1. home and garden

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Hydro-Geomorphological Implications of Uncontrolled
Settlements in Limbe, Cameroon
FOMBE LAWRENCE FON
Department of Geography, Faculty of Social & Management Sciences
University of Buea, P.O. Box 63, South West Region, Cameroon.
Email: ezumeh@hotmail.com
Tel: (237)675160932 / (237)696031463
MOLOMBE JEFF MBELLA
Department of Geography, Faculty of Social & Management Sciences, University of Buea, Cameroon.
Email: molombejeff@yahoo.com
Tel: (237)674883867 / (237)695394845
Abstract
The proliferation of uncontrolled settlements in the coastal town of Limbe in the wake of rapid
urbanization, rainfall variability and sea level rise, interplay to increase the frequency and intensity of
hydrological and geomorphological problems like landslides, accelerated erosion, gully formation, floods,
tidal inundation, sea incursions and sedimentation. How the sustained spread of uncontrolled settlements in
different ecologically fragile terrain of Limbe has aggravated these hydro-geomorphological problems and
their associated impacts within the context of current environmental changes constitute the focus of the
study. Data was collected from primary and secondary sources and analysed qualitatively. Findings reveal
that uncontrolled settlements in Limbe are more exposed and the hardest hit by hydro-geomorphological
problems within the context of increasing rainfall variability, sea level rise, their hazard-prone locations
and their fragile, substandard physical infrastructures. There is need for structural and non-structural
strategies by the municipal authorities, the technical government departments and residents to be
collectively involved in the sustained development of such uncontrolled settlements. Awareness should be
raised on the occurrence, adaptation and mitigation of hydro-geomorphological hazards through disaster
management. The study also makes a clarion call for the improvement in land and housing access,
resettlement projects and proper land use planning as a precursor for environmental stability and
sustainable urban growth in Limbe.
Key Words: Urbanisation, Uncontrolled Settlements, Hydro-Geomorphological Problems/Hazards, Land
Use Planning, Disaster/Emergency Management, Limbe.
Introduction
Urbanization which is the process by which an increasing proportion of the total population of a country or
an area lives in towns and cities can be traced in modern times to the industrialization of Western Europe
when rural dwellers flocked into the cities to take on jobs in industry and services (Waugh, 2002; Weitz,
1973). Since then, the proportion of people living in urban areas in all regions has been rising, a prominent
feature of human population distribution particularly in developing countries (Bolay, 2006; Kometa & Ndi,
2012). Globally, the proportion of the world’s urban dwellers is likely to reach 60% by 2030, due primarily
to urbanization in the developing world (Park, 2001; Bolay, 2006). Hence, Digby et al. (2001) predict that
80% of all urban residents will be in Less Economically Developed Countries (LEDCs) by 2025. Another
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notable feature of current urbanisation is that most of the urban growth is expected to take place in small
and medium-sized cities of a million or fewer inhabitants (as the case of Limbe, Cameroon) rather than in
the mega-cities (Bolay, 2006; UN, 2010, in IGBP, 2012).
In contemporary times (since the 1950s), urban centres in the Third World or LEDCs as the case of Limbe
in Cameroon have grown rapidly mainly through rural exodus and natural increase and not necessarily by
economic advancements (industrialization) as the case of the developed countries. The urban population in
Cameroon doubled within a period of just 30 years after independence moving from 28.3% in 1976 to
44.3% in 2005 while the annual population growth rate for the period between 1976 and 2005 is 2.98%.
The growth in urban areas is 9.12% for the same period (Fombe & Balgah, 2012). Against the backdrop of
all these, the urban dwellers in most Third World towns like Limbe in Cameroon have little opportunities to
earn sufficient income for basic needs. They cannot afford safe buildable plots and adequate housing which
constitute basic human needs (Asiyanbola, 2012). Hence, Potter (1999) notes that a perennial applied
development problem is that everybody needs shelter but when viewed globally not everyone is able to
secure what may be regarded as housing of an adequate standard (Potter, 1999). Urban housing has thus
become a nerve-centred problem faced by urban rehabilitation and development proponents (Fombe, 2009).
It is thus commonplace to see the majority of the population in rapidly growing developing world cities like
Limbe living in substandard houses and unplanned marginal sites (uncontrolled settlements) mainly due to
urban poverty, poor enforcement of urban land regulations and the lack of public sector subsidized housing
amongst others. Uncontrolled settlements refer to residential areas in towns that have developed on vacant
land in either public or private ownership having been invaded unscrupulously by individual families and
small groups overtime and so are often lacking in basic municipal services (Fombe & Wanie, 2010). In
Cameroon, the World Bank (2003) reports that 70% of the population lives in such uncontrolled or
unplanned settlements with the majority of peri-urban residents living in poorly-drained and poorlyserviced areas. Since the depression of the late 1980s, the problem of urban housing and poverty have
obliged the urban underprivileged to find any form of material or shelter that is built on unregulated or
vacant land which are sometimes unfit for human habitation due to environmental threats like floods and
landslides (Fombe, 2009). Against this background, this study sets out to examine the development and
nature of uncontrolled settlements in Limbe, investigate how the implantation of the uncontrolled
settlements has aggravated hydro-geomorphological problems or hazards and to propose meaningful
development approaches to stem the hydro-geomorphological hazards in Limbe.
The Study Area
Geographically, Limbe is located between latitudes 3o201 north and 4o151 north of the Equator and between
longitudes 8o151 east and 9o351 east of the Greenwich Meridian (Limbe City Council, 2008). Sited at the
interface of the continental and oceanic segments, the coastal town of Limbe also lies to the south southeast
foot slopes of the active lava-dominated Mount Cameroon Volcano of 4,100m in height (Che et al., 2011).
Administratively, Limbe is located in Fako Division of the South West Region of Cameroon (Map 1) and is
sub divided into three municipalities which are under the umbrella of the Limbe City Council: Limbe I (Poh
Council with 54% of the total population), Limbe II (Mokundange Council with 32% of the total
population) and Limbe III (Bimbia Council comprising 14% of the total population).
Limbe is a colonial town in Cameroon, given that it owes its emergence and growth to the plantation
economy and port functions that were first established by the colonial administrators. Limbe has overtime
withstood its growth potentials given the transfer of colonial plantations to the Cameroon Development
Corporation (CDC), the second largest employer after the State in Cameroon. Coupled with the postindependence establishment of the National Oil Refinery Company (SONARA), the Chantier Naval
Industrielle Camerounaise (CNIC) and several touristic resorts amongst others, the town has acted as a
population trap to nationals (especially from the interior Grassfield region) and foreigners (nearby African
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countries who flock in for commerce, fishing and other informal sector activities). The Limbe City Council
(LCC) estimated the population of Limbe in 2010 at 120,000 inhabitants spread over a surface area of
596Km2 (with population density of about 201 persons per Km2). In 2013, the population was estimated at
130,000 inhabitants giving a population density of 218 persons/Km2 (Table 2).
Map 1: Location of Limbe in Fako Division and the South West Region of Cameroon
The coastal city of Limbe experiences the subequatorial climate (hot and humid throughout) with two
distinct seasons: a 4-month dry season from November to mid-March and an 8-month rainy season that
runs from mid-March to November with a mean annual rainfall of about 3,100 mm, ±1,100 standard
deviation (Che et al., 2012). Annual rainfall in Limbe is thus high, with yearly precipitations varying from
1,500 to 6,000 mm in the last 34 years for different stations (CDC, Meteorological Centre, 2014). Peak
rainfall is recorded from June to August and at times in September (Table 1 and Figure 1). June and July
are characterised by intense and short-lived rainfall usually lasting less than 5hrs a day whereas, August and
September tend to experience less intense but more prolonged rainfalls that can last for 4 to 5 days in a row
(Che et al., 2012). Monthly rainfall totals frequently attain over 500mm and sometimes up to 1,000mm in
June, July and August. The mean annual temperature is ~26 °C and shows only limited variations of ~4°
throughout the year. Humidity is generally above 85% (CDC meteorological centre, 2014). These
characteristics correspond to the Tropical Monsoon Climate according to the Koppen climate classification
scheme (Peel et al., 2007; in Che et al., 2012). Table 1 shows the mean monthly variations as well as the
annual mean of the different climatic elements in Limbe. The 2 nd wettest place in the world, Debundscha is
located at the fringes of the Limbe II Council area. The rainy season is naturally accompanied by
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thunderstorms and peak stream discharge. During the months of July, August and September (the rainy
season), the hydro-geomorphological hazards become commonplace due to the excessive rainfall (Table 1
and Figure 1). The rainy season is thus the most vulnerable period for the environmentally unfriendly
settlements dominated by low-income dwellers with disasters like floods and landslides being common.
Table 1: Monthly Variations of Climatic Elements in Limbe for 2006
Month
Temperature
Rainfall
Relative
Insolation
(oC)
(mm)
Humidity (%)
January
26.8
21
80
177.2
February
27.5
49
80
169.2
March
27.3
127
80
166.7
April
25.7
174
81
170.1
May
26.8
105
83
177.8
June
25.8
400
86
121.8
July
24.7
646
90
51.8
August
24.5
568
90
31.8
September
24.3
308
87
76.2
October
25.8
231
85
128.9
November
26.2
199
84
168.1
December
26.2
14
77
186.2
Annual Mean
26.2
2884
84
1619.8
Figure 1: Average Monthly Rainy Days (mm) in Limbe
Source: CDC Head Office, Bota-Limbe (2006)
Research Methods
Data for this study was obtained from both primary and secondary sources. The data sources included
residents of the sampled residential zones, land investors, estate agents and middlemen, traders of building
materials, local chiefs, administrative officials of related ministries as well as the Mayors. Primary source
data was gotten through field observations accompanied by photographs, measurements and interviews.
Field visits were undertaken from January to August 2014 to enable the researchers observe the spatial
setting of the town and the hydro-geomorphological problems of uncontrolled settlements during the dry
(January to June) and rainy (July and August) seasons. Field observation was accompanied by photographs
to illustrate some characteristic features of uncontrolled settlements in Limbe. During field visits to the
various uncontrolled settlements, the researchers measured the relative distances of housing units from river
banks and took note of landslide scars as well as the distances of previous flood heights shown on buildings.
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The study of landslide was done through the observation of the rock types as well as the estimation of the
angles of slope and gradients as first undertaken by Che et al. in 2012. Measurements of slope gradient made
use of topographic maps of the region with scales of 1:25,000. Residents in settlements on hill slopes with
gradients of over 200 were randomly selected to provide information on tenure security, livelihood sources
and expansion in neighbourhoods like Mabeta New Layout.
Interviews were conducted with officials of related Ministries (MINDUH and MINDCAF), the Mayors,
their technical services as well as town planning collaborators to obtain information on the reasons for
uncontrolled settlements and the difficulties in obtaining secured tenure by the population. The researchers
also interviewed the authorities to ascertain their awareness on the uncontrolled settlements and plans made
to address the associated problems in such zones. The traders of building materials were interviewed to
assess the price trends of basic building materials. Secondary source data was gotten from articles and
textbooks related to the field of research and previous works undertaken in the study area to obtain vital
information on the hydro-geomorphological hazards. The data obtained has been analysed and presented by
way of graphs, charts, tables and photographs .
Results and Discussions
Development of Uncontrolled Settlements in Limbe
Limbe has overtime (especially after Independence in 1960) witnessed a sustained increase in uncontrolled
settlements as a result of many factors. The town has been witnessing a rapid rate of urbanisation which can
be traced to the period of the colonial economy which saw the establishment of vast oil palm plantations
(now under the auspices of the Cameroon Development Corporation, CDC, since 1947) to diversify the
hitherto pre-colonial primary activities like farming, hunting and small-scale fishing. The plantation
economy that thrived in Limbe and other coastal areas acted as a population trap to many persons from the
interior grassfield regions that flocked in for plantation jobs (Molombe, 2009; Ndenecho, 2011). This trend
of population increase (Table 2) and land use change has been sustained over time coupled with the take-off
of the National Oil Refinery Company (SONARA) in 1981, the ‘Chantier Navale Industrielle
Camerounaise’ (CNIC) in 2007 and the Shipyard for the Repair of Oil Rigs amongst other developmental
projects. Added to these, Limbe also offers many commercial opportunities and as a second-order town in
the North West and South West Regions of Cameroon (Fombe & Balgah, 2012), with its superior social
amenities (administration, road density and resorts amongst others) when compared to third-order towns,
like Ndop, Mamfe and Muyuka, making her an important destination for migrants across Cameroon and
other nearby African countries. By implication, many urban centres especially those along the coast like
Douala, Limbe and Buea where the poverty incidence is lowest in the country have thus become magnets
for the rural population from different parts of the country (Ndenecho, 2011).
Figure 2: Population Evolution and forecast for Limbe between 1966 and 2022
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Table 2. Population change and Density for Limbe between 1966 and 2022
Year
% change
Population
Density (Km2)
1966
/
41
1976
10.9
87
1986
7.4
151
1996
0.6
160
2007
1.4
184
2010
3.0
201
2013
2.7
218
2016
2.6
235
2022
9.5
369
Source: Limbe City Council figures up to 2010; Molombe, 2011 (for 2013 and
2016 figures); MINDUH projection (for 2022 figures).
Though there has been a slow growth in the Limbe population between 1976 and 2010, the gradual regain
of its demographic tendency within the past four years is outstanding and with an increasing density (figure
2; Table 2). This tendency has outpaced job creation leaving many migrants underemployed or selfemployed in informal sector activities that unfortunately cannot permit them afford adequate housing in the
background of rising cost of living. This explains why Fombe and Balgah (2012) noted that in Cameroon
towns, the cost of buying or building a house is very high relative to the annual earnings of the population.
The Limbe City Council (LCC) Consultation Survey of 2008 revealed that urban poverty and landlessness
affected about 80% of the population. Hence, the low-income and landless majority occupy the marginal
zones that are cheaper, ‘free’ and usually hazard-prone coupled with the fact that the respective urban
administrators have failed to fully enforce the existing land and building regulations of town planning and
environmental protection. This therefore supports the argument that in the popular free market system
today, individuals with the most resources secure the best-quality homes and those with least resources end
up living in the poorest housing (Keith, 1999). The urban poor in Limbe are thus located mostly in the
unplanned hilly and risky zones with semi-permanent housing, in zones where the land is relatively cheaper
(Awum et al., 2001).
Figure 2: Price Trends for selected Building Materials in Limbe from 1990 to 2014
Source: Field Work, 2014
In addition to urban poverty, the cost of authorised and standard building materials has also been on the
increase in the last decade (Figure 3). The prices of 50kg of cement, 8 Inches of iron rod, 5kg (4 Inches)
nails and a board of plywood have increased from 2,900 to 5,000, 1,500 to 2,800, 1,900 to 3,000 and 1,900
to 3,700 between 1990 and 2014 respectively. The cost of 50kg cement has been the most expensive of the
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building materials overtime given that it recorded a net increase of 1,000 and 900FCFA between 1990 and
2000 and between 2000 and 2009. Within these years, the net increase for 8 Inches of iron rod was just 300
and 450FCFA. The costs of a plywood board and that of 5kg (4 inches) nails were all 1,500FCFA in 1990
but over the years a board of plywood has become more expensive that the 5kg of nails (in 2009 for instance,
the cost of a board of plywood stood at 3,500 while that of nails stood at 2,800FCFA).
Besides rapid population growth and urban poverty, the undulating physical milieu of Limbe (Map 2) poses
a lot of challenge to the extension of human settlements. Besides urban expansion being sandwiched by the
Atlantic Ocean and the Mount Etinde (Small Mount Cameroon), the numerous volcanic hills and floodprone zones (dry valleys) also take their toll on the supply of construction space (Molombe, 2011). The
CDC oil palm plantation estates had long contributed to the lack of safe building sites in the city though this
pressure seems to lessen with the current CDC Land Surrender Policy that saw the leasing of some former
plantation lands for urban expansion. Moreover, the land values and rents in Limbe have also been on the
increase given the demand from the growing population. There is also the lack of public low-cost housing
in Limbe as in the higher-order cities like Douala and Yaoundé.
Furthermore, the current urban land regulation framework has loopholes in terms of some of the regulations
and with the respective authorities or offices charged with implementation or enforcement. Like in other
Cameroon cities, the growth of uncontrolled settlements is partly fuelled by the problem of land tenure and
excessive procedures for land registration. The land tenure system in Cameroon does not facilitate efficient
land use as it creates opening for unexploited spaces in urban areas (urban land reserves-Section 91 of
Ordinance No. 77-1 of 10th January, 1977) to be illegally occupied and also foster difficult access to land. It
is worthy to mention that the proportion of public land that has not been put into use also forms a ready
prey for squatting (Fombe & Wanie, 2010).
Since the conditions to acquire land are difficult for the average family intending to own a home in these
towns, they find it more beneficial to contract with the local council that readily authorize the construction
of houses irrespective of the location. It costs between 100,000FCFA and 200,000FCFA to obtain a
Building Permit for an average villa of 4 bed rooms in lower-order towns like Limbe and Tiko but twice as
much and even longer to obtain a Land Certificate/Title (Fombe & Wanie, 2010).
There are too many stages (over 15) in the process of acquiring and registering land. There is the tendency
for people to take short cuts by building without registration (uncontrolled) to avoid the numerous charges
and taxes (land tax, property tax, etc.). The numerous stages and taxes extracted from prospective land
owners thus indirectly contribute to uncontrolled building. Section 82 of the 1977 Ordinance enumerates a
series of taxes and royalties to be derived from urbanization; which include Layout Permit, Location
Permit, Building Permit, Town Planning Certificate, Land Tax, Land Registration and a host of others.
With many persons unable to acquire land through the expensive formal procedures, they are forced to seek
land space and shelter in the uncontrolled or unplanned areas. The erection of poor quality or substandard
housing structures in Limbe is therefore closely related to the inability or the lack of will by the urban
authorities to enforce existing urban land and building regulations. The nonchalance of the traditional
council which notifies the council authorities on cases of violations further encourage the growth of
uncontrolled settlements in Limbe and Tiko. There is thus an active market in untitled or illegally titled
plots in risk zones which leads to the continuous development of squatter settlements (Fombe & Wanie,
2010). This is a similar scenario in Bamenda where Kometa and Ndi (2012) noted that the high rate of
urbanization in Bamenda has not been consistent with a sustainable urban planning scheme given that town
planning provisions outlined in Law No. 2004/003 of 21/04/2004 have been ignored with many housing
structures being erected where they are not supposed to be leading to hazardous housing and environmental
conditions.
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Besides the desperation of the population, some of the inhabitants do not perceive their housing locations as
being risk zones and so do not see the need why they should be prevented by the regulations or authorities
from settling in such areas.
Uncontrolled Settlements in Limbe
Uncontrolled settlements (in Limbe) comprise the housing stock that violate the urban land and building
laws in terms of location (site), safety, possession of town planning instruments (tenure security), building
standards (aesthetics) and serviceability. As far as site is concerned, uncontrolled settlements in Limbe
occur on low lying areas and steep slopes as well as in the inner city areas and peripheries. Given that this
low lying town is ensconced by steep volcanic hills comprising of scoriacious material, uncontrolled
settlements have extended unto the steep slopes. The physical environment itself has therefore posed a
challenge to building and thereby limiting the available space for building (Map 2). The undulating relief
range from 0m at sea level to about 300m at major hills like the Moliwe Hill, Coconut Island (46.5m), Mile
II (890m), Towe (362m) (Plate 1c), Mabeta New Layout (295m), the Ambas Bay areas (152m) and Unity
Quarters (over 152m) (Plate 1b) (Buh, 2009). Besides, the Mt. Etinde (little Mount Cameroon) at Batoke in
the Limbe II Municipality is located at a height of 1,713m above sea level (Macmillan Cameroon, 2005).
Plate 2 shows a land scar just about 3metres from the foundation of a building at Unity Quarters.
Map 2: Physical Milieu of Limbe showing the undulated topography
A
B
C
Plate 1: Uncontrolled Settlements of varying Standards on Steep Volcanic Slopes in Limbe
(A) Mawoh Quarter (B) Unity Quarter (C) Bahai-Towe Quarter
Source: Field Work, 2014
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Plate 2: A Standard Housing Unit Perched on a Hill Top at Unity Quarter. Notice Land
Scar behind the Housing Unit indicating Landslide Vulnerability
Source: Field Work, 2014
Other uncontrolled settlements have emerged on the very low lying regions that are usually river
banks/flood plains, dry valleys, wetlands, or in the intertidal zone. Limbe generally a low lying town (about
3m above sea level) entombed by hills. As indicated on Plate 3a, houses have developed as close as one
meter from the canalised River Djengele channel at Church Street. It is also worthwhile to note that most of
the coastal settlements are sited below 50m above sea level (Plate 4) (Buh, 2009). This coincides with the
urbanization pattern of the Douala Metropolis of Cameroon where the topographically flat Bonaberi area
that was initially reserved for industrial development has been invaded for settlement (Fombe & Fogwe,
2001). Tadonki (1999) cited in Fombe and Fogwe (2001) highlighted that the encroachment unto swampy
public and industrial land has been a common practice within the past three decades in Douala.
A
B
Plate 3: Uncontrolled Settlements on the Banks of River Djengele
(A)and on a wetland in Mbonjo (B)
Source: Molombe, 2011.
A
B
Plate 4: Uncontrolled Settlements in the Inter-tidal Zone at Dockyard, Mbonjo Limbe, Vulnerable to Sea
Level Rise. Source: Molombe, 2011.
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These settlements have lamentably emerged in areas that are prone to various environmental problems in
direct contravention of the Town Planning Law No. 2004/003 of 21 st April 2004 which states that any land
in danger of a natural hazard (flood, landslide and erosion amongst others) shall not be built on. Such
settlements have also been erected in violation of Law No. 80-22 of 14 July 1980 that aims at protecting
infringements on landed property and State Lands. Article 94 of the Environmental Management Law (Law
No. 96/12 of 5th August 1996) which posits that mangrove ecosystems shall be specially protected also
seems bleak in the face of settlement expansion in the inter-tidal zone (Plate 4). The squatters of this intertidal zone frequently cut down the mangrove vegetation for construction materials and fuel wood needed
for fish smoking. Also, Article 27 of this Law that prescribes the protection of flood plains is also grossly
violated as settlements have encroached into such areas (Plate 3a). Article 36(1) which aims at addressing
the problem of soil erosion is also downplayed by the expansion of these settlements on hilly zones.
On the other hand, the settlements that conform to the existing regulations in terms of their location in safe
(hazard-free) zones coincide with the required standard, high-income and planned housing units which have
tenure security. On the contrary, given that the uncontrolled settlements have side-tracked the town
planning regulations by virtue of their location in risky or environmentally unfriendly areas, they lack
security of tenure (Land Title and Building Permit). The absence of tenure security in such uncontrolled
settlements explains why such areas are strewn with semi-permanent, temporary or makeshift housing
structures with poor housing design and aesthetics (Plates 1c, 2, 3b and 4). It is also worth noting that there
is also the emergence of standard housing structures with better aesthetics (Plate 1b and 3a) in the hazardprone or risk zones. The uncontrolled settlements in Limbe can generally be distinguished by their
substandard housing conditions (slum) even though some standard housing units have also been emerging
in such unauthorised zones (Plates 1b, 3a and 4b). This is similar to the substandard urban housing
infrastructure (temporary makeshift structures and permanent buildings) in the swamps of Bonaberi (Fombe
& Fogwe, 2001). By virtue of their erection in unauthorised or risk zones, the council authorities do not
extend urban amenities or social infrastructure into such areas. Most of the services in such areas have been
provided by community initiatives and are often characterised by service congestion.
The uncontrolled housing zones usually lack tap or piped water supply, drainage facilities, waste disposal
facilities and streets/access roads (emergency and waste evacuation routes) amongst others. Hence, such
settlements are usually characterised by high density development and inadequacy of amenities in violation
of the 2004 Town Planning Law which guarantees that land shall be approved for building only where it is
served by a public or private road of at least 7m wide (Section 11) and with provision for the intervention
of emergency (fire-fighting units, sanitation), refuse collection and other services (Section 12). The other
provision of the Law which states that owners of hemmed-in parcels without rain water drainage ways,
particularly plots located downstream, shall be entitled to seek and obtain a passage through neighboring
plots, under conditions stipulated by Sections 682 to 710 of the Civil code is not also upheld in such
uncontrolled settlements.
Uncontrolled Settlements and Hydro-Geomorphological Hazards in Limbe
The immediate trigger for hydro-geomorphological hazards like floods and landslides is an increase in the
amount and intensity of rainfall (environmental changes such as climate variability and sea level rise).
However, it has also become obvious that increased human impacts brought about by urbanization and
urban development has enhanced the intensity of such hazards (Che et al., 2012; Kometa & Ndi, 2012;
Guedjeo et al., 2013). Even though most of the hydro-geomorphological hazards in Limbe are orchestrated
during the rainy season when copious amounts of rainfall are received (Table 1 and Figure 1), this study
found that the uncontrolled settlements in Limbe have aggravated the frequency and intensity of such
hazards, namely: landslides, rock fall, soil erosion, sedimentation, flooding, tidal inundation and sea
incursions by virtue of their implantation in ecologically fragile areas (some of which fall within the realms
of Private and Public State Property). It is also evidenced that these uncontrolled settlements that have
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triggered these environmental problems are also usually the hardest hit because of their poor housing
standards and lack of basic amenities like evacuation/emergency routes and proper drainage channels
(storm drains/culverts).
Map 3: Limbe and Neighbourhood on the South East Foot Slopes of Mount Cameroon showing Shaded
Relief (Notice the East-West Trending Assymmetric Ridges of the Mabeta Massif and several
pyroclastic Cones to the West).
Source: Che et al., 2012.
The expansion of uncontrolled settlements and urban agriculture on the steep scoriaceous volcanic slopes of
Limbe has led to severe slope instability. Housing development on the steep slopes in areas such as BahaiTowe, Bamba Hill, Unity Quarters, Mawoh, Motowoh and Coconut Island (Maps 2 and 3) has led to the
clearance of the rainforest vegetation (deforestation) that hitherto served as a check to various forms of
mass wasting on the volcanic slopes. In addition to the exposure of the scoriaceous material due to
deforestation, the unregulated slope undercuttings and leveling to create construction spaces have led to
accelerated erosion (gully formation) and landslides during the rainy season. The transition of urban
watersheds from their natural, forested state to a predominantly urban condition encompasses the removal
of vegetation, compaction of soil, creation of impervious surfaces and the alteration of natural drainage
networks. This explains why Kometa and Ndi (2012) concluded that the level of urbanization in urban
watersheds has shown no systematic planning at all. Given that most of the land developers in the
uncontrolled settlements are low-income earners, they lack the extra finances to put up housing units that
meet the engineering standards to keep slope volcanic in check. Hence, the landslide disasters that plague
the uncontrolled settlements in Limbe (Plate 5) are similar to those on the slopes of the Bamenda
escarpment (hosting 6-8% of the population) (Kometa & Ndi, 2012).
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Plate 5: Hydro-Geomorphological Hazards in Limbe showing potential Impacts (A) Impact of Flooding on
River Bank Settlement (B) 2001 Mabeta New Layout Landslide
Source: Buh, 2009.
Due to the enhanced runoff and accelerated erosion on the steep slopes, flooding is induced as the
sediments eroded from the slopes raise the river beds and clog the narrow drainage channels or storm drains
alongside solid wastes. This then leads to flooding, residential inundation and the problem of sedimentation
and subsidence in the low lying neighborhoods in areas like Church Street, New Town, Down Beach,
Clerks Quarters and Mbonjo. The increased sediments arriving the low lying areas as a result of
uncontrolled slope development has made neighborhoods like Clerks Quarters to be ‘sinking’ as sediments
have built up right to the window levels of the houses (attaining heights of about 1-1.5m). By implication,
some inhabitants in this zone have recently been converting windows into doors while others have built
embankments round their houses to prevent flood waters from entering into the homes. It is common place
to see the surrounding of a building being raised more than the floor levels of the home.
The encroachment of housing into the river banks like along the River Djengele has constricted the ability
of such channels to accommodate excess discharge during the rainy season. Deforestation, especially on
steep slopes, and enhanced run off during the rainy season immediately floods the low lying settlements
because of the inadequate drainage channels and the built-up flood plains that could help accommodate the
excess discharge during the rainy season (Plate 5a). In examining the spatial variation of the total number
of rainy days alongside the incidence of floods, it was discovered that the months of July and August
experienced the highest frequency of floods owing to the fact that they recorded the highest number of
rainy days in the year 2009 (Kometa & Ndi, 2012; Guedjeo et al., 2013). Areas with high flood risks in
Bamenda include flood plains and wet lands. Despite the important role now played by the Hygiene and
Sanitation Company (HYSACAM) in solid waste disposal, the problem of solid wastes clogging the storm
drains and river channels still persists.
There have also been notable environmental problems in the uncontrolled settlements sited at the inter-tidal
zone as evident in the Mbonjo and the Dockyard neighborhoods. The destruction of the mangrove
vegetation to supply fuel wood for fish smoking has removed the natural tidal defense that shielded these
coastal squatters. In the wake of global sea level rise, it is now common place for high tides to penetrate
and flood these coastal settlements (tidal inundation) to the extent that some buildings are abandoned at
certain periods of the year. This problem is also aggravated by the lack of ripraps and other coastal defenses
in Mbonjo and Dockyard. The makeshift housing structures characterizing such areas (Plate 4) are also
usually uprooted during severe periods of tidal inundation.
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Conclusion
Limbe is a second-order, coastal town in Cameroon with a lot of growth potentials. However, her rapid rate
of urbanization, the challenging physical (coastal) environment, urban poverty and the lapses in the current
system of land administration interplay to bring about the proliferation of uncontrolled settlements in
ecologically fragile, risk and protected areas. Given the copious amounts of rainfall received during the
rainy season, rise in sea level and housing development in unauthorized zones, hydro-geomorphological
hazards abound in increasing frequency and magnitude leading to environmental instability and its
associated human casualties and material losses. Hence, for a more sustainable urban growth in the town,
structural and non-structural measures have been recommended to the authorities and inhabitants of Limbe.
Recommendations
There is need for proper enforcement or follow-up of existing urban land regulations (town planning and
environmental laws) to stem further uncontrolled housing development in the town. Nonetheless, in as
much as this study recognizes the need for regular monitoring and sanctions for the occupants of risk zones,
there is also dire need to remind ourselves that abiding by the existing regulations is only a very feasible
option for the middle- and high-income population. The low-income population in the town find it difficult
to meet up with the costs and requirements for accessing land within approved building zones and in
procuring town planning instruments like the Land Title and Building Permit from the respective
authorities. The charges and time involved in procuring these planning instruments should therefore be
reduced and corrupt practices guarded against so that some of the low-income population which constitutes
a growing majority can afford to put up standard housing units.
Regularizing tenure for some uncontrolled settlements (in less risk zones) could be a more feasible option
given the financial constraints and difficulties of accessing land for resettlement programs. This is so
because demolition campaigns without necessary resettlement schemes/programs have often created
vicious circles of disorder since the displaced victims still filter into different attractive nodes (Fombe &
Fogwe, 2001) and also for the fact that such demolition campaigns involve huge losses (Buh, 2009;
Guedjeo et al., 2013). In this light, Fombe and Wanie (2010) opine that urban authorities can extend
ownership rights to such settlements by making provision for Location Permits rather than the Land Title
(and Building Permit) that are more cumbersome and costly for the low-income population. In so doing, it
will go a long way to aid slum upgrading and consolidation which will in turn encourage the residents to
support adaptation, risk-mitigation practices and disaster management systems that will prevent and
mitigate hydrological and geomorphological hazards in their neighborhoods.
The promotion and reinforcement of adaptation strategies that can prevent and mitigate the impacts of
hydro-geomorphological hazards within the uncontrolled settlements will therefore constitute a core
strategy for their consolidation and subsequent upgrading. This study therefore recommends that the
municipal authorities, the officials of MINDUH, MINDCAF in collaboration with the residents of
uncontrolled settlements set up disaster or emergency management programs. Such disaster management
programs for the uncontrolled settlements in Limbe should have as objectives the training of disaster
management staff, setting up of communication systems during disasters, prevention of hazards (as much as
possible), reduction of vulnerability of uncontrolled settlements to hazards and enhancement of coping
strategies (mitigation), disaster preparedness, disaster relief and disaster recovery. With regard to flood
mitigation for instance, the building of levées (using tires and sand bags) along river banks, the erection of
ripraps along the coastal settlements as well as the straightening, enlarging and regular dredging of drainage
networks can go a long way to mitigate floods as elaborated by Kometa and Ndi (2010) and Guedjeo et al.,
(2013). For landslides, proper engineering standards can be supervised by the urban authorities to bring
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some of the hilly zones under planned housing development. Also, the use of hazard mapping, disaster
monitoring and early warning systems are all important in addressing natural hazards in the town.
The inhabitants should be sensitized (via print and audiovisual media, billboards and meeting houses) on
the dangers of violating the town planning and environmental laws when they settle on risk zones. Such
campaigns can be done through the media, quarter heads and community sensitization programs. The
public should be sensitized as to why the urban land regulations make it important for open spaces to be
allocated in the town amidst the growing need for construction space. The public should be aware of the
common uses of open spaces for public utilities, parks, greens, playgrounds and streets amongst others.
Access to land will therefore need to be improved by supporting and speeding up the CDC plantation Land
Surrender Policy to create more residential new layouts and people encouraged by the authorities to put up
rental housing. Meanwhile, for the ecologically fragile areas, specific building standards or engineering
works (land reclamation, slope engineering) should be put in place to ensure that bringing such areas under
settlement will not jeopardize environmental stability. With improvement in land access and the
establishment of low-cost housing in the town, the local authorities could better resettle the occupants of
high risk zone. An alternative land use system could then be developed for the ecologically fragile areas
after resettlement programs.
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