1. science
2. geology

Journal of Earth Science, Vol. 26, No. 2, p. 273–284, April 2015
Printed in China
DOI: 10.1007/s12583-015-0530-2
ISSN 1674-487X
Depositional Environments of the Upper Permian Quartzose
Sandstone (Shandong Province, North China): Insight from
Trace Element Geochemistry
Dawei Lü*1, Zengxue Li1, Jitao Chen2, Ying Liu1, Zengqi Zhang3, Jipo Liang3, Haiyan Liu1
1. Key Laboratory of Depositional Mineralization & Sedimentary Mineral (SDUST), Shandong Province, Qingdao 266590, China
2. Key Laboratory of Economic Stratigraphy and Palaeogeography, Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology, Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, China
3. Geological Institute of Shandong Province, Jinan 250013, China
ABSTRACT: The depositional environment of the Upper Permian quartzose sandstone (Kuishan sandstone in Shihezi Formation of Upper Permian) in the North China epicontinental basin is controversial.
In order to test the previous hypotheses, we analyzed sedimentological characteristics of the Kuishan
sandstones in outcrops and boreholes, and carried out trace element geochemical analysis by electron
probe microanalyzer. Three lithofacies were recognized, including normal-graded conglomerate (Cng),
trough and planar cross-bedded coarse sandstone (CStpc), and planar cross-bedded medium sandstone
(MSpc). Normal-graded conglomerate (Cng) formed in the meandering river or deltaic distributary
channels. Trough and planar cross-bedded coarse sandstone (CStpc) formed in meandering river or
distributary channels of near-source deltaic plain. Planar cross-bedded medium sandstone (MSpc)
formed in the siliciclastic beach with high- to moderate-energy conditions. By the petrology and trace
elements analysis, three relatively large-scale transgressions were revealed. Each transgression was reflected by the lower content of Ba and ratios of Fe/Mn, and the high content of B and ratios of B/Ga.
The ratios of Ni/Co of all samples are all lower than 2, suggesting oxygen-enriched shallower water environment during deposition of the Kuishan sandstones.
KEY WORDS: Kuishan sandstone, electron probe microanalysis (EPMA), depositional environment,
transgression, regression.
0
INTRODUCTION
Quartzose sandstones may deposit either in high-energy
beach (Swezey et al., 1996; Mazzullo et al., 1991; Dabbagh and
Rogers, 1983), or in fluvial or deltaic settings (Dixon et al.,
2012; Nichols, 2009; Maill, 1996). However, depositional environments of some laterally traceable, thick successions of
sandstones are hardly soundly interpreted based only on sedimentary facies analysis because there are not many variations
in terms of lithology, grain size, texture, and sedimentary
structures.
The Upper Shihezi Formation (Middle–Late Permian) in
Shandong Province, North China contains a thick succession of
sandstones (Kuishan sandstone), which is generally believed to
be deposited in fluvial environments based on the wide distribution of sandstone bodies (channel deposits) (Liu et al., 2008;
Han et al., 2007; Wang F H et al., 2007; Zhang et al., 2007;
Wang M Z et al., 2004; Fu et al., 2002; Huang W H, 1998; Late
Permian. However, whether or not the Kuishan sandstones
*Corresponding author: lvdawei95@163.com
© China University of Geosciences and Springer-Verlag Berlin
Heidelberg 2015
Manuscript received September 18, 2014.
Manuscript accepted March 1, 2015.
Zhang and Liu, 1996; Li, 1987; Huang and Peng, 1981; Pan,
1957). Recently, the fluvial depositional environments of the
Kuishan sandstones of the Upper Shihezi Formation were questioned, which is argued as followed: (1) The Kuishan sandstone
distributes widely in the Shandong region and the Bohai Bay
Basin, as well as in Shanxi and Hebei regions (Cheng, 2011;
Zhang et al., 2007). The extensive distribution of the sandstones cannot be formed by continental deposition. (2) The
Kuishan sandstones are mainly composed of tight medium
sandstone (Zhang and Liu, 1996) and the vertical cyclicity is
not as obvious as the meandering river channel sandstones
(Desjrdins and Pratt, 2010; Dabbagh and Rogers, 1983).
On the other hand, evidence of transgression has been discovered in the Upper Shihezi Formation in North China. (1)
Large amount of Lingula fossil was found in the bottom and top
of the Upper Shihezi Formation in the west Weishan Lake in
Tengxian sag (Fig. 1), which was regarded as the record of the
transgression in the period of the Upper Shihezi Formation
(Wang, 1983; 1978). (2) Marine fossil fragments (e.g., Lingula sp.
which belongs to Inarticulata of Brachipoda) and glauconites
were also discovered in siliceous rocks in the Upper Shihezi
Formation in the West Ordos Basin (western part of the North
China Platform) (Zhang and Liu, 1996; Wang Z Q, 1989; Wang
R N, 1982a, b), which is strong evidence of transgression in the
Lü, D. W., Li, Z. X., Chen, J. T., et al., 2015. Depositional Environments of the Upper Permian Quartzose Sandstone (Shandong
Province, North China): Insight from Trace Element Geochemistry. Journal of Earth Science, 26(2): 273–284.
doi:10.1007/s12583-015-0530-2
274
Dawei Lü, Zengxue Li, Jitao Chen, Ying Liu, Zengqi Zhang, Jipo Liang and Haiyan Liu
were formed or influenced by transgression is unknown. In this
paper, we present both sedimentological and trace-element
geochemical data to reveal the depositional environments of the
Kuishan sandstones.
1
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
Western Shandong area, which locates at the middle-west
of Shandong Province of East China, is separated by Tanlu
fault to the east, Hantai fault to the south, Liaokao fault to the
west and Bohai Bay Basin to the north (Fig. 1). The coal basin
covers an area of about 90 000 km2 (320 km in N-S direction
and 280 km in E-W direction).
Due to the late tectonic movements of Yanshan and Himalayan periods, the coal-bearing basin was cut into present tectonic structures. The main Late Paleozoic strata consist of
Benxi, Taiyuan, Shanxi, Lower Shihezi, Upper Shihezi, and
Shiqianfeng formations in ascending order. Benxi and Taiyuan
formations, which are made up of sandstone, mudstone, limestone and coal beds, were formed in the epicontinental sea environment (Lü and Chen, 2014; Lu et al., 2012a, b; Shao et al.,
1999). Shanxi Formation, composed mainly of gray-white,
medium to coarse sandstone, gray-black mudstone and coal
beds, was formed in a delta environment (Lü and Chen, 2014;
Lu et al., 2012a, b). Lower Shihezi Formation mainly consists
of yellow-green sandstone, red mudstone, and discontinuous
coal beds, which is deposited in meandering river (Lu et al.,
2012a, b; Lü et al., 2011). Upper Shihezi Formation can be
divided into three members, including Wanshan, Kuishan, and
Xiaofuhe members in ascending order (Zhang and Liu, 1996).
The Wanshan member consists mainly of yellow-green,
thick-bedded coarse arkose sandstone, fine sandstone, and
mudstone, the Kuishan member is dominated by thick-bedded
tight quartz sandstone, and the Xiaofuhe member is characterized by purple, yellowish-green, and dark gray mudstone, with
intercalated conglomerate and sandstone.
2
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The Zibo Section and boreholes in Heze and Huanghebei
mining areas (Fig. 1) were studied in detail with respect to
sedimentary structures, lithofacies, and depositional sequence.
Samples for petrographical and geochemical analyses were
collected from the drill core ZKM1 of Heze mining area (Figs.
Figure 1. Geographic map of the Western Shandong area. NCB. North China Block; SCB. South China Block; TB. Tarim
Block.
Depositional Environments of the Upper Permian Quartzose Sandstone (Shandong Province, North China)
1 and 2), which represents the Kuishan member (Table 1). The
key principles of sampling are: (1) collecting samples every
one meter if the lithological characteristic and sedimentary
structures have minor changes; (2) collecting all the samples if
the lithological characteristic and sedimentary structures are
changed significantly; and (3) collecting each sample every 2–3
275
m if the lithological characteristic and sedimentary structures
have no change.
EPMA (electron probe microanalysis) is an effective tool
to study the trace elements (Hong et al., 2011). The results are
modified by the ratio of X-rays intensity between test and
standard samples. Many influence factors are mainly
Figure 2. Stratigraphic columns of the Kuishan sandstones.
Dawei Lü, Zengxue Li, Jitao Chen, Ying Liu, Zengqi Zhang, Jipo Liang and Haiyan Liu
276
Table 1
No.
KS1
KS2
KS3
KS4
KS5
KS6
KS7
KS8
KS9
KS10
KS11
KS12
Depth (m)
629.61
630.41
632.00
633.00
634.00
635.00
636.00
637.00
638.00
639.00
640.00
641.00
Sampling list of the Kuishan sandstones
Lithology
Medium sandstone
Medium sandstone
Medium sandstone
Medium sandstone
Medium sandstone
Coarse sandstone
Medium sandstone
Medium sandstone
Medium sandstone
Medium sandstone
Medium sandstone
Medium sandstone
equipments stability, differences between test and standard
samples, and so on. There is about 15% relative errors in the
analysis of trace elements by EPMA follow the AS 02753-AB
53 minerals standard serial SP instructions and compositions
(SPI). And the microanalysis degrees is 0.1%–0.01% (Li, 1992).
The standard samples are as follows: BaB2O4(ZBA-28),
GaAs(SPI-48),
CaSO4(SPI-3),
RbTiOPO4(ZBA-29),
SrSO4(SPI-13),
Cr2O3(SPI-17),
Ca2(VO4)2(ZKW-5),
NiO(ZBA-9), MnSiO3(SPI-39) and Fe3O4(SPI-26). Thin sections were prepared for petrographic analysis of marine authigenic minerals (e.g., glauconite) and interstitial material (Figs.
3, 4). Marine authigenic minerals and interstitial material were
performed for electron probe microanalyzer (EPMA) to check
trace element concentrations (e.g., B, Sr/Ba, Sr/Ga, V/Cr)
(Gong et al., 2011; Moslow, 1988; Sun and Li, 1986). Minerals
were analyzed with a JEOL JXA-8230 electron probe microanalyzer at Laboratory of Materials Science and Engineering in
Shandong University of Science and Technology. The accelerating voltage was 15 kV with 15 nA beam current, 3 μm beam
spot, and 10–30 s counting time. Thin sections were prepared
for carbon plating in advance.
No.
KS13
KS14
KS15
KS16
KS17
KS18
KS19
KS20
KS21
KS22
KS23
Depth (m)
642.00
643.20
643.50
644.50
645.00
645.50
646.00
647.00
648.00
649.00
656.00
Lithology
Medium sandstone
Coarse sandstone
Coarse sandstone
Medium sandstone
Coarse sandstone
Coarse sandstone
Medium sandstone
Coarse sandstone
Medium sandstone
Coarse sandstone
Medium sandstone
fluvial settings (Maill, 2006) or near-source deltaic channels
(Dixon et al., 2012; Nichols, 2009).
3.1.2 Trough and planar cross-bedded coarse sandstone
(CStpc)
Description: The sandstone bed locally contains quartzose
clasts. Clasts are about 2–3 mm in diameter, gradually become
smaller upward. Sandstone is well sorted and rounded, locally
trough to planar cross-stratified, and is partly normal graded
(Fig. 5d).
Interpretation: This facies formed under high-energy conditions. Quartzose clasts are indicative of high composition
maturity. Good sorting and roundness suggest that the clasts
were transported for certain distances. Trough to planar
cross-stratification formed in in fluvial settings (Miall, 2006) or
near-source deltaic channels (Dixon et al., 2012; Nichols,
2009).
3 RESULTS
3.1 Sedimentological Characteristics
Three lithofacies were identified by observation of the
Zibo Section and Heze and Huanghebei mining borewells,
including normal-graded conglomerate (Cng), trough and planar cross-bedded coarse sandstone (CStpc), and planar
cross-bedded medium sandstone (MSpc) (Fig. 5 and Table 2).
3.1.3 Planar cross-bedded medium sandstone (MSpc)
Description: The sandstone is composed mainly of quartz
grains and siliceous cementation. Sandstone is massive (Fig. 5e)
or low-angle planar cross-stratified (Fig. 5f). Cross-stratification
is large-scale (Fig. 5e). Sand is well sorted and rounded. Sandstone bed is about 1–5 m thick.
Interpretation: High composition and texture maturity,
large-scale cross-stratification, and massive structures are collectively indicative of long-term reworking under high-energy
conditions. The sandstone was most likely deposited in
high-energy beach (Desjrdins and Pratt, 2010; Nichols, 2009).
3.1.1 Normal-graded conglomerate (Cng)
Description: Thin-bedded conglomerate occurs in the lower
part of the bed, overlying the medium sandstone with erosional
boundary (Figs. 5a, 5b). This facies is locally absent. Clasts are
composed mainly of quartz, about 2–5 mm in diameter. They are
rounded and well sorted (Fig. 5c). The conglomerate bed is about
10–40 cm thick, commonly normal-graded (Fig. 5c), and locally
trough to planar cross-stratified.
Interpretation: The conglomerate was most likely deposited
under high-energy conditions. Quartz clasts are indicative of high
composition maturity. Good sorting and roundness indicate the
clasts were transported for certain distances, mostly likely in
3.2 Trace Element Geochemistry
3.2.1 Interstitial materials
Twenty samples were selected from Kuishan Section of
the Upper Shihezi in ZKM1 Well to analyse clay minerals’ compositions of B, Ga, Ba, Mn, Fe, Ni and other sensitive elements.
Test results are shown in Table 3. The EPMA data of interstitial
materials (Fig. 3) are shown in Table 4. All of elements were
found in the form of oxide. We found B, Ga, Co, V, Cr, Ni is in
six samples (KS2, KS8, KS6, KS14, KS18 and KS20) (Table 4).
We found the B content in six samples can reach more than 1 000
pm, and ratios of B/Ga are higher than 7. All samples’ ratios of
Ni/Co is lower than 1 (Table 3 and Fig. 6).
Depositional Environments of the Upper Permian Quartzose Sandstone (Shandong Province, North China)
Table 2
277
Lithofacies description and interpretation
Lithofacies
Lithology
Bounding surfaces
Thickness
Normalgraded conglomerate
(Cng)
Clast-supported,
composedmainly of quartzgravels (2–5 mm), moderately
sorted, sub-rounded
Sharp base with
medium sandstone,
gradational top with
coarse sandstone
Individual
beds
0.1–0.4 m
Trough and
planar
cross-bedded
coarse sandstone (CStpc)
Clast-supported
sandstones, with quartz gravels
(2–3 mm), moderately
sorted, sub-rounded.
Gradational
base
with conglomerates,
gradational top with
medium sandstone
Individual
beds
are
0.5–1.5 m
Sedimentary
structures
Occasional bidirectional
and
graded-bedding
imbrications; matrix
composed of coarse
sands with siliceous
cement
Trough and planarcross bedding; siliceous cement
Planar
cross-bedded
medium
sandstone
(MSpc)
Well sorted, sub-rounded;
composed
mainly
of
quartz (>95%), and a small
portion of mica, feldspar,
and clay minerals; siliceous cement
Gradational
base
with coarse sandstone, sharp base top
with conglomerates
Individual
beds
are
1–5 m
Low-angle tabular
cross bedding; siliceous cement
Table 3
Meandering river or
distributary channels
of near-source deltaic
plain (Dixon et al.,
2012; Nichols, 2009;
Miall, 2006)
Siliciclastic
beach
with
highto
moderateenergyconditions
(Desjrdins and Pratt,
2010; Nichols, 2009)
The microprobe results of clay minerals’ elements in Kuishan Section of the Upper Shihezi Formation in Heze area
Depth (m)
Lithology
B2O3
KS1
629.61
Medium sandstone
KS2
632
Medium sandstone
No.
Depositional
process
Meandering river or
deltaic distributary
channels
(Dixon,
et al., 2012; Nichols,
2009; Maill, 2006)
Ga2O3
BaO
K2O
CoO Cr2O3 V2O3
ND
0.015
0.019
0.055
0.03
0.02
0.127
0.006
0.013
ND
0.009
ND
0.027
0.009 0.059 0.024
0.817
0.046
0.004
0.052
FeO
MnO
NiO
KS3
633
Medium sandstone
1.223
0.012
0.062
8.284
0.004 0.066 0.035
1.091
0.003
0.012
KS4
634
Medium sandstone
ND
0.001
0.034
6.725
0.024 0.072 0.025
8.401
0.051
0.016
KS5
636
Medium sandstone
ND
0.004
ND
8.753
0.012 0.078 0.037
1.857
0.011
0.009
KS6
637
Medium sandstone
ND
0.024
0.049
0.202
0.01
0.087
0.05
0.018
0.005
KS7
638
Medium sandstone
ND
0.015
ND
0.022
ND
0.063 0.003
0.048
0.011
0.002
KS8
639
Medium sandstone
0.36
0.021
0.043
3.706
0.011 0.061 0.037
0.504
0.001
0.008
KS9
640
Medium sandstone
1.027
0.011
0.05
6.886
0.008 0.108 0.024 11.932
0.049
0.005
ND
0.044
0.005
7.822
0.011 0.028 0.016
2.309
0.021
ND
ND
0.008
0.029
7.91
0.025 0.229 0.037
1.512
0.008
0.017
KS10
641
Medium sandstone
KS11
642
Medium sandstone
KS12
643.2
Coarse sandstone
ND
0.007
0.006
6.639
0.038
KS13
643.5
Coarse sandstone
ND
0.02
0.046
3.015
ND
0.08
ND
0.061
3.785
0.021
0.002
0.043 0.018
0.584
0.014
0.005
KS14
644.5
Medium sandstone
0.56
0.016
0.041
7.324
0.011 0.041 0.011
1.046
0.018
0.011
KS15
645
Coarse sandstone
ND
0.005
0.039
5.65
0.007 0.051 0.051
0.672
0.007
0.007
KS16
646
Medium sandstone
ND
0.007
0.041
6.163
0.009 0.134 0.014
0.891
0.014
0.002
KS17
647
Coarse sandstone
ND
0.012
0.025
6.492
0.021 0.052 0.029
0.005
0.035
KS18
648
Medium sandstone
KS19
649
Coarse sandstone
ND
0.026
0.015
0.009
0.01
KS20
656
Medium sandstone
1.221
0.007
0.033
1.312
0.597 0.001 5 0.022 5 0.270 5 0.011 0.073
0.844
0.01
0.442
0.015 5 0.009 5
0.065 0.017
0.038
0.001
ND
0.048 0.164 0.056 28.311
0.102
0.013
Note. The measured data is wt.%, and some of the samples did not measure the B content, ND-not detected.
3.2.2 Discovery of glauconite
Glauconite is found from Kuishan sandstones (Figs. 4 and
6). It occurs as a round pellet, egg-shaped strips and irregular
granular. The glauconite grains are green, pale green and
yellow-green under polarizing microscope with 0.05–2 mm in
size. Representative samples are selected for EPMA (Fig. 4)
and the results are shown in Table 5. The glauconite in Kuishan
sandstones contains 3 wt.%–9 wt.% K2O, 14.62 wt.%–19.23
wt.% Al2O3 and 7.61 wt.%–13.71 wt.% FeO. Weaver and Pollard (1973) gave the average glauconite composition with
Dawei Lü, Zengxue Li, Jitao Chen, Ying Liu, Zengqi Zhang, Jipo Liang and Haiyan Liu
278
Figure 3. Photomicrographs of interstitial material. (a), (b) samples from KS8; (c), (d) samples from KS14; (e), (f) are from
KS20. (a), (c) and (e) under polarizing microscope; (b), (d) and (f) under electron probe corresponding to the (a), (c) and (e).
Table 4
No.
KS3
KS8
KS9
KS14
KS18
KS20
Quantitative analysis of trace element in interstitial material of ZKM1 by EPMA
Lithology
Medium sandstone
Medium sandstone
Medium sandstone
Medium sandstone
Medium sandstone
Medium sandstone
B
379.79
111.79
369.22
173.90
185.39
Ga
6.70
15.62
9.81
11.90
2.52
Result (ppm)
Co
V
7.08
16.31
8.65
25.15
29.02
9.01
8.65
7.48
8.65
6.80
379.17
5.21
37.75
38.07
Cr
40.37
41.74
14.01
28.05
49.95
Ni
3.13
6.28
5.82
8.64
7.46
Element ratios
B/Ga V/Cr Ni/Co
56.73 0.40 0.44
7.16
0.60 0.73
37.62 0.64 0.20
14.61 0.27 1.00
71.27 0.14 0.86
112.21
10.22
72.81
0.34
0.27
Depositional Environments of the Upper Permian Quartzose Sandstone (Shandong Province, North China)
279
Figure 4. Photomicrographs of glauconite. (a), (b) samples from KS18; (c), (d) samples from KS20. (a) and (c) under polarizing microscope; (b) and (d) under electron probe corresponding to the (a) and (c).
6.884 wt.% K2O, 9.15 wt.% Al2O3 and 21.38 wt.% Fe2O3.
Comparing to these results, the glauconite in the present study
contains higher Al and lower Fe, Ca and Na. Some studies
show that the ancient glauconite has higher K2O content and
lower FeO+Fe2O3 content, and with the decreasing of the Al
content, the Fe content of the glauconite is increasing (Chen
Y H, 2008; Li et al., 2006; Mu, 1999; Haughton et al., 1991;
Zhao and Zhang, 1988; Walker, 1982; Chen R J, 1980; Heezen
et al., 1966). Those previous studies support the microprobe
results in this paper and confirm the presence of glauconite in
Kuishan sandstones.
4
DISCUSSION
The Kuishan sandstones are characterized by the lower thin
conglomerate bed, the middle medium- to thick-bedded coarse
sandstone, and the upper medium sandstone, forming generally a
fining-upward cycle (Figs. 5g, 5h). Based on sedimentological
characteristics, conglomerate and coarse sandstone were most
likely deposited under deltaic distributary channels or meandering rivers, whereas thick-bedded medium sandstone with
low-angle cross-stratification is essentially different from point
bar deposition in a meandering river (Miall, 1996). Therefore,
medium sandstone was most likely not deposited in point bar,
but deposited in high-energy beach. Consequently, conglomerate and coarse sandstone were most likely deposited under
distributary channels on deltaic settings. So the Kuishan sand-
stones are made up of beach facies associated with meandering
river and distributary channel facies. Beach facies resulted from
marine transgression, whereas meandering river and distributary channel formed during regression (Li et al., 1979). During
relative sea-level rise, coastal sand body overlapped on the
sand body deposited in meandering river or deltaic channel,
which formed a generally fining-upward sandstone succession.
During regression, the situation is reversed. With repeated
transgression and regression, fluvial or deltaic sandstones are
intercalated with coastal sandstones. Therefore, the transgression river channel filling sandstone is characterized by coarse
sandstone gravels at bottom with large scale trough
cross-bedding and upwards with fine-grained horizontal bedding and small cross-bedding. The sandstones were formed in
two different settings, i.e., fluvial and coast near-shoreface.
Geochemical and microscopic analyses on sandstone
specimens were carried out in order to test this hypothesis.
Generally, interstitial materials include the matrix and cement.
(Wang F H et al., 2007; Liu and Zeng, 1985; Wang Y Y et al.,
1979). The interstitial materials are composed of clay minerals,
whose adsorption ions are rather stable without variation during
the diagenesis, epigenesist and weathering processes. The adsorption ions types are related to the water composition and
mineralization degree. For example, clay is rich in Ca, Mg in
the fresh water while the Ca is replaced by Na and K in sea
water (Weaver and Pollard, 1973). Thus the adsorbed
280
Dawei Lü, Zengxue Li, Jitao Chen, Ying Liu, Zengqi Zhang, Jipo Liang and Haiyan Liu
Figure 5. Photographs and line drawing of the Kuishan sandstones. (a), (b) and (c) thin-bedded conglomerate (CN) and
medium-bedded coarse sandstone (CSM); (d) thin-bedded conglomerate (CN) facies in borehole; (e) and (f) tabular cross-stratified
medium-bedded medium sandstone (MSM); (g) and (h) lithofacies association and cycles in outcrop and borehole.
Depositional Environments of the Upper Permian Quartzose Sandstone (Shandong Province, North China)
281
Figure 6. Influence of sea water indicated by the ratios of trace elements.
Table 5
No.
KS18
KS20
The element comparison of glauconite
Lithology
Medium sandstone
Medium sandstone
FeO include FeO+Fe2O3.
Na2O
0.04
0.04
MgO
3.37
2.85
Al2O3
17.69
19.23
Results (wt.%)
SiO2
K2O
53.04
8.50
53.78
8.40
CaO
0.23
0.18
TiO2
-
MnO
0.01
0.02
FeO
11.41
8.87
282
Dawei Lü, Zengxue Li, Jitao Chen, Ying Liu, Zengqi Zhang, Jipo Liang and Haiyan Liu
components of clay minerals can fully reflect the physical and
chemical conditions of deposition which are thought to be an
indicator of the depositional environment.
Trace element in interstitial material provides information
to indicate sedimentary environment. For example, B content
of intersitital material in marine deposits is usually more than
100 ppm (Marine Geology of Tongji University, 1980). B content in the interstitial material of six samples (Table 4) ranges
from 100 ppm to 400 ppm, which is more than 100 ppm. Wang
et al. (1979) concluded that the B/Ga ratio of fresh water is less
than 4, while the seawater deposition is more than 7 or 20. In
present study, the B/Ga ratios of the six samples are greater than
7 (Table 4, Fig. 6), indicating that some layers of the Kuishan
sandstones are effected by sea water. B content in other samples
is too low to be detected, which shows that these sandstones
formed in fluvial or lacustrine shoreface without the influence of
sea water. Ni/Co ratio is also usually introduced to indicate the
oxygen fugacity of depositional environments. Yan et al. (1998)
proposed that the Ni/Co ratio in oxygen-rich environment is less
than 5.0, whereas in oxygen-poor environment the ratio is
5.0–7.0. Ni/Co ratios of all samples are between 0 and 2 (Table 3,
Fig. 6), which indicates that the Kuishan sandstones formed in
an oxygen-rich environment, most likely fluvial environmentFurthermore, Fe/Mn ratio can be used to determine the variation of the water depth (Li et al., 2006). Fe/Mn ratios of the
study area vary greatly and are negatively correlated with water
depths (Fig. 6), indicating that the water depth changes quickly
during deposition of the Kuishan sandstones. In addition, glauconite is also identified at the bottom of the Kuishan sandstone.
The glauconite is a typical diagnostic mineral formed in the sea
water with pH 7–8 at depth of about 30–2 000 m and water
temperature in the range of 15–20 ºC, which often occurs in the
marine affected delta region (Wu, 1992; He and Yu, 1982).
Therefore, we can conclude that the Kuishan sandstones should
have formed in the oxygen-rich, shallow-water environment
influenced by sea water.
Kuishan formation is made up of alternate transgressive
and regressive sandstone layers, where the fluvial sediments
layers occur in between. This sandstone was formed in the
distributary river channel and near shore filling during the
transgression and regression in the regions linking the sea and
continent. Based on the analysis of petrology and trace elements, we can identify three relative large scale transgressions
(Fig. 6). The first transgression can be found at the beginning
of Kuishan sandstone sedimentation. It can be reflected by the
KS18 and KS19 samples. The content of B is 1 853.94 ppm,
with ratio of B/Ga is 71.27. The 2rd transgression can be reflected by the KS8 and KS9 samples. The 3rd transgression is
the most quickly and spread widely. Every transgression can be
reflected by trace elements (e.g., the lower content of Ba and
ratios of Fe/Mn, and the higher content of B and ratios of B/Ga).
The ratios of Ni/Co of all samples are all lower than 2, which
reflect the oxygen-enriched shallower water environment during the whole deposition.
5
CONCLUSIONS
Three lithofacies were recognized in the Kuishan sandstones including normal-graded conglomerate (Cng), trough
and planar cross-bedded coarse sandstone (CStpc) and planar
cross-bedded medium sandstone (MSpc). The medium sandstone was formed in high-energy clastic beach. Intensive samples taken from Kuishan sandstone of Heze mining area in
western Shandong area were studied by microscope and electron probe microanalyzer (EPMA) means. Geochemical evidence (e.g., B, B/Ga, Ni/Co, Fe/Mn) and discovery of glauconite indicates the formation environment of Kuishan sandstone
is rather complicated and is difficult to explain its genesis using
a single-environment model (e.g., river or coast), and it should
be impacted by frequent sea-level changes. By the petrology
and trace elements analysis, depositional model of Kuishan
sandstone was established and three relatively large-scale
transgressions were found. The first transgression can be found
at the beginning of Kuishan sandstone deposition. The second
transgression can be reflected by the KS8 and KS9 samples.
The third transgression is the most quickly and spread most
widely. Each transgression can be reflected by the lower content Ba and ratios of Fe/Mn, and the high content of B and
ratios of B/Ga. The ratios of Ni/Co of all samples are lower
than 2, which reflect the oxygen-enriched shallow-water environment during deposition of the entire Kuishan sandstones.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was financially supported by the National
Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 41202070), Shandong Outstanding Young and Middle-Aged Scientists’ Research Award Fund (No. 2011BSB01335) and SDUST Research Fund (No. 2012KYTD101). We appreciate the help
from Professor Longyi Shao for good advices on this paper. We
thank for Dr. Guangzeng Song for the helpful comments on the
earlier version of this manuscript.
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