1. No category

International Invention Journal of Agricultural and Soil Science (ISSN: 2408-7254) Vol. 3(1) pp. 1-8, April, 2015
Available online http://internationalinventjournals.org/journals/IIJAS
Copyright ©2015 International Invention Journals
Full Length Research Paper
Effects of Different Levels of Dried Cafeteria Leftover
Feed on Nutrient Digestibility in Growing Castrated
Male Pigs: Implication for Efficient Alternative Feed
Resources Utilization
Tesfaye Amene1*, Mangistu Urge2 and Mitiku Eshetu2
1
Department of Animal Science, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources,
Mizan-Tepi University, P.O. Box 260, Mizan-Tepi, Ethiopia
2
School of Animal and Range Sciences, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Haramaya University,
P.O. Box 138 Dire Dawa, Ethiopia
Abstract
The study was conducted to evaluate both the effect of inclusion of dried cafeteria leftover (DCLO) at
various levels in concentrate mix (CM) on nutrient digestibility and the economic benefits of
substituting conventional concentrate were assessed at Haramaya university swine farm. Twenty
Yorkshire pigs with initial mean weight of 19.89±0.297g (±SE) were randomly allotted to four dietary
treatment groups in a completely randomized block design each with five replicates. The experimental
rations were (sole CM, 33% DCLO, 66% DCLO,). At the beginning of the experiment digestibility trial was
undertaken after an adaptation period of 15 days to the experimental pens and diets. Faeces were
collected for seven consecutive days to analyze digestibility. Crude protein digestibility did not differ
between treatment means, but DM, EE, CF, ash, P and Ca digestibility increased as level of DCLO
inclusion increased. Partial budget analysis showed that DCLO inclusion in conventional concentrate
was profitable as compared to sole CM. Cost of feed per kg weight gain declined significantly (P<0.01)
with increasing level of DCLO. However, sole DCLO groups showed lower performance, despite the
lower production cost. Thus, it was concluded that DCLO can replace CM up to 66% without adverse
effect on pig performance.
Keywords: Alternative feed resource, castrated male pigs, Concentrate mix, Dried cafeteria leftover, Nutrient
digestibility.
INTRODUCTION
Attaining and sustaining food security are among the
major goals of world leaders across the globe. About 842
million people in the world were unable to meet their
nutritional requirements in 2013 (FAO et al., 2013).
Governmental programmes, policies and projects are
therefore aimed at ensuring regular food supply
(especially those with high biological values like animal
*Corresponding Author Email: tesfuam@gmail.com
protein), local availability of food stuffs, food safety,
affordability and accessibility. These goals have mounted
pressure on livestock industries in devising means of
increasing productivity and as well meeting the
consumers‟ preference. Based on these demands, there
has been a rise in the production of foods of animal
origin, particularly from poultry and pigs in the world. In
this regard, poultry accounts for about 34 percent and
pork more than 40 percent share of the global meat
protein market (FAOSTAT, 2012).
The world‟s tendency to increase pig production as a
protein source of high quality has been promoted more in
developing countries, which is necessitated by factors
2 Int. Inv. J. Agric. Soil Sci.
such as population increase, as rates of poverty decline,
and as people eat more meat, including pork (González,
2005; FAO, 2013). Nevertheless, increased animal
production is accompanied by increased demands for
feeds, particularly for ingredients which have high
protein and energy values, which may be difficult to
achieve in the scenario where population is ever
increasing, particularly in developing countries leaving
little opportunity of having surplus grains to compound
livestock feeds economically (Christopher et al., 1997;
FAO, 2006). According to FAO (2011), increment of
monogastric animal production and the more intensive
feeding systems with improved genotypes resulted in
relatively greater demand for higher quality concentrate
feeds. Thus, availability and supply of grains and protein
foodstuffs is likely to become more limited (Close, 1993;
Amaefule et al., 2006).
One of the available options to cope with this
problem is to partially replace the conventional
concentrate feeds by introducing food energy efficiency,
such as recycling of wastes. With new technology, waste
along the human food supply chain could be used as a
substitute for cereal in animal feed (Miller, 1994; Kwak et
al., 2006; FAO, 2011). The availability of efficient feeds
from such alternatives could feed all of the additional 3
billion people expected by 2050. At the same time, this
would support a growing green economy and greatly
reduce pressures on biodiversity, environments and
water resources, a truly „win-win‟ solution (FAO, 2011).
In accordance, studies by Luu Huu Manh et al. (2003)
have shown that good economic return in pig production
can be achieved by use of local feed resources instead
of commercial concentrates. The use of by-products
from agricultural, industrial processing and left over,
such as cafeteria left over (Luu Huu Manh et al., 2000) is
one such opportunity, which can help to improve
producers' economic returns. Nowadays, the use of food
wastes as animal feed is an alternative of high interest
since it produces an environmental and public benefit
besides reducing the cost of animal production (Samuels
et al., 1991; Westendorf et al., 1998; Myer et al., 1999;
Westendorf, 2000).
Although, the chemical composition of food leftover
is variable, food wastes are moderately high in protein
and ash (Korneygay et al., 1970; Westendorf and Zirkle,
1997; Myer et al., 1999). The digestibility of nutrients in
food wasted is generally not poor. Westendorf and Dong
(1998) reported high protein digestibility in food waste
diet than in a corn-soybean meal diet (88.2% vs. 84.3%).
Likewise, Myer et al. (1999) reported moderately higher
pepsin digestibility and available lysine in dried food
waste relative to soybean meal, which is known to be
excellent for these nutrients. However, information on
the use of the mixture of food leftover with concentrate
as swine ration is generally scanty and it is not studied
under Ethiopian condition to make recommendation for
use by producers. Thus, this study was conducted to
investigate the effects of different levels of dried
cafeteria leftover feed on nutrient digestibility in growing
castrated male pigs and the economic benefits of their
inclusion in the ration.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Area
The experiment was conducted at Haramaya University
0
0
swine farm which is located at 42 3‟ E longitudes, 9 26'
N latitude at an altitude of 1980 m.a.s.l and 515 km east
of Addis Ababa. The mean annual rainfall of the area
amounts to 780 mm and the average minimum and
maximum temperatures are 8.5 and 23.40C, respectively
(Mishra et al., 2004).
Experimental Animals and their management
Twenty healthy Yorkshire pigs with an average initial
body weight of 19.89±0.297g (Mean ±SE) were
selected from the University swine farm. The pigs were
blocked based on their initial body weight into four
blocks of five pigs, and each animal within each block
were randomly assigned to one of the four dietary
treatments. The pigs were individually housed in 1.2 m x
0.7 m x 0.96 m concrete house in controlled room having
their own feed and water trough, and feed and water
individually. Feed and water were provided twice a day
at 7:30 AM and 2:30 PM ad libitum. Feed refusals were
collected, weighed and recorded every morning at 7:00
AM. The pigs were weighed individually at the beginning
and subsequently every 7 days during the experimental
period. Based on their body weight, the feed offered to
individual animal was adjusted to ensure pigs obtained
feed at a rate of 4% (Okeke, 2007) of their body weight
during the subsequent week days. Water was provided
ad libitum on separate troughs. The experiment lasted
for 90 days.
Dietary treatments
The ingredients, used in the rations formulation were
mixture of maize grain, wheat short, wheat bran, noug
seed cake, soya bean mill, cafeteria leftover, vitamin
premix and salt. The wet cafeteria leftover was sun-dried
for four consecutive days by sparsely spreading on
canvas. It was hand stirred four times a day to facilitate
better drying and put indoors every evening to minimize
reabsorption of moisture. The dry matter of the leftover
was tested weekly to determine whether its moisture
content was in the recommended level for safe storage.
Amene et al. 3
The moisture content of the cafeteria leftover was 6065% and 8.9% before and after drying, respectively.
After the amount required for the entire experiment was
secured, it was placed in sacks until ground and used.
The main constituents of cafeteria leftover were the
traditional Ethiopian pancake “Enjera” which is made up
of a cereal grain Teff and bread made of wheat,
respectively.
All the ingredients, except soyabean meal, wheat
short, wheat bran, and vitamin premix were hummer
milled to pass 3 mm sieve size and stored until required
for formulation of the experimental rations. Experimental
rations are shown in Table 1. Except cafeteria leftover
alone, the three treatment rations were formulated on an
isonitrogenous basis having 18% crude protein. Ration 1
contained only the mixture of conventional concentrate
ingredients, DCLO replaced concentrate by 33 and 66%
in rations 2 and 3, respectively and ration 4 was only
DCLO. Vitamin premix was added equally in sole CM,
33% DCLO and 66% DLO rations while sole DCLO did
not contain vitamin premix. Salt was added based on its
content in the cafeteria leftover in CM, 33% DCLO and
66% DLO since test of DCLO in laboratory showed that
it contained the recommended amount of salt meant for
pig diet.
to room temperature, weighed and dried at 60°C for 72
h. The partially dried sample of feces were ground to
pass 1mm sieve and stored in airtight polyethylene bag
pending further analysis.
Profitability
The partial budget analysis was employed to determine
the profitability of incorporation of different proportions of
cafeteria leftover as pigs‟ feeds by using the procedure
of Upton (1979). The partial budget analysis involves
calculation of the variable cost and benefits. Partial
budget measures the pig cost, feed and labor cost and
the profit after the experiment, or differences between
gains and losses for the proposed change. The net
income (NI) was calculated by subtracting total variable
cost (TVC) from total return (TR):
NI = TR - TVC
The change in net income (∆NI) was calculated as
the difference between the changes in total variable cost
(∆TVC), and is calculated as follows:
∆NI = ∆TR - ∆TVC
The marginal rate of return (MRR) measures the
increase in net income (∆NI) associated with each
additional unit of expenditure (∆TVC):
MRR = ∆NI/∆TVC x100
Feed sampling and processing
Representative feed offer samples were collected once
per day and pooled by feed type for the entire
experimental period. After thorough mixing, the pooled
samples were sub-sampled and dried at 60°C to
constant weight for chemical analysis. Both air dried
and oven dried feed samples were finely ground to
pass through 1 mm mesh size and stored in an air tight
plastic bags pending chemical analysis. Dry matter (DM)
content of the feed was monitored by drying
representative feed samples in a forced draft oven at
105 oC overnight.
Chemical analysis of feeds
Feed samples were analyzed for dry matter, ether
extract, crude fiber and ash content according to AOAC
(1990). Nitrogen content of the feed was determined
using Kjeildhal procedure to determine CP value by
multiplying
with
6.25.
Atomic
Absorption
Spectrophotometer method for Calcium and Colorimetric
method for phosphorus determination were used.
Metabolizable energy (ME) of the experimental diets was
determined by indirect methods, according to Wiseman
(1987) as follows:
ME (Kcal/kg DM) = 3951 + 54.4 EE - 88.7 CF - 40.8 Ash
MEASUREMENTS
Digestibility
Statistical Analysis
Digestibility was conducted at the beginning of the
experiment after an adaptation period of 15 days to the
experimental pens and diets, seven days to the carrying
of fecal bags and feces were collected for seven
consecutive days. A feces collected each day per animal
was weighed and 15% was sub-sampled and stored
frozen at -20oC, and pooled over the collection period. At
the end of the digestion trial the sample from each
animal was thoroughly mixed and 15% composite
sample from each animal was sub sampled and thawed
The data collected were analyzed as per completely
randomized block designs following the procedures
suggested by Gomez and Gomez (1984) by employing
GLM ANOVA procedure using Statistical Analysis
System (SAS Institute, Inc., 2008) version 9.1.3
computer software program. When the analysis of
variance indicate the existence of significant difference
among treatment means, Duncan's Multiple Range Test
(DMRT) were employed to test and locate the treatment
means that are significantly differed from the rest. The
4 Int. Inv. J. Agric. Soil Sci.
Table 1. Ingredients percentage in growing-finishing swine ration (on dry matter basis)
ingredient
Maize grain
Wheat short
Wheat bran
Noug seed cake
Soya bean mill
Dried Cafeteria left over
Vitamin premix (%)
Salt (%)
Total (100kg)
0
54
10.12
7.43
19
9.21
0.12
0.21
100
Treatments (%DCLO)
33
66
30.30
2.20
4.12
2.11
2.11
2.12
15.61
3.60
14.73
23.80
33
66
0.10
0.10
0.11
0.11
100
100
100
100
100
DCLO= Dried cafeteria left over; CM= sole concentrate mix
Table 2. Chemical composition of feed ingredients used in the experiment ration formulation (DM bases)
Chemical
Components
DM
CP
EE
ASH
CF
Ca
P
ME(Kca/kg)
Cafeteria
leftover
91.21
9
13
7.60
3.61
0.80
0.71
4028.81
Noug seed
Cake
92.15
29.62
8.14
9.11
18.34
0.35
0.32
2395.78
Ingredients
Soya bean
Maize
Meal
Grain
93
90
39.04
8.46
9.21
6.24
5.75
5.90
5.71
2.83
0.35
0.02
0.83
0.82
3710.95
3798.72
Wheat
Short
90
14.74
3.34
5.53
9.88
0.19
0.78
3030.72
Wheat
Bran
90.50
16
4.21
6.10
12.41
0.21
0.79
2402
DM = dry mater; CP = crude protein; EE = ether extract; CF= crude fiber; Ca = calcium; P = phosphorus; ME =
metabolizable energy, kcal = kilocalorie; kg = kilogram.
following model was used for the experiment
(Montgomery, 2001):
Yij = µ + Ti + Bj +eij
Where, Yij = represents the jth observation
(experimental unit) taken under treatment i.
µ = over all means, Ti = ith treatment effect, Bj = block
effect.
eij = is a random error component that incorporates all
other sources of variability in the experiment.
Nutrient digestibility
RESULTS
Profitability
Chemical Analysis and Nutritive Value
Ration containing different levels of DCLO was
economically feasible than the control diet in feed
cost/kg of live weight gain without affecting the dry
matter intake and body weight gain (Table 4). Pigs fed
with sole CM had the lowest net return compared to
those fed with sole DCLO and that containing DCLO as
a replacement for concentrate mixture. The result was
more promising for pig fed 67% DCLO ration with the
highest net return of Birr 1509.8.
Crude protein content of soybean meal, noug seed cake,
wheat bran and wheat short were within the range of
values reported from the same laboratory previously
(Table 2). Crude protein content of dried cafeteria
leftover (9%) was slightly higher than that for maize grain
(8.46%). Conversely, dried cafeteria leftover had the
highest EE (13%) content than the other ingredients.
Noug seed cake had the highest ash and crude fiber.
Digestibility of most of the nutrients showed significant
(P<0.01) difference among the dietary treatments
(Table 3). The digestibility of CP is not affected by
levels of DCLO inclusion in the concentrate mixture,
but digestibility of the other rations were higher in
sole DCLO and 67% DCLO as compared to the other
levels.
Amene et al. 5
Table 3. Digestibility of nutrients in pigs fed with ration containing different levels of dried cafeteria leftover (%)
Parameters
DM
CP
CF
EE
ASH
Ca
P
CM
85.78b
87.43
50.60d
61.67d
b
63.36
56.85b
45.47b
Treatments
33%DCLO
67%DCLO
86.31b
89.32a
87.82
87.02
54.42c
60.83b
75.40c
86.52b
b
a
60.76
72.62
57.06b
58.68ab
b
46.70
48.20ab
DCLO
91.66a
88.56
67.62a
90.16a
a
73
62.57a
52.20a
SEM
0.38
0.34
1.51
2.48
1.46
0.81
1.04
SL
**
Ns
**
***
**
**
*
ab
Means within the same row bearing different superscripts are significantly different; * = P<0.05; ** = p< 0.01; ***= p<
0.001; ns = not significant; DM = dry matter; CP = crude protein; EE = ether extract; CF = crude fiber; Ca = calcium; P =
phosphorus; CM= concentrate mix alone; 33%DCLO = concentrate mix (67%) + dried cafeteria leftover (33%);
67%DCLO% = concentrate mix (34%) + dried cafeteria leftover (66%); DCLO = dried cafeteria leftover alone; SL=
significant level; SE = standard error of mean.
Table 4. Economics of pigs fed ration containing different levels of dried cafeteria leftover
Treatments
33%DCLO
66%DCLO
796
794.81
174
182
794.80
510.32
Variables
Weaned Pigs Cost (birr/pig)
Total Feed Consumed (kg/pig)
Total Feed Cost (birr/pig)
CM
794
179
970.21
Transport Cost (birr/pig)
Average Carcass Weight (kg/pig)
Price /kg of Carcass (at HU, birr/kg)
Labor Cost (for drying leftover birr/pig)
Total feed cost (birr) (TVC)
120
50.42
50
0
70
48.39
50
50
36
59.02
50
100
20
38.70
50
200
1090.21
2521
914.82
2419.51
646.31
2951
430
1935
1727
636.80
1623.52
708.71
2156.12
1509.80
1137
707
-
103.52
-71.91
175.42
-41
429.12
-873
443.90
-196.71
590
-70.20
660.20
-10.61
Gross income (birr/pig)
Total returns (birr/ pig) (NI)
Net return (birr/Pig)
Change in total return (∆TR)
Change in net income (∆NI)
Change in total variable cost (∆TVC)
MRR ( ∆ NI/ ∆TVC)
DCLO
798
160
50
TVC = total variable cost; MRR = marginal rate of return; HU = Haramaya university; CM= concentrate mix alone;
33%DCLO; 67%DCLO%; Sole DCLO.
DISCUSSIONS
Chemical Composition of Feed Staff
The crude protein content of DCLO in the present
experiment was lower than 15 - 23% reported by
Westendorf et al. (1996) and 20 - 28% reported by
Westendorf et al. (2000). The difference in crude protein
composition between the different studies might be
attributed to differences in food type, methods of food
preparation, moisture contents and processing methods.
Moreover, the present value is lower than a threshold
required for optimum growth performance of swine
(NRC, 1998) when used as a sole feed. According to
NRC (1998) growing pigs require 17.2 to 20.0% CP in
the diet, and between 1.7 and 2.3 kg of DM intake/day,
depending upon body size. The EE was lower and ash
contents higher than that reported by Westendorf (2000;
14 - 16% and 3 - 6%, respectively). The higher ash
content in the present study might be due to the fact that
DCLO had relatively higher sodium chloride content and
dust that might be added by wind during drying of wet
cafeteria leftover. On the other hand, the lower fat
content, when compared to different literature values
might be related to lower fat and oil contents of DCLO
and some fat and oil might have been lost during sun
6 Int. Inv. J. Agric. Soil Sci.
drying. Fat content of 17 to 24% and ash content of 3
to 6% were also reported in previous studies
(Kornegay et al., 1970; Pond and Maner, 1984;
Ferris et al., 1995; Westendorf et al., 1996; Chae et
al., 2000).
The CP and ME contents of SBM, NSC, maize grain,
wheat short and wheat bran were within the range
reported for these ingredients in previous studies
(Negussie and Alemu, 2005; Mekasha et al.; 2007;
Seyoum et al., 2007; Befikadu; 2008). Dry matter of sole
DCLO was higher than that of 33% DCLO, sole CM and
66% DCLO; CF of the same treatment was lower than
that of 33% DCLO, sole CM and 66% DCLO. The result
might be because sole DCLO was taken after sun dried
under shade which projected the level of DM in this
treatment than other treatments, and sole DCLO had no
wheat bran and wheat short which might relatively
amplify the value of CF in 33% DCLO, 66% DCLO and
sole CM. Ash content was higher in sole DCLO and
lower in sole CM as compared to other two treatments.
Ether extract was higher in sole DCLO and lower in CM,
but CP was similar for all treatments.
Nutrient Digestibility
Crude protein digestibility was not significant (P > 0.05)
among dietary treatments. This is similar with the result
obtained by Fahey and Holzgraefe (1982) who reported
that CP and fat digestibility were similar, but DM and
fiber digestibility were less when pigs were fed diet
containing ground corn and food waste. The result was
not congruent with the findings of Rivas et al. (1994),
who noted decreased crude protein digestibility as the
proportion of restaurant waste increased in the diet. The
difference between the present experiment and previous
observation might be due to differences between food
leftover obtained at different time and nature of food
waste.
Higher DM and EE digestibility in sole DCLO fed
pigs might be due to the lower level of CF and types of
fat in DCLO implying that increased level of dried
cafeteria leftover in the ration increased fat digestibility.
In previous studies, Rivas et al. (1994) and Westendorf
(1998) noted superior digestibility of food waste EE, ash,
and nitrogen as compared with the corn-soybean diet,
although the acid detergent fiber digestibility of the cornsoyabean diet was superior to food waste. Wang et al.
(2004) found that supplementation of diets for growing
pigs with wheat bran and sugar beet pulp reduced fecal
digestibility of energy.
Digestibility of CF decreased in the order sole DCLO
> 67% DCLO > 33% DCLO > sole DCLO in which
conventional concentrate mix had high level of CF in this
study. The intake of more CF consequently resulted
in lower digestibility by animal digestive system due to
formation of lignin–cellular chain (Farhat et al., 1998;
Longe and Fagbenro-Byron, 1990). Digestibility of crude
Fiber is of some concern in swine diets because its poor
digestibility can reduce the apparent digestibility of other
dietary components, such as protein (Myer et al., 1997;
Westendorf and Myer, 2004). Moreover, the energy loss
due to heat production might be less as low CF inclusion
in the feed increases because of relatively lower CF
percent in the ration coupled with favorable energy
protein ratio (Longe and Fagbenro-Byron, 1990; Moon,
2004). Mineral digestibility was significantly affected by
the level of dried cafeteria leftover inclusion in the ration.
This result is in agreement with Wang et al. (2004),
which revealed that depression in digestibility of
chemical components could be due to the decrease in
the mean retention time of this diet in the GIT, which is
brought about by higher levels of fiber in wheat bran,
soybean hull and other cereal by-products based diets
compared to maize bran based diets. However, in the
present study pigs feed concentrate based on maize and
other diets performed poorly in terms of growth and
weight gain as compared to inclusion of DCLO as
ingredient in the diet, which mainly replaced concentrate
mix. This might be due to low level of CF and high
digestibility of other nutrients which could be as a result
of positive combined effects of these with CF in DCLO
than other treatment diets.
Economic Analysis
The control treatment had the lowest net return (636.8
Birr/pig) compared to the ration containing DCLO, which
was in the range of 707 - 1483.57 Birr. The result was
even more promising for pig fed 67% DCLO ration with
the highest net return of Birr 1509.8. This might be
associated with the highest body weight gain and
highest feed conversion ratio. This result agreed with the
findings of Westendorf et al. (1998) who concluded that
growing or finishing pigs fed food waste performed
nearly as good as pigs fed a traditional diet when the
food waste was supplemented with corn.
The most important parameter of partial budget
analysis is the change in net return (NR) and marginal
rate of return (MRR). This is due to the fact that MRR
measures the net return increment associated with each
additional units of expenditure. The MRR implies that
each additional unit of 1 Birr per pig cost increment
resulted in 1 Birr and additional 0.41, 1.96 and 1.06
Birr/pig profit for 33% DCLO, 67% DCLO and sole
DCLO, respectively. When a resource is limited, the
extra cost should be compared with the extra net profit.
Treatment ration with better daily gain and economic
return should be recommended as the biological and
economical optimum for raising pigs. Inclusion of DCLO
in the mixture of maize grain, wheat short, wheat bran,
Amene et al. 7
soybean mill, Noug seed cake and vitamin premix, like
67% DCLO ration in the present experiment can be used
for formulation of least cost swine ration without adverse
effect on the overall pig performance. Accordingly, the
least cost ration per pig reared was found to be diet 67%
DCLO as evidenced by the minimum cost.
CONCLUSION
The observed variation in nutrient digestibility among
different levels of DCLO in the present dietary
treatments were probably due to the good nutrient
contents of DCLO and relatively low CF content as
compared to sole CM. Similarly, there was a decrease in
the cost of production across the treatment following the
pattern sole CM > 33% DCLO > 67% DCLO > sole
DCLO which was probably due to the low cost of DCLO
as compared to sole CM. Generally, this study showed
that the digestibilities of most of the nutrients were
increasing as the levels of DCLO increased in the
present dietary treatments.
Therefore, it can be
concluded that inclusion of DCLO in CM up to 67%
DCLO would be a better feeding and profit oriented
strategy to improve the performance of growing
castrated pigs as demonstrated in the present study.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The study was made possible through the financial
support of the Mizan-Tepi University under the Ministry
of Education, Ethiopia. The authors wants to thank the
authorities of Haramaya University for their unlimited
support and all staff member of Swine Farm of
Haramaya University for their cooperation and technical
support starting from the beginning to the end of the
study.
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Different Levels of Dried Cafeteria Leftover Feed on Nutrient
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