1. society
2. unrest and war

CHURCHILL’S WAR MINISTRY
Contents
1. Topic Area Summary and Chairperson’s Address……………………………………………….…page 3
2. World War I.................................................................................................................................................page 6
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
A Brief Summary
Causes
Course of the War
a. Eastern Front
b. Western Front
Effects
3. Treaty of Versailles..................................................................................................................................page 8
i.
Terms and conditions
4. League of Nations..................................................................................................................................page 11
i.
ii.
Functions
Causes for its failure
5. Britain during the Inter-War years.................................................................................................page 13
i. Economic Conditions
ii. Political Conditions
a. Major political parties
b. Foreign Policy
c. Policy of Appeasement
 Munich Conference
6. Conditions of the Allied-Axis Powers during the inter-war period..................................page 19
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
Germany
USSR
USA
France
Italy
Japan
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7. Hitler's invasion of Poland..................................................................................................................page 29
8. Course of the Second World War till May 1940- Timeline of events...............................page 30
9. Germany’s military strength………………………………………………………………………………page 31
10. Britain's military strength...............................................................................................................page 33
11. Overseas territories............................................................................................................................page 35
i.
Situation in India
ii. Situation in Palestine
iii. Contribution of the commonwealth countries to Britain's war efforts
12. Prime Minister's Address.................................................................................................................page 41
Topic Area Summary
Agenda: Determining the British course of action in the Second World War
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In 1938, when war was inevitable, Hitler had invited Chamberlain and Daladier to a four power
conference which met in Munich (29 September 1938). After the acceptance of the proposal made
by Mussolini and the German Foreign office, the Munich conference ended in a success.
Chamberlain had remarked, “I believe it is peace for our times.”
However, Churchill called the Munich Conference a total and unmitigated defeat. Duff Cooper, the
First Lord of the British Admiralty, resigned from the cabinet, saying that Hitler could not be
trusted to keep the agreement.
In 1939, Hitler did break his promise and seized non German territories. This action could not be
justified by the Appeasers, France and Britain and Chamberlain’s attitude hardened.
On 24th august, 1939, Hitler signed a non aggression pact with the USSR. It was also agreed that
Poland would be divided between Germany and USSR. Hitler was convinced of Russia’s neutrality
and was certain and that France and Britain would not risk an intervention. A full scale German
invasion of Poland began on 1st September, 1939.
Chamberlain had still not completely thrown off his policy of appeasement and suggested that if
German troops were withdrawn, a conference could be held to establish peace. With no response
from the Germans and pressure mounting in the parliament and in the nation, Chamberlain sent an
ultimatum to Germany. When this expired at 11 a.m. on 3rd September 1939, Britain was at war
with Germany. Soon afterwards, France also declared war.
With the commencement of the Second World War, the whole of Europe and the entire world at a
later stage was drawn into grave atrocity and economic depression.
At that point of time, Britain followed a policy of colonization. The colonies in Asia and Africa took
this opportunity to revolt against their colonial masters.
With the Mandate of Palestine bestowed on Britain by the League of Nations, Britain was the official
government in Palestine. The Zionist Jews wanted Palestine to themselves. A separation plan was in
operation and the State of Israel was to be created. The Arabs and the Turks opposed the idea of
division of Palestine. The entire Arab League headed by Egypt and Syria decided to overthrow the
Jews and oust the British government in 1944.Similarly in India, the Quit India Movement was
taking it's toll on the British rulers.
With German and Italian troops marching their way towards London and tremendous international
pressure, it is time for the government to act.
In these perilous times, the British War Ministry headed by Prime Minister, Mr. Winston Churchill
calls upon a summit to gather British intelligence, carefully plan the course of action to be taken
against the formidable enemies and decide on the fate of the overseas colonies.
Chairperson’s Address
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"If you will not fight for right when you can easily win without bloodshed; if you will not fight when
your victory is sure and not too costly; you may come to the moment when you will have to fight
with all the odds against you and only a precarious chance of survival. There may even be a worse
case. You may have to fight when there is no hope of victory, because it is better to perish than to
live as slaves."- Winston Churchill.
Dear Delegates,
It is with great pleasure that I welcome you to what will be one of the most intense and incendiary
committees being simulated at LMCMUN 2015.This year we will be simulating the British War
Cabinet under the leadership of Prime Minister, Mr. Winston Churchill. As officials in the war
ministry, you are expected to meet and handle skillfully and tactfully the constant endangering
challenges in the face of adversity and hardships. While the United Kingdom has declared war on
Nazi Germany only months earlier, French territories are being invaded by the German troops. The
former prime minister of the United Kingdom, Mr. N. Chamberlain has only just handed in his
resignation while the eastern overseas colonies demand for complete independence. With the
Arabs revolting against the Mandate of Palestine which gives Britain the authority to govern over
Palestinian land, Europe finds itself in the midst of yet another World War. Since this will be a
constant crisis committee, delegates are expected to be well versed with the then present scenario
of Europe in May 1940, and the significant events that occurred during that period of time.
Delegates must improvise on concrete military strategies and comprehensive military attack plans
to guide British actions in the war. Committee will be simulated on the 12th day of May, 1940 on
the third day of Mr. Churchill holding office.
It is my utmost privilege to be chairing this war cabinet. My name is Shanika Bhowmick and I am a
twelfth grade student, studying commerce. I aspire to study Law or Economics in the future. My
interests range from swimming and rowing to debating and listening to good music. I am an
optimist, self proclaimed food connoisseur, voracious reader of the sciences, psychology and
history. MUNing has been a constant passion throughout my school life and I enjoy rereading the
Harry Potter series in my leisure time.
The committee will be directed by Roshni Chakraborty, one of the most genuine and humble people
I have had the pleasure of encountering. Roshni is an eleventh grade student. She is a national level
spell - bee winner. She takes interest in quizzing and reading, historic topics being her favorite
genre. Roshni is a very passionate debater and a seasoned MUNer. She is a skilled pianist and enjoys
watching football.
Saheli Chatterjee is the rapporteur of this committee. A student of class twelve, she is currently
studying humanities and plans on pursuing History in the future. She is a passionate swimmer,
Sherlock aficionado, and savors KFC burgers. She is a very hard working and diligent board
member and is also an ardent lover of the Canis species.
Aratrika Brahmachari, your assistant director is in class eleven. She enjoys reading on various
subjects. She is a very talented speaker and enjoys debating. Aratrika likes researching and is the
research bank for our committee. She also follows tennis and is probably the most approachable
board member.
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Please feel free to contact any of us if you have an queries regarding the committee or questions
about preparation. I wish you all luck in preparing for this committee and look forward to three
days of constructive debate in May.
Best Wishes
Shanika Bhowmick
- Chairperson of CHURCHILL'S WAR MINISTRY
cwmlmcmun15@gmail.com
Contact Number: +91 9830578575
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World War I
British soldiers during World War I
The First World War was known as the Great War because all the nations of the world were directly
or indirectly involved in it. The war spanned from 28 July 1914- 11 November 1918, and ended in a
tactical stalemate.
The two major armed camps involved in the war were:1. The Triple Alliance/ Central Powers ( Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy which switched to
the Allies later, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire)
2. Triple Entente/Allied powers( United Kingdom, France, Russia, Japan, USA, Italy which
joined from the Central powers)
The War was much more devastating than any other fought till then due to better warfare
and modern weaponry like machine guns, tanks and use of chemical weapons.
Causes of the First World War
The World War started due to various causes. Some of the causes were:

Imperial policies of UK and France

Germany’s thirst for conquests and Militant Nationalism

Armament race

Absence of an international peace keeping body
However, the immediate cause of the First World War was the assassination of the Archduke Franz
Ferdinand by a student revolutionary called Gavrilo Princep in Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia on
28th June, 1914. Although Princep was a Bosnian subject, the assassination had been planned by a
patriotic terrorist organization situated in Serbia, known as the Black Hands.
A diplomatic crisis ensued, since Austria Hungary now had no heir to ascend the throne after the
death of the then present Duke and Serbia was blamed for the assassination of the Duke.
As a result of this, Austria- Hungary issued a severe ultimatum against Serbia, which ordered Serbia
to hand over Gavrilo Princep and all those connected to the assassination of the Archduke to the
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Austro-Hungarian government. The ultimatum sought for a ban on all publications of anti-Austrian
articles and the suppression of anti-Austrian sentiments. Serbia refused to accept the ultimatum on
grounds that it involved violation of its sovereignty.
Course of the War
Germany declared its support for Austria-Hungary and was ready to take action against Serbia.
Serbia appealed to Russia for assistance and joined forces with Russia. Germany divided its armies
into two fronts- Western and Eastern. One countered the Russian forces in the East while the other
invaded the neutral nations of Belgium and Luxembourg and marched towards France, who was
Britain’s ally. This resulted in Britain declaring war on Germany.
Germany’s policy of unchecked U-boat submarine aggression against shipping interests was what
brought the United States into the war in 1917. Germany sunk approximately 8-10 U.S. merchant
ships and finally on 2nd April,1915, President Woodrow declared war against Germany.
On 4th November,1918, Austria Hungary agreed to make an armistice with Germany.
Germany was then coerced into seeking an armistice on 11th November, 1918, thus ending the war.
Western Front
According to an aggressive military policy also known as the Schlieffen Plan, Germany fought on
two fronts- One invading France through neutral Belgium and the other confronting Russia in the
East.
In the First Battle of Marne ( September, 1914 ) , the French and British armies terminated
Germany’s plans of invasion in France by halting the German march to Paris.
Eastern Front
On the Eastern Front, the Russian forces invaded East Prussia and German- occupied Poland, but
were stopped by German and Austrian forces in the Battle of Tannenburg in late August, 1914.
Russia’s inability to break through German lines resulted in discontent among the civilians of
Russia and hostility towards the imperialist regime.
Post War
After the end of the war, four major imperial powers lapsed- Germany, Russia, the Ottoman Empire,
Austria-Hungary.
There were major territorial rearrangements in Europe and Southwest Asia.
There was a Peace Conference which took place in Paris in 1919 where the Allied leaders (The Big
Four) imposed their terms in the form of treaties and desired to build a post-war world
safeguarding itself against such conflicts in the future.
A global organization, the League of Nations was formed to prevent worldwide turmoil. However,
the League of Nations failed due to various causes such as weakened states, economic depressions,
recession, European nationalism, Fascism and Nazism.
A treaty called the Treaty Of Versailles was drafted on 28th June,1919, by the Big Four. The terms
were harsh and unfair towards Germany, and made the Treaty of Versailles one of the main causes
of the Second World War.
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Treaty of Versailles
World War I officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles on June 28, 1919. Its 15
parts and 440 articles reassigned German boundaries and assigned liability for reparations. After
strict enforcement for five years, the French assented to the modification of important provisions.
Germany agreed to pay reparations under the Dawes Plan and the Young Plan, but those plans were
cancelled in 1932, and Hitler’s rise to power and subsequent actions rendered moot the remaining
terms of the treaty.
The peace conference that led to the Treaty of Versailles began its deliberations in Paris in January
1919. The proceedings were dominated by the French Premier Georges Clemenceau and the British
Prime Minister David Lloyd George. The treaty, negotiated between January and June 1919 in Paris,
was written by the Allies with almost no participation by the Germans.
The important clauses of the treaty are :
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Part I created the Covenant of the League of Nations, which Germany was not allowed to
join until 1926.
Part II specified Germany’s new boundaries, redistributing Germany’s territories among
other European countries such as Poland and Belgium.
Part III stipulated a demilitarized zone and separated the Saar from Germany for fifteen
years.
Part IV stripped Germany of all its colonies.
Part V reduced Germany’s armed forces to very low levels and prohibited Germany from
possessing certain classes of weapons, while committing the Allies to eventual
disarmament as well.
Part VIII established Germany’s liability for reparations without stating a specific figure
and began with Article 231, in which Germany accepted the responsibility of itself and
its allies for the losses and damages of the Allies “as a consequence of the war imposed
upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies.”
Part IX imposed numerous other financial obligations upon Germany.
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The Treaty of Versailles being framed at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919
Terms and Conditions
Instrumental in determining international relations and the status quo of the following decade, the
harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles ultimately paved the way to the Second World War. The key
aspects of the treaty are identified below:





Germany was declared to be guilty of aggression during the course of the First World War,
by the Allies and as a result was forced to pay a war indemnity estimated at 6.6 billion
pounds as reparations for damages done during the war.
The aim of the treaty was to completely demilitarize Germany, so as to prevent it from ever
threatening world peace again. Germany’s military strength was completely crippled. The
German army was restricted to strength of a 100,000 soldiers and the navy was limited to
six cruisers, two old battleships and some smaller ships for port duties.
Submarines were not allowed to operate. The air force was completely banned along with
heavy artillery. Germany was neither allowed to construct nor purchase from outside tanks
or armored cars.
In order to prevent an attack on France by Germany, the area of the Rhineland was
completely demilitarized. All existing fortifications were required to be demolished and no
new fortifications were allowed to be constructed. The area to the west of the Rhineland
was to be occupied the Allied troops for the next 15 years to ensure German compliance and
obedience of the terms of the treaty. Germany was to pay for the cost of the Allied troops
stationed in this area.
Germany had to endure heavy territorial losses not only within Europe but even her
overseas colonies were annexed by the Allies. Germany lost almost 2, 50,000 square
kilometers of land.
i.
Internally, France retrieved the territories of Alsace and Lorraine which she had lost
to Germany in the Franco Prussian war of 1871.
ii.
In order to compensate France for the deliberate bombing of her coal mines by the
Germans in 1918, the French were given control of the rich coal mines in the Saar
basin, which belonged to Germany.
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iii.
Germany had to cede large parts of the industrial areas of Silesia to Poland. The city
of Memel went to Lithuania.
iv.
Germany had to surrender the areas of Eupen and Malmedy to Belgium.
v.
Overseas, Cameroon and Togoland which were a part of Germany’s possessions
were divided between South Africa and Britain whereas German West Africa was
partitioned between Britain and France. German possessions in the Pacific went to
Japan.
vi.
All German colonies were placed under other countries as a part of the Mandate of
the League of Nations
• The treaty of Versailles brought about several territorial rearrangements and completely
changed the political map of Europe. Poland was recognized as an independent state and
got back almost all the territories which it had lost during the war. Almost whole of west
Posen was included in the newly created state of Poland. In order to increase Poland’s
wealth and provide it with access to a port, the German city of Danzig was
internationalized and placed under the protection of the league. The new states of
Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania along with many other
states were created. The independence of all these states was recognized by Germany. This
was part of Wilson’s Fourteen Points to create countries made up of ethnic groups, not run
by foreign powers.
• A ban was placed on the union of Germany and Austria. Plebiscites were held in northern
Schleswig to settle the Danish-German frontier
 Germany was required to supply huge quantities of coal to Italy, Belgium and France for the
next 10 years.
 The covenant of the League of Nations was also included in the Treaty.
 Limits were also imposed on the German Army Reserves. Men who joined the German Army
had to stay in for twelve years and officers had to stay in for twenty-five years. This meant
that only a limited number of men in Germany would have military training.
 No General Staff was allowed. The purpose of a General Staff was to plan for war. Thus no
General Staff would guarantee that Germany could not make any preparations and could
not initiate any future wars.
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Territorial Rearrangements brought about by the Treaty of Versailles
The League of Nations
The League of Nations was created after the end of World War One at the Paris Peace Conference
under the provision of the Treaty of Versailles. The League of Nation's task was to ensure that peace
and stability was restored and resided in the world. The formation of the League of Nations was
suggested by American President Woodrow Wilson in his fourteen-point document. The only way
to avoid a repetition of a world war was to create an international body whose sole purpose was to
maintain world peace and which would sort out international disputes through negotiations. Thus
the League of Nations was formed in 1920 and had its headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland.
Functions


To promote international co-operation and to achieved world peace and security.
To assist in the settlement of disputes amicably and without resort to war.
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


To formulate plans for establishing a system to regulate armaments and to use such
arrangements for enforcement action under its authority.
To maintain international relation by friendly relations through mutual understanding and
partnerships among Member-states.
To preserve external aggression against the territorial integrity and exercising political
independence of all Members states of League of Nations.
Causes for the failure of the League of Nations:









Absence of Great Powers: The absence of the great powers such as Japan, Germany and Italy
from the international organization weakened the league and was partly responsible for its
ultimate failure. The United States of America too refused to be a part of the league.
Domination of France and England: France and England dominated over the smaller
countries and their problems were neglected.
Rise of Dictatorships: The rise of dictatorship in Italy, Japan and Germany also weakened
the chances of success of the League of Nations. Japan left the league to conquer Manchuria.
When the League decided to take action against Italy on account for her aggression in
Abyssinia, she left the League. The states under dictatorship continued to be the members
of the League so long as their national interest was not in any way endangered and
sacrificed.
Limitations of Legal Methods: The League was fairly efficient in structure and probably
would have worked if there had existed a realization of a community of interest.
Loss of Faith in League: Small nations lost their faith in the effectiveness of The League to
save them from any aggression. Each state decided to follow her own policy, the principle of
security weakened and thus there was nothing to check the aggressive policy of Hitler.
Constitutional Defect: In the cases of disputes brought before the council of the League
under Article 11, decisions of the council had to be unanimous in order to adjudge a nation
guilty of having violated the covenant by resort to war or unjustifiable aggression, In Article
15. If the decisions were not unanimous verdict under Article 11, the disputing parties were
free to resume the hostilities after a period of 3 months. By allowing exceptions, the
covenant seemed to compromise the transparency of the league.
Lack Of Mutual Co-Operation: The member of the league lack mutual co-operation which is
always essential for the success of an organization. France used the League as an instrument
for providing her security from Germany; Great Britain wanted the League protecting her
imperialist interest.
Separate Lines of Thoughts: The League was an amalgamation of two separate lines of
thoughts.” The British did not believe in enforced peace. In its proposal world peace is not
mentioned and international co-operation is restricted to one limited object. These two
inconsistent principles were incorporated in the fabric of the League itself and no wonder it
failed.
Manchurian Crisis: On the night of Sep. 18, 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria and also
occupied all Japanese cities north of Mukden. Even when China requested the league to
resort to direct action, the league only imposed economic sanctions which were not enough
to sustain the Japanese superpower.
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The opening session of the League of Nations
Britain During the Inter-War Years
Economic Conditions
13
British Economic Growth in the 1930s
The interwar years were troubled not just for Britain, but for the entire world. The economic
vulnerability that Britain faced during the inter war period was highly conspicuous. Growth was
also slower everywhere and the 1920s were dominated by political disputes and inflations that
disrupted economic growth throughout Europe, the 1930s further influenced by a business cycle
downturn of exception depth and duration, a downturn that came to be known as the Slump in
Britain and the Great Depression in the United States. All market economies were affected. Britain
has been highly criticized due to its poor performance relative to other advanced-industrial
economies.
Britain did better during the First World War than the other European nations, which served as the
main theatre for hostilities.
On the eve of World War I, Great Britain was the world’s leading trading and lending
nation. Her merchandise imports and exports were nearly a third larger than Germany’s and half as
large as those of the United States. More international trade was dealt in sterling than in any other
currency. Given the country’s dependence on international transactions, it is not surprising that the
British economy was shaken by World War I. As Britain withdrew from several markets, the United
States and Japan moved to fill the void. U.S. exports to Latin America rose by more than 75 per cent
in 1916, while Japan, building on her expertise in silk production and trade, expanded its textile
exports to India, China, the United States and even Britain itself. The war also impacted Britain’s
international financial position. Thus, it can be concluded that, after the first world war, greater
emphasis was laid on State Protection rather than Free Trade through various taxes and duties.
In other economic realms, change was drastic but temporary. By the end of the war the
government marketed about 80 per cent of the food consumed at home and controlled consumer
prices. But within four years of the conclusion of hostilities, the entire process of State Protection
had been abandoned. As shortages of strategic products became increasingly pervasive, the
government took over management of firms producing munitions, coal and flour. Manufacturers
were encouraged to collaborate under the supervision of the government - whose controls
prevented the price mechanism from any drastic alterations. Producers were encouraged to share
expertise and information. This new economic system, promoted competition, and led to the
formation of trade associations that facilitated the efforts of producers to lobby more effectively for
tariff protection, tax concessions, and government support for arrangements that were used to
restrict output and nationalize all production in the 1920s and 1930s.
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Among the most dramatic impacts of the war was on labor. This refers not just to the tragic death of
more than 600,000 servicemen and the wounding of 1.6 million others, but also to profound
changes in work organization. For the first time, scientific management techniques were used to
maximize efficiency. Machine tools were imported from the United States and installed in factories.
A National Government formed on August 24, dominated by Conservatives but led by the holdover
Labour Premier Ramsay MacDonald, assisted in pushing through limited cuts in unemployment
benefit and public sector salaries. However, all the efforts were meagre and did not bring about
considerable welfare among the people. This was expressed in the famous mutiny of seamen at the
naval base at Invergorden.
In the 1920s, the UK economy was characterised by low growth, high unemployment and deflation.
This was due to factors such as:
1. A decision to return to the gold standard in 1925, at a rate which many believe was 10-14%
overvalued. This overvaluation of Sterling reduced demand for exports, leading to lower economic
growth. Thus many heavy industries, such as iron and steel remained underdeveloped during this
period.
2. Deflation. The overvaluation of Sterling and relatively high real interest rates contributed to
periods of falling prices. This deflation increased the burden of debt and reduced spending.
3. Tight fiscal policy. In the aftermath of the First World War, UK debt reached up to 180% of GDP.
To reduce debt to GDP in a period of deflation was difficult and required high primary budget
surpluses. This required strict budgets, but also because of deflation and low GDP growth, it proved
very difficult to reduce debt to GDP ratios. In 1931 the real GDP fell to 5% decline.
There was risk of a global financial crisis, in 1931, spilling over into London markets. The Pound
was overvalued and there was a fear, the government would be unable to maintain the value of
Sterling. In the 1931 budget, the chancellor Lord Snowden and Ramsay MacDonald accepted the
necessitating of budget cuts. Unemployment benefits were cut and public sector wages were also
cut. Consequently it resulted in hostilities midst the parties, causing a split in the Labour party. By
September 1931, Britain had left the gold standard and devalued the Pound.
Leaving the gold standard enabled the government to pursue more expansionary monetary policy.
The Treasury were able to:
1) Cut interest rates
2) Target higher inflation. In 1932, Chancellor, Neville Chamberlain, targeted returning to the 1929
price level and ending deflation.
The cut in interest rates and higher inflation, enabled a rapid drop in real interest rates. Short term
real interest rates fell from 9% in 1931 to 0.6% in 1933.
3) Against the dollar, the Pound was devalued 28% between 1930 and 1932. This devaluation
helped UK exports and boost domestic demand, providing an economic stimulus.
The new changes enabled an increase in the money supply of 34% between 1932 and 1936. The
1930s were a period of the growing suburban areas, further characterized by the growth of ‘metro15
land’. New homes were built in the London countryside, with direct rail links to Central London.
U.K. was able to avoid the social and political upheaval resulting from economic crisis, often seen in
other countries. Extremist parties and their policies rarely made any advancement. If the recession
had been deeper, the political situation may have been very different.
Political Conditions
1939 Session of the House of Commons
Conservative Party
The Conservative and Unionist Party was a centre-right political party in the United Kingdom.
Founded in 1834, from the Tory Party, the Conservative Party was one of two dominant parties in
the 19th century, along with the Liberal Party. In the 1920s, the Liberal vote greatly diminished and
was replaced by the Labor party. Both Neville Chamberlain and Winston Churchill belonged to the
Conservative Party, and the latter came to power on 10 May, 1940 as Prime minister and guided
Britain’s war effort throughout the Second World War, following a course, completely different
from the Policy of Appeasement.
In comparison to other European conservative movements, British conservatism has proved itself
to be unusually resilient, having succeeded in adapting itself to changing political and social
agendas. The guiding principles include the promotion of private property and enterprise, the
maintenance of a strong military, and the preservation of traditional cultural values and
institutions. The party is essentially a coalescence of several ideological groups, the most important
of which are a centrist “One Nation” bloc that stresses economic interventionism and social
harmony and an economic-liberal bloc that emphasizes a free-market economy. The One-Nation
Conservatives include progressives, who advocate change, and paternalists, who are more
concerned with social order and authority.
The membership of the modern Conservative Party is drawn heavily from the landowning and
middle classes—especially businessmen, managers, and professionals. Its electoral base, however,
has extended at times well beyond these groups to incorporate approximately one-third of the
working class, and working-class votes were essential to the extraordinary electoral success that
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the party enjoyed after World War I. The central party organization has tended to rely heavily on
donations from corporations and wealthy individuals.
Labour Party
Growing out of the trade union movement and socialist political parties of the nineteenth century
party, the Labour party is a centre-left political organization of the United Kingdom. The most
essential doctrine of this Party was their fervent belief in 'progressive' politics, social justice,
internationalism and democratic socialism.
Established in 1900, the formation of the Labor Party was the result of many years of unrelenting
effort by working people, trade unionists and socialists, united by the goal of changing the British
Parliament to represent the interests of the common people. However this newly established party
struggled to find its place in the British Parliamentarian System. The first win of the Labor Party
came only in 1924, under the leadership of James Ramsay McDonald. Even without a proper
majority in the House of Commons, legislation was still passed on housing, education,
unemployment and social insurance. However after a disastrous election result in 1931, the labor
Party spent almost a decade recovering lost ground, and it was only during the Second World War,
that the Labor Party enjoyed a sustained period of power in Government.
Prime Minister Winston Churchill decided to bring the other main parties into a coalition similar to
that of the First World War, and Members of the Labor Party were given important posts in the
Cabinet. Clement Attlee, the Leader of the Party at that point, was appointed Lord Privy Seal and a
member of the war cabinet. The aggressive trade union leader Ernest Bevin, acting as Minister of
Labor and National Service, directed Britain's allocation of manpower, while Herbert Morrison
became Home Secretary, Hugh Dalton was Minister of Economic Warfare.
While serving in coalition with the Conservatives, the Labor members of Churchill's cabinet were
able put their ideals into practice, implementing a wide range of progressive social and economic
reforms which did much to improve the living standards and working conditions of working-class
Britons. During the war years, the Labor Party paid a great deal of attention to the internal living
conditions if the country. The Labor Party was continuously active in pushing for better
arrangements of housing and billeting both of evacuees and of workers transferred for war services
to already congested industrial areas, for fair systems of food rationing and distribution, for more
effective control of prices, and for improvements in service pay and allowances. Labor also pressed
hard for better provisions for the victims of air warfare, for more and better civic and industrial
restaurants and canteens, and for war-time nurseries for the children of female workers.
Policy of Appeasement
Britain’s foreign political ideals revolved around the concept of appeasement in the early years
after the First World War. The policy of appeasement was followed by the France as well, in order
to avoid wars with aggressive powers such as Japan, Italy and Germany by giving way to their
demands. It meant acceding to hostile demands in order to gain peace.
A major reason for the adoption for this policy was that the Western Powers believed that the
Treaty of Versailles had been too harsh to the defeated powers, especially Germany. Both Neville
Chamberlain and Leon Blum, the French premiere, believed that if the genuine grievances of
17
Germany were removed, Hitler would be satisfied and would take no actions to threaten world
peace. They were greatly mistaken in their judgment and though it was apparent from the very
beginning that Hitler would not abide by agreements reached at by rational negotiations, the
countries refused to deviate from the Policy of Appeasement, since they were not prepared for war,
either economically or militarily.
When Neville Chamberlain became British prime minster in May 1937 he gave appeasement new
drives. He believed in taking the initiative. He would find out what Hitler wanted and show that
reasonable claims could be made by negotiations rather than by force.
The beginning of appeasement can be marked by the omission of the Dawes and Young Plans which
tried to conciliate the Germans and also with the Locarno treaties. Since then the policy of
appeasement was vehemently followed, and Britain and France did nothing to prevent the
following happenings:
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No action was taken to check the obvious German rearmament.
Half hearted British action against Italian invasion of Abyssinia.
The French though disturbed at the German reoccupation of the Rhineland did not
mobilize their troops. They were deeply divided and ultra cautious and received no
backing from the British-who were impressed by Hitler’s offer of 25 years of peace.
Neither Britain nor France intervened in the Spanish civil War, though Germany and
Italy had sent decisive help to Franco. Britain tried to entice Mussolini to remove his
troops by officially recognising the Italian possession of Abyssinia. However, Mussolini
failed to keep his side of the bargain.
Britain and France protested strongly at the Anschluss between Germany and Austria
(March 1938). But Britain’s lack of action encouraged Hitler to make demands on
Czechoslovakia, which produced Chamberlain’s supreme act of appeasement.
Appeasement reached its climax at Munich where Britain and France were so
determined to avoid war with Germany that they presented Sudetenland to Hitler and
so set in motion the destruction of Czechoslovakia.
Appeasement had a profound effect on the way internal relations developed. Although it might have
worked with some German governments with Hitler it was doomed to failure. Hitler was convinced
of the complacency and weakness of Britain and France to such an extent that he was willing to risk
attacking Poland thereby starting the Second World War.
Appeasement was mainly a British policy with which the French did not always agree to. The
French tried to establish alliance with the Russians but there was no provision for military
cooperation since navy strongly distrusted the communists. France tried to settle friendly scores
with Mussolini but eventually it resulted in failure of the Hoare-Laval pact, after which the French
were so deeply split between left and right that no decisive foreign policy seemed possible.
The Munich Conference
Adolf Hitler had invited Chamberlain and Daladier to a four-power conference, which met in
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Munich. Here a plan produced by Mussolini(but actually written by the German Foreign Office) was
accepted. The Sudentenland was to be handed over to Germany immediately, Poland was given to
Teschen and Hungary received Czechoslovakia. Neither the Czechs nor the Russians were invited to
the conference. The Czechs were told that if they resisted the Munich decision, they would receive
no help from Britain and France, even though France had guaranteed the Czech frontiers at
Locarno. Given this betrayal by France and the unsympathetic attitude of Britain, Czech military
resistance seemed hopeless: they had no choice but to go along with the decision of the conference.
The day after the Munich Conference, Chamberlain had a private meeting with Hitler. Both sides
signed a statement, prepared by Chamberlain, promising the Britain and Germany would renounce
warlike intentions against each other and would use consultation to deal with any problems that
might arise.
Chamberlain was convinced that peace was settling in between nations and further problems and
friction could be averted with the help of negotiations. However, not everyone was convinced of the
peace declaration of Hitler, especially Winston Churchill. His doubts proved correct not long after,
when Hitler breeched the Treaty of Versailles and attacked Poland.
Munich Conference 1939
19
Conditions of the Allied-Axis Powers in the Inter-War Period
Germany
Hitler becomes the Chancellor of Germany
At the beginning of the War in 1914, the German army was one of the most efficient and competent
armies the world had ever seen. The goal of Kaiser William II was to establish a ‘Greater Germany’
and when the First World War broke out, Germany was one of the first countries to spring into
action, declaring war on France on 3 September, 1914. However, it soon became apparent, that
Germany was not equipped for a war which lasted for more than a few months. The economy had
not been regulated and suited to the conditions of war, and although the people were initially
enthusiastic about the War, Germany at the latter stages began to encounter heavy defeats at the
hand of the Allies and was vastly outnumbered. Germany surrendered on November 11, 1918.
The First World War officially came to an end with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles on June
28, 1919. Based on the 14 points of Woodrow Wilson, the President of the United States, the terms
of the treaty were decided were decided and drafted by Italy, UK, USA and France with no
participation of the Germans. It was a situation of ‘dictated peace’ in which the Germans had no say.
The Treaty of Versailles was construed in a spirit of revenge and one which assigned the entire war
guilt to Germany. The harshness of the terms of this treaty astounded the German people. The
German people were outraged by such a treaty. The members of a proud German race could not
easily forget the consequences of a war which they had lost so humiliatingly and it was indeed the
terms imposed by the treaty of Versailles which fueled Hitler’s rise to power and ultimately led to
the Second World War.
The standard of living and political conditions in a nation are greatly determined by the level of
economic stability. During the course of the War, the German economy had already undergone
enormous regression. Kaiser William had already borrowed huge sums of money to pay for the war
20
effort. Combined with the heavy war indemnity and a general period of inflation and economic
deterioration in Europe caused by the First World War, the German economy underwent complete
collapse. During the hyperinflation of 1923, money lost all value. The system of using money as
forms of payment was abolished and replaced by the barter system of exchange. The political
situation was in turmoil as well. Although the Weimar Assembly established a civil democracy in
Germany, the government was essentially a divided and weak one. Between 1919 and 1933;
Germany had as many as 21 ministries headed by 12 chancellors. The democratically elected
leaders were unable to deal with the chaos and anarchy in the country. Unemployment was
rampant and agrarian and industrial strikes accompanied by riots were day to day events. It was
under these circumstances that Hitler came to power.
The National Socialist German Workers’ Party (abbreviated to NAZI) was established on February
24, 1920 and was led by Adolf Hitler. After the hyperinflation in 1923, and the world depression in
1931, the people in Germany were frustrated and furious at the incompetent government. The
administrations’ attempts to revive the economy were completely futile, with the number of
unemployed people, bordering on almost 6 million people. Since the parliament of the Weimar
Republic was not constituted by any single party, enjoying an absolute majority but ten different
parties each with a portion of the total electorates’ votes, concrete actions could not be taken by the
government, regarding any matter.
Hitler’s genius as a politician lay in his knowledge as to what could be achieved through
propaganda. Hitler was acquainted with the German people in a way unlike any other leader. His
impassioned speeches, which spoke of a greater, stronger Germany, inspired the demoralized
German population and by 1933, there were hardly any towns in Germany, where Hitler had not
spoken and spread his message to the public. Hitler aroused a sense of extreme German
nationalism among the people and united the Germans with a common goal. Hitler blamed the
Communists and the Jews for the defeat of Germany in the First World War and professed the myth
of the Aryan race. According to Hitler, economic stagnation, unemployment, starvation and inflation
could be solved only by a complete revolution of German life. Contesting the elections on these
lines, the Nazi party came to power in 1933. Once President Hindenburg died on 2nd January, 1934,
Hitler combined the positions of President and Chancellor and adopted the title of Fuhrer.
Once Hitler came to power, in order to ensure undisputed adherence to his policies and complete
freedom to execute all his plans, Hitler passed what was known as the Enabling act in 1933.
According to this act, the passing of legislature, no longer required the involvement of the
Reichstag, and it also gave Hitler plenary powers, which in essence entailed that Hitler would not
require the consent of the Reichstag to take any action. It also specified that the laws which were
enacted by the Reich government could deviate from the constitution. This eventually formed the
basis of the principle Fuhrerprinzip, which signified that the Fuhrer’s word overrode all existing
laws. Even though the constituent assembly was never formally abrogated, fresh laws were
promulgated when it was deemed necessary, without consulting the assembly. This placed
unprecedented power, in the hands of Hitler. Jews were deprived of German citizenship, all trusts
were nationalized, big industries were allowed to continue but their use was put under strict state
control. Strikes and lockouts were forbidden.
Hitler also began re-arming Germany’s military forces ever since he came into power in 1933.
Although initially this was done in secret, the plans were made public on 16 March 1935, when
21
Hitler openly denounced the clauses of the Treaty of Versailles and announced the existence of the
Luftwaffe. In accordance with the policy of Appeasement, Britain and France took no action. On 7
March, 1936 Hitler then embarked upon the militarization of the Rhineland, in blatant disregard of
the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. Hitler preached the Gospel of the Victorious sword. He said, he
who does not wish to fight, has not the right to exist in the world. After Rhineland, Hitler turned his
attention towards the annexation of Austria, where the Germans lived in large numbers. On 28
March, 1938, Hitler proclaimed the union of these two nations. This annexation was almost
completely peaceful since most of the Austrians were in favor of this union. The moderate
international response to this union convinced Hitler that he could take more aggressive measures
regarding the expansion of the Third Reich. Violence in Austria against Jews started almost
instantly but a referendum held in April 1938 showed that 99.73% of the people were in favor of
the union. Hitler used terms such as ‘lebensraum’, which meant living space and encirclement to
cover up his acts of aggression. His ultimate goal was a Pan- European Germany comprised of the
greater Aryan race.
In May 1938, Hitler focused his attention on the conquest on Sudetenland, in northwestern
Czechoslovakia which was home to 3 million Germans, who were clamoring for Nazi rule. Hitler
claimed that the Germans were being forced to live in Sudetenland against their will and that he
would liberate them. The President of Czechoslovakia however seemed unwilling to compromise
and war seemed imminent. Hitler went to the extent of mobilizing his troops to invade
Czechoslovakia. This immediate danger of war was averted by the Munich Conference on
September 29, 1938. The heads of the four major countries, Italy, Germany, France and Britain
agreed to hand over Sudetenland to Hitler in an attempt to preserve the peace. In return Germany
was required to stop all acts of aggression.
The president of Czechoslovakia was forced to accept this treaty, since the alternative would be to
face the Germans single-handedly. Britain and France who had previously promised Czechoslovakia
full support against a German invasion went back on their word and the Czechs were left to defend
themselves alone. Hitler occupied Sudetenland on 1 October 1938 and on 5 March, 1939 invaded
the rest of Czechoslovakia without any justification. This enraged the Western Powers. The final
straw, Hitler would wreak havoc, was the German demand for the city of Danzig in Poland. Hitler’s
invasion of Poland on 1 September, 1939, was what ultimately sparked off the imminent Second
World War, which ultimately convinced the Western Powers that severe action had to be taken
against Germany.
USSR
22
The October Revolution led to the first Communist Regime in the USSR
The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics had a pivotal role to play in the First World War. Entering
the war with the largest army in the world, standing at 1,400,000 soldiers, the USSR launched its
first offensive in August 1914, against Germany in East Prussia. Although it managed to secure East
Prussia, the Red Army met with heavy losses in the following encounters with Germany. In spite of
its numerical strength, the Imperialist and inefficient Russian army was no match for the
industrialized and disciplined German army. Even though in 1916, the Russians achieved
considerable victories over Austria, internally the country was in turmoil. Militarization of the
industry, food shortages, rampant poverty and the incompetent Czarist regime along with profound
losses in the war culminated in the February Revolution of 1917 which resulted in the overthrow of
the autocratic Romanov regime.
One of the most significant events in the history of the USSR, which changed the course of history,
was the October Revolution. During this revolution, the Bolsheviks, a group of communists devoted
to the ideals of Karl Marx, led by Lenin seized power and replaced the provisional Government
which in turn had replaced the Czarist regime. Once in power, Lenin and Trotsky signed the Treaty
of Brest Litovsk, in March 1918 effectively ending the USSR’s participation in the First World War,
thereby ending four years’ aggression with Germany. Even then the situation was not stable, with
severe opposition the communist regime. This resulted in the outbreak of the civil war between the
Bolsheviks who had a socialist outlook and the Mensheviks who had a capitalist outlook. The civil
war severely affected production. Conditions were much worse than what they had been during the
reign of the Tsar. Thus the war communism plan was replaced by the New Economic policy, which
almost took a capitalist approach towards state development.
In 1924, Lenin was succeeded by Joseph Stalin. His reign was synonymous with terror and
trepidation. It meant complete loss of freedom for the people. Stalin’s regime was completely
dictatorial. It meant loss of freedom for the people. Education and media were strictly controlled by
the state. Propaganda measures were used to glorify the state and the supreme dictator Stalin.
Disobedience of any of these rules was met with severe consequences. Extensive labour camps
23
called gulags were established all over USSR and Stalin was infamously known for his purges, mass
killings of all opposed to the dictators’ regime. All civil liberties were suspended. It was while Stalin
was carrying on his oppressive campaign against the people, that Hitler too began his ascent to
power. Hitler’s campaign of expansionism and militarization, with blatant disregard for the Treaty
of Versailles made a second world war a guaranteed eventuality.
Hitler’s outright hatred for communism and condescension regarding Karl Marx’s ideals all pointed
to the conclusion that if a war did break out, USSR would side with the Allies and work against
Hitler. But defying all expectations, Hitler looked towards USSR for an alliance, mostly due to the
fact that the Russian army was the only one which was massive enough to challenge German
authority. Stalin, in the past had failed to reach an agreement regarding collective security with
Britain and France against Nazi Germany. Thus it was faced with the prospect of defending Eastern
Europe from German expansionism virtually on its own, due to which Stalin looked for an alternate
policy. The policy of Appeasement followed by the western powers and their hesitance to take
action against Hitler combined with Stalin’s inexplicable personal preference for Hitler lead to the
signing of the Non Aggression Pact between USSR and Germany on August 23, 1939 which also
came to be known as the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact. According to this pact the two countries would
not engage in any conflict with each other for the next ten years and would consult each other on all
matters of common interests. All disputes were to be solved by negotiation and arbitration. The
treaty also encompassed a secret protocol which chalked out the division of eastern European
territories between Germany and USSR. Thus USSR joined the war on the side of the Axis powers.
The German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 which was the event which triggered off the
Second World War was supported by the USSR. During this attack by Germany, the USSR too sent
its troops for the annexation of Poland on 17 September 1939. As a result of the ongoing battle with
Germany, the eastern Polish border was weakly defended and the Polish troops were vastly
outnumbered, resulting in easy victory for the Soviets. After Poland, the Soviets sought to extend
their sphere of influence over more territories in the Baltic region. In October 1939 Latvia, Estonia
and Lithuania were required to sign treaties of mutual assistance with the Soviets which allowed
the latter to establish military bases in all three of these countries. The Soviets were looking for a
similar agreement with Finland. Since both these countries were mutually suspicious of each other
and Finland refused to accept the terms of such a treaty, it resulted in the outbreak of what is
commonly known as the Winter War of November 1939. The attack by the Soviet Union on Finland
was deemed to be illegal and the USSR was expelled from the League of Nations. The 105 day
Winter War ended with the signing of the Moscow Peace Treaty and the surrender of Finland. The
treaty was signed on 12 March, 1940. Although Finland retained its autonomy, it had to cede large
parts of its territory to the Soviet Union.
USA
24
President Woodrow Wilson’s Address regarding his Fourteen Point Plan
Ever since the outbreak of the First World War, the United States had maintained a policy of
isolationism and neutrality. It was believed that the war in Europe would not hinder American
interests. The policy of neutrality allowed the lending of support to parties involved in either side of
the conflict. Trade with both sides continued without obstruction, except in the case of Germany. A
British naval blockade of the German coastline prevented economic relations with Germany from
continuing. It was only because of the introduction of unrestricted submarine warfare by Germany
and subsequent destruction of U.S. passenger and merchant ships that USA decided to enter the
War. Thus on 6 April, 1917 USA declared war on Germany. Although it fought as an independent
entity, the United States fought the war in support of the Allies. Although the decision of Woodrow
Wilson to enter the war was not well received by the people, the involvement of the American
troops went a long way to contribute to the victory of the Allies. President Woodrow Wilson’s 14
points, which outlined the terms and conditions of achieving long lasting peace in Europe was a
historical document which was taken into consideration at the Paris Peace conference, while
drafting the Treaty of Versailles. The 14 Points formed the foundation of the establishment of the
League of Nations even though the Senate did not ratify the Covenant of the League, as a result of
which USA never became a part of the League.
Due to USA’s initial policy of isolationism, the US financial system was still largely self sufficient and
in 1919, USA had the largest productive capacity and the most stable economy among all countries
in the world. Albeit the country underwent a minor recession in the early 1920s, the United States
enjoyed its position of superiority till the Wall Street Stock Market crash of 1929.The rapid
expansion of the Stock market during the 1920s, large-scale speculative activities, low wages, a
struggling agrarian sector granting of excess bank loans which could not be liquidated along with
excessive production of goods disproportionate to the number of buyers, all culminated in what
was known as Black Tuesday on October 29, 1929. On this ominous day, millions of shares were
traded, causing the loss of billions of dollars and wiping out of thousands of investors. It was this
four day crash of the Stock market which caused the US economy and the rest of the industrialized
world to spiral into the Great Depression. Lasting from 1929 to 1939, the Great Depression was the
25
most devastating and long lasting damaging economic slump which the Western world had ever
experienced.
The Great Depression started off in the United States. Consumer Spending slowed down, production
activities came to a halt and the productive output reduced tremendously. Unemployment was
rampant, with statistics recording 15 million unemployed people at the height of the depression.
The cost of living was inordinately high. Since the United States was so integral to the international
economic system and all countries were excessively dependent on the USA for aid, the Great
Depression in the US caused similar conditions in most European countries as a result of the
interdependence. The situation was especially severe in Germany. Germany was in the midst of
recovering from the hyperinflation of 1923, when the Depression struck and threw the country into
unbridled turmoil. The disastrous economic condition destabilized the political situation as well
and led to social degradation. This contributed to the establishment of the Nazi regime in Germany.
From 1929 to 1939, the United States of America were more focused on restoring their internal
stability and assembling a semblance of economic steadiness than what was going on in the
international world. President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Act of Neutrality in 1939 due to
which the USA had no part to play in the Second World War till 7 December, 1941.
France
Fall of Paris in the Battle of France,1940
Ever since the Franco-Prussian War, where the French had lost the strategically important and
industrially rich provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to the Germans, the relations between the two
countries were extremely hostile. Consequently Germany was one of the first countries to enter the
First World War, declaring war on France on 3rd August, 1914. Throughout the course of the War,
the French sustained devastating losses. The Battle of Verdun, fought from February 21 to
December 16, 1916 between France and Germany was the longest battle fought in the War and one
of the most important events in the history of France. The failed French offensive at Chemin des
Dames, which claimed 2, 50,000 lives greatly demoralized the people. The French effort in the war
was renewed with vigor once again only when the US troops came to their aid and with the help of
these troops, the nature of the French offensives were transformed.
Although the Allied Powers won the war, France was in a condition of economic ruination. The
entire northeastern quadrant of the country was annihilated, and the cost of destruction was
estimated at a colossal 34 billion francs by the Reparations Commission. Another major problem
26
faced by France was a lack of manpower and a diminished labor force which implied that in the
case of another war. The expense of restoration was expected to be borne mostly by the war
indemnity paid by Germany, however realistically; it was possible for Germany to pay these
reparations only after 1926, when the German economy had achieved a certain degree of stability.
In the meantime, the French were forced to resort to borrowing from other countries to initiate the
reconstruction efforts which took a heavy toll on the economy. In a period of 15 months from 19241925, France saw 6 premiers take office and resign, unable to take control of the worsening
situation. It was only under Henri Poincare that France began its ascent to normalcy. Under
Poincare’s leadership, by 1930, the reconstruction effort was well underway, and this along with
the recovery of Alsace-Lorraine enabled France to recover and surpass its pre-war level of
industrial production.
Yet this prosperity was not long lasting. The Great Depression hit France in 1932, causing the same
and similarly severe effects which it did in the rest of the countries. Overvalued currency,
unemployment and inflation were all major setbacks. The economic reforms of the incumbent
government were not reaching their desired goals either.
France wished to avoid another large scale conflict and was intent on preserving peace. France was
not equipped at the point, either militarily or economically to fight another war. Thus, it adopted
the Policy of Appeasement. The Policy of Appeasement also ultimately led to the failure of the
League of Nations since its leading members, Britain and France were unwilling to take action
against aggressors. The League did nothing when Hitler occupied Austria or Italy invaded Ethiopia.
The Japanese invasion of Manchuria, in China was not met with any consequences. The inability of
the League to take effective measures against aggressors greatly emboldened the Axis Powers to
plunge the world into another destructive war. After ignoring a series of acts of belligerence on the
part of Germany, France was finally convinced of the danger posed by Hitler with the invasion of
Poland.
In August 1939 France had promised Poland that in the case of German aggression, it would
mobilize its troops and immediately come to the assistance of Poland in a matter of 15 days. It
stopped the advancement of its troops at the very first hint of aggression on the part of the
Germans. A similar course of action was adopted by Britain. After the blitzkrieg in Poland, up till
April 1940, no concrete action was taken by any country, including France. This period of tense
anticipation, but one without active warfare has been termed as the ‘Phony War.’
Italy
27
Mussolini’s Alliance with Hitler
From 1888 to 1914, Italy was a part of the Triple Alliance, comprising Germany and AustriaHungary. The countries which were party to this Pact would maintain mutual peace amongst them.
Moreover Italy and Germany would have the support of each other, as well as Austria-Hungary in
case of a French attack. Italy would also abstain from any involvement in a war involving AustriaHungary and Russia. This alliance between the three countries should have guaranteed the entry of
Italy into the war on the side of the Germany. However, this was not how the events unfolded.
Surveying and observing the events of the war, Italy waited till 26 April, 1915 to enter the war, and
when it did, it did so, on the side of the Triple Entente comprising Britain, France and Russia. The
main reason for this was the Treaty of London signed between Britain and Italy in 1915 according
to which, if Italy declared war on Germany and Austria-Hungary in a span of one month, Italy would
gain several additions to her territories, including the areas of Trieste, Southern Tyrol, Dalmatia,
Istria, to name a few. Despite initial victories, the Italians were soon bogged into a state of stalemate
in 1916, in which it remained till the end of the war. Italy lost almost 615,000 soldiers during the
War.
Although the Italians had much to contribute to the victory of the Allies, at the Paris peace
Conference, the interests of Italy were completely ignored. The London Pact was nullified and Italy
could have no valuable additions to her territory. This insult to Italy was mostly due to Italy’s
original allegiance to Germany and their delay in joining the war. However this had an extremely
negative impact on the morale of the Italian people. The feeling among the Italians was that they
had won the war but lost the peace. Italy was groaning under a heavy war debt and the
administration was faced with the severe problems of wide-spread unemployment, epidemics and
starvation, coupled with post war inflation. The unsettled economic situation resulted in frequent
agrarian strikes and agrarian riots. The democratically elected governments under Nitti and Giolitti
were incompetent and unable to maintain order in the country. They could not respond properly to
the needs and aspirations of the people. It was in this condition of internal chaos and turmoil, that
the Fascist Party under its leader Benito Mussolini took control of the situation.
Fascism was unique among the radical forces, produced as a consequence of the First World War,
without any definite predecessor. Fascism essentially symbolized unity, strength and authority.
The Fascists believed in having single party, ruled by a dictator holding power both complete in
character and unlimited in time. It was an extremely nationalistic and anti democratic movement
28
which aimed at controlling every aspect of the peoples’ lives in accordance with the wishes of the
dictator. The Fascist regime tolerated no opposition. Benito Mussolini, the foremost advocate of
Fascism became the Prime Minister of Italy in 1922. Although it took Mussolini some time to set up
an uncompromising dictatorship, by 1928 the Assembly was pushed aside Mussolini could rule by
decrees alone. When the Great Depression hit Italy in 1930, Mussolini tried to follow the theory of a
‘Corporate State’ in order to revive the economy but to little effect. Abroad, Mussolini followed an
expansionist policy abroad declaring that imperialism was the internal law of life. His conquest of
Libya in 1929, Somalia and Albania made Italy a dominant power in the Mediterranean region.
Mussolini used brutal tactics such as poisonous gas and merciless killings to crush resistance. Italy
under Mussolini also aided the right wing nationalist forces of General Francisco Franco in the
Spanish Civil War. The invasion of Ethiopia in 1935 by Italy paved the way for the Berlin-RomeTokyo Axis and the Pact of Steel.
By 1939, due to its exhaustive overseas missions, most of Italy’s military resources had been
drained. This in addition to the ideological similarities between Mussolini and Hitler led to the
conclusion of the Pact of Steel. Signed between Italy and Germany on May 22, 1939, it formalized
the 1936 Rome-Berlin Axis agreement, and linked the two countries politically and militarily. The
basic terms of this treaty were that the contracting parties would keep in permanent contact with
each other for the purpose of agreeing on all questions regarding their common interests or the
general European situation. In the case of an event where either of the parties was involved in an
international conflict, the other party would immediately come to its aid. If the common interests of
the two entities involved in the pact were ever endangered by international events, the two entities
would immediately enter into consultations with each other for the elimination of the threat. The
two countries would also provide each other with full diplomatic and political support. All disputes
between these two countries would be solved by mediation and other peaceful means. However,
both sides were fearful and suspicious of the other, and only sketchily shared their prospective
plans. The result was both Italy and Germany, rather than acting in unison, would often “react” to
the precipitate military action of the other. On 27 September 1940, Japan entered this Pact which
was then called the Tripartite Pact and led to the formation of the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis.
Japan
Japanese Invasion of Manchuria
Japan significantly benefited from the First World War, while the states of Europe were busy
fighting each other. Japan took advantage of the situation, providing shipping and other goods to
the Allies, and also stepped in to supply orders to Asia, which the Europeans could not fulfill. During
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the war years, the exports of Japanese cloth almost trebled, while the merchant ships doubled in
tonnage. Politically, the course initially seemed set for a fair system of democracy, when in 1925, all
males in Japan were granted the right to vote. Japan had also taken a step towards normalization of
relations with Britain and USA by taking active part in the Washington Conference in 1921.
According to this conference, firstly, Japanese Navy was to be limited to three fifths the size of
American and British navies. Secondly, Japan agreed to withdraw from Kiachow and the Shantung
province of China, which she had occupied since 1914. In return she was allowed to keep the
former German Pacific islands as mandates. Thirdly, the western powers promised not to build any
more naval bases within striking distance of Japan. Also, USA, Japan, Britain and France agreed to
guarantee the neutrality of China and to respect each other’s possessions in the Far East. However,
all positive endeavors amounted to null and void when the army assumed control of the
government in the 1930s.
The world economic crisis beginning in 1929 affected Japan severely. Exports shrank disastrously
and other countries introduced or raised tariffs against Japanese goods to safeguard their own
industries. One of the most affected trades was the export of raw silk, which went mostly to USA.
This was an immense blow to the Japanese farmers, who relied heavily on the production of raw
silk for maintaining their livelihood. There was desperate poverty especially in the north, for which
factory workers and peasants blamed the government and big business. By 1927, majority of the
peasant population, attracted by fascist policies, were planning to seize power and introduce a
strong nationalist government.
In 1933, the Japanese began to extend their invasions from the South Manchurian Railway into the
rest of north eastern China. By 1935, a large area of China, as far as Beijing(Peking), had fallen
under Japanese political and commercial control, while the Chinese themselves were torn by a civil
war between Chiang Kai Shek’s Kuomintang Government and the communists led by Mao Zedong.
The Anti Comintern Pact was signed with Germany in 1936, the Japanese were further emboldened,
invading areas of Shanghai, Nanking and Hankow. The government seemed adversely disposed to
such extremism, however, these acts of intervention was devised and led by General Sugiyama, the
war minister. The League of Nations had condemned all acts of violence, but in vain. Japan was no
longer a member, refused to attend conferences and derive a consensus with China, and Britain,
France and Russia were too busy coping with Hitler, to take notice of Japan. USA, on the other hand,
stuck to the policy of isolationalism.
The Immediate Cause of the Second World War: German Invasion of Poland
30
German Invasion of Poland
The immediate cause of the outbreak of the Second World War in Europe in 1939 was the German
invasion of Poland. France and UK had guaranteed that they would protect Poland’s territory as it
was in 1939. When Germany invaded Poland, France and UK kept their promise of helping Poland
with military support and declared war on Germany.
Germany, under Hitler had been trying to expand and create what they saw as a Greater Germany
that included all ethnic Germans. The French and the British had simply allowed this expansion, not
intervening when Germany annexed Austria and then took Czechoslovakia. Since the Allies did not
act, Hitler hoped that the same tolerance would be shown in the case of his invasion of Poland. One
of Adolf Hitler’s first major foreign policy initiatives after coming to power was to sign a non
aggression pact with Poland in January, 1934. This move did not fly with many Germans who had
supported Hitler during elections, but resented the fact that Poland had received the formerly
German provinces of Poznan, West Prussia and Upper Silesia according to the terms of the treaty of
Versailles after the First World War. However, Hitler sought the non aggression pact in order to
prevent the possibility of a French-Polish military alliance against Germany before Germany had
had a chance to rearm itself. In the mid and late 1930s, France and Britain followed a foreign policy
of appeasement and thus agreed to Germany’s rearmament, remilitarization of Rhineland and the
annexation of Austria. In September, 1938, after signing away Czechoslovakia’s border regions, also
known as Sudetanland, to Germany at the Munich Conference. In direct violation of the Munich
agreement, Germany annexed the rest of Czechoslovakia in March, 1939, without giving any reason.
UK and France responded to this move by guaranteeing the integrity of the Polish state. Hitler
retaliated by signing a non aggression pact with the Soviet Union in 1939. The German-Soviet Pact
of August, 1939, which stated that Poland was to be partitioned between the two powers, enabled
Germany to attack Poland without any fear of Soviet intervention.
On 1st September, 1939, Germany invaded Poland. The Polish army was defeated within weeks of
the invasion. After heavy shelling and bombing, Warsaw surrendered to the Germans on 27th
September, 1939. Britain and France, standing by their guarantee of Poland’s border, had declared
war upon Germany on 3rd September, 1939. Soviet Union invaded eastern Poland on 17th
September, 1939.
31
Timeline of the War
1939

September 1 - Germany invades Poland, initiating World War II in Europe.

September 3- Honouring their guarantee of Poland’s borders, Great Britain and France
declare war on Germany.

September 5- USA declares neutrality in European War.

September 17, 1939 - The Soviet Union invades Poland from the east.

September 27–29 - Warsaw surrenders on September 27. The Polish government flees into
exile via Romania. Germany and the Soviet Union divide Poland between them.

November 4 – USA revises its neutral stance and allows sales of military goods to occur.

November 14 - The Soviet Union is expelled from the League of Nations for aggressions
against Finland.

November 30, 1939–March 12, 1940 - The Soviet Union invades Finland, initiating the socalled Winter War. The Finns sue for an armistice and have to cede the northern shores of
Lake Lagoda and the small Finnish coastline on the Arctic Sea to the Soviet Union.
The period from September 1939 to April 1940 was termed as the ‘Phoney War’, due to the
seeming lack of activity after the German blitzkrieg invasion of Poland. Even though Britain and
France had declared War on Germany, no concrete actions were taken. It was a period of tense
anticipation and not active war.
1940

March 19 - The British drop the first bombs on German soil as the RAF plane hits the
seaplane base at Hornum.

April 9–June 9 - Germany invades Denmark and Norway. Denmark surrenders on the day of
the attack; Norway holds out until June 9.

May 10 - Germany attacks Western Europe—France and the neutral Low Countries.
Luxembourg is occupied on May 10; Because of the failure of his appeasement policies,
British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain resigns. Forming a coalition government,
Winston Churchill replaces him. Standing alone, Churchill soon began conferring with U.S.
President Franklin Roosevelt for aid to the British cause.
32
Germany’s Military Strength
Hitler’s outspoken condescension and blatant disregard for the Treaty of Versailles, combined with
his expansionist aims, led to a rapid growth in Germany’s military resources following his rise to
power. Under the terms of the Treaty, the German Army was restricted to a force of 100,000
soldiers. One way that Hitler dealt with this issue was to allow the Sturm Abteilung (SA) to grow
rapidly. By 1934 the SA had grown to a force of over 4,500,000 men. The SA was a paramilitary
organization whose methods of violent intimidation played a key role in Hitler’s rise to power.
When the SA lost its power, Hitler allowed the German Army to grow rapidly. In 1935 he introduced
military conscription. This enabled the German Army to train 300,000 conscripts a year. By 1938 it
had 36 infantry divisions of 600,000 men. When the SA lost its power, Hitler allowed the German
Army to grow rapidly. In 1935 he introduced military conscription. This enabled the German Army
to train 300,000 conscripts a year. By 1938 it had 36 infantry divisions of 600,000 men. In 1939 the
German Army had 98 divisions available for the invasion of Poland. The Germans still had 1.5
million well-trained men available for action as well as 9 panzer divisions. Each one had 328 tanks,
8 support battalions and 6 artillery batteries. When the German Army mounted its Western
Offensive in 1940, it had had 2.5 million men and 2,500 tanks. The German Army continued to grow
and in June 1941 around 3 million were available for Operation Barbarossa against the Soviet
Union. This included 142 infantry divisions, 17 panzer divisions and 4,000 tanks.
The Treaty also banned all aircraft, whereas the Navy was restricted to 15,000 men and 36 ships.
Submarines were not allowed to function. After Adolf Hitler came to power he made it clear that he
was unwilling to keep to the terms of the peace treaties and in 1935 the Luftwaffe was created.
Over the next few years, the commander-in-chief of the Luftwaffe, ordered the production of a large
number of fighter planes such as the Messerschmitt Bf109, the Messerschmitt 110, Junkers Stuka,
Heinkel He111 and the Dornier D017 bomber. By 1938 Germany was producing 1,100 aero planes
a year. During the invasion of Poland the Luftwaffe used 1,750 bombers and 1,200 fighters.
Germany continued to increase production of aircraft during the Second World War.
Year
Other
Combat types
1933
0
1934
840
Types
368
1,128
1935
1,823
1936
2,530
2,582
1937
2,651
2,955
1938
3,350
1,885
1939
4,733
3,562
33
German aircraft production by years
When Adolf Hitler became Chancellor in 1933 he implemented Plan Z, a ten year programme to
develop a fleet capable of challenging the Royal Navy. The main emphasis was placed on the
building of submarines and fast surface squadrons in order to be able to control Britain's vital trade
supply lines. German shipyards had difficulty producing the ships ordered by Hitler and on the
outbreak of the Second World War the German Navy only had two battleships, two battlecruisers,
three armored cruisers, three heavy cruisers, six light cruisers, 22 destroyers and 59 submarines.
Soon afterwards the Bismarck was completed. At 41,700 tons, it was considered the most powerful
warship in the world.
Hitler began to rearm Germany in violation of the Treaty of Versailles
34
Britain’s Military Strength
In 1939 the regular British Army had a strength of 227,000 men, inclusive of British troops in India
and Burma, and was organized in:







2 regiments of the Household Cavalry
20 regiments of cavalry of the line
5 regiments of foot guards
64 regiments of infantry of the line
the Royal Artillery
the Royal Tank Regiment
auxiliary units and services.
This force was supported by the Territorial Army which had a strength of 204,000 officers and men
organised in a field force of nine infantry divisions, one mobile division, two cavalry brigades, and
an anti-aircraft corps of five divisions. During 1939, there was a massive increase in the size of the
Territorial Army as it was put on a war footing and by August it numbered 428,000 men.
Organization
Infantry Division (motorised)
Armoured Division
25
1
3 with 2,340 men and 99 officers each
2 battalions with 1,560 men and 66
officers together
13,600
?
72 (36 x 18 pounders, 36 x 4.5inch Howitzers
or 18/25 pounders)
?
75 (2 pounders or 25mm)
?
28 light tanks, 44 Universal Bren carriers
104 cruiser tanks, 20 scout cars
Total units
Infantry
brigades
Total men
Artillery
Anti-tank guns
Tanks
Basic British Army units
Armored fighting vehicles
Inventory
Vickers Mk VI
c. 894
Cruiser Tank Mk I (A9)
125
Cruiser Tank Mk III (A13)
65
Infantry tank Mk I, Matilda I (A13)
60
35
Organization
Infantry Division (motorised)
Armoured Division
Infantry tank Mk II, Matilda II (A12)
2
Total
1,146
Inventory of armored fighting vehicles in September 1939
The British government introduced conscription and by May 1940, British Army strength was
brought up to 50 divisions. Of these, 13 divisions were in France fighting against the
German Western Offensive. After the evacuations from Dunkirk were complete on 26 May, 1946 the
British Army had 1,650,000 men. The British Army only had 100 tanks left after Dunkirk and
Vauxhall Motors were under instructions to produce the tanks as quickly as possible.
When it became clear that Adolf Hitler was rapidly increasing the size Germany's armed forces, new
ships were ordered in 1937 but none were ready when the Second World War started in 1939.
Even so, the British naval forces were the largest in the world in 1939. By the outbreak of war
the Royal Navy had 15 large battleships, 15 heavy cruisers, 46 light cruisers, 7 aircraft carriers, 181
destroyers and 59 submarines. However, only about half had been modernized and the rest were
deficient in horizontal armor needed for protection against modern, long-range shellfire.
The Royal Air Force (RAF) by amalgamated the Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) with the Royal
Flying Corps (RFC). The RAF had more than 22,000 aircraft and 291,000 personnel, making it the
world's largest air force. Over the next twenty years the RAF was developed as a strategic bombing
force. In September 1939, the Bomber Command consisted of 55 squadrons (920 aircraft). Fighter
Command had 39 squadrons (600 aircraft) but the RAF only had 96 reconnaissance aircraft. A fleet
of light and medium monoplane bombers were developed during this period. The RAF also
obtained two fast, heavily armed interceptor aircraft, the Hawker Hurricane and the Supermarine
Spitfire, for defense against enemy bombers. During the war the RAF used 333 flying training
schools.
On 22nd February 1939, the British government authorized the creation of a British Expeditionary
Army (BEF) that would be sent to France in the event of war with Nazi Germany. On the outbreak of
the Second World War, the BEF took up defensive positions along the Franco-Belgian frontier. The
force included four regular infantry divisions and 50 light tanks.
36
Training Camps of the British Army
Overseas territories
Situation in India in 1940
Meeting of the top Indian political leaders in 1940
During the 1940s, India crossed the bridge from colonialism to independence. This period has
generally been said as a historic movement, with its closing years as the aftermath. In the history of
the 1940s, contention persists over responsibility for the duality of identity through which India
achieved freedom.
In the wake of World War II, the agrarian economy of the Punjab witnessed food crisis, rationing,
price rise and inflation in the 1940s which caused large scale dispossession and deprivation among
the producers and consumers, especially the middle and the lower classes. Excessive exports of
37
food grains led to price rises, hoarding, black marketing and speculation and inflation. This caused
discontentment among the masses. Political control by the colonial state came under strain.
The profile of the army changed as well. The number of Muslim recruits from the Punjab
quadrupled. The share of the Sikhs also increased. A nationalistic spirit was brewing in the Indian
army against the British masters.
On 26 August 1939, the Department of Supply was created to deal directly with the problems
concerning supplies of all kinds required for the check of the impending war. The War Supply Board
was reorganized in November 1939. The rural population was asked to intensify the area under
cultivation through the ‘Grow More Food’ campaign in the Punjab.
The then viceroy considered the procurement of the necessary wheat surplus from the Punjab as
far more important than any political considerations, including any interests of the ministers, and
even the continuance of provincial autonomy in the Punjab.
In Bengal in 1940, there was a small scale famine but due to quick action by the authorities,
widespread loss of life was prevented. Food prices increased throughout India, and led the Central
Government was forced to undertake meetings with local government officials and release
regulations of price controls.
In May 1940, agreement was reached between the British and Indian governments over a
formation of five infantry and armoured divisions. These new divisions were intended to be used in
the defence of Malaya and Iraq .The armoured division, was to go to Egypt but the formation of the
rest of the armoured division was put on hold, because of the shortage of armoured vehicles.
Situation in Palestine in 1940
Arab riots in 1936
Instituted by the League of Nations in the early 20th century, the Mandate system was meant to
serve the purpose of regulating the administration of non-self-governing territories. The
38
mandatory power was to consider the mandated territory a temporary trust and to see to the wellbeing and advancement of its population. The mandate passed by the League of Nations on July
1922 granted Great Britain a mandate over Palestine. During the British Mandate period the area
experienced the ascent of two major nationalist movements, one among the Jews and the other
among the Arabs. The competing national interests of the Arab and Jewish populations of Palestine
against both each other and the governing British authorities matured into the Arab Revolt of
1936–1939 and the Jewish insurgency in Palestine before culminating in the Civil War of 1947–
1948.
History of Palestine Under the British Mandate
Following its occupation by British troops in 1917–1918, Palestine was governed by the Occupied
Enemy Territory Administration. In July 1920, the military administration was replaced by a
civilian administration headed by a High Commissioner. The first High Commissioner, Herbert
Samuel, a Zionist recent cabinet minister, arrived in Palestine on 20 June 1920. Following the
arrival of the British, Muslim-Christian Associations were established in all the major towns. In
1919 they joined to hold the first Palestine Arab Congress in Jerusalem. Its main platforms were a
call for representative government and opposition to the Balfour Declaration. The Zionist
Commission was formed in March 1918 and was recognized in 1922 as the representatives of the
Jewish community. Herbert.Samuel tried to establish self-governing institutions in Palestine, as
required by the mandate, but was frustrated by the refusal of the Arab leadership to co-operate
with any institution which included Jewish participation. When the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Kamil
al-Husayni died in March 1921, High Commissioner Samuel Mohammad Amin al-Husseini to the
position. Amin al-Husseini, a member of the al-Husayni clan of Jerusalem, was an Arab nationalist
and Muslim leader. As Grand Mufti, al-Husseini played a key role in violent opposition to Zionism. In
1922, al-Husseini was elected President of the Supreme Muslim Council which had been created by
Samuel in December 1921. The Council controlled the Waqf funds, worth annually tens of
thousands of pounds and the orphan funds. In addition, he controlled the Islamic courts in
Palestine. The 1922 Palestine Order in Council established a Legislative Council, which was to
consist of 23 members: 12 elected, 10 appointed, and the High Commissioner. Of the 12 elected
members, eight were to be Muslim Arabs, two Christian Arabs and two Jews. Arabs protested
against the unfair distribution of the seats, arguing that they constituted 88% of the population, but
garnered only a meager 43% of the seats. Elections were held in February and March 1923, but due
to an Arab boycott, the results were annulled and a 12-member Advisory Council was established.
This event indicated the gradual onset of the Jewish-Arabic conflict and cemented the belief in the
minds of the Arabs that the British administration favored the Zionists. It paved the way for the
Arabic insurgency which took place in the 1930s.
In 1930, Sheikh Izz ad-Din al-Qassam on arriving in Palestine from Syria, organized and established
the Black Hand, an anti-Zionist and anti-British militant organization. He recruited and arranged
military training for peasants and by 1935 he had enlisted between 200 and 800 men. Their
activities encompassed the killing of Zionist settlers in different area, as well as engaging in a
campaign of vandalism of the settlers’ property and British constructed rail-lines.
The Arab revolt
The assassination of al-Qassam in 1936, by the British authorities for his revolutionary activities
generated widespread outrage in the Arab community. A few months later, in April 1936, the Arab
national general strike broke out. The strike lasted until October 1936, instigated by the Arab
Higher Committee, headed by Amin al-Husseini. During the summer of that year, thousands of
Jewish-farmed acres and orchards were destroyed, Jewish civilians were attacked and killed, and
39
some Jewish communities, sought refuge in safer areas. The violence abated for about a year while
the British sent the Peel Commission to investigate. Following the rejection of the recommendation
of the Peel Commission, the revolt resumed in the autumn of 1937. Over the next 18 months, the
British lost control of Nablus and Hebron. British forces, supported by 6,000 armed Jewish auxiliary
police, suppressed the widespread riots with overwhelming force. The British officer Charles Orde
Wingate (who supported a Zionist revival for religious reasons) organised Special Night Squads
composed of British soldiers and Jewish volunteers such as Yigal Alon, which scored significant
victories over the Arabs by conducting raids on Arab villages. The Jewish militia Irgun also used
violence against Arab civilians as "retaliatory acts", attacking bustling marketplaces and other
crowded areas of congregation.By the time the revolt concluded in March 1939, more than 5,000
Arabs, 400 Jews, and 200 British had been killed and at least 15,000 Arabs were wounded. The
Revolt resulted in the deaths of 5,000 Palestinian Arabs and the wounding of 10,000. In total, 10%
of the adult Arab male population was killed, wounded, imprisoned, or exiled.
The attacks on the Jewish population by Arabs had three lasting effects: First, they led to the
formation and development of Jewish underground militias, primarily the Haganah. Secondly, it
became clear that the differences between the two communities could not be reconciled, and the
idea of partition was born. Thirdly, the British responded to Arab opposition with the White Paper
of 1939, which severely restricted Jewish land purchase and immigration. However, with the
advent of World War II, even this reduced immigration quota was not reached. The White Paper
policy also radicalized segments of the Jewish population, who after the war would no longer
cooperate with the British.
In 1937, the Peel Commission proposed a partition between a small Jewish state, whose Arab
population would have to be transferred, and an Arab state to be attached to Jordan. The proposal
was rejected by the Arabs. The two main Jewish leaders had convinced the Zionist Congress to
approve equivocally to the Peel recommendations as a basis for more negotiation.
White Paper
British White Paper of 1939
Following the London Conference (1939) the British Government published a White Paper. The
white paper had been a policy paper issued by the British government under Prime Minister Neville
Chamberlain. An authoritative report, it highlighted the issuing body’s policies regarding the matter
40
at hand. Abandoning the idea of the partition of Palestine, this particular White Paper aimed at
bringing about the following changes:
1. Ten years after the release of the paper, Palestine will be given conditional independence. It will
function as a unitary state.
2. For five years, 10,000 Jewish immigrants can enter Palestine on an annual basis. Further
immigration will be subjected to Arab acquiescence.
3. Palestine land will be protected from Zionist acquisition and safety of the citizens will be
ensured by both the parties.
Since the White Paper was a major blow for the Zionist agenda, it was never accepted by the Jewish
community. The outbreak of World War II deteriorated the situation even further as Jews came out
in the open to oppose the Paper and continued their illegal migration to Palestine. This was seen by
the Yishuv as betrayal of the mandatory terms, especially in light of the increasing persecution of
Jews in Europe. In response, Zionists organised Aliyah Bet, a program of illegal immigration into
Palestine. The Lehi (Fighters for the Freedom of Israel), an extremist Zionist organization and the
Irgun (National Military Organization) movements initiated violent uprisings against the British
Mandate in 1940.However, the Jewish Agency, which represented the mainstream Zionist
leadership, still hoped to persuade Britain to allow resumed Jewish immigration, and cooperated
with Britain in World War II. WWII saw a brief period of close British-Jewish military collaboration
mainly due to Churchill who was sympathetic to the aims of the Zionists.
During World War II, the Jewish Agency completely dishonored the 1939 White Paper issued by
British government, which outlined the steps related to Jewish immigration into Palestine. The
White Paper included the following major recommendations:
The Second World War was the first major outbreak of Palestinian-Zionist hostilities.By the time
World War II started, a decent population of Jews had already migrated to Palestine. During the
war, different Jewish military organizations such as Haganah, IZL, and Stern Gang remained active
in the region. Israel used both diplomatic channels and armed forces to strengthen their position in
Palestine. Despite a phase of British-Israel tension during the War, the Zionists managed to achieve
their political motives. The Jews gained international sympathies due to the Holocaust while Zionist
propaganda against the pro-Nazi role of Mufti Haj Amin al-Husseini also worked in their favor.
Frequent acts of violence took place in Palestine during the War, marking the beginning of its
tumultuous times. The British Mandate authorities granted the Jewish and Arab communities the
right to run their internal affairs; thus the yishuv established the Elected Assembly and the National
Council.
However, at the end of the day, the Mandatory government under Britain did not succeed in
maintaining the letter and spirit of the Mandate. Under Arab pressure, it withdrew from its
commitment, especially with respect to immigration and land acquisition. It did not manage to
further the interests of the inhabitants of the region and failed to bring about harmony and
prosperity.
Relation of the Commonwealth countries to World War II
41
During World War Two, forces from the British Commonwealth of Nations, then still informally
called the British Empire, were involved in all the major theatres of war, as well as serving on their
own and on the British home fronts. In addition to providing men and women for the war effort, the
Empire supplied raw materials and goods to Britain. The Empire fell into two distinct parts. There
were the self-governing 'white' Dominions - Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa. And
there were those regions that were wholly or partly governed from London, including India, which
had its own viceroy, as well as the West Indies and British colonies in Africa and the Far East. At the
outbreak of war in 1939, India and the other colonial parts of the Empire had no choice and
automatically joined in the war on the side of Britain. The Dominions made their own decision to
enter the war on the British side. The Irish Free State opted for neutrality. During the war the
British Empire and Dominions raised a total of 8,586,000 men for military service. More than 5
million came from the British Isles, 1,440,500 from India, 629,000 from Canada, 413,000 from
Australia, 136,000 from South Africa, 128,500 from New Zealand and more than 134,000 from
other colonies. Troops from the Dominions fought in all theatres where British troops were
engaged. Canada was the site of the first British Commonwealth Air Training Scheme flying school,
where many pilots from the Empire and Dominions were trained. Men from the Dominion air forces
- Australian, Canadian, New Zealand and South African - were incorporated into the RAF. The Royal
Australian Navy served in the Mediterranean and in the Far East, as did the New Zealand Division of
the Royal Navy. The Royal Canadian Navy made a significant contribution to Allied victory in the
Battle of the Atlantic, providing escorts for convoys crossing between Canada and Britain. Over two
and a half million Indian men volunteered for service, producing the largest volunteer army in
history. Many fought against the Japanese in Burma, but Indian soldiers also served in North and
East Africa, Italy and Greece. The Royal Indian Air Force (RIAF) fought against the Japanese, while
Royal Indian Navy ships fought in the North Atlantic and the Mediterranean. There were around
40,000 Indian servicemen in the British Merchant Navy. In the West Indies, thousands of men
joined the local home guard and the British Army. In addition, many from countries occupied by
the Nazis came to Britain to serve in the British forces. French, Belgian, Czech, Dutch, Norwegian
and Polish governments-in-exile were established in the UK. A Czech armoured brigade served in
the Normandy campaign and four Czech squadrons flew with the RAF. Belgian and Dutch units
were created in the RAF, and their national brigades fought in the liberation of Europe. Norwegian
soldiers, sailors and airmen served in their own units under British operational control. The men of
the Polish Air Force who had managed to escape to Britain were subordinated to RAF command.
Polish troops fought with the British army in North Africa, Italy and in north-west Europe. The
British overseas colonies and countries with dominion status helped Britain greatly in her war
efforts, in terms of men, arms and aid.
42
Britain’s Overseas Territories in 1940
LETTER FROM THE DESK OF MR. WINSTON CHURCHILL
Gentlemen, I welcome you to the very first assemblage of the War ministry under the able
leadership of the newly elected Prime Minister of United Kingdom, Mr. Winston Leonard Spencer
Churchill.
Officers, England was shattered, tormented and ruined after our engagement in the first world war.
We won the victory, but lost the peace. We find ourselves in the midst of yet another war with less
43
than a decade apart. What lies ahead of us are perilous times. We shall not fail or falter. We shall not
weaken or tire. Neither the sudden shock of battle nor the long drawn trials of vigilance and
exertion will wear us down. This is not a question of fighting for Danzig or fighting for Poland. We
are fighting to save the whole world from the pestilence of Nazi tyranny and in defense of all that is
most sacred to man. This is no war of domination or imperial aggrandizement or material gain; no
war to shut any country out of its sunlight and means of progress. It is a war, viewed in its inherent
quality, to establish, on impregnable rocks, the rights of the individual, and it is a war to establish
and revive the stature of the British Empire. If we fail, then the whole world, including all that we
have known and cared for, will sink into abyss of a new dark age made more sinister, and perhaps
more protracted, by the lights of corrupt and distort science. Our aim is Victory; victory at all costs,
victory in spite of terror, victory, however hard and long the road maybe, for without victory, there
is no survival. We must not underrate the gravity of the task which lies before us or the temerity of
the ordeal, to which we shall not be found unequal. We must expect many disappointments, and
many unpleasant surprises, but we may be sure that the task which we have freely accepted is one
not beyond the compass and the strength of the British Empire Let us therefore brace ourselves to
our duties. My hope is that, the generous instincts of unity will not depart from us.
The Situation At Hand- A tremendous battle is raging in France and Flanders. The Germans, by a
remarkable combination of air bombing and heavily armored tanks, have broken through the
French defenses north of the Maginot Line, and strong columns of their armored vehicles are
ravaging the open country, which for the first day or two was without defenders. They have
penetrated deeply and spread alarm and confusion in their track. Behind them there are now
appearing infantry in lorries, and behind them, again, the large masses are moving forward. The regroupment of the French armies to make head against, and also to strike at, this intruding wedge
has been proceeding for several days, largely assisted by the magnificent efforts of the Royal Air
Force.
We must not allow ourselves to be intimidated by the presence of these armored vehicles in
unexpected places behind our lines. It would be foolish, however, to disguise the gravity of the
hour. It would be still more foolish to lose heart and courage.
In the air we have been clawing down three or four to one of our enemies; and the relative balance
of the British and German Air Forces is now considerably more favorable to us than at the time
when we had declared war on Germany. My confidence in our ability to fight it out to the finish with
the German Air Force has been strengthened by the fierce encounters which have taken place and
are taking place. At the same time, our heavy bombers are striking nightly at the tap-root of German
mechanized power, and have already inflicted serious damage upon the oil refineries on which the
Nazi effort to dominate the world directly depends.
Having received His Majesty's commission, I have formed an Administration of men and women of
every Party and of almost every point of view. We have differed and quarreled in the past, but now
one bond unites us all: to wage war until victory is won, and never to surrender ourselves to
servitude and shame, whatever the cost and the agony may be. It is time we answer the call of our
duty and advance to rescue not only Europe but mankind from the foulest and most soul-destroying
tyranny which has ever darkened and stained the pages of history. Behind the Armies and Fleets of
Britain and France, gather a group of shattered States and bludgeoned races: the Czechs, the Poles,
44
the Norwegians, the Danes, the Dutch, the Belgians who we must protect from the barbarism that
has descended upon them.
It is time we convene to protect our motherland: ' Arm yourselves, and be ye men of valour, and be
in readiness for the conflict; for it is better for us to perish in battle than to look upon the outrage of
our nation and our altars. As the will of God is in Heaven, even so let it be.'
I look forward to your presence.
Regards,
Winston Churchill
10th May, 1940.
45