1. science
2. social science
3. philosophy
4. ethics

Scraping the surface: what is the bottom line regarding
ethics?
Paper presented in track 8 at the
31st Annual EAIR Forum in Vilnius, Lithuania
23 to 26 August 2009
Name of Author(s)
Main presenter:
Ms. Moliehi Rosemary Mpeli
School of Nursing
University of the Free State
E-mail: mpelirm.md@ufs.ac.za
Co-presenter:
Prof. M.L.E. Monnapula-Mapesela
Centre for Higher Education Studies and Development
P.O. Box 4345
University of the Free State
Bloemfontein
Tel: 051 401 3777
Fax: 051 444 6357
E-mail: mapesela.rd@ufs.ac.za
Key words
cultural values, ethical values, ethics, ethnostress.
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Abstract
People‟s upbringing is ensconced in the solid structure of cultural values which,
according to Merriam and Mohamad (2000: 45), are so deeply ingrained that they are
acted out involuntarily. These values guide our interactions, behaviour, attitudes,
psychosocial processes, and further shape life and our experiences.
As we battle to understand and find solutions to myriad problems such as fraud and
plagiarism, involving students in higher education, we seldom focus on the bottom line,
thereby only scraping the surface. This paper advocates the importance of cultural
values as a basis for ethics formation and morality in higher education.
Presentation
Introduction and Problem Statement
People‟s upbringing is rooted within a solid structure of cultural values which, according
to Merriam and Mohamad (2000: 45), are deeply ingrained in a person. These values
are usually acted out involuntarily and they guide people‟s interactions, behaviour,
attitudes, psychosocial processes, and further shape people‟s lives and experiences.
As we battle to understand and find solutions to myriad problems such as fraud,
plagiarism, racism, etc. in higher education, we seldom focus on the bottom line and
instead waste time by merely scraping the surface rather than trying to understand the
bottom line. This paper advocates the importance of cultural values as a basis for ethics
formation and morality in higher education.
Ethical values continue to enjoy a good deal of attention in people‟s personal,
professional and civic lives, particularly now that societies and students are increasingly
diversifying and becoming more globally orientated.
According to Yoo and Donthu
(2002: 101), individual cultural values are related to the development of ethics. Based
on this background, recognition of cultural values can be seen as the way forward for
development of acceptable (ethical) conduct in higher education in democratic and
diverse communities.
The paper commences with theoretical perspectives on ethics, the impact of ethical
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codes on various professions, cultural values, as well as their importance in higher
education.
Ethical dilemmas that are rife in higher education and particularly in
institutions that previously lacked cultural pluralism, such as the so-called historically
white Afrikaans universities in South Africa, will also be discussed.
The authors will
then reflect on their personal experiences at the UFS and how the UFS culture impacted
on their academic lives.
In opening, we would like to ask the question: What are ethical values? This is a valid
question, since the concepts, ethics, values, and morals are often used interchangeably
in everyday talks (De Vos, Strydom, Fouche and Delport 2006: 57). According to
Chapdelaine, Ruiz, Warchal and Wells (2005: 9-11), morals are ideas about what is
right and wrong, and these protect the best interests of all. Values are specific qualities
that comprise the morality of a society; they represent the comparative worth ascribed to
things, and hence can serve as guidelines against which to measure individual
behaviour (Chapdelaine et al. 2005). Ethics is considered an outcome of a systematic
reflection on morality and values. This implies that for a person to engage in ethical
learning, they must find ways to reflect on values, habits and conduct that are
embedded in culture (Wiberg 2006). According to this author, ethical values are defined
as values resulting from personal choice after reflection and deliberation on cultural
values and morals. They are values that a person has either adopted, rejected or is
busy deliberating on, which are incorporated in the identity and personal policy of a
person‟s life (Winberg 2006).
Katzner and Nieman (2006: 16) imply that it is an academic desire to contribute to the
full personal development of a graduate, who will be marked by discernment of ethical
consequences and social justice.
Daltone and Crosby (2006: 1-3) believe that
institutions of higher education transmit and deepen ethical values through orientation
speeches, convocation, community service learning, as well as religious and spiritual
activities.
Nonetheless, Eberhardt (2006:1) argues that it is not known whether
universities communicate the importance of these values to their staff and students.
Moreover, the effectiveness of these activities (which are usually once-off events) in
directing acceptable ethical behaviour is highly questionable.
We also wonder who
evaluates the impact of these activities on ethical development or who ensures that
these are enforced in teaching and learning.
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Based on these controversies, these noble statements and activities by universities can,
at times, remain unrealised.
Background and Literature Review
Debates on ethical values in higher education are not an emerging phenomenon, but
have a long-standing history. Although it seems difficult to reach a consensus about
the impact of ethics on teaching and learning, authors such as Scott (2004), Van Wyk
(2005) and Mapadimeng (2007), and many more, concur that it is the responsibility of
higher education to produce ethical citizens.
Scott (2004) holds that the formation of wider social and cultural values is the duty of
institutions of higher learning. In South Africa, Van Wyk (2005: 100) proposes the
atmosphere of Ubuntu/botho (humanness), in realising the learning needs of citizens
and the reconstruction and development of society and economy.
Ubuntu is a
“philosophy of life and practice of being humane, which gave content to life for African
people long before the arrival of white settlers and that rests with the supreme ethical
code which attaches primacy to human personality as sacred” (Ngubane 1979 cited by
Mapadimeng 2007: 258). Its core defining values and connotations are among others,
respect, human dignity, etc. Although Puka (2005) feels that ethical values within the
institutions that previously lacked cultural pluralism may work as personal guidelines, to
promote a transcultural environment within teaching and learning, s/he also argues that
little attention has been paid to the ethical issues within teaching and learning, probably
due to fears surrounding the word “ethics”.
The term “ethics” deals with the question of what actions are morally right and the
obligation that is owed by one person to another (Ross and Deverell 2009: 43). Ethics
denotes systematic rational reflection upon morality and values (Churchill 1982:297). It
is a process of deciding the best course of action when faced with a given situation
(Chapdelain et al. 2005:10). Trissler (2000) furthermore argues that every
person/individual meets life situations, which call for thought, opinion, decision-making
and action, based on consciously or unconsciously held set of values. But still, common
arguments about ethics have been around the type of ethics to follow/practice as a
matter of rule rather than focussing on the ethics and values that people already hold.
Only a few examples of ethics are presented below:
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
Rule ethics: This is based on the understanding that an action must be the
result of duties and rights. It specifies personal obligations and responsibilities of
the individual. It serves to help formulate and make public some ideals of a
profession. It is from this type of ethics that the professional codes of ethics are
founded (Abbott 1983: 342 and Callahan 1982: 857, Chapdelaine et al. 2005:10).

Ethics of justice: this focuses on rights and laws, hence serving as a basis for
legal principles and ideals. Dilemmas from this type of ethics rest with fairness of
rules, laws and policies (Norberg and Johansson 2007:280).

Ethics of critique: according to Norberg and Johansson (2007:280), this
perspective questions laws and policies; and recognises a social class, gender
and race. It focuses on who makes and benefits from these rules or policies, and
who has the power.

Ethics of care: care is the primary concept to ethics of care. It focuses on the
demands of relationships and engrossment as the basis for caring. It stresses the
integrity of human relationships that ought to be held sacred. It is characterised
by caring involvement and maintenance of harmonious relations from a needcatered, holistic and contextual point of view (Botes 2000: 107).
Given the vastness of theories of ethics, as well as controversies surrounding them, we
wonder what should form a basis for ethical behaviour.
Seemingly, these foregoing
theories neglect the internal world of a person that is ingrained within rich cultural
heritage. In addition, common ethics and ethical codes are based on Western values,
most of which are incongruent with the African cultural values and principles of Ubuntu
(humanness). Another contestation about ethics concerns the success of ethical codes
of conduct in various professions such as health sciences, law, business, etc. In these
cases, teaching of ethics content is usually a grand endeavour, although the irony lies in
the acting out of the taught ethics or showing behaviour that is commensurate with the
said ethics. Bertolami (2004: 415-416) argues that “knowledge-based ethics courses
accomplish little by way of ensuring exemplary conduct, because there is enormous
disconnect between knowing what‟s right and doing it, between understanding the
principles of ethics at an intellectual level and applying them in daily life”.
Culture and Cultural Values
Many concepts, such as culture, often become subjects for debate, particularly with
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regard to what they actually mean.
Culture is a term lacking a single meaning, but is
one with numerous interpretations. A few such definitions are provided in the ensuing
paragraphs:
Hofstede (1983: 76) describes culture as the collective programming of mind, which
distinguishes the members of one human group from another. In the context of this
presentation, we regard Basotho culture as different from the Afrikaner culture which still
reigns at the UFS where we are academics.
According to Franz Boas (1934: 34) in Matšela 1979: 25), culture embraces all
manifestations of social habits of a community, the reactions of the individual as
affected by the habits of the group in which he lives, and the products of human
activities as determined by these habits. Among other things, what we attribute to the
Basotho people is hard work, integrity and respect.
Culture embraces the actions, behaviours and products of people, their beliefs, hopes
and aspirations, and those qualities such as language which make one society distinct
and unique without being separate from others (Matšela 1979: 14). Basotho people are
indeed a unique nation, whose language has and still functions as a tool of resistance
and survival. Culture is a code of conduct, which maintains an inseparable, intensive
and extensive relationship between individuals and society (Adigalar 2000: 739).
According to Sivathambi (2000: 765), culture means a set of temporal elements, spiritual
faculties, religious practices and social values created by a particular class of people in
the wake of their social and historical advancement.
It also signifies a series of
technical growth, means of production, productive relationships, education, science,
literature, arts and faith of a group of people.
These definitions are certainly not all-inclusive, but represent only a drop in the sea.
Nonetheless, important conclusions about what culture entails can be drawn from these
definitions; namely:

It is an important aspect of an individual‟s life.

It is complicated.

It determines/directs a way life.

It has a distinct nature.
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
It is unique.

It cements people together.

It builds a person‟s identity.

It is bedrock for survival of people.

It influences decision-making, thinking, actions and behaviour.
What are Cultural Values?
Cultural values are patterns of goodness and badness that people assign to the ways of
being in the world (Bennett 1998: 13).Cultural values refer to the powerful internal and
external directive forces that give meaning to the thinking, decisions, and actions of an
individual or a group. Cultural values shape one‟s worldview and behaviour patterns in
life (Leininger and McFarland 2002: 49).
Basotho Cultural Values
In the past, Basotho cultural values served as the nation‟s cementing feature for holding
the people together. Eight important Basotho values will be discussed in the following
sections. Among these values, the value of peace was, and still is, regarded of
supreme importance.
Pursuit of peace (kgotso): peace is usually used in the phrase (Kgotso/peace,
pula/rain, nala/plenty) in opening and adjourning meetings or gatherings.
Much
emphasis is on peace; peace of an individual within himself (harmony within self), peace
within members of a community, and peace between communities. Basotho argue that
without peace the development and enjoyment of other values would be difficult. They
believe that justice and charity cannot reign without peace. They ensure the spread of
the idea of peace by making this value a frequent tool of communication; when they
greet, they use the word kgotso. This is a symbol of advocating peace at all times and
to all people (Matšela 1979: 132-137).
Service for the benefit of society: man is seen in terms of his membership in and
servitude to a family and a wider community. A person‟s usefulness is measured in
terms of his contribution to the observable welfare of family and community (Matšela
1979: 132-137).
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Human Dignity is an Important Attribute
Human dignity applies to all, even to the unborn.
Respect for pregnant women is
essential. Historically, the disregard for human dignity (Ubuntu) was punishable in a
very hush manner (Matšela 1979: 132-137).
Self-expression
Freedom of speech is an accepted principle. This is clearly communicated in the
following proverbs: Mowakgotla ha tsekiswoe (no one is held liable for stumbling in
public gatherings) and moro kgotla ha o okoloe mafura (one cannot separate fat from
broth in public gatherings, one has to drink it as is). These illustrate that, in public
gatherings, it was expected and allowed that all people could have an input unhindered,
without censorship or victimisation. There is a common understanding among the
community members that everybody‟s opinion is welcome and that individuals should
not be held liable (Matšela 1979: 132-137).
Appreciation and Encouragement of the Good and Pursuit of Excellence, Beauty
and Mastery
Those who distinguished themselves as women or men of good repute are selected to
perform important roles, e.g. giving babies their first taste/morsel of meat, and other
important social responsibilities like becoming initiation teachers (Matšela 1979: 132137). We would expect teachers at all levels of education to be exemplary in their
conduct.
Believe in God
This is clearly reflected in every social activity such as birth, marriage, funerals and
other ceremonies. The songs of prayer in times of need; draught, war, no children born
in the family, and other limitations, are a witness to our faith in God. God is regarded as
the Creator, Originator, Sustainer and the source of energy for man and the universe.
The spirits of departed human beings (ancestral spirits) are used as mediators between
people and Almighty God (Matšela 1979: 132-137).
Authority and Respect
This is awarded to elders and authority without question, although they too are expected
to show respect for other people (younger and older), hence the proverb “morena ke
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morena ka sechaba” (a chief is chief by the grace of the people). The chief too is bound
to respect his people; failing to do so could result in his losing them to another chief well
known for respect and integrity. Respect was expected vertically, horizontally and in all
mutual directions (Matšela 1979: 132-137). Many black academics have left, and
continue to leave, the university because of their being demeaned by their white
counterparts.
Industriousness and Wealth
All people are taught to love work and to seek self-reliance, but those that do not have
anything, are not despised or neglected. Rather they are assisted by families, the chief
and general public who have plenty. According to Matšela (1979), children are taught
from a very early age to become resilient, but resilient to hardships and difficulties of
reasonable measure.
It is important to note that education was, and still is, an important tool for transmission
of these values. It was/is employed to make individuals conscious and appreciative of
their self-identity, as well as their environment (Matšela 1979). This is something that
seems to be lacking in higher education today, particularly at our institution where the
culture supports one ethnic group. Moreover, Matšela (1979) attests to the fact that
education assisted, and should continue to assist, individuals to develop and reflect a
complete and worthwhile image of a unique member of a family and community.
Unfortunately, the family unit/structure (parents and elders) has weakened and people
of good repute no longer enact their roles as teachers of culturally accepted behaviours,
traditions and history. Antone and Hill (1992), in support of Matšela, say that when a
person‟s culture, security and values are threatened, neglected or oppressed by other
groups of people, they suffer ethnostress, i.e. stress related to ethnicity. The effects of
ethnostress are feelings of hopelessness, malfunctioning behaviour, loss of identity,
denial of self/identity and culture (hostage syndrome – the oppressed are held hostage
by the oppressors).
The Role of Education in South Africa during the Apartheid Era
Higher education in South Africa inherited a system profoundly shaped by social,
political and economic inequalities of class and race (Badat 2007: 5). Education was
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used to sustain apartheid and to transmit values, myths and ideologies of Afrikaners and
their culture.

The manifesto of this system is provided below:
“The Afrikaans education was to be soaked and nourished by Christian, national,
spiritual and cultural stuff of the folk in the light of God‟s discreet plan for the
human race, that God willed separate nations and people (Robertson and
Whitten 1978, Hirson 1979 as cited in Johnson 1982: 218)”. This stance brings
to the fore many questions!

The native education was based on principles of trusteeship, non-equality and
segregation, with the aim of inculcating the Afrikaners‟ way of life as senior
trustee (Robertson and Whitten 1978, Hirson 1979 as cited in Johnson 1982:
218).”
While, on the one hand, the whites felt they owed their trusteeship to
God, on the other hand they dictated that of the black people to whites. In a
very subtle way, the same kind of expectation still reigns at our university. Very
few black people are in the management of the university, and furthermore, those
black academics that show potential are placed in positions of subordination.

The native education was controlled in terms of structure and content, in order to
prepare them more effectively for their future occupation; as to teach them that
equality is not for natives, and their place within the white community is not above
certain forms of labour such as gardening and housekeeping (Birley 1968 and
Horrel 1968 as cited in Johnson 1982: 218).
University of the Free State: Its Development and the Afrikaans Culture
(As described in the Centenary book titled, from Grey to Gold: The first 100 years of the
University of the Free State):
Transformation within the University of the Free State has been in transit since 1904.
The university was historically a white, English-speaking institution, and later became an
Afrikaans-speaking university and, unfortunately, turmoil regarding the institutional
culture has been experienced ever since inception. According to the University of the
Free State (UFS 2006:126-129), the language struggle has been a thorny issue since
1918. The fear was the entrenchment of foreign culture, since lecturers were imported
from overseas.
At this time, the medium of instruction, or the culture, was English,
while most students were Afrikaans-speaking (UFS 2006:126-129).
In 1918, a long-awaited change came about when Afrikaans was used as a medium of
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instruction for some subjects.
However, the Rector in 1927, Prof. Malherbe,
acknowledged regression to English, and hence the dual-medium of instruction that
disadvantaged Afrikaans continued. In 1938, the student council insisted on the
Christian nationalism elements with the aim of strengthening the Afrikaans language,
culture and ideology. The struggle continued until the start of 1943 when the Dutch
Reformed Church decided to withdraw all its financial and moral support until the
Afrikaans policy was introduced. 1944 thus marked the phasing-out of dual-medium of
instruction and the victory of Afrikaans culture within what was then University of the
Orange Free State, now known as the University of the Free State (UFS 2006:59, 127129). In 1993 parallel-medium was introduced as black students were allowed to gain
admission into the university. This parallel-medium was acknowledged in lectures only,
other services were governed by Afrikaans, despite the bilingualism policy that was
introduced in 2003.
The question that will always loom is, has this ideology within the institution changed?
The university as such posed a collective identity and cultural frame of reference for the
Afrikaans culture and to the province of the Free State at large. This identity was based
on values of God-fearing, conservative values and the importance of whiteness
(Vestergaard 2001: 20-21).
According to this author, opposing apartheid meant
opposing the will of God.
This explains why admission of students from black
communities around the University was very much controlled (UFS 2006: 264-265). In
1988 one black undergraduate student was eventually allowed to register; this student
had to adapt to new values (superiority of Afrikaners) and the Afrikaans language in
order to be accommodated. The hostel accommodation ban for black students was only
lifted in 1989.
But, as Professor Kok (Rector of the university from 1967 to 1976)
advocated, the university remained stronghold of the national character, personality and
culture of the Afrikaans community (UFS 2006: 169-170).
The national character that the university had to abide by was the entrenchment and
rigidified racial segregation regimes in all spheres of life that were adopted by the
national party after its electoral victory in 1948 (Duckitt and Mphuthing 1998: 810). One
aspect that was emphasised and advocated within this institution was the notion of
culture and, as was the case, Afrikaans culture became the norm within this institution
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(UFS 2006). The Afrikaner culture was build from multifaceted aspects of humanity,
such as Christianity, farming and politics (Duckitt and Mphuthing 1998: 810).
UFS’s Values
The following five core values are regarded as values of the UFS that must be reflected
in all areas, and that should be respected by the stakeholders at all times:

Academic freedom and autonomy;

Excellence;

Fairness;

Service;

Integrity.
Higher Education Post-1994
A multitude of higher education policies, more than 30, aimed at redressing the
irregularities and inequalities of the past were developed.
All these policies advocate issues of transformation, such as:

Institutional culture;

Widening access;

Access with success.
It is important to note that institutions, including the UFS, have complied in earnest by
developing institutional policies based on these national policies. Nonetheless, these
do not necessarily enforce honest practice of ethics, but seem to provide a shield behind
which the policy implementers, who are often the traditional occupants of the institutions
hide, while doing business as usual (Callahan 1982:342).
Research Design and Methodology
The research took an interpretative philosophy because the focus was on the lived
experiences as a tool for better understanding of the social, cultural, political and
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historical context in which these experiences occurred within their given context (Polit,
Beck and Hungler 2001: 212).
The focus is on the essence of personal experience within the environment that
previously lacked cultural pluralism, thus, a critical autoethnographic research was
employed (Duncan 2004: 3). According to Afonso (2007) and Cupane (2007) in Taylor
(2007: 6), autoethnography involves the researchers critically examining their culturally
situated lived experiences as students and teachers, reconceptualising their cultural
identities and developing inclusive educational philosophies that acknowledge beliefs,
values, languages identities and experiential realities that learners bring into the
classroom.
This is a form of qualitative research for transforming oneself as a first step towards
transforming others. The intent of critical autoethnography in education is to transform
teaching and learning by investing in cultural identity and lived experiences as a
consumer and producer of education (Taylor 2004:5).
A Journey of Experiences: Results
We are Basotho, raised within a rich culture that believes initiation into the human
experiential world is a lifelong endeavour of an individual. It is a strategy that gives
entry into another experience. It is through initiation that apprentices are introduced to
adulthood and important social operations.

It started at infancy, where a woman of good repute initiated our first morsel of
meat.

Through proverbs, fables, folktales, legends, and myths, we learned our cultural
values of our culture, which form the basis of our experiences.

When we were adolescents, our parents decided on Western education for us,
instead of indigenous initiation/education. This was approved by the community
as the benefits of this were, and are still, obvious.

Our culture forms part of our inner world, and to make sense of every situation,
we consult our values faculties, which are our experiences.
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The study is work-in-progress. As is the purpose of critical autoethnography, this first
step of self-reflection provides a retrospective account of our experience as students, as
well as lecturers from an African group (Basotho).
The impetus for this paper evolved out of personal experiences of the authors who
studied at one of the transforming universities of South Africa at the time when the
students‟ profiles were gradually changing from traditional white, middle income
students to a slightly diverse population. At this stage, there were issues of language,
race and culture that we had to deal with in order to survive and succeed academically.
According to Tyler, Boykin, Miller & Hurley (2006: 364), teaching and learning in
multicultural education must be within a transcultural environment if one is to succeed
academically and socially.
Later on, we both became academic staff members. Our experience then was the
mirror image of our experiences as students; we felt like visitors, and even after years of
academic life, we sometimes still feel like outsiders. At times we feel depressed with a
strong urge to quit. Antone and Hill (1992) refer to this state as “ethnostress”, which
has major effects on one‟s success.
Scheduling of Lectures
Since lectures are conducted in both English and Afrikaans, they are presented in two
cycles, namely day and evening lectures. Lectures are scheduled in such a way that
the English classes are first classes of the day (7am), while Afrikaans lectures
commence at 8am. The night classes are the opposite, i.e. early evening classes are
Afrikaans (5-7pm), while English classes are from (7-9pm).
Basotho cultural values stress kindness and generosity to visitors. It is the duty of the
chief (the authority) to take care of foreigners. If English classes are accommodated at
the extremes, this means that we are not welcomed.
The Use of Parallel Medium (English and Afrikaans)
Although it is required by policy that both English and Afrikaans should be used as a
14
means of communication, Afrikaans is used as a dominant medium of instruction for
other subjects and personnel meetings. Non-Afrikaans speaking people would be
advised to ask questions where they don‟t understand. To complicate matters:

Decisions are made in these meetings, and signing for attendance means
concurring with the decisions.
 Some of the books lack English versions, although tests and exams are
mostly based on these books.
In effect, language is used as a form of resistance to culture change.
Window dressing
 Inclusion in projects for the purpose of applying for funds, and once this is
achieved, you are disregarded;
 Number of blacks employed in positions of power is very low;
 Contributions towards empowering blacks on paper, while actions are
contradictory.
Other Issues
 Policies for language, assessment, etc.
 Hostels.
Issues such as these contribute towards an environment where people (lecturers and
students) do not trust each other. Under such circumstances unethical behaviour is
inevitable.
As Mkhize (2006: online) posits, transformation will remain a desirable, but elusive goal
if all South Africans don‟t recognise the capability of each other from the position of
equality, as fully-fledged personalities with articulating points of views.
Based on our intuition, observation and experience, we believe that our cultural values
as non-white students and academics were not given recognition; we were constrained
to adapt to the culture of the university, which was contrary to the concept of
multicultural education.
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Recommendations

Recognition and assessment of prior learning developed from culture;

Value clarification;

Assist all students in searching and researching their cultural values/prior
knowledge;

Cultural values should form a basis for the development of ethical discernment;

The interface between practice and theory of ethics should be unified by the
harmony created by being at peace with one‟s cultural values;

Ethics should not only be good on paper/theory but should be acted out in moral
worth;

Ethics should be translated into good action and conduct (such conduct should
display ethical significance or worth observable as good will).
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