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Xenon as an Anesthetic Agent
Bryan D. Jordan, CRNA, MNA
Elizabeth Laura Wright, CRNA, MNA
Discovered in 1898 by British chemists, xenon is a rare
gas belonging to the noble gases of the periodic table.
Xenon is used in many different ways, from high-intensity lamps to jet propellant, and in 1939, its anesthetic
properties were discovered. Xenon exerts its anesthetic properties, in part, through the noncompetitive
inhibition of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors.
Currently, xenon is being used primarily throughout
Europe; however, the high price of manufacturing and
scavenging the noble gas has discouraged more widespread use. As technology in anesthetic delivery improves, xenon is being investigated further as a possible
replacement for nitrous oxide as an inhalational agent.
This article reviews the anesthetic properties of
xenon and current and potential research about the gas.
he search for the ideal anesthetic agent has
been ongoing since the inception of anesthesia.
The ideal anesthetic agent should be one that
not only provides amnesia, analgesia, and muscle relaxation but also does so rapidly and with
minimal side effects. Many agents exist, inhalational and
intravenous, that fit only part of the profile of the ideal
anesthetic agent. In fact, a polypharmacy approach is
often employed in which multiple agents are used to
induce and maintain anesthesia.
Inhalational agents have been used in the practice of
anesthesia for centuries. From diethyl ether and nitrous
oxide to sevoflurane and desflurane, inhalational anesthetics have been studied and compared extensively.
Xenon has surfaced and resurfaced throughout the years,
being studied for its anesthetic properties. The fact that it
is odorless, nonpungent, nontoxic, nonexplosive, environmentally friendly, and unlikely to undergo biotransformation has fueled more studies for the use of xenon.1
Xenon has been used in many ways since its initial discovery. A thorough understanding of xenon’s properties,
advantages, and disadvantages is essential to the discussion of its use as an anesthetic agent.
agents act. The MAC, an important property of inhaled
agents to understand, is defined as the concentration, in
percentage, of the anesthetic that produces immobility in
50% of patients subjected to a noxious stimulus, such as
surgical incision.3 Anesthetics, in general, are thought to
produce anesthesia by interaction with specific receptors
in the central nervous system, namely, gamma-aminobutyric acid receptors and, possibly, N-methyl-D-aspartate
(NMDA) receptors.4 Although there is not one specific
site of action shared by all inhalation agents, these sites
include the reticular activating system, the cerebral
cortex, the cuneate nucleus, the olfactory cortex, and the
hippocampus.4,5 The spinal cord, particularly the dorsal
horn, has also been shown to be depressed by anesthetic
agents.6 Inhaled anesthetics act primarily on the spinal
cord to produce immobility.6
Another pharmacodynamic property of inhaled anesthetics is explained by the Meyer-Overton rule. This rule
states that the action of general anesthetics is proportional to their partition coefficient in lipid membranes.7 In
other words, the potency of a specific agent correlates
closely with the affinity of that agent for the lipid phase,
such that as the oil-gas partition coefficient increases,
MAC decreases.8 Although MAC values are simply averages, and individual patient results can vary, it is a useful
measure because it mirrors brain partial pressure and it
allows a comparison of potency between agents.8 The
MAC of a particular agent is altered by many factors, including temperature, electrolyte concentration, drugs,
and age; in fact, MAC has been found to decrease by 6%
with each decade increase in age.9 Minimum alveolar
concentration is unaffected by gender, species, or duration of anesthesia.8 The MAC values and other properties
of various inhaled agents are compared in Table 1.10
T
Anesthetic Agents
For centuries, different medications and gases have been
used in the practice of anesthesia. The goal of these agents
has been to aid in the induction or maintenance of anesthesia. The ideal anesthetic agent is one that provides rapid
induction, adequate analgesia and amnesia, depression of
the autonomic nervous system, muscle relaxation, rapid
emergence, and avoidance of undesirable side effects.2
Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics
Keywords: General anesthesia, inhalational agent,
nitrous oxide, noble gas, xenon.
A discussion of the pharmacodynamic properties of
volatile agents must include not only the minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) but also how and where these
The Noble Gases
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AANA Journal ß October 2010 ß Vol. 78, No. 5
Approximately 117 elements exist today, 94 of which
387
occur naturally on earth. These elements are divided into
groups based on their electron configurations. Group
VIII, or group O, of the periodic table is composed of
helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon.11
Known collectively as the noble gases, or inert gases,
these elements are stable due to a fully occupied outer
shell of electrons, which means they are mostly nonreactive, or inert, to forming bonds with other elements.11 Of
particular interest in the field of medicine is the element
xenon (Table 2).12
The Chemical Properties of Xenon
Before the anesthetic properties of xenon can be explored, a discussion of its chemical properties is warranted. Xenon was first discovered in 1898 by British
chemists Sir William Ramsay and Morris W. Trave.1 Its
discovery was made by the repeated fractional distillation
of the noble gas krypton.1 Xenon is a naturally occurring
element that comprises 0.0000086%, or 0.05 parts per
million, of air.2 Indeed, the rarity of this element is the
basis for its name. Xenon derives its name from the Greek
word for “stranger”13 and exists naturally as 9 isotopes,
the most abundant of which is Xe 132.14 It can be manufactured by the fractional distillation of liquefied air.1,2
Commercially, xenon is used in many ways, including in
lasers, high-intensity lamps, flash bulbs, x-ray tubes, and
medicine.13,14 Because xenon is a naturally occurring
element, it is not a pollutant or an occupationally hazardous gas, nor does it contribute to global warming or
the greenhouse gas effect.2 In contrast, nitrous oxide is
230 times more potent as a greenhouse gas than is carbon
dioxide, taking 120 years to break down.14 These properties define xenon and contribute to its anesthetic profile.
Xenon in Anesthesia
As discussed previously, xenon has many of the properties of an ideal inhalational agent, including the fact that
it is odorless, nonpungent, nontoxic, nonexplosive, environmentally friendly, and unlikely to undergo biotransformation due to its stability.1 In addition to these characteristics, as will be shown, xenon has a rapid onset of
action, analgesic properties, a lack of arrythmogenicity,
Agent
MAC (%)
Blood/gas
the ability to maintain cerebral autoregulatory mechanisms and cardiovascular stability, and a quick emergence
profile.2 The following sections provide a brief discussion
of xenon’s early history, a discussion of its properties, and
a comparison of xenon with other anesthetic agents.
Early Experiments With Xenon
Although xenon was discovered in the late 19th century,
its anesthetic properties were not discovered until the late
1940s by J. H. Lawrence, who determined, in mice, that
xenon had narcotic properties.1 A few years later, Cullen
and Gross used xenon as an anesthetic agent on human
volunteers.2 After denitrogenation with 100% oxygen, an
81-year-old man and a 38-year-old woman were given
xenon and oxygen in an 80:20 mixture; loss of consciousness required 5 minutes in the woman and only 3
minutes in the man.15 Also noteworthy from this study is
the fact that in both patients, “normal” vital signs were
maintained throughout their respective procedures.15
Cullen and Gross15 concluded that xenon was capable of
producing complete anesthesia.
It was not until 1965 that Eger and associates16 actuProperty
Result
Symbol
Xe
Atomic number
54
Atomic weight
131.293(6)
Electron configuration
[Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p6
Ground level
1S
0
Ionization potential
12.1298 ev
Physical form
Colorless gas
Melting point
−111.74°C
Boiling point
−108.09°C
Critical temperature
16.62°C
Density
5.366 g/L
Specific heat
0.158 J/g•K
Table 1. Physiochemical Properties of Xenon10
Brain/blood
Muscle/blood
Oil/gas
Xenon
71
0.115
0.23
0.10
1.9
Nitrous oxide
104
0.47
1.1
1.2
1.4
Desflurane
6.0
0.42
1.3
2.0
18.
Sevoflurane
2.0
0.69
1.7
3.1
53.4
Isoflurane
1.2
1.4
2.6
4.0
90
Table 2. A Comparison of Xenon With Other Currently Used Inhalational Agents in Terms of MAC and Partition
Coefficients 2,8,12
MAC indicates minimum alveolar concentration.
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AANA Journal ß October 2010 ß Vol. 78, No. 5
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ally established the MAC of xenon at 0.71, or 71%, indicating a greater potency than the widely used nitrous
oxide, which has a MAC of 1.04, or 104%. Xenon is
therefore 1.5 times more effective than nitrous oxide in
depressing gross purposeful movement to noxious
stimuli, such as skin incision.17 Clinical trials of xenon
continued throughout the late 20th century, with no observation of detrimental effects; however, the major consistently reported hindrance to the use of xenon was its
high cost,2 which is a recurring issue today.
measured and compared is MAC-awake, which is the
concentration at which a patient opens the eyes to verbal
command.1 The MAC-awake for xenon is 33%, or 0.46
MAC, whereas the MAC-awake for nitrous oxide is 63%,
or 0.61 MAC.26
Advantages and Disadvantages of Xenon
The most important pharmacokinetic property of xenon
is its blood-gas coefficient and how that relates to its induction and emergence times. In 1973, Steward and colleagues18 reported that the blood-gas partition coefficient
of xenon is generally accepted to be 0.14. However,
through a series of experiments in the late 1990s, Goto et
al19 determined the blood-gas coefficient of xenon to actually be closer to 0.115. As stated previously, the bloodgas partition coefficient of an agent indicates its speed of
onset. The significance of this finding is that in comparison with other inhalational agents, xenon has much
faster onset and emergence times. Of the inhalational
agents in use today, only nitrous oxide and desflurane,
with blood-gas coefficients of 0.47 and 0.42, respectively,
even come close to xenon in terms of speed of onset. The
same is true for the emergence profile of xenon. In the
studies by Cullen and Gross,15 both patients who received xenon anesthetics were oriented to time, place,
and person within 2 minutes of discontinuation of the
gas. Because of the inert properties of xenon, once it is
turned off, it washes out quickly; about 95% of it is
exhaled in the first pass by the lungs.20 Table 2 compares
xenon’s blood-gas partition coefficient with that of other
inhalational agents.
Most general anesthetics exert their anesthetic action
through potentiation of inhibitory synaptic receptors,
mainly gamma-aminobutyric acid receptors.21 Xenon,
however, seems to have no effect on gamma-aminobutyric acid receptors; rather, it exerts its anesthetic action
by blocking excitatory NMDA receptors in the central
nervous system.21 Other NMDA receptor antagonists
with similar actions include nitrous oxide22 and ketamine.23 The analgesic effects of xenon are also explained
by its inhibition of NMDA receptors in the central
nervous system and by inhibition of NMDA receptors in
the dorsal horn of the spinal cord.14,24
As mentioned previously, the MAC for xenon was
thought to be 71%. More recent estimates of the MAC
value for xenon have estimated it to be around 63%.25
This makes it more potent than nitrous oxide, with a
MAC value of 104%, which is clinically unobtainable
without hyperbaric conditions. Another value often
Xenon as an anesthetic agent has many distinct advantages and one glaring disadvantage. As discussed, xenon
has rapid induction and emergence times based on its low
blood-gas partition coefficient. Goto and colleagues27
found that induction of anesthesia with xenon was faster
than with sevoflurane. In comparison with nitrous oxide,
Goto and colleagues27 found that emergence from xenon
anesthesia is 2 or 3 times faster than that from comparable MACs of nitrous oxide/isoflurane and nitrous
oxide/sevoflurane anesthesia. Furthermore, xenon compares favorably with other anesthetic agents. In 2001,
Dingley and colleagues28 found that xenon had a significantly quicker recovery time compared with an equivalent depth of propofol anesthesia. Other advantages of
xenon include its analgesic properties, its cardiovascular
stability, and its neuroprotective qualities. Finally, a discussion of xenon’s disadvantages must include its costs.
• Analgesic Properties of Xenon. As previously mentioned, the analgesic properties of xenon are consistent
with its ability to inhibit NMDA receptors. Also, xenon
seems to be active at the level of the spinal cord, particularly in the dorsal horn. Many comparisons have been
made between xenon and nitrous oxide, the only other
anesthetic gas with true analgesic efficacy.13 In 1998,
Petersen-Felix et al17 performed a series of experiments
on human volunteers comparing the analgesic properties
of xenon and nitrous oxide. These experiments included
the nociceptive reflex to repeated stimuli, pain tolerance
to ischemia, electrical stimulation, mechanical pressure,
and cold.17 The results of the study suggested that xenon
has an analgesic potency 1.5 times that of nitrous oxide.17
Although xenon and nitrous oxide are NMDA receptor
antagonists, their mechanism of action is different. The
antinociceptive effects of nitrous oxide are dependent on
opioid receptors, particularly in the periaqueductal gray
area of the brain.29 Furthermore, nitrous oxide-induced
analgesia can be antagonized by naloxone.29 As for
xenon, it was found that naloxone has no effect on the
rise in pain threshold, suggesting that the analgesic
effects are not mediated by opioid receptors.30 Further
studies have found that anesthesia with xenon has led to
lower intraoperative opioid requirements31 and to lower
doses of propofol needed to prevent movement than with
nitrous oxide.32
• Cardiovascular Stability With Xenon. Although a majority of the studies conducted on xenon are related to
the mechanism of its anesthetic action, data on the cardiovascular effects of xenon have accumulated during the
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Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic
Profile
389
past decade.33 Lachmann and associates31 reported a randomized, double-blind comparison of the efficacy and
potency of xenon versus nitrous oxide and their effects
on the circulatory and respiratory systems in relatively
healthy patients (ASA physical status I and II). The researchers measured heart rate, noninvasive blood pressure, arterial oxygen saturation, end-tidal carbon dioxide,
and lung mechanics.31 They reported that the average
amount of fentanyl required was about 5 times greater in
the nitrous oxide group than in the xenon group and that
changes in systolic blood pressure throughout the procedures were significantly smaller in the xenon group (P <
.01).31 They concluded that xenon is more effective than
nitrous oxide at maintaining hemodynamics.31 In a
similar study of patients classified as ASA physical status
class I and II, Boomsma and associates34 reported increased fentanyl requirements with nitrous oxide and
that blood concentrations of epinephrine and cortisol increased significantly in the nitrous oxide group but did
not change in the xenon group, indicating that xenon has
more favorable hemodynamic, neurohumoral, and antinociceptive properties than does nitrous oxide.
Little is known about the cardiovascular effects of
xenon in the diseased heart; in fact, most of the studies
published are animal studies. However, in one study, a
patient with cardiac tamponade undergoing bilateral
femoral-popliteal bypass surgery received xenon for
maintenance of anesthesia with no significant alteration
in blood pressure, heart rate, cardiac output, systemic
vascular resistance, pulmonary artery resistance, or
central venous pressure.33 Ishiguro33 also reported unpublished data of the effects of xenon on hemodynamics
in 20 patients undergoing coronary artery bypass graft
surgery. Xenon was found to decrease mean arterial pressure, cardiac output, and systemic vascular resistance less
than nitrous oxide.33
One interesting animal study measured the direct
effect of xenon on the isolated heart, particularly the cardiomyocytes, to investigate the effect of xenon on major
cation channels.35 In this study, isolated guinea pig cardiomyocytes were used. The study determined that
xenon did not alter any measured electrical, mechanical,
or metabolic factors, nor did it alter major cation currents, including sodium channels, L-type calcium channels, and inward-rectifier potassium channels.35 Another
animal study by Hettrick et al36 on dogs with induced
cardiomyopathy found that xenon produced minimal
cardiovascular effects. Finally, a study by Marx et al37
measured the cardiovascular effects of xenon in varying
concentrations versus total intravenous anesthesia on
pigs. Investigators found that during xenon anesthesia,
plasma adrenaline concentrations were reduced not only
at concentrations of 1 MAC but also at subanesthetic
concentrations.37 This may have occurred due to the
analgesic effects of xenon.37 The authors’ overall conclu-
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sion was that xenon was an inhalational agent with little
influence on the cardiovascular system.37
• Neuroprotective Qualities of Xenon. N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor agonism is necessary for brain function;
however, excessive NMDA agonism and antagonism can
cause neurotoxic effects and neuronal cell death.38
Excessive stimulation of NMDA receptors leads to excess
calcium entry into cells, which triggers a biochemical
cascade resulting in cell death.39 In certain types of neuronal injuries such as strokes, trauma, and seizures, this
is the primary mechanism for neuronal injury.38 On the
other hand, neuronal cell death is also associated with
NMDA antagonism and has been noted with other
NMDA antagonists such as ketamine and nitrous oxide.38
It is interesting that xenon seems unique in that it has
the ability to protect against NMDA agonism-induced
neuronal injury in a dose-dependent manner without
associated NMDA antagonism-induced neurotoxic
effects.39 Xenon has been shown to reduce the size of
cerebral infarction in rats40 and to reduce c-fos expression in vivo.41 It also reduces cardiopulmonary bypassinduced cognitive dysfunction in rats.40 Studies of xenon
compared with nitrous oxide and ketamine found that
while all 3 agents had neuroprotective qualities related to
their antagonism of NMDA receptors, nitrous oxide and
ketamine could also lead to neurotoxic effects related to
dopaminergic metabolic changes, which xenon lacks.39,41
Furthermore, xenon has been shown to counteract the
neurotoxic effects of ketamine, which suggests that
xenon, in addition to its ability to antagonize NMDA receptors, is likely to have additional targets.39 Further
studies by Rex and associates42,43 demonstrated that
general anesthesia with 1 MAC of xenon induces a global
decrease in cerebral metabolism, unlike other NMDA antagonists such as nitrous oxide and ketamine. This
finding suggests that NMDA antagonism is not the
primary mechanism of anesthetic action for xenon in the
human brain.42
Another important topic related to the discussion of
neurological protection is that of cerebral blood flow
(CBF). Cerebral blood flow can have an impact on intracranial pressure. One study by Laitio and associates44
quantified the effects of 1 MAC of xenon anesthesia on
CBF. Although most studies on CBF and xenon were
animal studies, this particular study assessed human volunteers and used only xenon as the sole inhalational
agent.44 The results of this study indicated that xenon decreased CBF, especially in the cerebellum, thalamus, and
cortical areas, whereas it increased CBF in the white
matter and in parts of the precentral and postcentral
gyrus.44 In short, although its exact mechanism of action
is unknown, it has been demonstrated that xenon is neuroprotective in certain situations.
• The Cost of Xenon Anesthesia. Although other disadvantages exist, the major disadvantage of xenon anesthe-
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sia is the high cost associated with its production.45
Studies demonstrating the cost-effectiveness of xenon
take into consideration its pharmacokinetic and pharmacokinetic properties, not its cost of production. Xenon is a
rare element, and although it is environmentally friendly,
manufacturing of this noble gas consumes an enormous
amount of energy.1 Associated costs with the introduction
of any new anesthetic agent are multifactorial and involve
the purchase of new equipment such as vaporizers, monitors, and anesthesia machines.1 According to Hanne et
al,12 a reduction of these costs in the near future is unlikely. Although the price has declined drastically in the
past 2 decades, 1 L of xenon costs approximately $20
today, compared with pennies per liter for nitrous oxide.10
One study by Nakata and associates46 found that the cost
of xenon anesthesia in a 40-year-old, ASA physical status
I man weighing 70 kg costs $356 for 240 minutes of
closed-circuit anesthesia. In comparison, closed-circuit
anesthesia with nitrous oxide and isoflurane costs only
$52.46 The majority of the cost of xenon anesthesia was
due to the inability to reuse scavenged gas and priming
the anesthesia machine proximal to the breathing system.
This was a notable factor at the beginning of the anesthetic before complete rebreathing had been established.46
• Reducing the Cost of Xenon Anesthesia. Given xenon’s
favorable pharmacological profile, the development of
any means to offset its high costs is warranted. Methods
to reduce costs of xenon include decreasing consumption, recycling used xenon, and reducing manufacturing
costs.12 Although flushing and priming of the system accounts for the major costs, closed-circuit anesthesia
seems to be the only economically acceptable technique
for xenon delivery.12 Another means of cost reduction is
the development of a xenon recycling system.13 One such
device in Germany is capable of removing accumulated
nitrogen, acetone, and methane to obtain pure xenon.1
The drawback to this recycling system, however, is that
for xenon to be recovered, another agent would have to
be used to maintain anesthesia, thereby negating the beneficial emergence properties of xenon.14 Dingley and
Mason47 recently developed a cryogenic scavenging system that shows promise.
An interesting note related to the cost of xenon anesthesia is that according to the study by Nakata and associates,46 after 4 hours of administration in a completely
closed system, xenon becomes comparable in cost to
other anesthetics. This gives xenon a clear edge in settings such as cardiac and neurological surgery, in which
prolonged administration of anesthesia is required and
rapid emergence is beneficial.14 Unfortunately, even if the
cost of xenon anesthesia can be even reasonably reduced,
it is still unlikely to gain widespread use due to its limited
availability.12
• Other Advantages and Disadvantages of Xenon. Other
advantages of xenon include its environmental effects, its
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effects on organ systems, and its lack of toxic effects. The
major anesthetic agents used today are chlorofluorocarbon-based and are known to deplete the ozone layer.13 In
comparison with the other inhalational agents, xenon is
a naturally occurring constituent of the environment and
has no detrimental ecological effects.14 In addition,
xenon seems to have no adverse effects on various organ
systems.14 It does not impair hepatic or renal function48;
in fact, it may prove to be the anesthetic of choice in
surgery when these systems are impaired.14 Reports also
suggest that xenon exerts no effects on coagulation,
platelet function, or the immune system.14 Finally, experiments suggest that xenon does not trigger malignant hyperthermia49 and that diffusion hypoxia is unlikely
during recovery from xenon anesthesia.12
In addition to the high cost, xenon has other disadvantages. Although more research is needed, the study on
the analgesic properties of xenon by Petersen-Felix et al17
demonstrated a high incidence of postoperative nausea
and vomiting. Another disadvantage of xenon that is
similar to that of nitrous oxide is its ability to diffuse into
closed spaces. Although the diffusion rate of xenon is
slower than that of nitrous oxide due to the lower blood
solubility of xenon, it may not be the best choice of anesthetic for patients at risk for gas embolism, pneumothorax, or ileus.12 Last, xenon has proven to increase pulmonary resistance due to its greater density.50 This can
increase work of breathing, which increases the risk in
patients with conditions such as moderate to severe
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, morbid obesity,
airway tumors, and in premature infants.2
Summary
Similar to other fields, anesthesia is ever changing. New
anesthetic agents are constantly being tested and added
to the market. The ability to understand and adapt to
these changes is essential to the practice of anesthesia.
Inhalational agents are as old as anesthesia itself, and although it has been around for many years, xenon has
only recently been extensively studied for use in anesthesia. Despite the disadvantages of xenon, such as high cost
and limited availability, its pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties warrant further consideration.
With a quick onset, analgesic properties, cardiovascular
and neurological stability, and environment-protective
qualities, xenon could very well be the anesthetic of the
future.
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AUTHORS
Bryan D. Jordan, CRNA, MNA, is a staff nurse anesthetist at the University
of Alabama at Birmingham Hospital, Birmingham, Alabama.
Elizabeth Laura Wright, CRNA, MNA, is an assistant professor in the
Nurse Anesthesia Program at the University of Alabama at Birmingham,
Birmingham, Alabama. Email: wrightel@uab.edu.
www.aana.com/aanajournalonline.aspx