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Teaching & Learning: Building Effective Pedagogies
Planning Toolkit
Becoming an Effective Communicator
Jennifer Howell
COPYRIGHT NOTICE
© 2014
THIS PLANNING TOOLKIT IS COPYRIGHT OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 2014. IT IS INTENDED TO
FURTHER SUPPORT STUDENTS AND LECTURERS USING TEACHING & LEARNING: BUILDING
EFFECTIVE PEDAGOGIES IN THEIR COURSES AND SHOULD NOT BE DISTRIBUTED OR COPIED
FOR ANY OTHER PURPOSE OR FOR USE WITH ANY OTHER TEXT.
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Becoming an Effective Communicator
Introduction
At the heart of being an effective teacher is being an effective communicator. For some
people this will come naturally, while for others it is a learnt skill. Regardless, we all need to
constantly think and reflect on the communication strategies we use in our teaching. In this
section of the Toolkit you will find a range of different strategies to help you effectively
listen, communicate your goals, use non-verbal techniques and start and end lessons.
Included in this chapter is information about:
Direct instruction in action 2
Communicating goals: Setting up a lesson clearly 3
Effective conclusions 4
Effective explanations 5
Effective language techniques
6
How to send clear messages
8
How to listen
9
Using non-verbals effectively
10
Planning questions and avoiding unanswerable questions 11
Using and modelling Standard Australian English 12
Writing on whiteboards and blackboards
13
Howell, J. Teaching & Learning: Building Effective Pedagogies
© Oxford University Press 2014. All rights reserved.
1
Direct instruction in action
Direct instruction is the use of straightforward, explicit teaching techniques, usually to teach a
specific skill. It is a teacher-directed method, meaning that the teacher stands in front of a
classroom and presents the information. This can be useful in a lesson in which the teacher
very clearly outlines some specific content or gives a simple explanation of something.
Here are some videos showing this method in action:

Education Portal: http://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/direct-instructiondiscovery-instruction-definition-differences.html#lesson

Three primary classes in a US school demonstrate direct instruction:
www.youtube.com/watch?v=3cwODCQ9BnU
This is another useful resource; it is a diagram of direct instruction (breaking the lesson
up into stages): www.worksheetlibrary.com/teachingtips/directinstruction.html
Howell, J. Teaching & Learning: Building Effective Pedagogies
© Oxford University Press 2014. All rights reserved.
2
Communicating goals: Setting up a lesson
clearly
An effective lesson begins with stating its goals (i.e. ‘What will we be doing today?’). The
introduction should link to what has been covered previously. Here are some suggestions for
how to set up a lesson:

Start the lesson with a quick discussion—ask the class: ‘What did we do last lesson?’.
Or be more specific: ‘Who can remember what a sonnet is?’ Doing this verbally gives
students time to remember the previous lesson and start thinking in that space, ready to
learn more.

Do a quick mind map or concept map to check the understanding of a topic.

Verbally explain what you will be doing in today’s lesson—have a short ‘to-do’ list and
put this up on the whiteboard or screen so each item can be crossed off as it is
completed.

Introductions are usually quite short, perhaps five to ten minutes, so the types of
activities you can do at this stage are limited. However, if you are introducing a new
topic or program then consider a longer, more detailed introduction.

Bring in a resource or artifact that will help introduce the lesson. For example, if you are
starting a new unit on birds and flight, have a picture or video that you can use as a
trigger to ask questions and start a discussion on the topic.
In your lesson introduction, try using a communication tool such as a Y chart, described in
Chapter 9 of this Toolkit: Understanding Your Students.
Howell, J. Teaching & Learning: Building Effective Pedagogies
© Oxford University Press 2014. All rights reserved.
3
Effective conclusions
The end of a lesson is as important as the beginning, because it is the final impression a class
has of that experience. It should tie everything together and it should be clear that it forms
part of a bigger picture. Allow five to ten minutes if you can—realistically it is often much
shorter than this, but you should schedule a minimum of five minutes. An effective
conclusion should do all or some of the following:

Review the key points of the lesson.

Give students opportunities to draw conclusions from the lesson.

Describe when the students can use this new information.

Preview future lessons.

Demonstrate students’ problem-solving process.

Exhibit student learning.

Create a smooth transition from one lesson to the next lesson.
Some good strategies for effectively wrapping up a lesson:

Discussion time: during the last five minutes, ask your class what they have learned
during the lesson and draw out a class discussion.

60 seconds: choose three or four students and give them each sixty seconds to speak
about what they have learned during the lesson/day.

Journal entry: ask students to write about two things they learnt in the lesson in their
daily journal.

Exit pass: students must answer questions or complete a task that demonstrates their
understanding before they can leave.

3-2-1: ask students to identify three things they learned, two things they have a question
about, and one thing they want the teacher to know.

Fishbowl: students write a question they have about the lesson, then swap with the
person next to them to answer each other’s question.

Three whats: what, so what, now what?

Quick quiz: ask students four or five questions to check their understanding.
Howell, J. Teaching & Learning: Building Effective Pedagogies
© Oxford University Press 2014. All rights reserved.
4
Effective explanations
Effective explanations involve the following techniques:

The use of clear language.

Good knowledge of the subject delivered in simplified chunks by the teacher.

An awareness of what your students already know.

The use of memorable examples.

Ongoing questioning to check understanding.

Actively engaging all your students.
People process information in different ways. Visual learners have a preference for
reading words and looking at diagrams and images; auditory learners have a preference for
listening; tactile or kinaesthetic learners have a preference for touch and movement. Small
modifications to your explanations can address each of these learning styles, thereby
improving the educational experience of all your students.
Tips and tricks for effective explanations:

Use language the students know and understand. Introduce new terms that are defined
and illustrated.

Try not to cover too much: small, short explanations are more effective.

Once you have explained something, illustrate it with an example.

Support your explanations with an image or actions. Some aspects in particular might
need this support to be understood, while others will be clear without it.

Use questions to check for understanding. Avoid yes/no questions, so don’t simply ask:
‘Do you understand?’ Ask a question that will demonstrates the students’
understanding.

Video yourself and then watch critically—did you give a good explanation? Often we
need to see ourselves to truly understand our effect on people.
Howell, J. Teaching & Learning: Building Effective Pedagogies
© Oxford University Press 2014. All rights reserved.
5
Effective language techniques
Pitch
Pitch is the unique sound that comes from the vibration of your vocal chords. An effective
pitch in a classroom is your natural pitch, the strongest and purest version of your voice,
which should be used when you want to deliver an important piece of information. The pitch
to aim for is a clear natural pitch that can be heard from the back of the classroom—you
should never need to yell to be heard. Sometimes lowering your voice will settle a class that is
too loud. Don’t project too much, this cannot be sustained.
To find your natural pitch, relax your throat and simply hum. A hum that is too low or
too high should feel unnatural. Once you have identified where the hum feels natural, practise
speaking at that pitch.
Tone
Tone is the manner in which you speak and the quality of the sound that your vocal chords
produce.
Vocal tone is something that can be adjusted to a teacher’s advantage. When wanting to
convey a warmer tone, smile as you speak. For delivering expectations, a more formal tone
should be used. Think of your formal tone as your ‘professional’ tone. Much of our tone is
influenced by the language or words we use—formal language or words results in a more
formal tone.
Tempo
Your tempo is how quickly or slowly you speak. Adjusting your tempo can be hard, but is
very important when delivering new information to students. Your tempo needs to be at a
speed that allows everyone can hear and understand the words you are using. Slow down and
try to use a natural speaking speed.
To slow yourself down, take deep breaths and use a ‘purposeful pause’ before you
deliver a key point in your lesson.
Volume
We all know people who constantly speak at a too-loud volume and others who we always
have to ask to speak up. It is important to adapt your volume to the situation that you are in.
Always stand up straight, which will open your lungs and project your voice from your
diaphragm.
Prosody
Prosody is the rhythm of your voice rising and falling; for example, our voices tend to go
higher when we are asking a question. Try to avoid a sing-song rhythm or pattern. Some
television reporters have an obvious prosody which you can detect and which interferes with
their message, so you need to be mindful of the impact of your prosody on listeners.
Upspeak
Upspeak is a commonly overused speaking pattern where all statements sound like a question
due to a higher inflection at the end of sentences. You need to be mindful that it causes
confusion in listeners, who will expect an inflection at the end of a question, but not in other
utterances.
Howell, J. Teaching & Learning: Building Effective Pedagogies
© Oxford University Press 2014. All rights reserved.
6
How to send clear messages
What we say to our classes needs to be clear and easily understood. Messages should direct
behaviour—there should be no confusion due to the words we use or how we say it. There are
four main types of messages:
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Declarative I-messages: These are the declaration to others of your beliefs, ideas, likes,
dislikes, feelings, thoughts, reactions—or any other statement that helps others know
you better and understand how you are experiencing your life. ‘I think you have all
worked really well during this lesson.’
2
Preventive I-messages: Another important type of self-disclosure is one that lets your
class know of some future need that you want to meet; it anticipates what you want to
do or to see happen. Such a message, because it clearly describes how you want events
to turn out, greatly increases the chances that others will adjust their actions to avoid
blocking what you need. Such a message may prevent a conflict. ‘I’d like you all to
finish this today so that we can move on to the next chapter.’
3
Positive I-messages: One of the most enriching forms of self-disclosure is the positive Imessage. These are messages that describe positive feelings. They can express
appreciation, love, enjoyment and affection towards your class and can contribute
greatly to warmer, closer and more enjoyable relationships. ‘I appreciate how quietly
you were working today. We did a lot more than I had planned thanks to you!’
4
Negative I-messages: These are messages that describe negative feelings. They can
express disappointment, anger, hurt or frustration towards your class based on their
behaviour. They should never be personal, but express how their behaviour or actions
have impacted on you. ‘I am really disappointed by your behaviour today. I had hoped
you would have been more focused on your work and not on being silly. We didn’t get
much work done today and I am really upset about that.’
Remember, messages should be:

clear

concise

easily understood

not personal.
It is particularly important to communicate clear expectations in regard to assessing student
work. For more on this, see Chapter 13 of this Toolkit: Assessment, Feedback and Reporting.
Howell, J. Teaching & Learning: Building Effective Pedagogies
© Oxford University Press 2014. All rights reserved.
7
How to listen
Chapter 10 explores this topic in detail, but here are some extra tips and online resources that
will help you develop the skills of effective listening.
Tips and tricks

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

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
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Face the speaker and maintain eye contact.
Be attentive.
Keep an open mind to what you are hearing.
Try to picture what the speaker is saying.
Don’t interrupt or impose your ‘solutions’ on the speaker.
Wait for the speaker to pause before you ask questions.
Ask clarifying questions, not challenging questions. Wait until discussion time to raise
your point of view.
Try to feel and understand what the speaker is feeling.
Demonstrate you are paying attention to what is being said by providing feedback
through nodding your head or saying ‘uh huh’.
Pay attention to what isn’t said—to feelings, facial expressions, gestures, posture and
other nonverbal cues.
Online resource
Listening skills for teachers: www.acs.edu.au/info/education/trends-opinions/listeningskills.aspx
Howell, J. Teaching & Learning: Building Effective Pedagogies
© Oxford University Press 2014. All rights reserved.
8
Using non-verbals effectively
1
2
3
4
5
Be aware of facial expressions. Students like teachers who smile a lot, because teachers
who smile send out the message that they are enjoying being with the students, they are
relaxed and they are confident. Don’t be unnatural, such as over-smiling or overexaggerating your facial expressions.
Control your emotions. Try to adopt a calm and assertive facial expression. Don’t wear
your emotions obviously—train yourself not to react visually.
Scan the room constantly and make eye contact with individual students when you have
asked a question, when someone is speaking, and to address misbehaviour without
using words. Don’t use negative eye behaviour such as rolling your eyes.
Gestures should support your words and not distract from what you are saying. Overuse of gestures, including too much hand fluttering, can distract and become the focus
of attention rather than attention being on the content you are trying to deliver. When
leading a discussion, you can sometimes connect ideas by pointing at different people in
the room and drawing connections between them in the air. Avoid aggressive gestures
such as finger clicking, slapping your thigh or the table.
How do you stand? Your posture should be tall, upright and open. Relax your shoulders,
arms and torso, and don’t appear to be tense, uptight or clenched. Try to have a natural
open stance. Move around so that you become natural and confident, and to ensure you
have proximity with all students in the room. Don’t cross your arms, because this
appears defensive, and don’t sprawl with arms and legs akimbo, because this can be
intimidating and can be misconstrued.
Howell, J. Teaching & Learning: Building Effective Pedagogies
© Oxford University Press 2014. All rights reserved.
9
Planning questions and avoiding
unanswerable questions
When you first begin teaching, it is a good idea to plan the key questions you wish to ask
during a lesson. This will help you to avoid bad questions and to become more thoughtful in
your question construction. Questioning is a powerful teaching strategy because effective
questions can promote learning. Questions often fail because:

Questioning techniques are inappropriate for the material.

There may be an unconscious gender bias.

There may be an unconscious bias towards most able or more demanding students.

Levels of questions might be targeted to different abilities inappropriately.

Students don’t have enough thinking time.

Learners don’t have any idea as to whether they are the only ones to get it wrong/right.

Learners fear being seen by their peers to be wrong.

They are too difficult.

They are too easy.
You can use a taxonomy to help you phrase your questions and focus their purpose
(such as analysing or connecting). Bloom’s is a very popular taxonomy; below we will look at
lower- and higher-order questions.
Lower-order questions
Remembering

What did we say a noun was?

What do we have to remember about starting a new sentence?
Understanding

Which note is higher?

Which words tell us that the character is sad?
Higher-order questions
Applying

How might you use this technique to solve this (another) problem?
Analysing

What elements in this piece of music create the sense of anger?
Evaluating

How accurate were the measurements in the experiment we have just carried out?
Creating

Design a pocket guide to fair testing.

Re-present the information in the text as a diagram.
Online resources


Teacher Tools: http://teachertools.londongt.org/?page=questioningTechniques
Types of questions and examples: go to www.yale.edu/graduateschool/teaching/forms
and scroll through the list to find the link for the Questions and Questioning PDF.
Howell, J. Teaching & Learning: Building Effective Pedagogies
© Oxford University Press 2014. All rights reserved.
10
Using and modelling Standard Australian
English
Standard Australian English (SAE) is the variety of spoken and written English language in
Australia that is used in more formal settings, such as for official or public purposes, and is
recorded in dictionaries and style guides. While it is always dynamic and evolving, it is
recognised as the ‘common language’ of Australians.
SAE differs from other forms of English in:

vocabulary

accent

pronunciation

register

grammar

spelling.
Teachers in Australia need to use and model SAE in the classroom so that their students
acquire this language correctly.
Using SAE
Understanding your own literacy abilities is the key to being an effective user of SAE. The
starting points are the curriculum documents for your phase of schooling, and you should
familiarise yourself with their content. You should be able to understand, teach and know
strategies that are designed to help learners acquire SAE. For example, do you know of
different approaches to teaching phonics?
Modelling SAE
In all that you do you should model correct SAE. This means that when speaking you should
be able to pronounce words correctly, know where the stress is on particular syllables, which
words to use and how to model grammatically correct SAE. Spelling is a key skill—you
should be confident that when writing on whiteboards or preparing handouts your spelling is
correct (relying on a spell checker is not sufficient). Invest in expanding your knowledge and
understanding in this area—practice will perfect this skill.
Howell, J. Teaching & Learning: Building Effective Pedagogies
© Oxford University Press 2014. All rights reserved.
11
Writing on whiteboards and blackboards

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
Write clearly on the board and make sure that you have written words big enough for
everyone to see, even from the back of the class.
When using chalk and blackboards make sure that you wash the board often so that the
writing is clear.
When using a whiteboard make sure that the pen you are using is in a colour that
everyone can read—black or blue are best.
Practise writing in straight lines across the board—this will take time to perfect. Start
with shorter lines first.
Check what you write as you write. You must be careful about accuracy of spelling and
grammar, especially if you intend students to copy it into their notebooks.
Check with your students that they are ready for you to clean the board. If you are
waiting for some students to finish copying or doing an exercise don’t leave the others
twiddling their thumbs. Ask them to make a personalised example or start the warm-up
for the next exercise orally.
It is a good idea to divide your board into sections. Have one part for use during the
lesson which can be cleaned and re-used. Use another part for important information
which can stay there for the whole lesson. For example, you could write a list of the
basic aims/activities for the lesson so that your students know what is coming. Tick
items off as they are achieved. At the end of the class you can review the lesson aims
and students can evaluate what they have learnt.
For older learners you could write up other important information—key grammar points
or vocabulary needed for the lesson, or test dates etc. With very young learners it is
better to write this kind of information at the top of the board. Leave the lower part
empty for you and the students to write on. Remember that young students in particular
probably won't be able to reach the top half of the board.
Face the board while writing; face the audience while talking. Attempting to write when
your shoulders aren’t parallel to the board, or when your head is turned, is inviting
problems. Don’t be afraid to talk to the board every once in a while.
While writing, keep the chalk or pen close to the shoulder of your writing arm. For
instance, don’t stand still when writing a long sentence because your hand will trace out
an arc. Instead, move your body as you write. Also, don’t attempt to write below your
waistline—your elbow and wrist simply do not have enough freedom to maintain
neatness. If you must write this low, practice some comfortable crouching positions.
Howell, J. Teaching & Learning: Building Effective Pedagogies
© Oxford University Press 2014. All rights reserved.
12