1. science
2. geology
3. seismology
4. earthquakes

International Symposium on Strong Vrancea Earthquakes and Risk Mitigation
Oct. 4-6, 2007, Bucharest, Romania
SEISMIC VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT.
METHODOLOGICAL ELEMENTS AND APPLICATIONS
TO THE CASE OF ROMANIA.
Horea Sandi1, Antonios Pomonis2, Symon Francis3, Emil Sever Georgescu4,
Rakesh Mohindra3, Ioan Sorin Borcia4
ABSTRACT
This paper is intended to present some studies undertaken in order to develop a seismic
vulnerability estimation system to fit the needs of development of earthquake scenarios and
of development of an integrated disaster risk management system for Romania.
Methodological aspects are dealt with, in connection with the criteria of categorization of
buildings, with the definition of parameters used for characterizing vulnerability, with the
setting up of an inventory of buildings and with the calibration of parameters characterizing
vulnerability. Action was initiated along the coordinates referred to in connection with the
methodological aspects mentioned above. The approach was made, as far as possible,
specific to the conditions of Romania. Some data on results obtained to date are presented.
1. INTRODUCTION
Seismic hazard and risk are widely recognized as being high in Romania. Moreover,
according to forecasts like those of (Constantinescu & Enescu, 1985) or (Sandi & Mârza,
1996), there is a high probability of occurrence of a new strong, perhaps destructive
earthquake, within the near future. This makes the need of developing and implementing
efficient risk reduction strategies a matter of high urgency.
The basic ingredients required for the assessment of seismic risk are represented by the
seismic hazard and by the seismic vulnerability of elements at risk dealt with (the exposure
of elements at risk is to be added to them in case one considers elements at risk with
variable exposure, like e.g. people at risk in an assembly hall). The experience acquired to
date leads to the conclusion that the difficulties and uncertainties related to the seismic
vulnerability appear to be, strangely, more important or severe, than those related to seismic
hazard. This fact obviously raises a challenge, related to the object of this paper.
In order to cope with the challenge of major social importance raised by seismic risk, the
Romanian governmental agencies benefitted from the financial and technical assistance
provided by the World Bank Office in Bucharest. Among a group of projects developed in
this framework, the authors got involved in two projects, referred to as: AC3, "Consultancy
services for development of a Vrancea earthquake scenario" and AC6, "Consultancy
services for integrated disaster risk management study". The task of assessing seismic
vulnerability of various categories of elements at risk was of obvious importance in both
cases. At the same time, trying to assess seismic vulnerability raised several complicated
problems of methodological and logistic nature. The paper presents some main aspects
related to a first attempt of development of a nation-wide seismic vulnerability estimation
system, concerning basically the existing building stock.
1
M., Academy of Technical Sciences of Romania. E-mail: sandi@geodin.ro
Risk Management Solutions, Athens, Greece. E-mail: antoniospom@forthnet.athens.gr
3
RMSI Pvt Ltd, Noida, India. E-mail: rakesh.mohindra@rmsi.com
4 4
INCERC (National Building Research Institute), Bucharest, E-mail: ssever@incerc2004.ro,
isborcia@incerc2004.ro
2
International Symposium on Strong Vrancea Earthquakes and Risk Mitigation
329
2. METHODOLOGICAL ASPECTS CONCERNING SEISMIC VULNERABILITY
AND DERIVING OF BASIC DATA
2.1. General
There are several situations / reasons requiring the use of the concept of (seismic)
vulnerability: Mainly, they are:
- use of vulnerability as one of the main factors involved in risk analysis;
- use of vulnerability as one of the main factors involved in development of
scenarios;
- background for setting risk reduction strategies for the building stock or for other
categories of elements at risk;
- providing a background for the development of seismic intensity scales (e.g.: the
EMS-98 scale (Grünthal, 1998) refers explicitly and repeatedly to seismic
vulnerability).
The concern that is specific to this paper is dealing with the seismic vulnerability of the
building stock, in view of providing a suitable background for the development of seismic risk
scenarios under the conditions that are specific to Romania.
The main problems of methodological nature dealt with in this frame concern:
- an appropriate definition of seismic vulnerability;
- development of appropriate ways for estimating vulnerability for selected
categories of elements at risk;
- ways of setting up of corresponding databases;
- development of appropriate ways of use of results obtained.
2.2. Vulnerability related definitions
A qualitative definition of seismic vulnerability, that can be widely accepted, is as follows: the
proneness of some category of elements at risk to undergo adverse effects inflicted by
potential earthquakes. This kind of definition, which is definitely vague, requires of course
considerable refinements in order to become an operational tool for various purposes, like
estimate of seismic risk, development of earthquake scenarios, or development of strategies
of risk mitigation. The refinements required refer essentially to:
- the specification and characterization of elements at risk for which seismic
vulnerability is to be investigated;
- the characterization of seismic action and the quantification of its severity;
- the characterization of potential earthquake effects and the quantification of their
severity;
- the characterization of the proneness to occurrence of effects of various levels of
severity, as a function of the severity of seismic action.
The concept of vulnerabillity pertains to a system of basic concepts involved in risk analysis.
These are considered in this paper only in relation to seismic risk. A basic list of them is:
elements at risk, action (seismic), hazard (seismic), potential effects (damage, losses),
exposure, vulnerability and risk. Besides this basic list one can consider also the concept of
earthquake scenario, which represents a simpified substitute for risk, used in practice due to
the lack of feasibility of proper risk analyses. Potential effects, exposure and vulnerability
represent characteristics of the categories of elements at risk dealt with and are specific to
them. E.g.: potential effects may be damage to buildings or other artifacts of man, casualties
or injuries to people; exposure may be permanent and constant for buildings, but variable for
people at risk in an assembly hall. The earthquake effects are highly random, so
randomness must be explicitly recognized in dealing with vulnerability. In this frame,
vulnerability is characterized in probabilsitic terms, by means of distributions of expected
effects, conditional upon some parameter(s) characterizing the severity of (seismic) action.
330
H. Sandi et al.
The situations in which vulnerabilty is to be dealt with are extremely diverse. To consider
some examples:
- the action can be considered in terms of scalar or of vectorial characteristics;
- the action can be considered at source level, at site level, at floor level etc.;
- the elements at risk dealt with may be located at a definite (single) place or they
can be represented by geographically distributed systems (e.g.: lifelines);
- the potential effects may be damage to artifacts of man, adverse effects to
people, financial losses, functional impairement etc;
- vulnerabilility may be dealt with in relation to elements at risk (e.g. buildings) in
their initial state, or in relation to the consideration of cumulative effects of
repeated cases of incidence of action (evolutionary vulnerability);
- the concern for vulnerabililty analysis may be related to a definite object (or
system), or it can be related to the development of databases for some
categories of systems.
The examples referred to illustrate the diversity of needs of specific approaches in various
possible applications. Some attempts at dealing (at least partially) with such a manifold of
situations were presented in (Sandi, 1985), (Sandi, 1986), (Sandi, 1998), (Sandi, 2003).
As a reply to the questions that may be raised by the manifold of possibilities referred to
previously, the framework adopted in this paper may be characterized as follows:
- the action is considered in scalar terms only;
- the action is considered at site level;
- the elements at risk are as a rule buildings, located, each of them, at some
definite place (some references to another category of elements at risk,
represented by their occupants, are made too);
- the potential effects are represented basically by damage to buildings (when
dealing with their occupants, one will consider, of course, casualties or injury
cases of various levels of severity);
- no specific developments concerning evolutionary vulnerability are presented;
- attention is paid mainly not to individual buildings, but to the various categories of
buildings of which the building stock consists.
In order to make following discussion more specific, the elements at risk considered at this
place, which are some categories of artifacts of man, more precisely some categories of
(individual) buildings, are to be specified further on in some general terms, like:
- period of construction;
- material of construction and structural system;
- height (which is well correlated at its turn with dynamic characteristics like
fundamental natural periods).
It may be recognized, on the basis of experience at hand, that this kind of differentiation of
categories of buildings is relevant from the viewpoint of seismic vulnerability.
Seismic action is, as well known, a highly complex entity. This means that, in order to be
correct, one should characterize it by a complex system of parameters. A discussion on this
subject is presented in (Sandi, 2007). This is unfortunately (at present) not in best
agreement with practical feasibility, due to at least two main reasons:
- difficulties of working with such a complex system;
- lack of appropriate basic data, to cover the information required by the adoption
of such a system.
As a consequence of this situation, the practical solution widely adopted in various
applications is that, of characterizing the seismic action by means of a single scalar
parameter, which may have the sense of seismic intensity, or of some reference kinematic
parameter of ground motion. The scalar parameter adopted (which may behave like a
random variable) will be denoted by Q, while its possible values will be denoted by q.
Moreover, due to pragmatic reasons, these possible values will be discretized as qj (e.g.:
International Symposium on Strong Vrancea Earthquakes and Risk Mitigation
331
integer intensity degrees, or a row of values of some kinematic parameter organized as a
geometric progession).
According to knowledge of structural dynamics applied to the case of earthquake action, it
turns out that the spectral characteristics of ground motion play a major role in determining
its destructive potential upon structures having at their turn various dynamic characteristics.
A classical development in this sense is represented by the theory of linear response
spectra. A more in depth analysis in this sense shows that destructive earthquake effects do
not always best correlate with parameters like global intensity, peak ground acceleration,
peak ground velocity etc. A much better correlation is reached in case of using response
spectra. Given this fact, some results of studies concerning alternative definitions of seismic
intensity on the basis of instrumental data (Sandi & Floricel, 1998) were used.
To be more specific, among the variants referred to, a startpoint adopted in order to define
the parameters q characterizing the earthquake action severity, was represented by the
linear response spectra for absolute accelerations, saa (T, n), and for absolute velocities
respectively, sva (T, n), related to a reference fraction of critical damping, n = 0.05. Based on
developments of (Sandi & Floricel, 1998), a spectrum based intensity q (T), related to a
certain oscillation period T, considered for a definite direction of motion, was defined as
q (T) = logb [saa (T, ξ) × sva (T, ξ)] + a
(2.1)
(where a value ξ = 0.05 is used for the fraction of critical damping) while a similar intensity
parameter q-(T’, T”), averaged upon a definite spectral interval (T’, T”), for the same direction
of motion, was defined according to the averaging rule
q-(T’, T” ) = logb{ [1 / ln (T”/T’)] ∫T’T” [saa (T, ξ),× sva (T, ξ)] dT/T } + a
(2.2)
A rule for averaging intensities of the type defined by Eq. (2.1), corresponding to different
(horizontal, orthogonal) directions of motion x and y, is
q (T) = logb {[saax (T, ξ) × svax (T, ξ) + saay (T, ξ) × svay (T, ξ)] / 2} + a
(2.3)
as given in (Sandi & Floricel, 1998) too. Of course, the averaging rules given by Eqs. (2.2)
and (2.3) can be combined, when suitable.
A first calibration of the parameters a and b of previous expressions, aimed at providing a
best compatibility with the quantifications of the MSK intensity scale (IRS, 1971) was a = 7.7
and b = 4. Based on statistical results presented in (Aptikaev, 2005) and on considerations
of (Sandi & al., 2006), an alternative solution, considered to be more suitable, was a = 7.8
and b = 8. In this case, the expression of Eq. (2.1) becomes
q (T) = (1/0.9) × lg [saa (T, ξ) × sva (T, ξ)] + 7.8
(lg: decimal logarithm)
(2.4)
This expression appears to be suitable from the viewpoint of results provided, but its use
leads to some additional work, since it requires additional computations, in order to
determine the response spectra of absolute velocities sva (T, ξ). In order to avoid this
additional work, a relatively simple solution could be that, of replacing the absolute velocity
spectra sva (T, ξ) by the relative pseudovelocity spectra spvr (T, ξ), expressed by
spvr (T, ξ) = saa (T, ξ) × T / (2π)
(2.5)
332
H. Sandi et al.
which leads to replacement of the expression of Eq. (2.4) by the shorter expression
q (T) = (1/0.45) × lg [saa (T, ξ)] + (1/0.9) × lg T + 6.8
(2.6)
Warning: the use of this latter expression for very short periods T leads to underestimate of
intensity, because the relative pseudovelocity spectra tend to 0 for very short periods, while
the absolute velocity spectra tend to the peak ground velocity in this case. Note also that, in
case of very long periods, the absolute velocity spectra tend to zero, while the relative
velocity spectra tend to the peak ground velocity.
The potential (adverse) effects of seismic action, that are specific to the categories of
elements at risk considered (i.e. buildings), may be generally referred to as damage. The
kind and severity of damage inflicted to a building may be, of course, highly variable from
one case to the other. The situation is in some way homologous to that of measures of
ground motion severity, referred to before. Due to similar reasons, it will be accepted that
damage can be characterized by a scalar (random) variable D, which can take various
values d (within a definite range). It will be accepted that the possible values of d are
discrete, and that they are quantified into discrete values referred to as dk, in agreement with
the provisions of the EMS-98 European Macroseismic Scale (Grünthal, 1998). Earthquake
experience puts to evidence the highly random nature of damage severity due to a case of
incidence of seismic action, at a definite level of severity. This leads to the need of use of
probabilistic tools in order to describe vulnerability. The discrete (integer) damage grades
vary, according to the EMS scale, from 0 (no damage) to 5 (collapse, destruction). Under
these conditions, the seismic vulnerability of a definite category of elements at risk (more
specifically, a definite category of buildings) will be characterized, in the simplest situations,
by a system of conditional distributions (more precisely, conditional upon the level of severity
of ground motion). The distribution of damage grades, conditional upon the severity of
seismic action, is characterized basically by a system of conditional distributions p(v)k/j. The
expected (conditional) damage grade dj~ = d~(qj) is given, of course, by the expression
d~(qj) = Σk k p(v)k/j.
(2.7)
A convenient expression for the conditional probabilities p(v)k/j appears to be the classical
binomial distribution used by the Italian school (Dolce, 1984),
b (k, n, dj~) = { n! / [k! / (n – k)!]} (dj~/ n)k(1 – dj~/ n)n-k
(2.8)
( - k: discrete index of current damage grade: integer, where 0 ≤ k ≤ n;
- n: maximum value of k, which is equal to 5, in agreement with the EMS scale;
- dj~ = d~(qj): expected damage grade for an intensity q = qj, where 0 ≤ dj~ ≤ n),
while
p(v)k/j = b (k, n, dj~)
(2.9)
Plots corresponding to damage probability matrices p(v)k/j obtained in Italy and in Romania
are presented e.g. in the Working Group report (Sandi, 1986). The data obtained in Italy
present also the deviations between empirical data and the data corresponding to the
analytical expression of Eq. (2.9).
An analytical expresssion proposed for the expected damage grade d~(q), based on
developments of (Sandi & al. 1990) is
d~(q, qd, qs) = (n/2) × {1 + tanh [(q – qd) / qs]
(2.10)
International Symposium on Strong Vrancea Earthquakes and Risk Mitigation
333
where n and q are the same as before, qd is a parameter close to the design intensity
(eventually slightly higher) and qs is a measure of the scatter, varying from about 1.5 for
relatively ductile structures to about 2.5 for relatively brittle structures.
From an academic viewpoint, there are two basic ways of estimating vulnerability:
a) performing appropriate engineering analyses (basically parametric, Monte –
Carlo type for various sample input data, followed by statistical processing of
outcome);
b) statistical analysis of post-earthquake survey data .
Given the practical limitations to their use, the basic ways referred to as items (a) and (b)
should be combined whenever possible, while some reconciliation is desirable.
Unfortunately, there are quite seldom practical possibillities of deriving conclusions on the
basis of use of these ways, while it becomes necessary to make extensive use of expert
judgment. One had to rely, essentially, for practical purposes, on such an approach.
Previous developments concerning seismic vulnerability correspond implicitly to what could
be referred to as a classical approach, which is usual in literature and can be characterized
as follows:
- it refers to a single, practically instantaneous, event;
- the implications of the cumulative nature of effects of successive earthquakes are
not considered.
The reality is obviously more complex and some extensions from the classical approach
should be considered, at least theoretically. An attempt to deal with such challenges,
presented in (Sandi 1998), can be mentioned in this connection, in relation to the
consideration of the evolutionary vulnerability, which corresponds to the consideration of the
fact that the vulnerabilty of a building affected by some damage is higher than the initial
vulnerability (in the "no damage" state) of a same kind of structure. The introduction of the
concept of evolutionary vulnerability leads to the need of considering, in relation to a definite
seismic event, the pre-event state of damage d’, and, also, the post-event state of damage,
d”. The distributions characterizing the evolutionary vulnerability will be conditional not only
upon the ground motion severity parameter, but also upon the pre-event level of damage
and can be represented generically by an expression p(v”)k”/j,k’. Some logical conditions
concerning the features of the distributions p(v”)k”/j,k’ were presented in (Sandi, 1998). The
determination of these generalized distributions involves considerably increased
requirements and difficulties as compared to the classical case of distributions p(v)k/j. As an
example, in case one wants to use the approach (b) referred to previously, post-earthquake
surveys are to be conducted upon samples of buildings for which a pre-event damage
survey had been performed. This involves the need of developing of an adequate system of
databases, aimed at covering the current situation of the existing building stock. It is hardly
believable that such a large scale action and in-depth surveys will be performed soon in
practice, given the inevitable evolution of the building stock determined by the general
evolution of the economic life. So, rather simple ways of estimating vulnerability, relying to a
high extent on the use of expert judgment, are bound to be used in this field.
Coming back to the classical definition of vulnerability, which means neglecting of the
concept of evolutionary vulnerabililty, it is appropriate, for some purposes, to consider the
earthquake effects not only in terms of the observable, physical, damage grade, but also in
economic terms, namely in terms of damage ratio, which represents the fraction of
replacement cost involved by the occurrence of physical damage. A possibility of conversion
between them is given in Table 2.1 (Whitman & Cornell, 1976).
334
H. Sandi et al.
Table 2.1. Damage ratios corresponding to various damage grades
Damage grade
NONE - 0
LIGHT - L
MODERATE - M
HEAVY - H
TOTAL - T
COLLAPSE - C
Description of damage
No, or insignificant non - structural
damage
Minor, localized non - structural damage
Widespread, extensive non - structural
damage; readily repairable structural
damage
Major structural damage; possibly total
non - structural damage
Building condemned or replaced
Building partially or totally collapsed
Damage
ratio (%)
Central
Value
0 - 0.05
0.05 - 1.25
0
0.3
1.25 - 20
5
20 - 65
65 - 100
100
30
100
≥100
2.3. Categories of buildings considered
The approach adopted relied primarily on the definition of relevant categories of buildings,
that are specific to Romania, considering following criteria of differentiation:
- M: material and structural system:
o M1a: RC frames, with incorporation of some RC shear walls;
o M1b: large prefabricated RC panels;
o M1c: buildings of RC frames, with unreinforced infill masonry walls, and
buildings of reinforced load-bearing masonry (e.g. small columns and/or
RC ring-beams);
o M2: unreinforced masonry with RC floors;
o M3: unreinforced masonry with wooden floors;
o M4: wooden;
o M5: adobe or other mud-brick or clay houses;
- H: height:
o H1: single storey;
o H2: 2 - 3 storeys;
o H3: 4 – 7 storeys;
o H4: 8 - 10 storeys
o H5: ≥ 11 storeys;
- Y: period of construction:
o Y1: < 1945;
o Y2: 1945 – 1963;
o Y3: 1964 – 1970;
o Y4: 1971 – 1977;
o Y5: 1978 – 1992;
o Y6: > 1992.
Some comments on the categories enumerated:
1. The basic information obtained from NIS (National Institute of Statistics) was organized
according to Table 2.2.
2. The fundamental periods of buildings play an important role in determining the amplitude
of seismic loading. They are strongly correlated with the heights of buildiings (not forgetting
about the influence of structural systems that is to be considered too). Since response
spectra were taken into account and were assessed for various areas of the country
(Mohindra & al., 2007) as required for subsequent risk analyses or development of
earthquake scenarios, it became necessary to assess also fundamental natural periods for
International Symposium on Strong Vrancea Earthquakes and Risk Mitigation
335
the different categories of buildings, in order to subsequently assess the expected damage
grades dj~, required for the assessment of vulnerability characteristics p(v)k/j in agreement
with the relations (2.6) ... (2.8). The main criteria of differentiation of assessed periods were
the criteria H, Y and M defined previously. Starting from data of the Romanian code
(MLPAT, 1992) and from some data of literature, it was found that some simplifications in
assessing fundamental periods are suitable. A simplified way to assess periods, adopted for
the study referred to, corresponded to the values given in Table 2.3.
Table 2.2. Correspondence between categories used by NIS and those used in the paper
NIS CATEGORY
Reinforced concrete, pre-cast concrete panel or steel
skeleton framed concrete
STRUCTURAL
CLASS
M1A
M1B
M1C
Brick masonry, stone masonry or panel substitutes,
made of reinforced concrete (steel/beams) with RC
floors;
Brick masonry, stone masonry or panel substitutes,
made of wood with wooden floors;
Wood (beams, logs etc.)
Saplings plastered with wet clay, adobe, other
materials (e.g. wood pressed panels, rolled mud
bricks etc.)
M2
M3
M4
M5
Table 2.3. Fundamental natural periods adopted for vulnerability assessment
Period of
Construction
Category
H1: 1
storey
H2: 2 - 3
storeys
H3: 4 - 7
storeys
H4: 8 -10
storeys
H5: ≥11
storeys
Pre-1946
M1A
M1B
M1C
0.159
0.455
0.632
0.981
1.430
1946-1977
M1A
M1B
M1C
0.052
0.047
0.156
0.132
0.111
0.446
0.308
0.251
0.617
0.453
0.376
0.954
0.538
0.434
1.385
1978 – 1992
M1A
M1B
M1C
0.050
0.045
0.150
0.125
0.105
0.425
0.294
0.239
0.594
0.434
0.357
0.918
0.510
0.408
1.326
Post - 1992
M1A
M1B
M1C
0.050
0.045
0.150
0.125
0.105
0.425
0.290
0.235
0.585
0.425
0.350
0.900
0.500
0.400
1.300
3. The period of construction plays an important role in determining the vulnerability
characteristics, due to the evolution of severity of provisions of the regulatory basis of
earthquake resistant design. Milestones to be mentioned in this respect are as in Table 2.4.
336
H. Sandi et al.
Table 2.4. Milestones in the evolution of the regulatory basis of earthquake resistant design
Year
1945
1963
1970
1977
1981
1992
1996
Documents endorsed, getting in force
A first instruction by the Ministry of Public Works
First modern code for earthquake resistant design; widely used, as the
subsequent ones
Revision of the previous one
Drastic revision of the previous one, following the destructive earthquake of
1977.03.04
New revision, with lesser quantitative influence, but with some
methodological improvements
New revision, benefitting among other from the rich instrumental data
obtained during the strong earthquakes of 1986.08.30, 1990.05.30 and
1990.05.31 (new zonation, this time bi-parametric)
The same as previously, but last two sections, concerning the evaluation and
strengthening of existing buildings replaced
Vulnerability characteristics were assessed using the basic information referrred to in next
subsection. Data at hand and expert judgment were combined to this purpose. Vulnerability
functions were considered in two alternative formulations: damage grades (as expressed by
the conditional distributions p(v)k/j referred to before) and damage ratios (damage ratio: a
financial estimate, representing the fraction of replacement cost corresponding to a definite
damage grade; in fact, use of data of Table 2.1).
In order to illustrate the features of vulnerability functions developed in agreement with the
methodological approach presented in subsections 2.2 and 2.3, two figures developed in
view of drafting vulnerability characteristics are shown. They are expressed in terms of
damage ratios and correspond respectively to:
- the vulnerability of non-engineered structures of types M3 (masonry without rigid
floors), M4 (wooden), and M5 (adobe), and
- the vulnerability of structures of types M1a (RC frames, with incorporation of some
RC shear walls), M1b (large prefabricated RC panels) and M1c (buildings of RC frames, with
unreinforced infill masonry walls, and buildings of reinforced load-bearing masonry).
In order to use in calculations the data on vulnerability at hand, it is appropriate, of course, to
convert them into discrete data.
Figure 2.1. Vulnerabililty functions (intensity
based on PGA) for low rise residential
buildings of types M3 (masonry without rigid
floors), M4 (wood) and M5 (adobe)
Figure 2.2. Seismic vulnerability functions
related to spectrum based intensity,
for various seismic zones, for residential
buildings of types M1 (RC) and M2
(masonry with rigid floors)
International Symposium on Strong Vrancea Earthquakes and Risk Mitigation
337
2.4. Basic information on vulnerability
The first basic data on vulnerability at hand were obtained on the basis of the postearthquake survey performed in Bucharest subsequently to the 1977.03.04 earthquake on a
sample exceeding 18,000 buildings, located in different areas of the city. The survey made it
possible to derive statistical damage spectra for several sub-areas of the city (Bălan & al.,
1982). These latter results were processed additionally, leading to vulnerability functions
expressed in terms of conditional damage distributions, presented in an EAEE Working
Group Report, prepared for the 8-th European Conference of Earthquake Engineering
(Sandi & al., 1986). The vulnerability functions referred to were related to eight categories of
buildings, covering: adobe type, masonry walls with non-rigid (e.g. wooden) floors of different
age categories, masonry walls with rigid (r.c.) floors of different age categories too, taller
buildings with r.c. walls (distant or closely spaced), taller buildings with r.c. frames with
masonry infill. Note in this connection that the scatter of results corresponding to the
conditional damage distributions obtained was in the case of Bucharest lower than what the
classical distribution of Eq. (2.8) would predict, most likely due to the relatively high
homogeneity of the building samples (or sub-samples) considered. On the contrary, the
results obtained in Italy subsequently to the Irpinia earthquake of 1980.11.24 (Sandi & al.,
1986) showed a fair agreement with the scatter predicted by the binomial distribution. Given
the lower scatter derived in Romania, a different, generalized, distribution, based on its turn
nevertheless on the binomial distribution, was used in risk analyses conducted subsequently
(Sandi & Floricel, 1994).
A relevant additional source concerning the vulnerability of buildings is provided by the
summary papers (Cişmigiu & al. 1999) and (Colban & al. 1999). The most significant data on
vulnerabililty provided in the paper (Cişmigiu & al. 1999) are mostly of qualitative nature.
They concern a description of the structural systems of historical religious monuments and
the features of the damage they underwent, the same for other monumental buildings and
the same for usual buildings (as a rule, residential ones). Some experimental data on the
dynamic characteristics were presented too. The most significant data on vulnerability
provided in the paper (Colban & al. 1999) are basically of quantitative nature. Methodological
aspects are presented. The basic parameter used in order to characterize vulnerability was
the ratio R of actual resistance to resistance required by codes. The ways used for
estimating R are described. A sample of 329 buildings was analyzed. Statistical data on age,
height and material / structural system were presented. An alternative method, developed in
(Mironescu & Bortnowschi, 1983) was briefly presented too. This relies on a simplified
determination of S - δ curves. Statistical data on the sample referred to, as related to the
different criteria mentioned, were presented. The use of S - δ curves was illustrated too.
Other approaches, like e.g. attempts of THNL (time history non-linear) analysis, were
conducted in a few isolated cases and did not play to date an important role in improving the
knowledge of practical relevance concerning the vulnerability of the existing building stock.
An important point raised by the goal of estimating global losses was represented by the
determination of the number of buildings of various categories located in various communes.
The data provided by the Housing Census of 2002, developed by the National Institute of
Statistics, were used in this frame. The data referred to included the total number of
dwellings and total floor space in residential dwellings. The data were categorized into 5
material types, 15 age (period of construction) bands and 4 intervals of numbers of stories
(single storey to 11+ stories).
338
H. Sandi et al.
3. USE OF DATA AND RESULTS ON VULNERABILITY
A main goal of the activities of vulnerability analysis is that, of providing basic data for risk
analysis or for earthquake scenario development. Since a proper, rigorous, risk analysis is
not feasible in practice for large systems, earthquake risk scenarios are being developed in
the frame of activities referred to.
A main set of data required for estimating expected earthquake inflicted damage and losses
is represented by the modelling of seismic hazard. Seismic hazard was estimated in this
frame according to the developments of (Mohindra & al., 2007). A second main set of data
required for the same purpose is represented by the information on the system of elements
at risk (the building stock), concerning an inventory, together with corresponding vulnerability
estimates. These data were provided according to the developments of this paper.
The total residential exposure in Romania was estimated to be approx. 180 × 109 Euro, out
of which the value in urban dwellings is approx. 120 × 109 Euro and in Bucharest is approx.
27 × 109 Euro. Fig. 3.1 shows the distribution of residential exposure for Romania by
material class and by height band.
Million Euro
30,000.0
Adobe
Wood
25,000.0
Masonry with Flexible floors
Masonry with Rigid floors
20,000.0
RC Frame with URM infill
RC Panel
15,000.0
RC Shear wall
10,000.0
RC Shear w all
RC Panel
RC Frame w ith URM infill
Masonry w ith Rigid floors
Masonry w ith Flexible floors
Wood
Adobe
5,000.0
10+ Stories
8-10 Storeys
4-7 Storeys
2-3 Storeys
1-Storey
-
Figure 3.1: Distribution of residential exposure by material class and height band
The total earthquake losses based on replacement costs were estimated for each class of
building at commune level, for each stochastic earthquake event, by combining exposure
values and damage ratios derived from the corresponding vulnerability functions. Average
annual loss (AAL) was computed by combining losses from all stochastic events as
AAL = ∑ (Event loss × Event Rate)
(3.1)
Return period losses were computed for 10, 100 and 250 years from the exceedance
probability curve drawn based on modelled losses for the stochastic events. Loss cost (AAL
per 1000 EURO of exposure) was derived as:
Loss cost = (AAL / Total Exposure Value) x 1000
(3.2)
International Symposium on Strong Vrancea Earthquakes and Risk Mitigation
339
The modelled average annual earthquake loss, return period earthquake losses and loss
cost for residential exposures in Romania were calculated. The distribution of modelled
average annual earthquake loss at commune level is shown in Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2. Map of Average Annual Loss (AAL) for earthquakes at commune level
4. FINAL CONSIDERATIONS
The developments presented are of interest from at least two viewpoints:
a) presentation of some methodological features concerning the use of the concept
of seismic vulnerability;
b) presentation of a first attempt of estimating expected losses at a nation-wide
scale.
The methodological developments of the paper presented an attempt of dealing in a
consistent way with the problems raised by the definition and estimate of seismic
vulnerablity. It is possible, of course, to use other approaches too, but authors believe that
the way adopted emphasizes some aspects that are seldom dealt with in vulnerability
analyses, while they should not be neglected.
What concerns the estimate of expected losses, which is an issue that often appears to be
questionable, it must be recognized that basic input data are negotiable from several
viewpoints. This is true especially for the development of earthquake scenarios, but
unfortunately cannot be eliminated even for expected losses referring to long time intervals.
It is desirable, in this connection, to develop a wide dialog of specialists and to go to some
kind of reconciliation, eventually specifying some error margins accepted on the basis of
expert judegement.
The concept of vulnerability benefitted to date of quite modest attention in Romania, at least
if compared with the situation in more advanced countries (note that Italy is leading by far in
Europe in this field). It is high time to change this situation and to enhance the knowledge of
engineers in this field as well as the application for various purposes, like those referred to in
section 2.1. The development of an appropriate system of databases is a major precondition
for projects in this field.
340
H. Sandi et al.
REFERENCES
Aptikaev, F., 2005: “Instrumental seismic intensity scale”. Proc. Symposium on the 40-th
anniversary of IZIIS, Skopje.
Bălan, Şt., V. Cristescu, I. Cornea (editors), 1982: „Cutremurul de pământ din România de la
4 martie 1977” (The Romania earthquake of 4 March 1977). Editura Academiei,
Bucharest.
Cişmigiu, A., M. Manole, M. Mironescu, I. S. Borcia, H. Sandi, M. Stancu, 1999: „Types of
brick masonry structures of Romania for old and new buildings and special features of
earthquake induced damage”. Proc. International Workshop on Measures of Seismic
Damage to Masonry Buildings, Monselice, Italy, 1998. Seismic Damage to Masonry
Buildings (ed. A. Bernardini), A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam/Brookfield.
Colban, Gh., M. Manole, M. Mironescu, H. Sandi, 1999: „Procedures and statistical aspects
of vulnerability estimates for buildings with masonry shear walls”. Proc. International
Workshop on Measures of Seismic Damage to Masonry Buildings, Monselice, Italy,
1998. Seismic Damage to Masonry Buildings (ed. A. Bernardini), A. A. Balkema,
Rotterdam/Brookfield.
Constantinescu, L.,.D. Enescu, 1985: „Cutremurele de pământ din Vrancea în profil ştiinŃiic
şi tehnologic” (The Vrancea erthquaakes, in a scientific and technological profile).
Editura Academiei, Bucharest.
Dolce, M., 1984: „Evaluating damage probability matrices from survey data”. Proc. US/Italy
on Building Repair and Retrofitting, Rome.
Georgescu, E. S., Pomonis, A., 2007: "The Romania earthquake of March 4, 1977 in terms
of economic and social impact". Proc. Symp. “Thirty Years from the Romania Earthquake
of March 4, 1977”, Bucharest.
Grünthal, G. (editor), 1998: “European Macroseismic Scale 1998”. Luxembourg: Cahiers du
Centre Européen de Géodynamique et Séismologie, vol. 15. 1998.
Mironescu, M., A. Bortnowschi, 1983: „Metodologie de evaluare a nivelului de protecŃie
antiseismică a construcŃiilor existente” (Methodology of evaluation of the earthquake
protection level of existing structures). ConstrucŃii, 11. Bucharest.
Mohindra, R., V. Sokolov, S. Francis, F. Wenzel, A. Pomonis, 2007: „Probabilistic seismic
hazard assessment for Romania considering intermediate-depth (Vrancea) and shallow
(crustal) seismicity”. Proc. Symp. “Thirty Years from the Romania Earthquake of March
4, 1977”, Bucharest.
Sandi, H., 1985: “Analysis of seismic risk for geographically spread systems”. Proc. 4-th
International Conf. on Structural Safety and Reliability (ICOSSAR ’85), Kobe.
Sandi, H. (WG Convenor), 1986: "EAEE Working Group on Vulnerability and Risk Analysis
for Individual Structures and for Systems. Report to the 8-th ECEE ". Proc. 8th European
Conf. on Earthquake Engineering, Lisbon.
Sandi, H., 1988. Consideration of the spectral content of ground motion in re-evaluation of
the seismic intensity. Symp. S5 of the XXIst General Assembly, European Seismological
Commission, Sofia.
Sandi, H., 1998: „A format for vulnerability analysis of damaged structures”. Proc. 11th
European Conf. on Earthquake Engineering, Paris.
Sandi, H., 2003: “Vulnerabilitatea seismică urbană. Între copaci şi păduri.” (Urban seismic
vulnerability. Between trees and forests). OAR – AICR Symp. on Earthquake Protection
for the City of Bucharest, 2003. Symp. Bull. AICPS, 2, 2002 (issued 2003).
Sandi, H., 2007: "Some current challenges to the development of the regulatory basis of the
earthquake resistant design". Proc. Symp. “Thirty Years from the Romania Earthquake of
March 4, 1977”, Bucharest.
Sandi, H., F. Aptikaev, V. Alcaz, I. S. Borcia, A. Drumea, O. Erteleva, A. Roman, 2006: „A
NATO project on deriving improved (instrumental) criteria for seismic intensity
assessment”. Proc. 1st European Conference on Earthquake Engineering and
Seismology, Geneva.
International Symposium on Strong Vrancea Earthquakes and Risk Mitigation
341
Sandi, H. (WG Convenor), M. Dolce, A. W. Coburn, B. Goschy, 1990: „Report to the 9-th
ECEE of EAEE/WG 3, “Vulnerability and risk analysis” Proc. 9th European Conf. on
Earthquake Engineering, Moscow.
Sandi, H., I. Floricel, 1994: "Analysis of seismic risk affecting the exisring building stock".
Proc. 10th European Conf. on Earthquake Engineering, Vienna.
Sandi, H., I. Floricel, 1998: „Some alternative instrumental measures of ground motion
severity”. Proc. 11th European Conf. on Earthquake Engineering, Paris.
Sandi, H., V. Mârza, 1996: „Forecasting major Vrancea earthquakes”. Proc. XXVth General
Assembly, European Seismological Commission, Reykjavik.
Whitman, R., C. A. Cornell, 1976: „Design”. Chapter IX in Seismic risk and engineering
decisions (eds.: C. Lomnitz, E. Rosenblueth). Elsevier, Amsterdam – Oxford – New York.
IRS, 1971: "Scara de intensităŃi macroseismice" (Scale of macroseismic intensities). STAS
3684-71.
MLPAT, 1992: „Normativ pentru proiectarea antiseismică a construcŃiilor de locuinŃe, social culturale, agrozootehnice şi industriale, P.100 – 92” (Code for the earthquake resistant
design of residential, social – cultural and industrial structures, P.100 – 92). Bul.
ConstrucŃiilor, vol.11.