook passing
through a staple or eye. When the hook rests in the eye there is
contact of metal on metal, and this does not facilitate easy
movement of the knife. To overcome this and also to retain the
hook in place, strips of leather are placed below the hook in
the bottom of the eye. The
206
BOOTS AND SHOES
eye is free to move in any direction and is prevented from
coming through the bench by a locked nut underneath.
The complete knife is a lever with its fulcrum or pivot at the
hook. The hand supplies the motive force, and this works
FIG. 16. FRAME SAW
against the resistance of the wood when cutting. Hence, by
moving the wood nearer or further from the hook, greater or
smaller cutting force can he obtained.
When knifing is completed it is necessary to cut the block of
such a type as to make the last easy of exit from the footwear.
The handworker would use either a bow saw or frame saw
(Fig. 16). The latter is heavier and firmer but both are
satisfactory in the hands of a good workman.
TOOLS USED IN HAND LAST-MAKING
207
OTHER TOOLS
Other common tools are useful for various purposes, such
as a carpenter’s brace and. hit for drilling holes in the block,
etc., and a chisel for grooving the block.
The first tool used for finishing the last is the rasp, and its
function is to remove the knife marks. The teeth of a rasp are
similar in construction to those of a saw. It is a cutting tool,
A
II
I
I I2
5
II
II
I2
B
Coarse Scraper
II
I
I0
II
Fine Scraper
FIG. 17. SCRAPERS
and hence only cuts in one direction. When using, one should
always rasp in the same direction, i.e. the direction of the grain
of the wood. This results in more uniformity of surface, and
makes the subsequent stages of finishing easier. Rasps can he
circularly cut or diagonally cut, and preference is a matter of
opinion. It is said that the diagonally-cut rasp may, by going
over the same place repeatedly, leave furrows, whereas the
circular-cut rasp does not. These rasps are made specially for
least-makers, and are usually flat on one side and convex on
the other side.
After the rasp a file is used. The object of this is to give
definition to the lines of the last, such as the top of the comb
and the feather.
208
BOOTS AND SHOES
Scrapers are next used, and are of two kinds, coarse and fine
(Fig. 17). The coarse scraper consists of a steel strip (about 12
in. x 1 21 in., mounted on a piece of flexible but strong wood.
Ash is the wood usually chosen. The edge of the steel is
bevelled, and then burred over, or “a wire put on to the edge.”
The preparation of this wire edge needs great care to get
satisfactory results.
Primarily a very true and keen edge must be obtained on the
steel along the entire length of the bevel as at A. Then using a
piece of steel harder than that of the scraper blade (such as a
currier’s steel), the bevel edge is rubbed evenly until a regular
burr is made as at B. The wire has then been obtained on the
scraper, which is now ready for use. This coarse scraper is
obviously comparatively rigid and cannot be used for treating
hollows in the last. However, this latter can be done by the fine
scraper, which is a piece of flexible steel not mounted on
wood. Hence, it can be bent to any curve or hollow of the last.
In this case there are four wire edges, two on each edge of the
steel. To prepare for use, the steel is clamped between two
pieces of wood, and the oilstone used to get sharp right-angled
edges. The currier’s steel is then applied obliquely along the
steel, with the result that four wire edges are formed. (See Fig.
17.)
Glass or sandpaper is used to put the finish on the last. Two
kinds are usually required, a coarse and a fine paper. The fine
paper being applied after the coarse tends to give a polish to
the last. An extra polish can easily be obtained by rubbing the
wood with a piece of bone or similar substance. The object of
this finish is to enable the upper to slide over the surface
during lasting—a rough surface would act as a brake.
CHAPTER IV
MAKING LAST MODELS BY HAND
HAVING considered the necessary tools, the next stage will be
to show the student how he can produce a last model. A
chopped or rough-turned block will be the starting-point. This
block is then “squared.” “Squaring” can be called the first
stage of knifing, and it is to bring the rough block more into
the shape of a last. Squaring can be done generally or
specially. In the first case the squared block will be suitable
for any type of last, and in the second case the block is
squared relative to some given data. However, the stages are
similar in each case.
In the process of “squaring” there are seven main
operations.
1. SQUARING
THE
SIDES
It is desirable to have the seat narrower than the forepart,
and so as a preliminary a coffin-shaped diagram is drawn on
the bottom of the block (Fig. 18A). A straight line AC is drawn
down the centre of the block, and a point B marked such that
AB is five-twelfths of AC, A being the toe end. Through B an
oblique line DBE is drawn and the points D and E mark the
regions of the outside and inside joints respectively. The two
lines AC and DE thus give the diagonals of the “coffin,”
which can then be sketched in. With long sweeps of the knife
the sides are cut down to the sketched lines, but it is important
that at the finish of the process the plane of the sides should be
perpendicular to the plane of the bottom and in no way oblique
to the bottom (Fig. 18B).
209
210
BOOTS AND SHOES
2. SQUARING THE BOTTOM
The seat portion is done first. Two cuts arc made down the
side as in Fig. 18C. Then a cut is taken down the centre, but not
to the end of the block. It is finished off just before the heel
portion. A final cut is made on the other side of the heel. It is
important when making these cuts to give some concave
curvature so that at the end of the operation there is a
suggestion of a waist and a heel.
The seat finished, two cuts are taken down the sides of the
forepart, and then one down the centre. These three cuts
should be such as to give some convex curvature, both
laterally and longitudinally to the forepart. When placed on a
level surface the block should now show a little convex
curvature in the forepart and concave curvature in the waist.
(See Fig. 18D.)
3. CUTTTNG THE CORNERS OF
THE HEEL
As shown in Fig. 18E, the back PQ is divided into three
equal parts by the points R and S. The points T, V, are then
marked so that PT == QV == one-third PQ. RT and SV are
joined, and lines perpendicular to these sketched up the back
and sides. The corners are then cut down to these lines and
present an appearance as in Fig. 18F.
The block at its present stage has very little semblance of
curvature, and the object of the next four processes is to give
this in the appropriate parts.
4. ROUNDING UNDER
THE
3
16
SEAT
On the bottom mark a point D about in. inwards from the
back (Fig. l8G). Sketch in a semi-ellipse ADB. Next select a
point C (Fig. 18H) about one-fifth of the height up the back,
and from C sketch in a line parallel to the bottom, and from A
and D lines perpendicular to the
FIG. 18. SQUARING
AND
KNIFING
212
BOOTS AND SHOES
bottom. Then cut round the seat inside these lines and
following the ellipse on the bottom. This gives the heel
portion a rounded finish as in Fig. 18N.
5. TRIMMING
THE
BACK
OF THE
HEEL
The back was left at stage 3 with straight, sharp edges. The
next step is to round them off. This is done by making cuts
along these edges, always giving the block a more upright
tendency on the inside. The result is to round the back of the
block laterally.
To give the back curvature along its height, a shallow cut,
tapering off about halfway down, is taken. These stages are
illustrated in Fig 18K.
6. CUTTING DOWN TOP
OF
COMB
The length of the comb in a direction parallel to the bottom
of the block should, for average purposes, be about one-third
the length of the block. With a size stick, AB (Fig. 18L), over
the block and parallel to the bottom, mark off C from the back
so that BC == one-third AB. Mark a point E up the back of the
block a similar distance of one-third the length from the
bottom. Sketch in the comb CFE, and with the major portion
parallel to the bottom of the block. A similar curve is drawn
on the other side. Cut down to these lines, and, when finished,
the plane of the flat part of the comb should be parallel to the
plane of the bottom of the block.
7. SQUARING
THE
FRONT
AND
TOP
Long cuts are taken from the top of the comb down to the
toe along the inside, the outside, and down the centre of the
block. More wood is scooped out on the outside and this
results in a more upright appearance on the inside. When
making these cuts care must be taken to give the correct
contours, convex at the
MAKING LAST MODELS BY HAND
213
instep position I and concave at the joints J as in Fig. 18M.
These seven processes then constitute the first stage of
knifing, and the block should now possess the salient features
of a last as regards curvature and distribution of bulk.
CHAPTER V
MEASUREMENTS FOR A LAST
BEFORE further progress can be made it. is obviously necessary
to have certain information about the feet concerned. The
question arises, “What information is necessary, and how
shall this information be set out?” Description alone would be
difficult and of little value, as would also a series of figures. A
pictorial representation of the foot is better, together with
measurements accurately located on this. Such a
representation could be in the form of a plaster cast or plan of
the foot. Various methods are available, and the one chosen
depends to a large extent on the resources at hand. Still a good
and successful method should be based on the following
points—
1. The method should be (a) quick in its operation, (b) clean,
(c) ready and precise in its application.
A long drawn-out method would be irksome to the client
and would certainly lead to confusion. Cleanliness is always a
decided attribute. The old method of covering the foot with
printers’ ink and then taking a sole impression is obviously
ruled out of court. Naturally the method should be one which
can readily be carried into practice, and in no way have any
tendency to complicated considerations.
2. The method should be simple and easily understood by
the average person. This simplicity is a great asset.
3. The method should convey to the last-maker the kind of
foot under consideration and the condition and position of the
foot when the measurements were taken.
This is important in order that the maker can give
214
MEASUREMENTS FOR A LAST
215
the necessary allowances, as will be discussed later; whether
the foot is bony or fleshy, old or young; whether the heel was
raised, or whether measurements were taken with the foot in
repose or with the weight of the client on it.
4. The method should be such that all the positions of
measurement can be located on the last to correspond exactly
with those selected on the foot.
5. The method should not only show the amount of
girth bulk, but also the way in which this bulk is distributed on
the foot. For example, we may have two feet with the same
joint girth, but one has a flat cross-section, and the other a
more upright and sloping cross-section. Naturally, although
measurements correspond, a different last shape would be
required in the two cases. The obvious way is to plan
cross-sections of the foot at the positions of measurements.
How this can be done will be considered later.
Keeping these points in mind let us examine and discuss
several methods and decide on their relative advantages and
disadvantages.
METHOD 1
The apparatus required in this case is very simple, being a
size stick and a tape. This is a point in its favour. The
measurements at joint, instep, etc. (see Fig. 19), are taken as
well as the size-stick length and noted thus—
SIZE 8
Joint
Instep
Heel
Ankle
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
9 14 in.
9 34 in.
13 34 in.
9 in.
From this the maker is expected to construct a last suitable
for the foot. This method gives some information, but fails to
specify the positions of measurement.
216
BOOTS AND SHOES
a grave omission, or the type and shape of the foot. How is the
maker to know whether the foot was in repose or with the
e
d
c
b
a
FIG. 19. POSITIONS OF MEASURING THE FOOT
(a) Joint.
(c) Instep.
(e) Ankle.
(b) Lower instep.
(d ) Heel.
weight on? An experienced maker, with his judgment and a
large slice of luck, might make a suitable last, but the element
of chance is too great. Although this
method has been used it has nothing
to recommend it.
METHOD 2
3
ll
l
a9 8
a
3
ll
l
b9 8
b
FIG. 20. DRAFT
FOOT
OF
In this a plan or “draft” of the foot
is taken (Fig. 20). By this is meant
that the border outline of the foot is
traced. This tracing can be done by a
pencil, provided it is kept perfectly
upright, and that the substance of the
pencil’s wood is allowed for in
subsequent considerations. It is
easily visualized that a sloping pencil
would give an incorrect draft.
Again there are various types of
tracers which press up to the foot,
and with careful and correct
manipulation give a true outline of
MEASUREMENTS FOR A LAST
217
the foot. The measurements of the joint and instep girths are
taken, and these positions of measurement marked on the
chart as a-a and h-h. (Fig. 20.)
This method is a decided improvement on the first, and an
attempt has been made to convey some idea of the shape of
the foot. There is, however, much to be desired in this method
although it is still used.
METHOD 3
Here a location tape is used. This consists of two tapes
fastened at right angles, as in Fig. 21. One tape is used to
measure the girth
0 I
and the other is
II
used to locate the
position of this
FIG. 21. LOCATION TAPE
measurement
from the toe end.
When measuring, sometimes the big toe is selected as
the point of reference, sometimes the second toe.
Whichever projects the most is the one usually
chosen.
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
I
I0
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
It is preferable to have a special ruled sheet which
provides space for each foot of a pair and also has
suitable places for noting measurements. However, a
plain paper can be used. The draft is first taken by
tracer with the foot in repose, and the positions of the
subsequent measures located on the draft. When
taking these measures, the foot should be lifted
slightly at the front and the corner of the location tape
placed upon the first point of measurement with the
distance tape hanging over the toe and the girth tape
passing round the foot. The measurements taken should be
recorded at the side of the draft at the located position of
measurement. The other measurements up the front can be
taken in the same manner, and usually three are
9
I0
II
I2
I3
218
BOOTS AND SHOES
sufficient, viz., at the joint, instep, and midway between those,
called the lower instep.
The instep point can be found by locating the small bone on
the ridge up the front of the foot. The method of taking these
measures is shown in Fig. 22.
FIG. 22. MEASURING WITH LOCATION TAPE
To measure the length of the foot, place the size stick
sideways against the inner side of the foot (Fig. 23), see page
229. This measure should be taken with the weight on. As the
draft length is that of the foot in repose, the difference of these
two lengths will indicate the foot extension when weight is
applied.
Next, the heel measure should be taken from the bend of the
foot, at the junction of the leg with the top part of the instep,
and round the ball of the heel. It should be taken with the heel
raised to the height of the heel the footwear is to carry.
MEASUREMENTS FOR A LAST
219
The ankle measure is taken by dropping one end of the tape
down the inner side of the foot, the other end of the tape being
carried round the leg. Other leg measurements for long work
are taken in precisely the same way.
Applying Measurement to Lasts.
When these
measurements are applied to the last there can be several
points of uncertainty. Firstly, the increase in length of the last
over that of the foot must be definitely fixed. Otherwise the
location measures are useless.
Secondly, when measuring on the last will the tape be
applied at the feather edge at the toe or at the top of the toe or
toe puff ? This would again give rise to uncertainty, and the
measurements taken from these two points can be widely
different.
Thirdly, was the girth measure at the joint taken straight
across the foot or at an angle? It is obviously necessary to
know this. Usually, however, in practice, the tape is put
straight across, unless positions are marked on the plan.
Fourthly, when measuring the instep position was the tape
kept taut from the toe or in contact with the foot up the front?
The two measurements would differ considerably.
This method, if these latter points are definitely stated, is a
good one, but it does not give any idea of the height or shape
of the instep. Consequently, a fourth method could be devised
to include this consideration.
METHOD 4
The procedure of the previous method could be followed,
but in addition a side elevation of the foot is taken. The
simplest way is to have a hinged board with a piece of paper
attached. The board can be flat or arranged so that its halves
can be fixed at right
220
BOOTS AND SHOES
angles to each other. The foot is placed on one-half of the
board with the inside close to the folding board. A draft is
taken and the usual girth and location measures taken as
previously described. The positions of girth measures on the
top of the foot can be marked on the foot by means of chalk.
Without moving the foot the other half of the board is brought
into position and fixed. An elevation of the foot and leg is
traced and the positions of measurement from the top of the
foot can be transferred to the profile. This method gives a
more accurate picture of the thickness and shape of the foot
and also specified positions of its dimensions. A little
adjustable platform could be placed on the baseboard so that
the height of the heel could be imitated and allowed for in the
measurements.
SOLE IMPRESSIONS
As an additional piece of information a sole impression
could be taken in conjunction with a plan and elevation of the
foot. The sole impression would show the exact sole area of
the foot in contact with the ground. There are several methods
from which to choose. Foremost is a type of impression box,
which is made specially for this purpose. It consists
essentially of a rubber sheet inked on the underside. A sheet
of paper is placed below this and nearly in contact with it. The
foot is placed on top of the rubber sheet and an impression
results on the paper below. Also, by using a pointer, a plan of
the foot can be obtained on the same piece of paper without
moving the foot. The result is a nicely inked impression, and
the method is quick, clean, and ready in its application.
The student who does not possess such equipment can
obtain good impressions by one of several means. The sole of
the foot can be covered with printers’ ink, and the subject
walks on a sheet of white paper. An
MEASUREMENTS FOR A LAST
221
ideal impression is obtained since the foot actually goes
through the process of walking. It is a dirty method, and for
that reason not popular.
A piece of black cardboard affords suitable means to obtain
an impression. This is soaped over, and a sheet of white paper
is next taken and chalked over one side. The cardboard is
placed on the ground, soaped side uppermost, and the paper
placed on top with the chalked side down. The foot is then
placed on the paper, and an impression of the white chalk on
the black cardboard results. A plan can also be obtained with
this method and location positions marked. The method is
certainly cheap, but for obvious reasons such an impression
cannot be kept for reference.
Dyes can be enlisted to help in this matter. Two sheets of
absorbent pepper are needed, and one of the two is soaked in a
solution of aniline dye in methylated spirits. A little glycerine
is added to the solution so as to keep the paper in a moist state.
The clean paper is put on the ground on a flat surface and the
dye paper on top of this. Finally, a sheet of clean paper. The
foot is placed on the whole, and an impression results on the
top and bottom papers. Usually, the impression on the bottom
absorbent paper is the better one. By using a pointer a border
outline can also be traced and positions marked. This is a
quick and clean method, and the impression can be filed if
necessary for future reference.
Chemical reaction can also do its bit in this direction. When
an iron salt comes into contact with tannic acid, a deep black
precipitate is formed. A sheet of absorbent paper is soaked in a
solution of iron chloride and a little glycerine added to keep
it in a moist state. Another piece of paper is soaked in a
solution of tannic acid and allowed to become almost dry.
The tannic acid paper is placed on to a flat surface, and the iron
222
BOOTS AND SHOES
paper above it. Finally, a sheet of clean paper. The foot is
placed on to this, and a black sole impression is obtained on
the tannic acid paper, to which can be added the foot’s outline
and positions of measurement before the foot is removed. (See
also Section XVI.)
CHAPTER VI
ALLOWANCES AND DEDUCTIONS
FOR LASTS
THE foregoing chapter has given to the student an indication
of how he can obtain information of the foot regarding both its
size and shape. But as is well known there is a wide variety in
the types of feet. Not only this, but the various feet are
subjected to different everyday considerations. Modifications
are therefore called for when clothing these feet.
After the foot is measured, this actual measurement is not
always reproduced on the last on which footwear is to be
made for that foot. Sometimes the last is made
correspondingly smaller or larger, and these deductions and
additions are made according to facts and experience.
For example, the last is made longer than the foot, and this
increase varies with circumstances.
The circumstances which govern these allowances are
several, and those appertaining to the foot will be considered
first.
Some feet are more “bony ” and others more “fleshy ” than
a “normal” foot. Here then are three sets of conditions. The
fleshy foot, owing to its greater coating of protective tissues,
will be able to stand more pressure than a bony foot, and,
consequently, the last girth for the former can be reduced
more than the latter. For example, suppose we have a joint
measure of 9 41 in. for both types of feet. Then as an illustration
of the trend of the allowances, the joint measure on the lasts
for these feet would be, say, 9 81 in. for the bony foot, and, say,
9 in. for the fleshy foot.
223
224
BOOTS AND SHOES
There is again the question of a tender foot, which may be
either of the fleshy or bony type. In such cases the foot is
inclined to be hot and perspire freely. Such feet require greater
measurement in the shoe than the normal foot, so as to lessen
irritation as the foot expands. Consequently, if the foot was of
joint measure 9 41 in. and it was bony and tender, the
corresponding last girth might be made 9 38 in. In the case of a
tender fleshy foot it might be 9 81 in.
Age of the foot must he respected, and this determines
allowances to a definite degree. With the young, growing
foot, allowance must he made to accommodate its growth and
development. The foot of a rniddle- aged person, however,
when growth has stopped, could wear footwear made on a last
whose girth is less than that of the foot. This results in
well-fitting footwear, and for a normal foot there are no
detrimental results. However, if the foot is bony or fleshy,
considerations as previously discussed must he made.
For old feet, extra addition to the last has to be made since
comfort at this stage is of vital importance. As an example,
suppose the joint measure of a young man’s foot and that of an
old man’s foot are both 9 in. Then, in the former case, the last
joint might be made 9 in., but in the latter case it may be made
9 81 in.
The everyday activities of the foot are an important
consideration. A man of leisure who does not walk much
needs little allowance. As appearance is the great asset to him
he requires a smart well-fitting shoe. Hence, his foot
measurements can be reduced on the Last.
But in the case of a market porter, the last measurement
must be increased over that of the foot to allow for comfort
and ease of movement. Consider a joint measurement of 9 in.
Then for the former case the last joint measure might be
reduced to 8 78 in., whereas in the latter case it would be
increased to 9 81 in.
ALLOWANCES AND DEDUCTIONS FOR LASTS
225
Sometimes the circumstances run all in one direction. For
example, consider a, porter of age 55 years whose feet are
tender and bony. Then in this case a joint measure of 9 in.
might be made 9 41 in. on the corresponding position of the last.
Now consider a man of leisure of age 25 years with a fleshy
foot. A joint measure of 9 in. on the foot might be made a joint
measure of 8 34 in. on the last.
Naturally, there are cases when the circumstances are not in
one direction, and in such cases an intelligent compromise has
to be made.
DESIGNS
OF
FOOWEAR
AND
LASTS
The design of footwear to be made on a last has its effect on
the relative dimensions of the foot and the last. The chief
characteristics under this heading of design are the lateral
shape of the toe, the profile shape of the toe, the height of the
heel, and the type of upper.
Consider the first. There should be much more allowance
on the length for a shoe with a pointed toe than for one with a
square toe. For the same foot to wear the two types, the toes
will be nearer the end of a square toe shoe than for a pointed
toe shoe. The pointed toe is dictated by fashion, and the
necessary length must be given for comfort over the addition
of length for the former. However, if the foot under
consideration is naturally pointed at the toes this allowance
need not be so great and the length can be modified to suit.
When considering the shape of the toe the profile or depth is
as important as the lateral width. The toe can be either
receding or upright. Consequently, the toes of the foot can be
accommodated closer to the end of the last in the latter case.
Hence, more increase in last length for the same foot is
necessary if the choice of style has a receding toe.
226
BOOTS AND SHOES
It is common knowledge that the foot elongates when the
weight of the subject is placed on it. This elongation can be in
an average foot as much as a shoe size with the foot flat on the
ground. However, as the heel is raised the foot is in an
unnatural position, and under these circumstances there is
less elongation of the forepart during walking. Hence, the
higher the heel to be used the less length increase necessary in
the last. But when these conditions prevail the foot expands
more laterally, and, consequently, suitable modification must
be made in the width of the forepart. At the same time, with
high-heeled shoes there is not the same pressure on the heels
as with low-heeled shoes. The result is that the seat width in
the former case should be less than in the latter.
The type of upper to be used decides to some extent salient
features of lasts. Consider two types of uppers, say, a whole
front and an apron front or winged cap. In the latter case extra
accommodation should be made on the last to allow for the
seams in the upper. A foot might be comfortably clothed in a
whole-fronted shoe, but when wearing an apron-fronted shoe
made on the same last discomfort would be experienced.
Different conditions are presented with an instep-fastened
upper, such as the bar shoe, compared with a court shoe. In
the former case, the last at the instep should be in relationship
with the corresponding part of the foot. In the latter case, this
is not strictly necessary except at the edge of the vamp, but it is
of more importance to have the top of the last thin along the
sides. This results in the quarters clipping to the sides of the
last and subsequently the foot.
ALLOWANCES
FOR
FOOTWEAR MATERIALS
Materials used for footwear are of great variety, but during
making they undergo similar physical changes.
ALLOWANCES AND DEDUCTIONS FOR LASTS
227
The three important properties of these materials which
concern the last-maker are the stretch, substance, and
flexibility. Some leathers when stretched exhibit high plastic
properties and show little tendency to return to their initial
length when released. Waxed calf is of this order. With box
calf, however, this is somewhat elastic and if stretched and
then released will tend to recover to its initial length.
Consequently, with the same foot to be clothed, different
considerations should be necessary with the last when the two
mentioned materials are used.
Regarding the substance of the material, this has a very
important bearing on comfort. The leather is bent and creased
when walking, and with one of thin substance there is hardly
any movement at the crease. With a thick substance, however,
there is a decided movement and “banking-up” inwards at the
crease. If the necessary accommodation was not made, this
foul material would press into the foot. Hence, for the same
foot, a larger last is necessary for footwear made from thick
material than from thin material.
Some leathers are more flexible than others, and,
consequently, require less force to bend them. This property
must be considered and features introduced into the last to
help progression in walking in the case of footwear made from
material which is not very flexible. This will be considered
later.
To summarize the effect of materials on the choice of last,
suppose a leather is to be used which has very little stretch, is
of stout substance, and has little flexibility. In this case the
maximum girth allowance would begiven. If the conditions
were in the reverse direction, the minimum allowance would
be made.
There are various methods of making and attachment of the
bottoms of footwear. These produce different results with
regard to firmness and flexibility
228
BOOTS AND SHOES
of the bottom. For example riveted work produces a very rigid
sole, whereas a sew-round produces a very flexible bottom.
Hence, in the former case. more girth measurement is
necessary on the last to allow for this rigidity.
The foregoing will give the student some idea of the
considerations that are made when selecting a suitable last.
However, he has obtained his measurements and data of the
foot and must be impatient to translate these into an ideal last
for that foot. From this data his next step is to construct a sole
pattern.
MAKING
THE
SOLE SHAPE PATTERN
The majority of skilled last model makers carve the sole
pattern directly on to the wood as they evolve the model. From
the student’s point of view it is best to construct a sole pattern
and use it when constructing his last.
When cutting such a pattern it is first necessary to study
three salient factors, viz., length, width, and shape of the foot.
Consider that the plan of the foot is a true one, that is, taken
with a tracer—not a pencil. This plan can have been taken
with the weight on or weight off, but the condition, whichever
it is, will have been noted. If both are taken, the mean can be
assumed to be the length of the foot. The last must be made
longer than the foot, and, consequently, the sole pattern also.
This increase depends on the width and shape of the toe
required, whether pointed or square, receding or upright.
For average purposes with a man’s foot, say, size 7, the
extension might be 2 21 sizes for a square toe, 3 sizes medium
toe, and 3 21 to 4 sizes pointed toe. For ladies’ size 2 to size 7, 2
sizes, 2, 2 21 sizes, and 3 sizes respectively.
Regarding the width of the sole shape, this, of course,
ALLOWANCES AND DEDUCTIONS FOR LASTS
229
must not be so wide as the plan or border outline. The sole
impression is a closer idea of the sole shape required, and if
one is taken it greatly facilitates the process. However, if a
sole impression is not available
good results can be obtained by
P
sensible modification of the plan.
X
The reduction of the plan for the
sole width depends on the nature
and type of foot. For example,
the reduction could be more for a
fleshy foot than for a bony foot,
but would be less for a narrow
A9
upright foot than for a wide thin
H
foot.
2
II
I
3
3 II
I8
The shape of the sole is very
important, particularly as regards
the “twist” (see later). Usually,
however, the insole shape should
be more twisted than the border
outline. If the foot is a very
straight foot the insole must
also be comparatively straight. If
in this case the sole shape had
been made too twisted, the
results would be discomfort to
the foot, and running over of the
footwear.
B
II
93I8
I
Q
5
II
5
II
9 I8
Q
9I8
E
K
L
W
S
C
F
D
Z
Consider a border outline of a
foot as Fig. 23, with the positions FIG. 23. SOLE SHAPE PROof joint and waist measurements
DUCTION FROM DRAFT
indicated. This was taken with a
tracer and the weight of the subject on the foot. Further, the
point X indicates the position of the centre of the second toe.
A straight
230
BOOTS AND SHOES
line is drawn from the centre of the seat Z to X. This line is
continued to P so that there is an increase in length of 23 in.
over the size stick length of the foot. This increase of 2 sizes
should be sufficient for a medium toe
shape since the measure of length was
taken with weight on.
Spring
I
II
I
2
Size
II
I
9 38
x
II
I
9 58
II
Pitch I
FIG. 24. THE
SOLE SHAPE
From the positions of the inside joint A
and outside joint B, draw lines
perpendicular to the central line ZP. The
seat position S is located at one-sixth the
foot length from the back, and a line CSD
drawn at right angles to ZP. The waist
position W is located midway between the
inside joint position H and the seat position
S.
Next it is necessary to decide on the
transverse width of the shape relative to the
plan. This depends, of course, on the type
of foot. In this case the foot was inclined
to be “bony,” and so the seat width was
reduced by 81 in. on each side. This would
be a suitable reduction.
At the outside joint B the reduction was
in., and the width at the inside joint position was reduced 81
in., on each side respectively.
3
16
The waist width KL can be arrived at by making KW on the
outside approximately equal to half the seat width, and LW
equal to one-quarter of the seat width.
The salient points are now obtained and the sole shape can
be sketched through these points as in Fig. 24.
This sole shape can be pressed through on to paper, cut out,
and appear as in Fig. 24, with the dimensions of
ALLOWANCES AND DEDUCTIONS FOR LASTS
231
the foot indicated at their corresponding positions of
measurement. At the toe can be recorded the spring of the
proposed last and at the seat the pitch.
Hence, the student will have the necessary information
when he comes to apply this to the insole.
CHAPTER VII
KNIFING THE LAST
HAVING obtained the appropriate sole shape, the construction
of the last can be continued. When doing this it is best to
proceed in a definite manner, step by step. A suitable block is
cut so that its length is about 31 in. longer than the insole. This
block is squared in the manner previously described. The
shape of the bottom is considered first, and due attention paid
to the longitudinal and lateral contours. First, break in the
inside waist just behind the inside joint position, as illustrated
in Fig. 25A. Then rub the block on the bench, and the contact
position of the forepart will be indicated. This line should
slope across the bottom of the block and not straight across it.
Starting at this contact line, obtain the curvature in the waist,
the amount depending on the type of last to be constructed
(Fig. 25B). The curve does not extend to the extremity of the
block but graduates to the front of the seat position. The heel
pad is positioned, and the transverse contours of the waist and
seat adjusted. The front or forepart is next considered, due
attention being paid to the curvature along and across the last,
and to the spring (Fig. 25C). When adjusting the transverse
curvature at the contact position it is important to see that the
twist of the plane through the contact point is positioned
correctly relative to a horizontal plane in contact with the seat.
(See “Twist.”)
The block is now placed in the vice, and the insole pattern
applied along the bottom with its back near to the edge of the
back of the last. The correct “lie” of the shape is carefully
adjusted and then traced around
232
KNIFING THE LAST
233
(Fig. 25D). These lines are then cut, making due allowance for
the overhanging body of the last (Figs. 25E and 25F).
Having shaped the contours of the bottom, the top portion
of the last is built up on this foundation. Start first at the back
and build up around the comb. This done, the top and front
can be completed. When considering the back, the chief points
are the curvature of the back, and the curvatures at the sides.
FIG. 25. KNIFING
THE
LAST
A profile of the back of the foot would be a great aid in the
former case. The latter curvatures depend on to what purposes
the last is to be put. In a court shoe last the side curvatures
would be both concave, whereas for a boot last the curvature
might be convex on the inside. During this process the
transverse position of the comb relative to the border outline is
studied. Sometimes it is central, and sometimes inclined
towards the inside of the last. The comb having been so
positioned, it is cut to the required length, and given the
required curvature when viewed from the side.
When dealing with the front, a profile of the foot is a
234
BOOTS AND SHOES
great aid. This enables the correct profile of the last to be
obtained. The ridge down the front of the last is considered,
and made central or inclined to the inside as the case may be.
The appropriate shape at the joints and around the sides of the
forepart is obtained, and the toe cut to shape. Due attention
should be paid to the profile shape of the toe.
The general contours having been obtained, the next step is
to compare the measurements of the foot with those of the
corresponding positions on the last. The most satisfactory
method is to locate the positions of measurement on the last,
and at these positions test the girths. The positions on the
bottom of the last at joint and instep measures can be obtained
from the insole and should be made permanent by an awl
mark. The top of the instep can be located by placing the last
with its back against a vertical block of wood, and transferring
the horizontal distance of the instep from the back of the foot’s
profile from this vertical block. This position should also be
recorded permanently by means of an awl mark. In the latter
case care should be taken to present the awl in a direction
perpendicular to the plane on which the last rests. This ensures
that if more wood is removed at this position the instep point is
still in its true relative position with regard to the axis length
of the last.
The measurements of the girths of the last are taken at these
positions, and the necessary alterations made, leaving
sufficient wood to allow for finishing. The next step is to cut
the block from the last, to ensure that it can be removed from
the boot or shoe without damage to the footwear. There are
various types of blocks, as will be seen later, but with the
equipment available the student can obtain good results as
follows: Cut a step A on the comb of the last (Fig. 26), and
select points as B on the inside and outside of the last at the
joint positions.
KNIFING THE LAST
235
Then saw, with the band-saw, straight from A to B. The next
step is to cut down the front of the block. This should be done
in a direction CB, not DB. In the latter case, the ridge left on
the bottom portion of the block would catch on the upper
during withdrawal. This tendency would be absent in the
former case. The corner of the block, aaB, can be cut off and
pegged. This makes the block narrower at the end and, hence,
easier to withdraw. To fasten the block a headless nail is
M
A
D
C
a
a
S
B
FIG. 26. CUTTING
THE
BLOCK
inserted at S (Fig. 26) and forced into the bottom portion of
the last. A screw at M, through the block, completes the
operation.
FINISHING
THE
LAST
Knifing completed, the finishing of the last is proceeded
with. Rasping comes first, and its object is to smooth down the
knife cuts, and so define more clearly the shape of the last.
However, the rasping operation should not be made more
tedious by indifferent knifing. The primary aim should be to
knife well and clearly, and this in itself will be conducive to
easy rasping.
Chalk the jaws of the vice, and pinch the last in the vice,
with the minimum of pressure necessary to give a good hold.
This prevents any tendency to bruise the last. Leave as much
of the body of the last out of the
236
BOOTS AND SHOES
vice as is possible, as this gives more freedom. The operation
can he conducted with greater ease in four stages, as
represented in Fig. 27. The last is placed with the heel towards
the operator and the back raised. This enables the whole of the
inside length and the back to be rasped. The outside is done
next. Thirdly, the top and front. The last is clamped at the two
FIG. 27. RASPING
THE LAST
* Indicates the position of workman
sides with the toe slightly raised. Finally, the bottom. The 1ast
is reversed from the previous stage with the toe towards the
operator and the heel down.
Every part of the wood should be touched with the rasp, but
not so heavily as to leave deep grooves. As far as is possible
the rasping should be done in one direction, and all the rasp
marks lie in this direction, that is, in the direction of the
length. This will facilitate subsequent processes.
After rasping, the next step is to “set the edges” of the last.
This is done with a file, and the object is to
KNIFING THE LAST
237
get the edges sharp and even, if necessary. Great care must be
taken to get the edges true and the curvature continuous. This
is sometimes called setting the range, which feature will he
considered later. When doing this constant reference should
be made to the sole shape.
Commencing at the back of the bottom, the edges are filed
in a direction parallel to the bottom, taking care that the lateral
curvature is not affected. Then, with the file upright, the edges
along the outside of the back are “trued.” Similarly for the
forepart and comb. By careful working, the edges from the
forepart and seat can be made to merge and disappear into the
waist.
Having set the edges, the next step is to smooth the last and
take out the rasp marks. The tools used in their order are the
coarse scraper, fine scraper, and sandpaper. The order of
procedure is similar to that for rasping, and each portion is
completed before proceeding to the next. Two grades of paper
can be used, first a coarse and then a fine grit. It is advisable to
apply these with a circular motion so as to minimize any
possibility of scratching.
The last is now in a fit state to use, but extra polish can be
given by rubbing it with a material harder than the wood of the
last. The fibres of the wood near the surface are compressed,
and an even polish results. However, this is not a permanent
polish and affords little protection against the atmosphere, and
so lasts are often french polished. As will be seen later,
different methods are adopted in last manufacturing.
Great care should be taken to set the edges correctly, and,
when set, similar caution exercised to prevent their damage
by scraper or sandpaper. Again, the scraper must not be
applied too heavily at salient points on the last, otherwise too
much wood will be removed, and the characteristic contours
altered.
238
A DVANTAGES
BOOTS AND SHOES
OF
M AKING L ASTS
BY
H AND P ROCESS
The processes of hand last-making described enable the
student to train his eye in the development of contour and
shape in lasts. Before the advent of machinery, all last-makers
had to start from the chopped block, but to-day this is rarely
done.
B ESPOKE L ASTS
Modern West End practice is to make use of machines as far
as is possible without interference with the individuality
necessary. When possible the last-maker likes to take the
necessary data of the feet himself, and so note any important
points which require specific attention. Having obtained his
draft and measures, and having studied the draft, he next
selects a suitable stock rough-turned last. A selection of such
lasts are kept, with the heel and toe in the rough state as they
left the turning lathe. One is chosen which could be made
suitable to the data either in all wood or with the addition of
small leather fittings. If a last cannot be selected from stock,
the nearest model is fitted up and from this a pair are rough
turned. This is the practice when the feet are alike. Should
the feet be distinctly odd, then it is necessary to have a model
fitted up for each foot and the two rough turned, one to each
model. This is found to be much quicker, since it eliminates
the modification of one of the lasts if they had been a pair.
The blocks are cut at the same time, and in some cases the
square-cut block is preferred to the scoop block. Having
received the rough-turned lasts, the maker proceeds to make
his lasts to the required data. First, he removes the toe and
heel chuck holding connection, sawing off the major portion,
and then shaping the ends with a bench knife or spokeshave.
KNIFING THE LAST
239
Usually, the length is left half a size longer than is necessary,
for emergencies. The block is removed, and, the outside
corners sawed off with a very fine saw. The major portion of
the block is then replaced with the corner loose. This corner is
pasted on to a piece of upper leather of thickness equal to the
saw cut, and fastened in its original position by means of
rivets. The latter are sunk below the surface. It is claimed that
such a modified square-cut block has distinct advantages over
the scooped block. It is easy to remove from the shoe with
little fear of damage to linings, etc., owing to the removal of
the corner. Again, on placing a last in a shoe and driving home
the block, the block cannot slip further forward than its correct
position, which is often the case with curved-cut blocks.
Having modified the blocks, the maker continues to make
the last by fitting it to the back portion of the draft first from
heel to ball. The necessary wood is removed with a
spokeshave or small rasp. With the back portion fitted, the
necessary pitch is imparted and the last length reduced to its
necessary size-stick length plus a small allowance for
finishing. The prominent parts, if any, on the bottom of the
foot ars ignored for the time being, and great care is taken to
produce the correct range and pitch. The correct pitch would
be checked by trying the model on the required heel; the latter
naturally being reduced by an amount equal to the ultimate
sole substance.
With the back portion fitted and the length and pitch, etc.,
correct, the last is now reduced to the taken measures. The
reduction is made from the top or sides, depending on the type
of foot under consideration. At the same time the correct toe
shape is imparted, together with the required amount of twist.
The amount of twist or straightness is governed by the amount
of twist in the draft. The maker then proceeds to set the
240
BOOTS AND SHOES
range of the last, and to make a paper copy of the sole shape
which he has automatically produced during the various
stages. The last is finished with scrapers and sandpaper, and
attention then diverted to the companion last. This is paired up
with constant reference to the first, and to the paper sole
shape. This enables the maker to get the same shape of toe,
etc., in the pair.
With both models finished, attention is paid to the bottom if
necessary. Any necessary addition is made by leather fittings,
attached by a strong adhesive and a few fine rivets. When
making these fittings the maker takes great care not to
interfere with the range of the last. This explains why the
bottom of the model is considered last. It is much easier to get
a true range on a last that has a normal forepart, that is, one
without any prominences on the bottom.
The last model maker does many of his operations
automatically as a result of his experience, but it takes many
years of application and practice to acquire that skill.
However, the serious technical student could with advantage
study the question of lasts, since to a large extent they control
the appearance and to the full extent the fitting properties of
footwear. A closer co-operation is very necessary between
the foot anatomist, the last-maker, and the shoe manufacturer
before the ideal conditions are reached. This is only possible
when an expert in one section is thoroughly acquainted with
the problems and requirements of the other two. With this
state of affairs reached, they could work in unison with the
common object of correct fitting and attractive footwear.
CHAPTER VIII
SPRING, PITCH, TWIST, AND RANGE
IN LASTS
IT is obvious that the last cannot be a model of the foot in any
one of its positions of rest or activity. It should be, idealy, a
mean shape between the positions of rest and the positions
A
Pitch
Spring
FIG. 28. PITCH
AND
SPRING
taken up by the foot during its activity. A last which was
perfectly flat along the bottom would be suitable for a foot that
was never flexed or extended, or a person who never walked.
Consequently, since the occupation of a coachman
approaches these extreme conditions, the lasts for his boots
can have most regard to plantigrade. But such an exclusive
form would not be suitable for a walking boot or shoe. The
first step, therefore, to approach this ideal state is to introduce
“spring” into the last.
Consider a last resting on a horizontal plane, and the seat
raised to the distance demanded by the correct height of heel
(Fig. 28). “Pitch” is the elevation of the
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242
BOOTS AND SHOES
seat under these conditions, and “spring” the elevation of the
toe under the same conditions.
SPRING
Spring is introduced because it helps progression in
walking when wearing shoes made on that last. The raised toe
of the shoe offers some resistance to the downward pressure
of the toes of the foot, resulting in a state of leverage at the
ball of the foot. The consequence is facility of progression in
walking. This characteristic of lasts varies in its magnitude
according to different circumstances.
When the shoe carries a high heel very little spring is
required. In such a shoe the foot is not bent much during
walking. The toes are already partially bent, and the contact
position of the foot is in the region of the ends of the
metatarsal bones. Hence, the foot is placed down rigidly
rather than flexed during the action of walking. Very little aid
to flexing, and consequent forward progression, is necessary
in this case. On the other hand, for a very low heel the foot is
bent considerably when walking. Hence, as an aid to
progression, the maximum spring is required. Briefly,
therefore, the trend is that the higher the heel the less the toe
spring.
Spring in the last has reference to, and is regulated by, the
rigidity or flexibility of the footwear concerned. If the sole is
very flexible, the shoe is easily bent and will follow the action
of the foot very closely. Hence, little aid in the nature of
spring is required. However, for a rigid sole the maximum aid
is required, and, consequently, a lot of spring is given in this
case. To have the forepart flat from joint to toe is a common
practice in the West End hand-sewn trade, and it is only
possible because of the high-grade workmanship associated
with these productions, ensuring the greatest
SPRING, PITCH, TWIST, AND RANGE
243
flexibility, and because of the restrained use of such footwear.
To make screwed footwear on a last of this character would be
obviously ridiculous. Consequently, to summarize, the
greater the rigidity of the sole, the greater the toe spring
necessary.
The design of the footwear has its own quota of effect on
this characteristic of lasts. Some, such as court shoes, have no
leg or ankle supports or attachments as have boots. Hence it is
necessary that the quarters should grip round the side of the
foot to keep the shoe in place. This necessity can be helped by
a suitable use of spring. Shoe lasts generally should have a fair
amount of spring. The result would be that the toes when
pressing on the forepart would set up a degree of tautness in
the direction A (Fig. 28). This would have its effect on the
gripping property of the shoe. Hence, in general, a shoe last
should have more spring than a boot last.
Fashion plays her part with pointed toe shoes, and, as has
been stated previously, such should be made on lasts longer
than the accepted standard last. This spring is necessary from
a ‘"clearance" point of view. If it is not given, the extended
toe is bent at an axis where the toes of the foot end.
Consequently, the front wrinkles and turns up, and impairs
the appearance considerably.
PITCH
“Pitch” has reference to the height of heel, and has its effect
on the characteristics of lasts. The line of contact or tread line
is positioned according to the pitch. It is obvious that as the
seat of a last is raised the contact with a horizontal plane
moves forward. From coverage data it lias been observed that
this progression is about 181 in. for every 21 in. of pitch added.
Consequently, it must be concluded that the greater the pitch
the shorter the forepart, and vice versa.
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BOOTS AND SHOES
Further, for a last with high pitch, the forepart should be
made wider and the seat narrower. This follows, since the
weight of the subject is concentrated on the ends of the
metatarsals under this condition. This position of the foot
results in a greater spreading of the forepart, and a less
spreading of the seat, when the weight is on.
RANGE
Range has been defined as the harmonious blending of the
spring and pitch. It is understood to define the contours of the
edges of a last. The range is good when the curves of the
edges are in harmony and continuous. The range is broken
when these conditions are not satisfied. This does not apply to
the profile only but to the bottom. Suppose a person is looking
longitudinally along the bottom of a last with the toe pointing
to the observer. Then the edges of the forepart along each side
should harmonize. Otherwise it is considered “out of range.”
The range or edge of a last is not a fitting property; but is
there purely to define the insole shape. It is obvious that the
foot has no such defined edge but is curved at the sides. The
last here ought to resemble the shape of the foot, but the
claims of the process of manufacture must be met. Defined
edges are a necessary part of this process.
With the machine-sewn process and the Consol lasting
machine, it is necessary, to get a shoe of smart appearance,
that the last should have sharp edges in the sole form and a
sharp and well-defined waist-line. Rapid processes introduced
the use of sole levellers and sole moulders, and with these the
best results are obtained when the last has well-defined
outlines. Flat-seated lasts are the best for use with heel
attachers, but it is a definite truth that footwear made on such
lasts is the least comfortable.
SPRING, PITCH, TWIST, AND RANGE
245
TWIST
Finally there is the question of “twist" in a last. By this is
meant the relative transverse positions of the seat and forepart.
If the seat is rotated towards the inside from the central line of
the forepart, the shape is said to be twisted. On the other hand,
if the seat is moved more towards this central line, the shape is
made straighter.
When judging the twist of a last it can be done either in
relation to the border outlines of the last or the sole shape. The
last may appear straight with relation to one but twisted
relative to the other.
For the average foot the last should have a border outline
which is practically straight and the insole should be a little
twisted. There is also another state of twist to be considered.
Suppose a person views a last longitudinally along the bottom
with the toe away from the observer. Consider an imaginary
tangential plane to the centre of the seat, and one to the tread
or contact point. Then if the planes are parallel there is no
twist. If they are inclined at an angle there is some twist. It is
generally accepted that there should be some twist, with the
forepart plane raised towards the inside of the last. This
feature is considered to prevent “running over” of the
footwear. In some cases lasts are made with no such twist, but
never should the forepart plane be inclined above the seat
plane on the outside of the last.
Although some of the essential principles are disregarded to
suit manufacturing processes, it is necessary for the technical
student to keep these principles alive. The day may come
when, by the efforts of manufacturers and engineers, these
correct principles will be provided for in mass production.
The aim of the lastmaker is clear and definite, and the ideal
last has been produced when shoes made on it are elegant,
comfort able, and, further, retain their shape during wear.
CHAPTER IX
LAST MANUFACTURING
AS the development of an industry affects its allied trades, so
has the rapid development of boot and shoe manufacturing
had its effect on last manufacture. Improvement in machinery
still grows apace, and it is difficult to visualize the ultimate
result. The industry is still young, but the veteran stage as
regards machines is very quickly reached.
The hand-process of making lasts was quickly displaced by
machine methods, and, generally speaking, the best of the
latter were of American origin. However, from an historical
point of view, it is interesting to consider some of the early
forms of machine.
One of English origin resembles an ordinary lathe and is
essentially a copying machine. The model, having been made
by hand, was placed in a frame together with a rough block.
The former was forced into contact with a dummy wheel, and
the latter into contact with a cutting wheel. The most forward
of the knives and the dummy were arranged in line with each
other, if an exact copy of the model was required. But as the
turned piece was rough, and had to be finished, it was made
larger than the model. Hence, the dummy was moved to
accommodate this, or else the model was made a little larger
than the required last.
Models for the machine were prepared in the ordinary way,
knifed and rasped by hand. One model sufficed for the right or
left foot last, and various fittings could be turned for the same
model by adjusting the position of the dummy wheel.
However, this resulted in an
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LAST MANUFACTURING
247
increase or decrease exactly the same over the whole of the
last. This is not the result that is strictly required.
FIG. 29. GILMAN LATHE
The next progressive stage was the introduction of the
Gilman reverse last lathe (Fig. 29). The illustrations of this are
due to the kindness of the British United
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BOOTS AND SHOES
Shoe Machinery Co., Ltd., and Messrs. Gilman & Son, of
Vermont, U.S.A. Two types are shown which are in everyday
FIG. 30. IMPROVED GILMAN LAST LATHE
use, but that shown in Fig. 30 is an improvement on the other.
The essential difference is that the
LAST MANUFACTURING
249
former requires factory shafting to work it, whereas the more
modern type has individual motors. The capacity of the latter
machine is from 60 to 80 pairs of lasts per day of eight
working hours. This variation depends on the size of the lasts
and the type of cut or feed used.
Briefly, the machine consists of a swing frame which
carries the model to be copied and the rough block to be
turned. This frame oscillates freely, and a special clutch
mechanism is provided on every machine for stopping the
block right side up when the swing frame is pulled out.
The weight of the frame keeps the model in contact with a
dummy wheel and the rough block in contact with the cutters.
The hanging frame allows the block to go forward or
backward upon the cutter, which cuts the block at the
corresponding point at which the model rests on the dummy
wheel. Hence, when and where the model touches the dummy
wheel so the cutters cut the block. This machine turns both
right and left lasts accurately from one model, and has
sufficient variation of work spindle speeds and feeds to cover
a wide variety of lasts. It is capable of grading five sizes on
the English system and seven on the French system, both
larger and smaller than the model. The largest diameter of
model that the machine will accommodate is 6 21 in., and that of
the rough block 11 in. The maximum model room between
the clamps or dogs is 12 34 in., and the corresponding
accommodation for the block is 13 34 in. It is a practice to find
one operator tending three or four machines.
The Gilman lathe can be equipped with large dummy wheel
and large cutters, or small dummy wheel and small
cutters—the former of 10 in. diameter and the latter of 3 21 in.
With the 3 21 in. cutter head, this machine accurately
reproduces the concave sides of
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BOOTS AND SHOES
the model, and gives results which cannot possibly be
obtained with the 10 in. cutter head. This is a decided
improvement, considering that some of the modern lasts have
parts of deep concavity.
In the latest machines an attachment is incorporated that
automatically slows up the spindle speed while the model is
going over the comb or highest point of the last. This prevents
bumping of the swing frame, which is a usual occurrence at
this point. The place in the last where this occurs can be set by
the operator with a simple adjustment, or, if not required, can
be entirely eliminated. The latter case is likely to arise when
turning men’s lasts of more regular pattern.
As was mentioned previously, the machine illustrated in
Fig. 29 is driven from factory shafting, whereas that in Fig. 30
has individual motors. The latter type is considered to have
some advantages over the former. For example, the
motor-driven one can be installed in a lower room, since no
overhead shafting is required. Further, it can be placed in the
most advantageous position in the factory as regards space
and lighting. There is also less power consumed. The
individual motors are used only when the lathe is running.
There is no overhead shafting running all the time, consuming
enough power to run all the machines linked to it. Again, with
the shaft-driven machine, the cutter-head belt travels
backwards and forwards along the large drum. Consequently,
when adjusting the position of the cutter carriage to see if the
block is large enough, it is necessary to keep the machine
running. With the individual motor suspended below the
cutter carriage, the carriage can be moved at will without
starting the machine. This is obviously of advantage to the
operator and further lessens the risks of accident.
Such machines as previously described will not only
LAST MANUFACTURING
251
reproduce the model, but will grade upwards or downwards.
For example, if a size 4 ladies’ last is selected as the model, it
is possible to produce a range from size 2 to 7 from this one
model. By reversing the machine, the opposite foot can be
reproduced. This grading is geometric, and in itself does not
produce a range of lasts with the same characteristics as
regards magnitude. Improvements on this method will be
considered later when dealing with co-ordinated lasts and
patterns. In the hands of a skilled operator it is possible to
produce lasts which have the forepart characteristics of size 5
and the seat characteristics of size 4. This is obtained by
gradually adjusting the grade as the size 5 is turned from the 4
model.
The next development in last-turning machines is one
which produces a pair of lasts at the same time. The model is
placed below the machine and in contact with a dummy
wheel. This controls the movements of two blocks which are
presented to the cutters, and, in one operation, a pair of lasts
are turned to correspond exactly to the model. By means of a
special lathe, co-ordinated last models (see later) are produced
for every size of a range, and in conjunction with the dual
machine lasts are produced more uniform as a pair. There is no
necessity to stop the machine, insert a new block and reverse
the machine to turn the other last of a pair. The latter is likely
to lead to errors.
PREPARING
THE
M ODEL
However, whatever the type of machine used, it is first
necessary to have a model. The model is prepared with the
greatest possible care, and the model-makers are craftsmen
with considerable skill. It is made nearly like the last required,
but has guide points for measurements and extra allowances
above or below the finished
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BOOTS AND SHOES
article for sawing, fastenings, plates, and finishing. The
locations for measurements are made by means of
round-headed nails on the model, whose shapes are
reproduced on the turned last in the relative positions. Hence,
checking in the correct corresponding positions is an easy
matter. Along the edges of the model last, nails are driven in
very close to each other, and then filed off to reproduce the
correct contours of the last. Further, a steel toe-plate is fixed
on the bottom. These reinforcements protect the model when
in use, and prevent the destruction of the edges and
consequent shape of the model.
After the model has been prepared, the insole shapes are
carefully graded and the model and patterns go to the lathe,
and the various sizes and fittings are turned from the one
model in rights and lefts lasts. In the case of the co-ordinated
method each size has its individual model.
T URNING
THE
BLOCKS
The rough blocks are turned first with a very quick feed to
remove most of the superfluous wood. Then they are turned
with a very slow rate of progression, and, if the 3 21 in. cutter
head is used, a very faithful reproduction is obtained.
When it leaves the lathe, there is superfluous wood on the
toe and heel of the last. The next step, therefore, is to remove
this. Various methods are in use. One is that the toe-maker, as
he is called, carefully shapes the toe and heel with a small
bench knife, or a spokeshave. During this he makes constant
reference to the inner-sole shape in question. Sometimes to
aid him the last toe can be made to follow a template which is
the same shape as the toe of the insole. As the last moves in
this restricted direction it comes into contact with a saw
which cuts to the template. Similarly when dealing
LAST MANUFACTURING
253
with the back he may have a template whose shape is the
correct one for the back required.
A more scientific and accurate method makes use of various
precise machines. For removing the superfluous wood on the
back the last is presented to a special saw, called a “Wobble
Saw.” The last rests on a rocking bed, and the curve traced by
the movement of the bed can be adjusted by a gauge for that
purpose. Consequently, after the back has been presented to
the saw, its curvature is exactly the same as that set on the
gauge. This is a very quick and precise method of removing
the surplus wood, and at the same time imparting the correct
vertical shape to the back of the last.
Then there is the “Toe-and-Heeling” machine. This is a
very clever device and is constructed to operate on two pairs
of lasts at the same time. The lasts are arranged on either side
of the model in a special frame so that they all have their axes
parallel. The frame can be rotated, and first is fixed with the
toes uppermost. A follower is placed below the extremity of
the model, and is capable of rotating in contact with it. At the
same time as it rotates it also moves parallel to the axis of the
model, and so in its complete operation covers the surface
area of the toe of the model. Working in unison are four cutters
which operate on the lasts. Hence, the toe of the model is
reproduced on the two pairs of lasts. By swinging the frame
half a revolution the backs are brought uppermost, and
similarly they are faithfully reproduced from the model. This
is undoubtedly a vast improvement on the hand method of
“toeing and heeling.”
S UBSEQUENT O PERATIONS
The subsequent operations are carried out in various
orders at different factories, but the object is the same,
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BOOTS AND SHOES
that is, to add the necessary furniture to the last and finish it
for use.
First the comb could be suitably sawed and the leather
introduced at the top. This leather is in a rough state, and is
later trimmed up to the correct outline of the comb.
By means of a band-saw the blocks are cut, or the last is
divided suitably to allow for fixing of hinges and such
equipment. In the latter case, with a hinged last, it is obviously
necessary that the two parts should fit accurately, and be able
to move easily in relation to each other. During this process,
several auxiliary machines are used to ensure that the hinges
are fixed in the correct place.
Then there is the drilling of the jack holes, which is done by
a power drill. Great care and accuracy are taken to ensure that
the axis of the hole is at right angles to the top of the comb.
This is necessary to ensure that the last sits squarely on the pin
support when presented to the seat-lasting machine. If
otherwise, there is the great danger of breaking the pin on this
machine when pressure is applied to the seat of the last.
BOTTOM P LATES
During these processes another department is busy
preparing the bottom plates, where necessary. These are of
sheet iron, and are cut to the shape of the innersole, either
wholly or in part, by means of special shears. They are made
slightly larger than the insole to give allowance for finishing.
These plates are punched suitably to accommodate the nails or
screws which attach them to the bottom of the last. Larger
holes, i.e. tack holes, are punched where required to facilitate
the temporary attachment of the innersole during the
manufacture of footwear.
LAST MANUFACTURING
255
Where possible these plates are moulded to the shape of the
bottom of the last by a suitable machine. This greatly
facilitates their quick and accurate attachment.
FINISHING PROCESSES
Next comes the finishing process. The lasts are presented to
emery or sandpaper wheels, usually a coarse paper first and
then a fine one. This process is entirely hand-operated, and
therefore requires delicacy of touch and a true eye. It removes
all traces of the grooves left by the lathe, and any other mark
resulting from the preceding processes. In the hands of an
unskilled operator it is possible for too much wood to be
removed, and the outlines and features of the last impaired.
Consequently, it may be possible to visualize, in future,
automatic scouring machines which eliminate the human
factor completely.
Finally, the last is polished. This can be done in several
ways. The last can be coloured, if necessary, and then applied
to a revolving brush made of leather washers, a mixture of
shellac and resin having been previously put on to the brush.
The heat caused by the friction is sufficient to soften this
mixture, which is pressed into the wood by the action of the
brush. The last is finally polished on a similar brush, free from
shellac and resin. The surface of the last is now highly glazed,
and as a whole has been made more resistant to the influences
of moisture. Other methods follow a similar procedure, but
use various types of wax, such as carnauba, instead of the
shellac-resin mixture. The lasts are then stamped with the size
and identification number and are ready for dispatch.
With some last manufacturers it is now becoming a practice
to stamp the joint and instep girths on the corresponding
positions of the last. As previously mentioned, by inserting
round-headed nails at the
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BOOTS AND SHOES
positions of measurement on the model, these positions are
reproduced on the last. Naturally, these small projections are
removed when finishing, but their positions can be made
permanent before this operation by an awl mark. Hence it is
possible for independent observers to record the same girth
measurements of the last. This is not possible when the
positions of measurement are not specified, and often leads to
disputes between last and boot manufacturers.
CHAPTER X
CO-ORDINATED LASTS AND PATTERNS
T HIS description is the name given to a new system of
automatic and precise unification of all sizes of lasts and
patterns, in which each size is a perfect copy, in that it
reproduces the character, appearance, and contours of the
original model as called for to suit trade requirements. This
system was originated and perfected by the United Last
Company of America, and it is to the English representatives,
The British United Shoe Machinery Company, that the author
is indebted for this information.
In order to understand this system better it is perhaps best to
mention some of the practices it supersedes. The usual
procedure of obtaining lasts is for the shoe manufacturer to
collaborate with the last-maker in obtaining the necessary
model. This is usually, for ladies’ lasts, a size 4B fitting.
When this model is perfected, the shoe manufacturer orders
the range of sizes and fittings that he requires. All reputable
firms of last-makers can be depended on to produce a perfect
pattern model but, unfortunately, the problem does not end
there.
When making lasts from this model, the last-making
machine, as previously seen, produces any sizes larger or
smaller than the model. The machine as it grades follows the
model, and, consequently, increases or decreases the various
measurements in all directions. Consequently, as these are
produced the lines of the lasts carry up or down, as the case
may be. As an instance of this, suppose the correct toe spring
of the 4B model is 81 in. Then the toe spring of the larger
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258
BOOTS AND SHOES
sizes will progressively increase, and that of the smaller sizes
progressively decrease. By the time the larger sizes are
reached the toe spring will be very much higher.
Consequently, the resulting shoe will be distorted that amount
and be considerably different from that made on the original
model. Further, the pitch will not be uniform in the range of
lasts, and, if the same height of heel is used in each case, an
incorrect heel tread will result (Fig. 31). This might lead to
FIG. 31. SIZES 4 AND 8: SIZE 8 LAST GRADED FROM A
SIZE 6 HAND-BROKEN MODEL
the breaking down of the shanks and breaking off of the heels,
with resultant short life in wear. This has always been, and
still is, one of the evils of shoe manufacturing, and it is
claimed that the only solution to correct this is the use of
co-ordinated lasts and patterns.
In theory it should be possible to obtain perfect lasts of any
size from an original perfect model. In practice this is not
possible when some methods of procedure are adopted. This
is obvious when it is remembered that the last-grader operates
from a fixed centre. When the grade is changed the machine
automatically carries on the radial directions from this centre,
the lines and contours and angles of the original model. It is
obvious that, with any change in size, an article will be
produced
CO-ORDINATED LASTS AND PATTERNS 259
that prolongs every line and contour in the same direction and
angle that they run in the original model. Hence, a line in the
model which slants upwards will continue to rise at exactly
the same elevation as the sizes increase and continue to retreat
as the sizes decrease. These results would be quite in order, if
the foot, in the different sizes, followed this geometric
arrangement. However, the average human foot does not do
this as the size varies. Nature makes allowances to preserve
similar proportions and characters in the different sizes.
Hence, to follow this trend of nature, lasts should be suitably
designed. It is claimed that the co-ordinated system for lasts
makes these allowances in the successive sizes.
Under the old system, if this be classed as the new, it is only
possible to do one thing to try and overcome these defects,
which are natural in the mechanical limitations of the grading
machines, but unfortunate in the effects upon the appearance
and fitting properties of the shoes above and below the model
size. This procedure is to turn from the size 4 model the sizes
4 21 , 5, 5 21 , and 6 upwards, and in half-sizes to size 2
downwards. At sizes 2 and 6 it has been customary with most
last manufacturers to “break” the last. That is, the last is sawed
at the vamp line and at the breast of the heel, and suitable
wedges introduced to obtain the desired toe spring and heel
angle. This manipulation produces a new model correct in
some aspects but fails to keep to two essential measurements,
viz., the long and short heel.
“Breaking” a last is done by hand, and, consequently, is
subject to the limitations of the hand and eye. It cannot be
depended upon for absolute accuracy, and results in distorting
the proportions that are perfect in the original model. This
explains why the smaller and larger sizes of any given style so
often vary in general
260
BOOTS AND SHOES
effect and appearance from the model style. Some shoe
manufacturers have adopted what is called “progressive heel
grading.” In this, the heel height for the same style is higher or
lower as the heel seat lines ascend or descend on the grading.
Hence, in the initial 4B model style, the suitable heel chosen
might be a 14/8 heel, i.e. 1 34 in. heel. But the size 8 would
carry a higher heel, and the size 2 a progressively lower one.
Still the whole range is supposed to be one suitable in style,
etc., to carry a 14/8 heel. This is certainly an unsatisfactory
makeshift. A 14/8 heel style should carry a 14/8 heel
throughout the entire range of sizes. Heel heights are
measured at the breast, and the whole process of breaking the
last at size 2 and size 6 results in a distorted last, one out of
proportion.
The distorted last resulting from the “breaking” makes still
more difficult the problem of unity of last and pattern. On
every side, with both lasts and patterns, the further away from
the model size the greater the difficulties involved. This is a
situation that cannot produce a standardized true fit. Hence, it
is distinctly unsatisfactory to the shoe manufacturer, the
dealer, wearer, and everyone else concerned. This situation
has been met by the new system and some of the difficulties
eliminated.
The system of co-ordinated lasts and patterns is an
invention in last and pattern-grading that overcomes many of
the difficulties and defects previously mentioned. It would not
be a completed ideal to have this system in last-grading alone.
To give its full effect to shoe-making it is necessary that
corresponding improvement be made in pattern-grading.
Consequently the lasts and patterns made work absolutely
together—hence the name of the system.
Every woman has not a size 4B fitting foot, yet every
CO-ORDINATED LASTS AND PATTERNS 261
woman is entitled to the same shoe appearance regardless of
the size of her feet. Where the new system is used, every size
is a model with the same characteristics as the original. Every
size, whether larger or smaller, is as perfect in outline,
character, fitting qualities, and appearance, as the original
model.
As previously mentioned, in the manufacture of lasts, it is
first necessary to get out a line of samples. These samples
generally are the result of the combined efforts of the last
manufacturer and his expert designers. The samples, which in
FIG. 32. 2-4-6-8 HEELS GRADED FROM BREAST
ladies’ lasts are usually size 4B fitting, are then submitted to
the manufacturer for his consideration. He then chooses the
type best suited to his particular sphere, and, from his
criticisms and suggestions, a last is finally produced which
meets with his particular requirements. The shoe
manufacturer has now chosen a 4B last, which he considers
correct, and places his order for the number of pairs of each
size, and half-size, and of each fitting, as meets his
requirements.
The last manufacturer has then to make a run of widths from
the original 4B model to cover the range required by the
manufacturer. Hence it is necessary here to note that the same
toe spring, same width of shank, and same pitch are required
in each width. Suppose the order covers a range of widths
from AAA to EEE. It has been the practice of last-makers to
262
BOOTS AND SHOES
mark off the bottom of the last for the breast of the heel at 2 in.
in all widths. This on the new system is considered inaccurate
because of the fact that every width takes a different size of
heel (Fig. 32). Hence it is considered more correct to make the
heel breast at 2 in. on the 4B, and fit that last with a size 8 heel
(Fig. 32). The 4A last would then take a size 6 heel, and the
4AAA a size 2 heel. (See Fig. 32 and table below.)
1
AAA
2
3
4
5
1 26
32
1 27
32
1 28
32
1 29
32
1 30
32
27
32
28
32
29
32
30
32
1
31
32
1
1
1
1
32
10
11
12
2 321
2 322
2 323
2 324
2 325
2
32
3
32
4
32
5
32
2 326
2 322
2 323
2 324
2 325
2 326
2 327
2 321
2 322
2 323
2 324
2 325
2 326
2 327
2 328
2
32
3
32
4
32
5
32
6
32
7
32
8
32
2 329
1 28
32
1 29
32
1 30
32
31
1 32
2
B
1 29
32
1 30
32
31
1 32
2
C
1
30
32
1
31
32
D
31
1 32
2
1
32
2
9
2 321
A
2
31
1 32
8
2
1
2
7
2
AA
1
32
6
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 321
2 322
2 323
2 324
2 325
2 326
2 327
2 328
2 329
2 10
32
2
32
3
32
4
32
5
32
6
32
7
32
8
32
9
32
10
32
2 11
32
E
2
2
EE
2 321
2 322
2 323
2 324
2 325
2 326
2 327
2 328
2 329
2 10
32
2 11
32
2 12
32
EEE
2 322
2 323
2 324
2 325
2 326
2 327
2 328
2 329
2 10
32
2 11
32
2 12
32
2 13
32
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
For each width away from the B fitting, the heel size goes
up or down by one. Now the fact that the heel grades 321 in. in
length between sizes clearly shows that the breast point must
go forward 321 in. for a 4C fitting and backward 321 in. for a 4A
fitting, and progressively so through the range of fittings.
The marking off of 2 in. for the breast on all widths of size 4
is not in itself too great an error. But the inaccuracy does not
stop there. Any condition which is wrong in the size 4 model is
greatly exaggerated in the extreme sizes owing to the
progressive growth of the error by grading. If the sizes were
now turned from this size 4 model, we should have, as
previously discussed, inconsistent toe spring and pitch. To
overcome
CO-ORDINATED LASTS AND PATTERNS 263
this, or to hold the toe spring and heel height the same on the
extreme sizes as on the model, the last size 6 is “broken” (Fig.
33) and wedges inserted. Hence, one set of faults are
corrected, but at the same time another set just as harmful are
created, viz., alteration of measurements. This is a recognized
method of procedure which the co-ordinated system
eliminates.
These models, the correct 4B, the other 4’s slightly
incorrect and the broken 6’s, were then used to turn the sizes
F IG . 33 . S IZ E 6 R EG UL AR L AS T C OM P ARE D WI TH S IZ E 6
R EG UL AR L AS T B RO K EN BY H AN D
and half-sizes needed to fill the order. Therefore, the sizes 2
and 8 were as far out as the size 6 before being sawed and
wedged (Fig. 34). On the other hand, Fig. 35 illustrates the
result when the lasts are graded on the new system, as
compared with the regular grade formerly adopted. The lasts
are graded mechanically, and the toe spring kept the same on
every size. The regular 8’s show increased pitch with the
same toe spring. Hence, comparison is shown between this
and the result from ordinary regular grading. The positions aa
and bb indicate where the co-ordinated movement
commences and ends, and shows the result of coincidence of
the heel seat lines of sizes 4 and 8 and the same toe spring in
these and intervening sizes. In some
264
BOOTS AND SHOES
cases the last-maker wedged the size 2 and size 8 in a similar
manner to the size 6. Obviously, in doing so, he further altered
Regular
Toe spring held
FIG. 34. SIZES 4 AND 8 REGULAR GRADED LASTS COMPARED
WITH A SIZE 8 AFTER BEING GRADED FROM A BROKEN
SIZE 6 TO HOLD THE TOE SPRING
the measurements which by previous wedging had been made
incorrect. Figs. 36 and 37 illustrate these points. In Fig. 36 the
8 Regular
8 Co-ordinate
4 Model
b
a
b
Mechanical grading commences
at “aa” and stops at “bb”
a
FIG. 35. SIZES 4 AND 8 REGULAR LASTS COMPARED WITH
SIZE 8 LAST GRADED MECHANICALLY ON CO-ORDINATED
SYSTEM TO GET CORRECT SPRING
Mechanical grading commences at aa and stops at bb
lasts illustrated are size 8, and the broken line indicates the
hand-broken last, whereas the solid line shows the corrected
last by the new system. The hand-broken last shows
CO-ORDINATED LASTS AND PATTERNS 265
an increase in the long heel and short heel measurements due
to the necessary wedging. Fig. 37 shows a similar variation in
FIG. 36. SIZE 8 LAST,
FORMER
WEDGE METHOD
measures caused by the efforts to register the correct spring
and pitch on a size 2 last.
These are some of the considerations which caused the
co-ordinated or mechanically-broken method of last- grading
FIG. 37. SIZE 2 LAST,
FORMER
WEDGE METHOD
to be born and completed. The ultimate result of this method
is the obtaining of as perfect a fitting last in the extreme sizes
and widths as in the
266
BOOTS AND SHOES
initial 4B model. The method overcomes all inaccuracies
incidental to the making of the run of widths, by holding the
height of the heel at the proper point for the breast, and at the
same time keeping the toe spring and pitch constant. This
FIG. 38. SIZES 2-4-6-8 LASTS, GRADED FOR SAME TOE
SPRING HEEL HEIGHT
latter fact is shown in Fig. 38 and Fig. 39 shows how one bend
of shank piece serves for the whole range. This obviously
FIG. 39. SIZES 2-4-6-8 LASTS, SHOWING HOW ONLY ONE
BEND OF SHANK IS NECESSARY FOR THE WHOLE RANGE
effects a considerable saving in time and detail as regards the
correct assembly of lasts, heels, and shanks.
In the matter of upper patterns, unless cut on an adapted
system, it has been found that in assembling a
CO-ORDINATED LASTS AND PATTERNS 267
regular graded pattern, on any size other than the 4’s, to a
hand-broken last in which the length measurements have
been distorted, difficulty is experienced when lasting the shoe.
From Fig. 40 it is noticed that the seat is in the correct
position, but the vamp cue is riding high on the front of the
last. Further, the top of the back stands away from the last, as
also does the vamp from the toe puff. The following operation
of pulling-over puts an extra strain on the upper along the long
FIG. 40. COMPARISON OF SIZE 8 HAND-BROKEN LAST AND
SIZE 8 REGULAR GRADED UPPER
heel-line. If the vamp is pulled to the correct length
measurement required, the strain necessary is often so great
that the upper may break at the vamp seam, or at any other
point that comes within the sphere of this line of strain.
Another effect is the looseness of the fit of the upper around
the top. This may be partly overcome by subsequent lasting
operations, but whatever the efforts this tendency of looseness
will still persist.
As there is considerable “life ” in the leather, it tends to
shrink when the last is removed where it has been
over-strained in lasting. Hence, it is sometimes found that the
open front type of shoe has a cutting effect on the fleshy part
of the instep while the top is still loose. This may be caused by
the extreme strain necessary in
268
BOOTS AND SHOES
lasting due to bad relationship between last and pattern. A
further difficulty that Fig. 40 indicates is the lack of lasting
allowance over the toe owing to the upper being held at the
back of the last. To overcome this it has been a practice for
FIG. 41. SIZE 4--PATTERN CO-ORDINATED
WITH
LAST
some pattern-makers to grade the patterns in the extreme sizes
considerably longer than is regular. Hence, not only do
manufacturing difficulties arise but money is wasted on
leather.
FIG. 42. SIZE 8--PATTERN CO-ORDINATED
WITH
LAST
However, if a correct upper assembly is obtained on every
size it is very evident that the majority of the previous troubles
will be eliminated. At the same time there is a saving of
material as well as getting all sizes and widths of the shoes to
fit as well as the sample
CO-ORDINATED LASTS AND PATTERNS 269
size. Figs. 41 and 42 compare the assembly of patterns for
size 4 and size 8 when the patterns and lasts are co-ordinated.
They both show the correct vamp height and correct position
at the top of the back. There is contact at the tip of the toe, and
the Lasting Room should not experience any more difficulty
when lasting the 8’s than when lasting the 4’s. The system
claims many other advantages regarding the holding of grades
at various regions of the patterns.
This new method of last and pattern production is very
good, and great efforts have been made with enormous
success to place it on a scientific basis. Briefly, it has
substituted machine precision for human inaccuracy.
The originators of co-ordinated lasts make many claims for
their system, and briefly they are as follows : Every size and
width a perfect model with uniformity of appearance and
character throughout. The same height of heel and the same
toe spring throughout the range. The heel tread and arch
perfectly placed in every size. No undue strain in lasting.
Relief from fitting inaccuracies in sizes below and above the
model size. Scientific, compensated grading and
co-ordination for every size and width of lasts and patterns.
CHAPTER XI
TYPES OF LASTS
LASTS can be classified in several ways: according to the cut of
the block as sectional, easy exit, etc.; according to the kind of
footwear, boot shoe, slipper, etc.; or according to the needs of
manufacture, machine-sewn, welted, hand-sew, etc. The
second heading is preferable, since the other considerations
can be common to lasts for various types of footwear.
Types of lasts are made to carry out the considerations
previously mentioned, and under no circumstances should
they be used for purposes other than those intended. It would
be stupid to make slippers on a boot last. The results would be
deplorable. There is a type of last for every type of footwear,
and it is time well spent to choose a correct one for the
prevailing circumstances.
BOOT LASTS
Consider first the type of lasts for boots. For a man’s heavy
boot the measurements must, as previously discussed, be
larger than the foot. This will ensure comfort when clothed by
a fairly stout upper. The waist should be wide, and, due to the
rigidity of the bottom, the toe spring ample. The sides of the
last should be thick, this accommodation being necessary for
the thickness of the ankle bones.
With a boot made of lighter material the above
considerations should be followed but to a lesser degree. Both
the seat and the waist width and the girths should be less to
allow for the stretch of the material during wear. The
thickness at the sides would be
270
TYPES OF LASTS
271
reduced, and, as the bottom would be more flexible, less toe
spring is required.
RIDING-BOOT LASTS
When considering lasts for riding boots, the question of
fitting the foot is not the only one. Of equal importance is the
satisfactory ingress and egress of the foot. It is absolutely
necessary that the latter conditions are established.
Consequently, lasts for such work are straighter at the back
and have a pronounced thickening at the instep. This extra
measurement allows for the easy movement of the foot.
Further, as such boots are not intended for much walking, the
toe spring is made less, with the resulting appearance of the
forepart flat to the ground. The heel measure of the foot
should also be provided for.
SHOE LASTS
Shoe lasts are made very thin along the sides, and the back
curve more pronounced than a boot last. The former feature in
the last allows the quarters of the shoe made upon it to fit very
closely round the ankle. Such lasts are also made flatter in the
waist, particularly the outside waist. If the waist was too
arched on the outside, as soon as the shoe began to be worn,
and pressure was put on the waist, the quarters would gape at
the sides. With some makers, a shoe last is given a little more
toe spring than a boot last used for making footwear of similar
weight. This results in a better grip along the side of the foot
when the forepart is depressed by the toes.
COURT-SHOE LASTS
In the previous cases the footwear concerned has some
means of attachment to the foot. However, this does not apply
to a court shoe, and, consequently, the fitting properties of
such a shoe depend upon the upper
272
BOOTS AND SHOES
clipping the foot below the ankles. Lasts for this type of
footwear are made thin along the sides, and have more
curvature in the back than a shoe last. This results in a smaller
measurement from the toe to the top of the back, and a more
satisfactory resultant tension in the top of the shoe when
made. Again, such lasts have low pitch and are flat in the
waist. The toe spring is inclined to be larger than in a shoe
last, and, as the sole is light and flexible, the toes can easily
cause the forepart to lie flatter on the ground. This feature also
will add its effect to the prevailing purpose of obtaining a
good grip of the shoe against the foot.
This type of last is intended to carry a low heel, but it must
be remembered that a lady’s court shoe now manufactured for
outdoor wear usually has a high heel. However, lasts for the
latter type have the same general characteristics to a large
extent. The forepart is proportionately shorter, and, although
it would be impossible to have a flat waist, undue curvature
here should be avoided. It must be remembered that when the
heel of the foot is raised, say, 3 in., the waist of the foot is
relatively straight and not arched. Further, the majority of
the weight of the body is transferred to the forepart, and very
little stress is applied to the waist. These conditions are totally
different from those which prevail when a low heel is used.
SLIPPER LASTS
Slippers again have their own characteristic last. Lasts
intended for these should be equal to or slightly larger in
dimensions than the foot, since the chief function of such
footwear is comfort. The back should not be so curved as that
of a court shoe last, and there should be very little pitch. The
toe spring should be generous, and this is rendered necessary
by the lowness of the heel usually
TYPES OF LASTS
273
worn, coupled with the long quarters which have a greater
tendency to lie loose or gape at the sides. The bottom should
be more rounded transversely and the waist should be much
straighter than in a shoe last. The preceding only concern a
few of the large varieties of lasts used to-day.
LASTS FOR DIFFERENT DESIGNS OF FOOTWEAR
Most types of footwear have their own particular last.
Hence, as regards sport, there are different lasts for cycling
shoes, running shoes, tennis shoes, football boots. The first are
characteristically wide in the seat, whereas the second are
very narrow. With a tennis shoe last very little toe spring is
necessary owing to the very flexible bottom, but ample
accommodation is left for the comfort and ease of movement
of the foot. The football boot is again used under different
conditions. No heel is worn and the bottom is usually rigid.
The last is narrow transversely and is rounded more in
keeping with the shape of the foot. The general aim is to get a
snug fit to the foot. There are special lasts for skating boots,
ski boots, moccasin slippers, Sahara sandals, veldtschoens,
etc., each with the characteristics necessary to give correct
fitting properties in the shoe when in wear.
LASTS FOR DIFFERENT METHODS OF ATTACHMENT
Lasts are modified for processes of manufacture. Hence,
some lasts have ridges round the front. These are or types of
shoes with apron fronts, and the ridge is to accommodate the
apron front seam. With the Sahara sandal, the edge is bevelled
to facilitate the method of bottoming used. The last for
veldtschoen also has a slight bevel along the feather at the
forepart. This is to facilitate better making, as the upper can be
pressed into the cavity so formed at the feather. The
274
BOOTS AND SHOES
result is a neater and closer attachment seam when the sole is
stitched. And so one could go on mentioning the different
details that it is necessary to satisfy when deciding on a last for
a particular purpose. However, footwear is usually of the
shoe, court shoe, slipper, or boot variety, and the features
mentioned under those headings should be present in suitable
lasts for all corresponding variations of these types.
Last, but not least, is the finishing last (Fig. 43). Its name
indicates its function. Such a last should be about half-a-size
FIG. 43. FINISHING LAST
shorter, and one-half fitting less, than its parent ordinary last.
The seat is also rounded under. This will ensure its easy
insertion and withdrawal from the footwear without undue
straining of the materials and seams. This last is in two parts
hinged together, but, as no undue pressure is put on it during
its use, no means are necessary to make it rigid.
Lasts for making various kinds of work have also minor
variations that are introduced to suit the particular method of
manufacture. Consider first, lasts for sew-rounds, hand-sewn
work, pegged or braced work. These have just the plain
wooden bottom. On the other hand, for Consol lasted
machine-sewn work, the bottom of the last is covered with a
thin iron plate. The function of the plate is to clinch the tacks
during the lasting
TYPES OF LASTS
275
process. With machine-welted work the lasts have generally
an iron seat plate only. The forepart is usually wire braced on
the bed laster and then jointed on a staple laster. After welt
sewing no tacks are present in the forepart, therefore they are
not clinched when driven in. With the seat, it is either wiped
over and tacked on the bed laster, or the seat-lasting machine
is used. In either case a metal plate is necessary to burr over
the tacks. On some lasts a toe plate is used. This is only when a
riveted method of attachment to the insole at the toe during
lasting is in operation. The rest of the forepart can be
staple-lasted, solution-lasted, or braced.
MODERN LAST BLOCKS
As described on a previous page, the hand-method of
block-cutting was once the only means possible. The block
was secured by a screw, but the speed demanded as the
industry grew very quickly ruled out of court screw-fastened
blocks. What was required was a last that, whilst permitting of
the correct formation of the shoe itself, would also permit of
easy withdrawal from the constructed or partly-constructed
footwear, and without distortion. Just as one of the virtues of
the hand-sewn welted method is that the last is not withdrawn
until the shoe is made, so the easier withdrawal of the last,
tending less to damage the workmanship already performed,
is a distinct gain in the machine-sewn process. Thus a group of
lasts known variously as “easy exit” lasts, “broken” lasts, or
“sectional” lasts came into use. The parts of some are locked
by a key, some are self-locking, some are hinged, but nearly
all have a division of the last into a back and a front portion,
instead of into a top and bottom. However, the block last is
still used in a modified form, as will be seen later.
276
BOOTS AND SHOES
One of the earliest forms of lasts of this character is the
well-known “Easy Exit” last of Messrs. Mobbs & Lewis, to
whom the author is indebted for these illustrations. Figs. 44
and 45 show this model closed and open. It is in two parts
which are self-locking, and which can be separated by a key.
When being removed from the footwear the front portion
slides back and up with little resistance and, consequently,
little effect on the upper. A later invention of this firm is the
“Wedge Hinge ” last (Fig. 46). This is a very popular last and
FIG. 44. EASY EXIT LAST CLOSED
certainly of an easy exit type. It is in three portions, back and
front, which are hinged together, and the wedge, which fits
accurately between the former when the last is fully extended.
The wedge is kept in place by a spring pin which fits into a
metal socket in the front portion. The pin can be withdrawn,
and consequently the wedge, by pulling on to a cord, one end
of which is attached to the front ridge of the last. To preserve
the contours of the last, the portion occupied by the cord down
the front can be accommodated by a groove when the last is in
use. The wedge withdrawn, by pulling on the back portion the
last bends and
FIG. 46. WEDGE HINGE LAST
FIG. 45. EASY EXIT LAST OPEN
278
BOOTS AND SHOES
consequently shortens. Hence, the greater facility for its
removal.
A further type of modern last is the “Gap Spring” last (Fig.
47). The name again aptly describes its construction with a
gap between the front and back portions, which are hinged
together. A strut and spring are fixed in the gap, and these
keep the last rigid when it is fullv extended. This enables the
FIG. 47. GAP SPRING
LAST
various arduous operations of pulling-over, lasting, levelling,
etc., to be carried out without risk of collapse. During these
processes firmness is essential, but still this form of last can
easily be collapsed. When this is done, instead of the spring
being compressed, an escapement is provided for its release.
Hence, when the last is in this latter state, the spring retains its
power and is uninjured.
The popularity of the “Circular Cut” last (Fig. 48) is still
very great. This was made to satisfy a demand for an easy exit
last without a gap or any loose parts whatever. The principle is
similar to the gap spring last. The making of this type requires
great care and precision. The special spring hinge has to be so
fixed
TYPES OF LASTS
279
that when the last is broken the circular cuts move parallel to
each other. Also, when the last is extended for use, the convex
portions of the front fit exactly into the concave portions of the
back. Special machines have been devised to ensure that the
parts of the hinge are fitted accurately.
An improvement on the hand-sawn block is still in great use
in the form of the scoop block (Figs. 49 and 50). These blocks
FIG. 48. CIRCULAR CUT LAST
are cut by the band-saw, and the absence of any corners
facilitates their removal from the last, and lessens any
possibility of damage to the upper. A wooden pin protrudes
from the front portion near the bottom of the block, and
engages in a suitable cavity in the block itself. This makes a
solid contact between the bottom portion of the last and the
bottom of the block. To complete the temporary attachment of
the block to the bottom portion many devices are in use. One
is to fix a spring fastener (Fig. 49). This is fixed to the body of
the last, and the spring pin engages the block in a hole near the
top. To release the block,
280
BOOTS AND SHOES
the spring pin is depressed by suitable means through this
hole.
FIG. 49. SCOOP BLOCK LAST
A further form of attachment is with a cord and a cotter pin
(Fig. 50).
FIG. 50. SCOOP BLOCK LAST¾COTTER PIN
Here the spring fastener is replaced by the cotter pin, which
is inserted through the top of the block into the
FULL LENGTH
SHORTENED
READY FOR
PULLING-OVER
SHORTENED
UPPER PULLED
OVER
FULL LENGTH
UPPER STRETCHED
FIG. 51. NOVO LAST
By courtesy of Messrs. George Care, Ltd.
282
BOOTS AND SHOES
bottom portion of the last. To prevent misplacement of the
pin, it is attached to the block itself by a suitable length of
cord.
Although great attention has been paid to the easy exit of
lasts, in some cases the easy ingress of the last is of great
importance. With some methods of shoe construction the last
FIG. 52. CARE’S LAST
WITH
KEY
is slipped and then has to be reinserted to complete the
process. Hence, it is essential to have a last which can be
inserted quickly and easily without undue distortion of the
footwear. Experiments are in progress to patent such lasts, and
one of the latest innovations in this direction is the “Novo”
last of Messrs. George Care, Ltd.
However, this is only one of the many claims for this
interesting idea. Since its inception it has been widely
TYPES OF LASTS
283
used, particularly in the making of court and similar types of
shoes. The result has been the production of a really
snug-fitting machine-made shoe. One of the greatest
manufacturing difficulties has been in the pulling-over and
lasting of such shoes to get the required grip at the ankle. With
the use of the “Novo” last similar results are obtained with
FIG. 53. CARE’S LAST
machine-made shoes as those achieved in hand-making.
By means of a sliding joint, the last can be shortened up to a
maximum of about 31 in. The upper is pulled over with the last
in its shortened position, and the last is then extended to its full
length. Hence, a better longitudinal tension is obtained,
comparable with that obtained by the use of “hoist” in the
hand method. The quarters clip the side of the last and the
completed
284
BOOTS AND SHOES
shoe will have less tendency to slip at the heel. (See Fig. 51.)
The ease with which the last can be slipped is a good
feature, and its construction ensures that during this process
there will be no distortion of the backs of the shoes.
The first form of this last was hand-operated by means of a
key, and gave a steady and gradual movement (Fig. 52).
However, for factory requirements it is not ideal, and the new
version is expressly designed for this purpose. The same
feature is present, but instead of the screw movement, the last
is stretched by one mechanical device, and slipped by another.
The two parts of the last are held in position when stretched by
means of a split-pin (Fig. 53). The result of these
modifications has been a great increase in the speed of
operation of such lasts.
CHAPTER XII
LAST MEASUREMENTS
MEASUREMENT
USUALLY the term “measurement” conjures up visions of
accurate specification of an object. The definite internal and
external dimensions of a box can be stated, and the article
produced absolutely to these measurements. It is possible to
order screws which are correct in size to a high degree of
accuracy. With some scientific instruments it is possible to
measure accurately to a very small fraction of a unit. But
certain difficulties arise when the measurement of lasts is
considered. The shape is very complex, and no progressive
schemes have been evolved for correct and absolute
representation of the shape and size of a last. A house can be
shown in every detail by a series of flat drawings, and the
latter made by one person can be understood by another.
What similar method is in operation adopted for lasts?
Research work has been done and is being continued in this
direction, with every hope of success. However, here will be
considered the methods of measurements which are
universally used. The two chief things considered are the
length measurement of the last and the girth measurements.
LAST LENGTHS
The length measure is taken on the size-stick principle, and
is the length from a perpendicular plane touching the toe to a
parallel perpendicular plane touching the back of the last. This
measure can vary for one particular last, depending on how
the last is placed when measuring. If the seat is raised, the
285
286
BOOTS AND SHOES
measure is different from when the seat and tread are on the
same horizontal plane. Hence, specification of position seems
to be a first consideration.
The English method of specifying the standard length of
lasts is to commence at 4 in. from the end of the scale, this
length being called size 0. The unit of gradation of sizes is 31
in., and hence size 1 is 4 31 in. long, size 2, 4 23 in. long, and so
on. This progression of sizes continues to size 13 of 8 31 in. in
length. Here the numbering recommences, and instead of
size 14, the next size is size 1 of 8 23 in. From here onwards the
size numbers run consecutively. Hence confusion can arise,
since it is possible to have two lasts stamped the same
numerical size but varying by 4 31 in. in length. The half-size,
or 61 in. gradation, is also used freely, but it would be better if a
new size unit was adopted—a unit which is between the
present size and half-size. It is acknowledged that the unit 31
in. is too great a difference to be made from size to size,
especially for light work, whilst 61 in. is too small a difference.
The selection of another unit would necessitate a change of
size-stick numeration but would result in the abolition of such
compromises as half-sizes.
The American method of last length determination differs
but slightly from the English. The American scale commences
11
in. for size 0 instead of the 4 in. on the English scale.
at 3 12
The same method of size numeration is adopted. Hence, lasts
in the two systems with the same size mark differ in length by
1
in.
12
The French system naturally bases its measurements on the
metric system. The difference between size and size is 23 of a
centimetre, and is known as a Paris Point.* Hence, as 1
centimetre is equal in length to ×3937 in., it follows that the
Paris Point is equal in length to ×2625 in., or approximately 164
in. From
* T h e s a m e u n i t i s u s e d i n G e r m a n y a n d i s c a l l e d a s t i t c h.
Inches
Shoe
sizes
Paris
Points
Centimeters
1
2
3
1
4
5
6
7
2
8
9
10
11
3
12
13
14
4
0
1
2
5
8
17
18
19
4
20
21
22
6
23
7
24
8
7
16
3
5
6
15
9
25
26
27
10
28
11
29
12
30
31
13
9
1
33
2
34
3
10
12
35
36
4
37
5
38
6
39
7
11
32
40
41
8
42
9
43
10
44
11
45
FIG. 54. INCHES, SHOE SIZES, CENTIMETRES, PARIS POINTS
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
LAST MEASUREMENTS
287
Fig. 54 (see inset) it will be seen that size 1 adults’ is 33 Paris
Points, and size 8 approximately 42 Paris Points.
It is interesting to compare the two systems, English and
French, and note several points of difference. These points are
mostly in favour of the French scale. The gradations in Paris
Points commence at the extreme of the size-stick and not at an
arbitrary zero like 4 in. on the English scale. Again, the Paris
Points specify an actual size in length, whereas our unit of 31
in. is only a grade from size to size. For example, we cannot
say that 5 x 31 in. is equal to the length of size 5. Actually size 5
can be either 5 23 in. or 10 in. Whereas, on the French Paris
Point system, a last of size 33 is quickly determined as 22
centimetres in length. The latter is definitely much more
simple and less likely to lead to confusion. Further, the
variation from size to size of 23 of a centimetre is less than 31 in.
in the English system. Consequently, there is not the same
necessity for the use of half-sizes as there is on the English
system—a further step towards simplicity. Another French
system of using centimetres as the length unit is employed
largely on the Continent, size 22 here being 22 cm. in length.
LAST GIRTHS
The next consideration is the measurement of the girths of
the last in relation to the length. These are known as
“fittings,” and lasts can be made in any number of fittings, but
generally six are considered sufficient. Hence, a series of six
lasts with the various fittings have the same standard length,
but their joint girths increase according to some accepted
fitting scale. The fittings can be denoted by letters as A, B, C,
etc., or numbers as 0, 1,2, etc. The former is the usual
American notation, and the latter essentially English. Hence,
by comparison, the A fitting = 0 fitting, B fitting
288
BOOTS AND SHOES
= 1 fitting, C fitting = 2 fitting, D fitting = 3 fitting, E fitting =
4 fitting, EE fitting = 5 fitting. However, some English last
manufacturers adopt variations of this notation. For example,
one reputable firm have A to signify a 1 fitting, and E to
signify a 5 fitting. Further, they specify X fitting lasts. In this
1X fitting signifies a last with a 2-fitting joint and a 1-fitting
instep and heel; 2X a 3-fitting joint and 2-fitting instep and
heel, and so on.
There is no accepted fixed standard for joint girth measures,
and this is unfortunate. Different lastmakers have their own
particular scales. However, most of them allow 41 in.
difference between the fittings for the joints for adult sizes.
For example, if the joint in a 3 fitting measures 8 in. in girth,
then the 4 fitting will measure 8 41 in. Again, the instep
measure is not always uniform for the same joint girth, and all
manufacturers do not allow the same difference from fitting to
fitting. Sometimes 41 in. is allowed from size to size and
fitting to fitting, as with the joints.
Various considerations enter into the question of the
differences that should be made for fittings. A fitting should
represent a type of foot, and, whilst all feet are alike in their
general plan and construction, they are not alike in the
proportions that exist between their various parts. The
narrower the fitting or joint measure, the greater is the
difference between the joint and instep measures. This
difference is termed the “rise.” Again, the greater the joint
measure the less the “rise.” Moreover there is not an even rate
of growth from infancy to adulthood. Generally speaking, the
period of greatest increase in stature is the first year of life, the
growth of the second year being half that of the first, and
gradually declining until the twelfth year, when the rate is
about one-fifth that of the first year. So with the foot. The
growth in length is more rapid
LAST MEASUREMENTS
289
4. The difference between fittings
should be smaller in infants’ and greater in
adults’.
SCALE
5
78
0
3 Fitting.
413
16
There are various scales of measurement in
use but as yet no expansive general scale.
About 1890, Mr. G. F. Alden, of Norwich,
prepared scales for the various ranges of lasts.
Using the female scale as an illustration, he
fixed definite limits which he considered
correct from his practical experience. He took
size 4 as his higher limit, and on average
found the joint and instep girths to the 7 78 in.
and 8 41 in. respectively. As his lower limit he
selected size 2 21 infants’, half the length of
the former, and specified the average girths
to be 4 13
in.
16
7
5. All positions for application of girth
measurements should be defined.
1
2
3. The rise should be greatest in adults’ and
smallest in infants’.
FIG. 55. ALDEN’S TAPE,
2. The rise should be greatest in small
fittings and smallest in large fittings.
841
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 1 2 3 4
1. As the difference between the lengths
is made equal, then so should the girth
measurements increase by equal increments
throughout the considered range.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 1 2 3 4
Joint Girths.
Consequently, from these various aspects,
principles which govern a satisfactory scale
of last girth measurements can be stated.
Instep Girths
than the growth in girth, and this is another
fact which must be considered when
arranging lasts for all the series of feet.
290
BOOTS AND SHOES
joint and 5 in. instep. These were for his 3-fitting last.
Having fixed his limits, he obtained the girths for the
intervening sizes by dividing the difference of girth between
the limits into the same number of equal parts as intervening
sizes. Hence, 14 21 equal parts complete the range from size 2 21
infants’ to 4 adults’.
Mr. Alden constructed tapes on this method and had a
separate tape for each fitting. The scale for the instep girths
was constructed in the same way on the other edge of the tape.
(See Fig. 55.)
Size 2 12 Infants’
Size 4 Adults’
Fitting
Joint
Instep
Rise
Tread
Joint
Instep
Rise
Tread
1
4 3464
4 50
64
16
64
1 21
32
7 1032
7 26
32
16
32
2 12
2
4
43
64
57
64
14
64
1
23
32
19
32
1
32
14
32
2 58
3
4 52
64
5
12
64
1 25
32
7 28
32
8 328
12
32
2 34
4
4 61
64
5 647
10
64
1 27
32
8 325
8 1532
10
32
2 78
5
6
64
14
64
8
64
29
32
14
32
22
32
8
32
3
2
32
4
32
5
Difference
9
64
4
5
7
64
1
2
64
FEMALE SCALE
2
32
OF
7
8
9
32
8
8
7
32
C. F. ALDEN
The above table* shows the key measurements for this
Alden scale, and illustrates how the joint and instep girths for
the other fittings were derived from the chosen 3-fitting
standards. For size 4 an amount of 329 in. was added to or
subtracted from, for higher or lower fittings, the joint
measurement of the 3 fitting. The instep increment was,
however, made equal to 327 in., and hence the required
variation of rise was obtained. Similarly for the size 2 21
infants’, half the above was decided, hence, the joint
increment from
* See Manufacture of Boots and Shoes by F. Golding, p. 75.
LAST MEASUREMENTS
291
3 fitting was 649 in., and. the instep increment 647 in. Hence, this
scale follows the principles stated previously except the last,
and although such a scale may be desirable, yet it is not often
now followed. Alden also suggested a way to locate positions
of measurement. He constructed tapes, with a system of
measurements for the distance from the toe end of the last to
the top of the joint and the top of the instep. This is obviously
not accurate owing to the difficulty of applying such a tape
similarly on every occasion.
Other scales of measurement that have been advocated are
the 41 in. scale, 91 in. scale, irregular scales, etc. Consider some
of these and how they can be modified to satisfy the necessary
principles.
The in. scale is considered the simplest, and involves only
the addition or subtraction of 41 in. with certain modifications
as to ranges of sizes. Since 41 in. is a large increment, it is
considered that adjustments should be made to keep the scale
on a practical basis. This can be done by introducing “breaks”
in the scale, where the joint measurements are made equal on
each side of the break. With the instep measurement a
difference of 81 in. is introduced on each side of the “break.” In
both cases, however, the increments are 41 in. in the various
ranges between the breaks. The scale on page 292, Table I, is
for ladies’ lasts, and, as given, only satisfies one principle, the
third. However, it can be modified to satisfy principles 2, 3,
and 4, and partially 1, and is shown on page 293, Table II. As
can be seen, the variations of “rise” from size to size and
fitting to fitting have been obtained by introducing differences
of 0, 161 in., 162 in., etc., in the joint and instep measurements, at
the break between sizes 1 and 2 and sizes 6 and 7 infants’.
This gives a better result, if the principles stated signify the
ideal, and the lowest unit of 161 in. is not impossible to work to.
292
BOOTS AND SHOES
The 91 in. system is in some ways superior to the 41 in. system
in that a smaller increment is utilized. A difference of 29 in. is
made from size to size in the joint girth and also from fitting to
fitting. The instep measures, however, do not follow this
equal step from size to size. Breaks are made between sizes
6-7 infants’, 10-11 infants’, 1-2 adults’, and at these breaks a
difference of 185 in. is introduced. However, in the ranges
between the breaks the difference of 29 in. is adhered to. The
TABLE I
THE
4
IN.
SCALE OF LAST MEASUREMENTS
2
Fitting
Size
1
4
3
Joint Rise Instep
5
1
4
1
8
Joint Rise Instep
Joint Rise Instep
5 14
5 38
5 12
3
8
1
2
5
8
5
3
4
5 78
6
6 18
6 14
6 38
6
6
1
4
6
1
4
6 12
6
1
2
6
1
2
6 34
5
5
5
6
5 12
5 58
5 34
7
5
1
2
3
4
3
4
8
5
3
4
9
6
10
5
5
6
6
6 14
6 14
6 14
6 12
11
6 14
12
6 12
13
6 34
1
1
4
3
8
O
O
7
2
7
3
7 14
4
7 12
3
4
5
7
6
8
7
8 14
1
2
O
O
1
8
O
5
6
6
1
4
6
6 12
6 12
6 34
6 58
6 12
6 78
6 34
7 18
7
7
3
8
7
1
2
7
1
4
7
1
4
7 34
7 12
8
7 34
1
4
1
4
3
8
1
2
O
O
O
8 14
8 34
8 12
O
O
5
7
8
5 78
1
8
6
O
6 18
6 34
6 34
7
7
7 14
6 78
6 34
7 18
7
7 38
7 18
7
7 38
7 14
7 38
7 14
7 58
7 12
7 78
7
5
8
7
1
2
7
8
7
3
4
8 18
7
3
4
7
1
2
8
7
3
4
8 14
8 14
8
8 12
8 14
3
4
1
2
1
2
1
4
3
8
7 34
8
8
1
2
1
8
Joint Rise Instep
5 34
6 34
8 14
8
8 12
5 58
1
4
6 12
8
1
2
5
5 18
5
O
4
O
O
7
1
2
O
8
8
1
4
8 34
8 12
9
8 34
8
1
2
O
8
1
4
3
8
1
2
9
8 34
9 14
9
O
O
O
7
7 58
8 12
8 34
9
1
2
O
9 14
9 12
LAST MEASUREMENTS
293
difference, however, between fitting and fitting is 29 in., as for
the joint girths. On page 294, Table III illustrates the scale for
ladies’ lasts and, as can be seen, satisfies principles 2 and 3
and partially principle 1. This scale again can be modified, as
shown on page 295, Table IV. It results in the satisfying of
principles 2, 3, and 4, and partially 1. There are no breaks in
this scale, but at the
TABLE II
LAST MEASUREMENTSC 14
Fitting
Size
2
2
3
4
415
16
4
5
3
16
5
7
16
5
5161 5161
2
511
16
5
5
16
5
9
16
5
5
16
5
9
16
5
5 12
5 78
511
16
515
16
5 78
8
3
4
6
1
8
5
15
16
6
3
16
6
1
8
6
3
8
6
3
16
6
7
16
6
3
8
9
6
10
6 14
11
6 14
12
6 12
13
6
3
4
1
7
2
7
6
6 58
6167
6 34
6167
7
611
16
X
8
4
611
16
6 58
613
16
6 58
7161
6 78
5
16
1
8
X
7
1
4
6
1
6
15
16
5
6
16
5
10
16
5
7
16
5
11
16
6
7
0
2
4
5167
511
16
515
16
X
6
6
1
4
6
1
2
6161
6 18
6 14
6
5
16
6
3
8
6
1
2
6
9
16
6
5
8
6
3
4
6 34
613
16
6 78
613
16
7 18
7161
3
8
5
16
X
7
5163
514
515
16
16
X
7
5
5162 5163
513
513
16
16
X
3
SCALE MODIFIED
Joint Rise Ins. Joint Rise Ins. Joint Rise Ins. Joint Rise Ins. Joint Rise Ins.
3
6
3
IN.
1
7
7
0
6 12
6 34
6 78
7
615
16
7
7163
7 14
7
16
1
2
7169
X
2
6 14
7
X
7
7
7161
1
7165
7 12
7163
7169
7 38
7 58
7169
711
16
7 34
713
16
7 58
7 14
7 34
7 12
7 78
7 34
8
8
8 18
7
7
8
7
1
2
3
4
8
1
8
8
1
8
7
3
4
8
3
8
X
7
1
4
4
7
1
2
5
7 34
6
8
3
4
7
8
8
1
4
8
1
2
10
8 38
8
8 58
8 14
8
7
8
8
1
2
9
1
8
8
3
4
8
8
8
1
4
7
8
8
8
1
4
8 12
8 14
8 58
8 12
8 34
8 12
8 78
8 34
3
4
9
1
8
9
3
8
9
9
1
4
8
9
6
9
9
1
4
4
8
1
4
8
1
2
8
1
4
8 38
8
1
2
8 58
8 34
8 34
9
9
9
1
4
9
1
2
2
8 78
9 18
9
1
4
9 38
9
1
2
9 58
294
BOOTS AND SHOES
divisions marked by a cross the increment of
been kept to.
4
18
in. has not
With reference to the last principle, that all positions of
measurement should be located, several attempts have been
made to satisfy this. It is the habit of some last manufacturers
to mark positions definitely and to stamp on the last at these
positions the correct girth measurements. How then is it
possible to ascertain if
TABLE III
LAST MEASUREMENTSC 19
4
4
18
4
18
4
18
3
4
5
Joint Rise Instep
Joint Rise Instep
Joint Rise Instep
Joint Rise Instep
5184
5187
5188
414
18
5183
5185
5
5189
5
5
5187
5184
5189
5188
511
18
512
18
6
5184
511
18
5188
513
18
512
18
515
18
516
18
517
18
7
5188
516
18
512
18
6
516
18
6182
6182
6184
8
5
12
18
2
18
16
18
2
18
6
18
6
18
7
8
6
5
5
6
6
4
18
6
3
4
6
6
1
2
513
18
6188
9
516
18
6186
6182
6188
6186
610
18
610
18
612
18
10
6182
610
18
6186
612
18
610
18
614
18
614
18
616
18
11
6
6
18
6
15
18
6
10
18
6
17
18
14
18
7
1
18
7
7183
12
6
10
18
7
1
18
6
14
18
7
3
18
7
5
18
13
614
18
7185
7
7187
7184
7189
7188
711
18
1
7
7189
7184
711
18
7188
713
18
712
18
715
18
2
7184
714
18
7188
716
18
712
18
8
716
18
8182
3
7
8
18
7
12
18
8
2
18
7
16
18
8
2
18
8186
7
12
18
7
16
18
8
6
18
8
2
18
8
6
18
810
18
7
16
18
8
2
18
8
10
18
8
6
18
8
10
18
6
8
2
18
8
6
18
8
14
18
8
10
18
8
14
18
7
8186
816
18
810
18
9
814
18
9182
9
9184
8
810
18
9182
814
18
9184
9
9186
9184
9188
4
4
18
SCALE
2
Fitting
Size
IN.
5
9
8
10
8
4
18
8
8
18
8
12
18
7
8
6
7
5
6
8
4
18
8
8
18
8
12
18
8
16
18
7
4
18
3
4
7187
814
18
9
LAST MEASUREMENTS
295
these positions are correct ? Previously the standard length of
the last has been spoken of, and this refers to the size which is
marked thereon. All lasts, however, which are marked the
same size are not necessarily of the same length. It has been
discussed previously that when fashion decreed pointed toes it
was necessary to extend the forepart of the last to give a
comfortable
TABLE IV
LAST MEASUREMENTSC 19
Fitting
Size
2
18
2
3
3
18
5
6
Joint Rise Ins. Joint Rise Ins. Joint Rise Ins. Joint Rise Ins. Joint Rise Ins.
3
417
18
4
5183
5
5187
6
11
18
5
7
511
18
8
515
18
9
6181
10
6
5
18
11
6189
12
613
18
13
617
18
1
3
18
7
7
6
514
18
6184
6
5182 5181
3
5186 5185
6
12
18
7
9
6
5
14
18
5
7
7
6185 6183
6
13
18
6
7
13
18
7
7184
3
7188
714
7188
18
716
712
18
18
712
18
8182 716
18
4
7
12
18
5
7
16
18
6
8182
812
8186
18
7
8186
816
810
18
18
9
814
18
8
810
18
9182 814
18
9184
9
8
4
18
10 8
8
18
7
16
18
8
2
18
8
8
6183 6185
1
14
18
6
6
7
7
15
18
6
3
7187 7187
6
18
8
8
2
18
8
6
18
814
810
18
18
7184
1
7
15
18
7
7188
712
18
15
18
716
18
X
716
18
8182 8182
8184
8184 8182
8186 8186
8188
8
6
617
18
711
711
18
18
12
18
6189
613
18
17
18
7183 7183
7
710
7188
18
14
18
6185
0
611
613
18
18
14
18
7186 7184
6187 6189
X
2
8
6186 6186
7182
5
9
18
X
516
18
X
6
7189 7185
6
18
5
5188
512
18
15
18
610
610
18
18
11
18
7185 7181
5184
1
6182 6182
3
7181 615
18
7
7188 7182
12
18
5
15
18
X
6189 6187
612
18
5187 5187
511
511
18
18
13
18
6181 517
18
5
8
18
7184 616
18
5183 5183
2
510
5189
18
6188 6184
X
4
18
SCALE MODIFIED
4
X
3
18
IN.
8
8
18
8
12
18
8
6
18
8
10
18
816
814
18
18
4
8
10
18
8
14
18
8
10
18
8
14
18
812
18
2
816
18
9
9182
9
9184 9184
9186
9186 9184
9188 9188
910
18
9182
9
296
BOOTS AND SHOES
shoe. However, by considering all measurements from the
back of the last, this variation can be ignored. The inside joint
position of the foot is considered on an average of
five-sevenths the axis length of the foot from the back.
Hence, to ascertain the corresponding position on the last,
subtract from the length of the standard last marked on it, 2 21
shoe sizes for a lady’s foot. Then five-sevenths of the
remainder if measured from the back indicates the inside joint
position. For example, if the last is marked size 5, the
standard length is 10 in. Hence the inside joint will be located
in. from the back of the heel. Hence it will
at 57 (10 - 56 ) = 6 23
42
be seen that any attempt to locate the joint and instep positions
by their relation to the overall length of the last must result in
error, and also that similar error will arise when considering
their positions relative to the standard last length, unless the
measurements are from the back.
The position of the inside joint is one of great importance,
and in some schools of thought is considered the best position
for determining the standard length of a last. Regarding the
instep, opinions differ considerably as to its position. This
uncertainty is easily understood, however, since lasts vary in
the insteps because each last is changed in its form in relation
to the foot, to allow for thinning the side, etc. The position of
the instep on the last is not always determined by the same
rule. Sometimes for size 4, and sometimes for size 5, it is
located at a distance of 2 in. above the inside joint position. A
more reliable method is to place the back of the last against a
vertical plane and then measure horizontally through the last
a distance equal to half the standard length of the last. Hence a
last marked size 5 has a length of 10 in., and the instep
position would be 5 in. along a straight line from the plane in
contact with the back.
LAST MEASUREMENTS
297
Owing to the difficulty of ascertaining the same position for
measurement on a last at the second attempt, the position of
measurement in the first case must be marked. If this is done
the same measurement can be repeated any number of times
with little divergence. On a wooden last the positions can be
marked in several ways ; either by a pencil, ink, or an awl
mark. The reference points selected could be the inside joint
position and the instep position, as previously discussed. It is
always satisfactory to locate these positions on a central axis
in the last, and having selected these positions strike out at
right angles to this axis.
Suppose AB (Fig. 56) represents the standard length of a
size 4 ladies’ last, and is reduced to C, by say 2 21 sizes, so that
BC is the length of foot for which the last is suitable. The
inside joint position T is located at five-sevenths BC from B,
and the instep position I at half AB. In the same way, the
outside joint, waist, and similar positions can be located as
some proportion of the measurement of the foot. From these a
“position chart” can be constructed for the various sizes, say, a
range of size 2 to size 7. A piece of paper XY of convenient
width is taken, and a centre line GH drawn equal in length to
size 4.
Along GH, GT and GE are drawn each equal respectively to
the inside joint position for size 4 and size 7. The distance ET
is trisected, giving the inside joint positions for the
intervening sizes 5 and 6. For the sizes smaller than 4, these
size increments can be marked off below T. Lines are drawn at
each of these positions at right angles to the centre line GH.
Similarly HI and HF are the instep positions for lasts size 4
and size 7, and a similar instep position scale can be
constructed.
Having made the chart, it is placed on a horizontal plane
with the edge H in contact with a vertical plane.
298
BOOTS AND SHOES
The last is placed with its back in contactwith this plane, and
its central axis coincident with the centre line on the chart. The
X
A
G
C
Inside Joints
7
T
E
6
5
4
T
3
6
5
4
3
2
In st ep s
2 7
F
H
B
Y
HI
H2
FIG. 56. POSITION CHART
positions of the inside joint and the instep can be read off
along the horizontal, and these
LAST MEASUREMENTS
299
positions transferred to the last by lines at right angles to the
plane on which the last rests. The latter can be performed by
the aid of two set squares and the required positions
determioned accurately. Hence, by using such a chart, a series
of lasts can be examined, their salient positions fixed and the
measurements at these positions verified.
This chart is constructed for the seat in contact with the
horizontal plane. If, however, the points are to be located with
the heel raised, then the forward movement of the “tread”
contact position can be allowed for by having suitable zeros
H1, H2, etc., to correspond to the various heights of heel.
CHAPTER XIII
CROSS-SECTION OF LASTS
Having discussed the length of the last, and its bulk girth, what
considerations are made for the distribution of this bulk ? It is
necessary to refer to the foot, and note that the inner margin is
thicker and higher than the outer margin, and that it has no
lateral expansion as the outer margin has. These facts were
not recognized at one time, and it was common to find that the
cross-section of a last was symmetrical about a centre line.
The Americans influenced English last-makers in the
recognition of this point, and lasts are now made to provide
for this varying thickness and movement of the inside and
outside of the foot. In some instances, too, much has been
made of this discovery, and the tendency has been to design
lasts with too much bulk along the inside.
The great toe and the little toe have certain functions to
perform, and for this reason must have due attention in the
shaping of the cross-section of the last. The last dare not,
under any circumstances, be less in substance at the point on
the last corresponding to the same point on the foot. With the
little toe the substance of the last must never be less, but
should usually be greater, than the substance of the foot.
However, in many cases the structure of the last has to be
made with reference to the after-processes of shoe
manufacture.
Toe-caps demand a small difference in the shaping of the
sides of the toe of the last and also a certain increase in the
height of the toe. Between the first and second phalanges of
the great toe there is a side depression amounting in the
average male foot to about 41 in. There
300
CROSS-SECTION OF LASTS
301
is therefore no necessity for the last to be thick at this point. In
fact it can be thinned a little, and in so doing the cap seam is
accommodated, and a good range and appearance obtained,
with no loss of comfort. It is to be desired, however, that the
toe of the last should be just slightly higher and thicker when
toe-capped work is to be made.
Regarding the higher portions of the last, the comb is
sometimes placed centrally. This is of no disadvantage when
the footwear concerned is a court shoe, but when the footwear
covers the ankle and parts of the leg this condition would not
be satisfactory. In this case the comb should be displaced to
the inside with a resultant steeper inside wall of the last.
Again, with the court shoe lasts, the comb is thinned
considerably and the bulk of the stuff of the last is carried at
the sides. This sharp comb should be carried to the joint, and
if this were not so the shoe would press into the foot at the root
of the instep.
Work has been carried out to study the shape and
distribution of bulk in the foot, and the application of these
data to obtain the best fitting last. Of recent years the Datum
machine of Mr. F. W. Roberts, F.B.S.I., does, amongst other
things, automatically and quickly take tracings and areas of
the cross-section of a foot or last at any desired position.
It is not the good fortune of every student to have access to
this machine, but this need not deter him from a study of this
important question. It is possible to take cross-sections of the
foot and the last by a graphical method, which, although slow
and perhaps tedious, is nevertheless fairly reliable.
A piece of strong cardboard is taken and cut to the exact size
of 6 in. square. From this is cut a portion 5 in. by 4 in., leaving
a bridge piece as in Fig. 57. The inside edges of this bridge are
graduated in inches and
302
BOOTS AND SHOES
tenths or any other desired unit. Stays are attached to the back
so that the bridge stands in a vertical plane.
If a cross-section of a last is required, then the last should be
placed with its back against a vertical plane and resting on a
central line at right angles to this plane. Hence the position of
C
B
D
A
FIG. 57. BRIDGE FOR TAKING CROSS-SECTION
the cross-section can be recorded as having been taken at a
certain distance from the back of the last. This obviates any
likely error due to extended toes, should it be required to
compare thus any section of the last with the corresponding
section of the foot for which the last was made, or to compare
with another last.
The bridge can then be placed across the last at any desired
position and inclination, but it is much simpler
CROSS-SECTION OF LASTS
303
to have the face of the bridge always parallel to the vertical
plane against which the back of the last rests.
A cardboard pointer should then be made and graduated in
the same units as those on the bridge.
The bridge in position, and that position marked, the pointer
can be applied, always horizontally, and the position of any
D
FIG. 58. TRANSFERENCE OF POINTS TO
SQUARED PAPER
point D on the cross-section of the last fixed relative to the
graduated scales AB and BC (Fig. 57). The location of this
point can be transferred to a suitable piece of graph paper of
the same size and graduations as the gab if the bridge. Hence
the series of points so obtained would give a cross-section of
the last (Fig. 58). A similar method could be applied to obtain
the profile of the last.
The distribution of bulk in a last is of the greatest
304
BOOTS AND SHOES
importance, and only after close study of this, together with
the variations of the foot in its motions, will the question of
correct fitting be solved. The faults in foot fittings are laid in
turn at the door of the last manufacturer, the shoe
manufacturer, and the shoe buyer. A closer relationship for
the one ideal would help to eliminate these faults and so
apportion further blame, if any.
INDEX
SECTION I
PATTERN CUTTING AND MAKING
ALBERTS 39
Allowances over formes, average,
95
Alterations for different materials, 77-81
Ankle-strap shoes (infants), 66
Apron-front shoe (women’s),
55-6
BACK curves, 101-2
Backstraps, inside, 90
––––, measurements for, 93
Bagged edges, 91
Balmorals, seamless, 70
––––, (women’s) 42
Bars, grading of, 152-3
Bespoke patterns, 70-72
Binding the pattern, 180
Block knives, 130
Blucher boots, 70
Board patterns, cutting of, 174
Boot lining patterns (women’s)
87
–––– standards (men’s), 14-26
–––– –––– (women’s), 42-45
Boston backs, 30-31
Bottom stock patterns, 122-138
Brogued shoes (men’s), 34-6
Buckle one-bar shoe, 48
Button piece, springing a, 25
Buttoned boot standard (men’s),
23-6
CAMBRIDGE shoes (men’s), 37-8
Children’s standards, 62-3
Closed seams, 96
Closing seams, allowances for, 96
Clumps, 131-2
Coachman boots, 108-11
305
Colour schemes, 104
Compasses, 99-101
–––– for grading, 146-7
––––, their use in grading, 163
Component parts, cutting of,
27-31
Copying a made-up shoe, 105
Court shoe, 51
Cromwell patterns (women’s)
59-60
Cutting the parts, 82-6
DERBY boot lining, 87-9
–––– –––– standard, 18-19
–––– shoes, (children’s), 62-3
–––– –––– (men’s), 37-6
–––– –––– (women’s), 46
–––– tongue, cutting the, 85
Designing, 103-6
Drafting the tongue, 85
ELCHO boots, 107, 120-21
FACING widths, measurements
for, 93
Field boots, 116-120
–––– marshal top, 113
Foot-length, obtaining the, 98-9
Forme,derivation of word, 5
Formes , method of cutting, 5-11
GEOMETRIC grading, 141-2
–––– –––– of a set of Oxfords,
142-6
Geometric method of finding
positions for inside joints,
98-102
Gibson (infants’), 64-5
Gibson tongue, cutting the, 85
306
BOOTS AND SHOES
Gillie shoes, 56-7
Golosh depths, 97
Goloshes, interlocking, 29
–––– (whole), production of, 27
–––– with wings closed up together, 30
Grades, 151-2
Grading by geometric systems,
149
–––– children’s standards, 154-6
––––, comparative system of,
164-6
–––– innersoles and outsoles
from one stencil, 157162
–––– insoles into fittings, 161-2
–––– machine number 5, 170
–––– machines, 140, 167-73
–––– patterns into sets, 139-153
––––, proportional compasses
for, 146
–––– with parallel rule, 147-8
–––– –––– set-squares, 148-9
Grecians, 41
HALF-BELLOWS watertight
tongue, 19-21
Half-Wellingtons, 116
Hand-sewn, allowances for, 95
Hartford grading machine, 167-9
Heel angles determined by position of foot, 13
Heel covers, 69
High leg work, Standard construction for, 44
Hubert tops, 111
Hussar tops, 113
INFANTS’ standards, 63-6
Insole patterns, 122-6
JOCKEY backs, 30-31
–––– boots, 108-11
–––– tops, 111
LAPPED seams, 96
Lasting-over allowance, 94
Lachet Balmoral, 22-3
Lifts, 137-8
Light riveted, allowances for,
95
Linen vamp lining, 91
Lining patterns, 87-93
Long work standards, 107-121
Louis heel, machine-sewn, 12930
MACHINE-DRAFTED, allowances
for, 95
–––– -sewn, allowances for, 95
–––– -welted, allowances for, 95
Making, different methods of, 79
marker (probable date 1800), 73
––––, to construct the, 75
Master knives, 130
Men’s standards compared with
women’s, 14
Metal-bound patterns, cutting of
176-8
Middle soles, 131-2
Miners’ boots, 70
“Models,” the alternative name
for standards, 12
Monk shoe (women’s), 57-9
Mosquito boot, 11
Mulled uppers, 79
NAPOLEON top, 113
Navvies’ boots, 70
Newmarket boot, 112
ONE-BAR shoe linings, 92
–––– –––– standards, 46-9
–––– shoes (girls), 63
–––– –––– (infants’) 65
Open-stitched seams, 96
Outsole patterns, 126-9
–––– ––––, allowances for finishing, 127
–––– ––––, allowances for substances of
upper and insertions, 127
–––– ––––, –––– for width of
welt, 127
outsoles, machine-welted, 130
overseamed seams, 96
INDEX
Oxford quarter linings, 91
–––– shoe (men’s) 32-3
–––– –––– (women’s), 46
–––– standards (children’s), 62
–––– –––– (infants’), 64
PARALLEL rule, 147-8
Pattern allowances for making
and closing, 94-7
––––, binding the, 180
–––– cutting as an art, 106
–––– grading, 139-153
–––– markers, 72-3
Pegged seats, allowances for, 95
Poplins, allowances for, 95
Pronged buckles, 49
Proportional compasses, 99-101
QUARTER, cutting the, 21-2
84-5
–––– lining, 86
–––– patterns, 26
RANDS, 69
Reed power grading machine,
169-70
Riding boots (ladies’), 112-3
Rights and lefts patterns, 67-9
SANDAL shoe (women’s), 60-61
Seamless boots, 70
–––– shoes, 53
Seat pieces, 132
Set-squares, 148-9
Sew-round sole patter, 129
Sew-rounds, allowances for, 95
Shank patterns, 132
Shoe lining patterns, 89-90
–––– standards (women’s), 4650
Side-lining patterns, 136
307
Sketch designs, copying, 104-5
Ski shoe (women’s), 55-6
Slide buckles, 48
Slipper patterns, 39-41
Sock pattern, 132-3
Sole castors, 130
Soule’s system of forme cutting
6-7
Sports shoes, (women’s), 55
Sportsman’s boots, 116-20
Standards, construction of,
12-26
Stiffeners, designing of, 135-6
––––, kinds of, 133-5
Substance-tape, 10
Swaysland, E.C., 157
TOE-CAP, cutting the, 84
Tongue, half-bellows watertight,
19-21
Tongues, measurements for, 93
Top bands, measurements for,
93
–––– pieces, 137-8
Turnshoe linings, 89
–––– sole pattern, 129
UNIVERSAL pattern grading machine, 170-73
VAMP, cuttingthe, 82-3
–––– heights, 97
–––– lining, 86
Veldtschoens, allowances for, 95
WELLINGTON boots, 113
–––– boots (dress), 114-6
Welted seams, 96
Working patterns, making of,
174-80
308
BOOTS AND SHOES
SECTION II
THE MAKING OF LASTS
ALDEN, C.F., 289-90
–––– scale, 290
Alder, 191
Allowances and deductions for
lasts, 223-231
American influence on English
last-makers, 300
–––– method of specifying last
lengths, 286
Annular rings, 192-3
Axe, coachmaker’s, 200
BARK bottoms and sides, 193-4
Beech, 186-7
Bench, last-maker’s, 201-4
Bespoke lasts, 238
Blocks, turning the, 252
Boot lasts, 270
Bottom plates, 254
Breaking a last, 259, 260
CHARME, 186 191
Circular cut last, 278-9
Coachmaker’s axe, 200
Co-ordinated lasts and patterns,
257-68
Court-shoe lasts, 271-2
Cross-sections of lasts, 300-304
Cutting down top of comb, 212
–––– the corners of the heel, 210
DATUM machine, 301
Designs of footwear and lasts,
225
EASY exit last, 276
Ellis, Dr., 183
Exogens, 192
FASHION in footwear, 183
Feet, varying types of, 223-4
Finishing last, 274
–––– processes, 255-6
–––– the last, 235
French v. English systems of
specifying last lengths,
286
–––– wood, 186, 191
GAP spring last, 278
Gilman lathe, 247-9
Girths of lasts, 287-299
HAND process in making lasts,
238
IDEAL wood, 185-6
KNIFE, last-maker’s, 204-6
Knifing the last, 232-240
LAST blocks, modern, 275
–––– manufacturing, 246-56
––––, measurements for a, 214222
–––– models made by hand,
209-213
Last-maker’s bench, 201-4
Lengths of lasts, 285-7
MAPLE, 189
Materials used for footwear,
226-7
Measurements for lasts, 285-299
Measurements for a last, 214
222
Medullary rays, 193
Model, preparing the, 252-3
Modern last blocks, 275
NORTH American maple, 186
Novo last, 281-4
PARIS point, 286
Pitch in lasts, 243-4
INDEX
Position chart, 297-9
Progressive heel grading, 260
RANGE in lasts, 244
Rasp, last-maker’s, 207
Riding-boots last, 271
Roberts. F. W., 301
Rough-turned blocks, 189-191
Rounding under the seat, 210
SANDPAPER, 208
Sap wood, 192
Saw, frame, 206
–––– teeth, 199-200
Scrapers, 207-8
Shoe lasts, 271
Shrinkage, 194
Slipper lasts, 272-3
Sole impressions, 220-22
–––– shape pattern, making the,
228-231
309
Spring in lasts, 241-3
Squaring the bottom, 210
–––– the front and top, 212-3
–––– the sides, 209
Structure of wood, 192-7
T A B L E S of last measurement,
292-5
Toe-and-heeling machine, 253
Tools used in hand last-making,
198-208
––––, various, 207
Trimming the back of the heel,
214
Twist in lasts, 245
Types of lasts, 270-284
VICE last-maker’s, 203-4
WOBBLE saw, 253
Wood, structure of, 192-7
Woods used, 185-191
END VOLUME I
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