1. family and parenting
2. children

Know What Works and Why
English Edition, October 2013
ENG
2
0
Academic journal
about the benefits and impact of ICT in education
1
3
Publication details
Know What Works and Why is an editorially independent Dutch journal about the benefits and
impact of ICT in education. The print edition is published quarterly.
Subscribe to this free Dutch journal
Editors
WWW: 4W.Kennisnet.nl
Alfons ten Brummelhuis, Head of Research Department, Kennisnet
Adress: 4W@Kennisnet.nl
Melissa van Amerongen, Researcher, Kennisnet
©Kennisnet, Zoetermeer, the Netherlands
English edition, October 2013
ISSN: 2213-8757
Sylvia Peters, Researcher, Kennisnet
Text editing
Jacqueline Kuijpers, MareCom Breda, the Netherlands
Published by
Anneleen Post, Meer dan Letters & Papier, Utrecht, the
Kennisnet Foundation, Zoetermeer, the Netherlands
Netherlands
Kennisnet is the Dutch Expertise Center on ICT and Education
Contributors to this issue
Adriana G. Bus (Leiden University, the Netherlands), Hedderik van
Rijn (University of Groningen, the Netherlands), Menno Nijboer
(University of Groningen, the Netherlands), Ruben Vanderlinde
(Ghent University, Belgium), Johan van Braak (Ghent University,
Know What Works and Why
English Edition, 2013
Illustrations
Flos Vingerhoets Illustratie, Haarlem, the Netherlands
Layout
Tappan Communicatie, The Hague, the Netherlands
Fabrique, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
Belgium), Jolien Francken (Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition
Translation
and Behavior, Radboud University Nijmegen, the Netherlands),
Balance Translations, Maastricht/Amsterdam, the Netherlands
Jo Tondeur (Ghent University, Belgium), Natalie Pareja Roblin
(Ghent University, Belgium), Petra Fisser (Institute for Curriculum
Development, the Netherlands ), Joke Voogt (University of Twente,
the Netherlands).
Attribution – Non-commercial – No Derivatives 2.5 Nederland.
The user may:
• Copy, distribute, show, and openly implement the work subject to the following conditions:
Attribution. The user must attribute the work to Kennisnet.
Non-commercial. The user may only use the work for non-commercial purposes.
No derivative works. The user may not create derivative work using the work.
• When reusing or distributing the work, the user must notify third parties of the conditions of the license for this work.
• The user may only waive one or more of these conditions with the prior permission
of Kennisnet. The foregoing shall have no effect on the statutory restrictions on intellectual property rights.
(www.creativecommons.org/licenses) This is a publication of the Kennisnet Foundation.
Academic journal
about the benefits and impact of ICT in education
Contents
1. Using ICT to optimize the memorization of facts
Hedderik van Rijn & Menno Nijboer
Editorial
6
The journal Know What Works and Why [Dutch title: 4W, Weten Wat Werkt en Waarom] addresses
the benefits and impact of ICT in education.
2. Educational software for young children Adriana G. Bus
14
3. What makes an ICT policy plan so effective?
Ruben Vanderlinde & Johan van Braak
22
The Netherlands has a relatively solid basis for using ICT in education. Virtually all schools have
high-speed Internet access, many pupils have access to computers, most schools are equipped
with interactive whiteboards, etc. Despite this, the use of ICT is lagging behind teachers’ and
principals’ expectations and ambitions, and opportunities are not being utilized to their full potential.
Teachers indicate that they find it difficult to fully embed ICT into their lessons. They are critical and
first want to know how much value ICT will add to their teaching and when.
4. Handwriting versus typing: What does neuroscience have to say?
Jolien C. Francken
30
5. Practical examples as a resource for professional development
Jo Tondeur, Natalie Pareja Roblin, Johan van Braak, Petra Fisser & Joke Voogt
38
We are convinced that scientific insights can be helpful when making professional choices
regarding the use of ICT in education. Unfortunately, scientific articles are not readily accessible
to teachers and are not written for the purpose of providing them with professional support. In
publishing 4W, a journal intended for researchers but also for teachers, pre-service teachers,
and principals, we make the results of research available in order to give them the professional
support they need.
The philosophy underlying the journal is that teachers need to know not only what works, but why
it works. Teachers who have a thorough understanding of what makes a particular application
work can make better decisions about what type of ICT can help them achieve their goals and
when. We take a broad view of ICT, covering its use for didactic, organizational, and professional
development purposes.
The articles we publish are written by experts in the relevant field and are reviewed externally
when necessary. They are accompanied by a limited selection of peer-reviewed reference
articles. The journal is published quarterly both in print and online.
This English-language edition is meant to introduce the journal to an international audience. We
would be delighted to have you contact the editorial staff if you would like to contribute an article.
Alfons ten Brummelhuis
Sylvia Peters
Melissa van Amerongen
Editors 4W | 4w.kennisnet.nl
4
5
1
Using ICT to optimize
the memorization
of facts
Hedderik van Rijn and Menno Nijboer
University of Groningen
Facts are best learned by constantly repeating them in
a way that allows for the facts you already know and the
ones you do not. Thanks to computer programs based on
human memory models, this customized learning method
can now be supplied by computers. The result: impressive
Knowledge that has been passively
acquired is not retained as well as
information that has been actively
retrieved from memory
improvements in learning performance.
It is impossible to appreciate the beauty of Rilke’s
ming. ‘Cramming’ is repeating the material to be
poetry unless one has studied German. It is
learned as often as possible, often on the day, or
impossible to understand many historical trends
even in the hours, before an exam. Cramming
unless one knows the years in which significant
often consists of nothing more than reading and
events occurred. It is impossible to place articles
re-reading lines of words to be learned. The long-
from quality newspapers in context unless one
term inefficiency of this method, however, has
knows the names of capital cities.
been recognized for over a century: the person
Although few students are fond of doing so,
studying may retain the knowledge for the dura-
learning a basic amount of factual knowledge is
tion of the exam, but it is quickly forgotten once
inevitable and often simply comes down to cram-
the exam is over (Ebbinghaus, 1885).
6
Know What Works and Why • 4W • English Edition, October 2013
7
excellent
moderate
poor
Level of activation/knowledge
excellent
Figure 1:
More widely spaced learning (the dotted line) results in better mastery of a fact than closely spaced repetition
One of the reasons that re-reading is so ineffec-
(Pashler, et al., 2007).
moderate
Time
Figure 2:
Individual differences mean that an easy fact (the solid line) requires only two repetitions to be mastered at the
same level as a difficult fact (the dotted line), which requires six such repetitions.
not more frequently applied in a classroom setting
acquired is not retained as well as information that
Learning methods
has been actively retrieved from memory. This
Over the years, however, a variety of learning
testing effect results from the fact that actively
systems have been developed to facilitate the
retrieved information is stored more securely in
use of the spacing and testing effects, including
our memories, which means that, as a learning
the Leitner system and the Pimsleur method. The
method, a quiz or test is much more effective
Pimsleur method involves repeating the informa-
preparation for an exam than re-reading the mate-
tion at intervals that gradually become longer. This
rial to be learned.
method encompasses both the spacing and test-
The spacing effect also positively influences
ing effects, but the intervals between repetitions
knowledge retention. As many people know from
are not tailored to individual learners – the system
experience, it is better to spread the job of learn-
is based on a supposed average learner.
ing something out over several days rather than
While the Pimsleur method is the same for
cramming everything in the evening before an
everyone, the Leitner system is governed entirely
exam. But this effect demonstrates benefits even
by the learner’s answers. Although this method
within a single learning session: it is better to learn
meets most of the criteria for optimal learning,
a fact by spacing out repetitions rather than to
it does not respond well to ‘tentative’ answers –
memorize the same fact again and again without
what if the learner knows the answer but gives it
a break.
five minutes’ thought before providing it?
Pupils who help each other learn facts, and
poor
Level of activation/knowledge
apply in the absence of a tester and why they are
tive is that knowledge that has been passively
Time
8
The spacing effect
and the testing effect
parents who help their children do so, often use
Memory models
the testing method. Although the learner may
Fortunately, modern theories of human memory
not realize it, the testing effect results in better
can help us develop an optimal method for learn-
knowledge retention. Moreover a good tester will
ing facts (Pavlik & Anderson, 2005; Taatgen,
automatically take the spacing effect into account,
2009). According to these theories, the knowledge
repeating questions that cause the learner to
level of each fact can be expressed as a figure
hesitate or stumble more frequently than those
indicating how ‘active’ that fact is in our memory.
for which the learner has a ready answer. A good
This is determined by the number of earlier prac-
tester thus fulfills the two most important criteria
tice sessions and the dates/times when the fact
for learning facts successfully: the spacing effect
was practiced. Figure 1 illustrates two different
and the testing effect.
situations: the solid line indicates the activation
It will be clear to the reader that this method
of a ‘crammed’ fact that was practiced four times
only works when the facts are presented in a way
in closely spaced sessions, while the dotted line
that is tailored to the learner’s abilities. This is one
represents a fact that was practiced the same
of the reasons that these principles are difficult to
number of times but in more widely spaced ses9
sions. The peaks indicate the times of the practice
tween easy facts and difficult ones. The model
Because it is tailored to the individual learner, this
This paper originally appeared in Dutch in 4W
sessions. As the graph shows, activation declines
can then be used to predict how mastery of
optimized learning method is also highly motiva­
2012(1) as Optimaal feiten leren met ict (pp. 6-11).
rapidly after a practice session, but the decline
these facts will decline over the course of time.
ting for them.
Translation: Balance Translation, Maastricht.
becomes less sharp over time. The most interesting observation from a learning perspective is that
ICT-supported learning
the ‘crammed’ fact is more active after the last
The ideas described above can be applied in a
time it is presented, but that it is forgotten more
learning-optimization system comprising a com-
quickly, showing that presenting facts over widely
puter simulation of human memory function that
Hedderik van Rijn
Menno Nijboer
spaced sessions ultimately leads to a higher level
can estimate how well each fact is mastered at any
Main author
Author
of knowledge. This is because the speed at which
given time. This system would present facts that
hedderik@van-rijn.org
a fact is forgotten depends on how active the fact
have a low level of activation at the moment they
was when it was presented again. When pres-
are learned. Repetition will prevent these facts from
entations are spaced, activation is lower when
being forgotten and, because the fact will have a
the new presentation is made, which means less
low level of activation, that repetition will be very
Hedderik van Rijn is an Associate Professor
Menno Nijboer is part of the Artificial Intel-
forgetting. Spaced presentations therefore result
effective. In this way, the system smoothly imple-
of Cognitive Psychology at the University of
ligence Department and is working on a dis-
in better knowledge retention.
ments the principles of both spacing and testing:
Groningen, where he is involved in the Artificial
sertation on optimal multitasking. His graduate
The model illustrated in Figure 1 is based on
difficult facts are quickly forgotten and so they
Intelligence and Computational Neuroscience
research has demonstrated that the Clever
an idealized situation in which all facts are forgot-
are repeated more often. Easy facts elicit quick
programs. His work focuses on the role time
Cramming method delivers the best results if
ten at the same rate. A more realistic situation is
responses and are therefore repeated less often.
plays in cognition, such as the best time for
information is repeated multiple times.
illustrated in Figure 2, with one easy fact (the solid
In recent years, students at the University of
offering information to be learned.
line) and one difficult fact (the dotted line). As this
Groningen have used and tested this system
figure shows, the difficult fact will have to be re-
extensively at secondary schools and in the first
peated six times before achieving the same level
few years of university courses. This optimized
of mastery as the easy fact. This is exactly why
method produced final grades that in some cases
human testers are so effective – they can easily
were more than a full point higher in comparison
anticipate and meet this need.
with ordinary ‘cramming’ or various forms of ‘im-
According to this type of memory model, the
proved cramming’ (Van Rijn, 2010).
activation of a fact is linked directly to the time
This method has been improved and tested in
it takes to retrieve that fact: a fact that has a
the Kennisnet Clever Cramming projects involving
very low level of activation will be more difficult
lessons in Dutch as a second language. Clever
and thus take longer to retrieve, if it has not
Cramming has proved to be an ideal system in
already been forgotten. This means that the
these lessons: because the system automati-
time it takes to give an answer can be a factor
cally adapts to the learner’s level, it can be used
in assessing how well someone knows a certain
with equal success with students with extremely
fact. Based on this, internal activation can be
limited language skills and students who have
adjusted so that the model distinguishes be-
completed advanced degrees.
10
11
What we know about
ICT-based memorization
Want to know more?
Ebbinghaus, H. (1885). Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology.
Teachers College, Columbia University, translated by Henry A. Ruger and Clara
E. Bussenius (1913). Available at: http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Ebbinghaus/
● In order to optimize learning, the learning schedule must be tailored
index.htm.
to the individual learner’s knowledge and ability. The learning
method must also take into account the spacing effect (breaks
Pashler, H., Bain, P., Bottge, B. , Graesser, A., Koedinger, K., McDaniel, M.,
between learning sessions) and the testing effect (active retrieval of
and Metcalfe, J. (2007). Organizing Instruction and Study to Improve Student
facts through testing results in better retention).
Learning (NCER 2007-2004). Washington, D.C.: National Center for Education
Research, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.
● Thanks to computer programs based on human memory models, this
customized learning method can now be supplied by computers.
Pavlik, P. I. and Anderson, J. R. (2005). Practice and forgetting effects on
vocabulary memory: An activation-based model of the spacing effect. Cognitive
● These computer models’ capacity for adaptation provides students
Science, 29(4), 559-586.
with a learning program tailored to their individual learning capacity.
This improves both learning results and learner motivation.
Taatgen, N.A. (2009). Kennisopslag, vergeten en geheugen (English: Knowledge
storage, forgetting, and memory). In R. Klarus and R.J. Simons (Eds.), Wat is
goed onderwijs? Bijdragen uit de psychologie (English: What is good education?
Contributions from psychology) (pp. 33-46). The Hague: Lemma.
Van Rijn, H. (2010). SlimStampen. Optimaal leren door kalibratie op kennis en
vaardigheid (English: Clever Cramming. Optimal learning by calibration according to knowledge and skills). http://onderzoek.kennisnet.nl/onderzoeken-totaal/
slimstampen.
12
13
2
Educational software
for young children
Adriana G. Bus
Leiden University
The number of educational computer programs available
for pre-schoolers and kindergartners is growing
exponentially. But do children learn from them? More
than a decade of research is providing increasingly clear
evidence of which programs can teach young children.
The mid-90s saw the emergence of ‘edutain-
language and reading skills, but also games that
ment’: computer programs that combined educa-
promote alphabetic knowledge (Living Letters)
tion and entertainment and allowed children to
and numeracy (Number Race).
learn while they played. It was quite a revelation
getting to know Just Grandma and Me, Kid Pix,
Three vital principles
Dr. Brain, and other fascinating programs that
The question, of course, was and is whether
became available at the dawn of educational
children actually learn from these programs.
software (Ito, 2009). Since then, an enormous
The initial euphoria about the educational pos-
number of educational software programs have
sibilities these programs offered was quickly
been launched. These include not only picture
tempered when results lagged behind expec­
book apps that stimulate the development of
tations (De Jong and Bus, 2002). But was that
14
Know What Works and Why • 4W • English Edition, October 2013
15
assessment correct? As experiments continue, it
(“the bear is blushing, he is shy”). Multiple choice
is becoming increasingly clear that edutainment
questions are even more effective (“Where is the
offers unique possibilities. The programs can even
bear shy?”), with the child being offered three
transform at-risk children into high performers
images and choosing the one that best illustrates
(Kegel, 2011 and Van der Kooy-Hofland, 2011).
‘shy’. ‘Making meaning’ works better than “taking
What kinds of programs produce such results?
meaning”.
Experimental studies have revealed three vital
Many parents do not like the fact that interac-
features edutainment programs must have for
tive computer programs make it impossible for
children to benefit from them without teacher as-
them to contribute. One frequent complaint heard
sistance: interactivity, functionality, and feedback.
about picture book apps is “As a parent you just
1. Interactivity
In particular kindergarten children
with a genetic predisposition for
attention disorders benefit from the
feedback of a computer tutor
sit there and look at it”. A study by the Joan Ganz
Cooney Center (2012) showed, predictably, that
Interaction has long been considered an im-
both parents and children become irritated when
portant ingredient in adult-child book reading.
parents attempt to read their child interactive
Children get more out of being read to if the
stories on an iPad, iPod, or laptop.
adult intersperses questions about the story or
For children aged three and older, picture book
explains difficult words while reading. Electronic
apps are just as effective as interactive reading
picture books, sometimes referred to as nook
(De Jong, 2003). For under-threes, however, it
books (Barnes & Noble) or vooks (‘e-books’
is important that caregivers stress the words,
with video), are also more effective when their
images, and sounds that engage the child’s at-
reading aloud is accompanied by questions or
tention. The current generation of apps do not
explanations (Smeets & Bus, 2012). Hotspots
provide for such possibilities. The first app that
are embedded in images so that clicking on them
allows a choice of interactive moments has yet to
or touching the screen provides the child with
be released.
an explanation of what he or she is looking at
16
17
2. Functionality
in the computer group had heard the entire
The fact that computer programs are better
This paper originally appeared in Dutch in 4W
A good balance between text and animation may
story, and that child did not hear it in the correct
than parents or teachers at providing consistent
2012(1) as Educatieve software voor jonge kin-
increase learners’ arousal level (their interest in a
order. Despite all of its possibilities, therefore,
feedback may explain why they can also be more
deren (pp. 12-17). Translation: Balance Translation,
story), making it possible to read the same books
this program never put the children in a reading
effective than studying under teacher supervision
Maastricht.
more often to pupils and increase the intensity of
mood. Earlier computer experience with games
(Saine, et al., 2011).
their reading experience. Research shows that
significantly impacted the children’s approach to
children are bored less quickly by living picture
the new program (De Jong and Bus, 2002).
books than by print books. Using skin resis­tance
as an indicator, arousal drops sharply after
3. Adaptive performance feedback
repeated readings of an ordinary print book, but
Offering continuous performance feedback may
Adriana Bus
remains at a high level with a living book on the
encourage children’s continued, positive engage-
Author
computer even after the book has been ‘read’
ment in computer programs. Although many
bus@fsw.leidenuniv.nl
four times (Verhallen & Bus, 2009).
believe that computers are inferior to teachers
But books may include too many attractive ani-
in this area, computer programs that incorporate
mations. Children sitting at a computer are quick
a computer tutor may actually make substantial
to adopt a game-playing attitude that causes
contributions to the program’s effect (Kegel &
Adriana Bus is a Professor of Education and
educational goals to suffer. In particular, when kin-
Bus, 2011).
Child Studies at Leiden University, concentra­
dergartners are accustomed to using computers
For example, one study has shown that a
ting on emergent literacy.
to play games, there is a good chance that they
computer program is only effective (the effect in
will overlook the story in the app in favor of seek-
this case being a first step towards alphabetic
ing out the more iconic elements of the program.
knowledge) if the computer tutor continuously
This became apparent during an experiment
encourages children to respond, prompts them to
involving electronic picture books that contained
think carefully, gives them tips to arrive at the cor-
a large number of hyperlinks. Each screen
rect answer, and explains why their answer was
presen­ted the children with links that would
correct. In particular kindergarten children with
activate films in static illustrations or start an
a genetic predisposition for attention disorders
animation intended to clarify individual words.
(about 35%) benefit from the feedback (Kegel,
They could listen to the text being read aloud
et al., 2011). They even learn significantly more
and repeat it if desired.
than their peers who are not predisposed to such
The results? Most kindergartners immedi-
dis­orders – an unexpected but understandable
ately became playful, jumping randomly through
result, since the increased sensitivity to stimuli
the book looking for entertaining animated
experienced by children with attention disorders
features. The games were also a significant
works to their advantage if the program’s conti­
draw, taking up approximately half of their al-
nuous feedback keeps their approach to the
lotted time. After playing with the hypertext for
assignment on the right track.
six 15-minute periods, only 1 of the 16 children
18
19
What we know about
educational programs
for young children
Want to know more?
Chiong, C., Ree, J., Takeuchi, L. & Erickson, I. (2012). Print Books vs. E-books.
Comparing parent-child co-reading on print, basic, and enhanced e-book platforms.
New York, NY: The Joan Ganz Cooney Center. Retrieved from http://www.joanganzcooneycenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/jgcc_ebooks_quickreport.pdf
Picture book apps and other computer programs for young chil-
Ito, M. (2009). Engineering play. A cultural history of children’s software.
dren are livened up with countless multimedia additions. These can
Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
increase computer activity effectiveness, provided that they possess
three key features:
De Jong, M.T. & Bus, A.G. (2002). Quality of book-reading matters for emergent
readers: An experiment with the same book in a regular or electronic format.
● The first is interactivity. In this respect, making meaning is more
Journal of Educational Psychology, 94, 145-155.
effective than taking meaning.
Kegel, C.A.T. & Bus, A.G. (2011). Feedback as a pivotal quality of a web-based
● The second is functionality. If a program contains too many ‘foreign’
elements, children will approach it as a game and will not engage in
early literacy computer program. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104, 182192. Doi: 10.1037/a0025849.
the activity for which the program is actually intended.
Kegel, C.A.T., Bus, A.G. & Van IJzendoorn, M.H. (2011). Differential susceptibility
● The third is feedback. Continuous performance feedback helps
children, and at-risk children in particular, work to their full potential.
in early literacy instruction through computer games: The role of the Dopamine
D4 Receptor Gene (DRD4). Mind, Brain, and Education, 5, 71-78.
Saine, N.L., Lerkkanen, M.-J., Ahonen, T., Tolvanen, A. & Lyytinen, H. (2011).
Computer-assisted remedial reading intervention for school beginners at risk for
reading disability. Child Development, 82, 1013-1028.
Smeets, D.J.H. & Bus, A.G. (2012). Interactive electronic storybooks for kindergartners to promote vocabulary growth. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology,
112, 36–55. Doi:10.1016/j. jecp.2011.12.003
Verhallen, M.J.A.J., and Bus, A.G. (2009). Video storybook reading as a remedy.
Journal for Educational Research Online, 1, 11-19.
Dissertations by De Jong (2003), Kegel (2011), Smeets (2012), Van der KooyHofland (2011), and Verhallen (2009) (https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/
handle/1887/9744/search).
A demo version of ‘Living Letters’ [‘Letters in beweging’], an educational game for
kindergartners that provides continuous performance feedback, can be found at
20
http://www.bereslim.nl/lettersinbeweging.htm (in Dutch).
21
3
What makes an
ICT policy plan
so effective?
Cyclical process
Interaction and cooperation
ICT Coordinator
1. School’s vision of
‘good education’
2. Overview of current ICT activities
Comprehensive
content
3. Set priorities
Ruben Vanderlinde & Johan van Braak
Ghent University
1. Vision development
regarding ICT
Teachers
t
5. Prepare
action plan
2. Financial aspects of ICT
4. Develop new
ICT activities
3. ICT policy on infrastructure
ICT can be used in schools in many different ways. The
4. ICT-related professional
development policy
question, of course, is when and how it can be used to yield
5. ICT’s role in the curriculum
the best results. When school teams give this question their
Teacher Teams
considered thought, develop an ICT policy plan, and turn their
ideas into reality, their school is bound to make more effective
use of ICT. Developing an ICT policy plan in a team context is
more important than simply having such a plan.
School Principal
Co
or
Te
a
m
ICT researchers all over the world are work-
are more successful at integrating ICT into their
ing to identify the conditions that best support
teaching and learning activities.
the integration of ICT into school education. In
their research, they generally make a distinction
What is an ICT policy plan?
between teacher-related conditions (e.g., compe-
ICT policy plans can address issues at various
tencies and ICT experience) and school-related
levels. For example, national education authori-
conditions (e.g., management and infrastructure).
ties prepare ICT policy plans that present their
One crucial school-related condition is to de-
vision of ICT to schools and teachers. This article
velop a school-based ICT policy plan. This article
discusses the ICT policy plans formulated by
discusses why schools with ICT policy plans
schools themselves. According to the literature,
22
Know What Works and Why • 4W • English Edition, October 2013
in
di
na
Local Community
p
vo
tio
n
lve
m
Support aspects
Electronic environments
• pICTos omgevingen
Elektronische
• Four-inpICTos
Balance
en
t
Continuing education
Data use
Proces van
Process of policy plan development
ICT policy plan
- Vier in Balans
k
Self-evaluation
Result
23
school-based plans are documents defining the
it more for educational purposes (Vanderlinde
different school-related elements of ICT integra-
& Van Braak, 2010). Obviously, successfully
tion in education. These include a description of
integrating ICT requires more from a school than
the current use of ICT in education, as well as
simply having an ICT policy plan on paper. The
what the school wishes to achieve in this area.
success enjoyed by schools with an ICT policy
An ICT policy plan thus contains both strategic
plan has more to do with the processes that
elements (‘What are our ambitions as a school?’)
precede the formulation of that plan. In order to
and operational elements (‘Which steps should
emphasize these processes, more and more re-
be taken to achieve these ambitions?’).
searchers are referring to the ‘school-based ICT
Developed by the school,
for the school
Schools that develop an ICT policy
plan use ICT more frequently during
the school year and use it more for
educational purposes
al., 2012; Vanderlinde, Van Braak, et al., 2012),
which stresses the underlying processes of an
Published research shows that a school-based
ICT policy plan.
ICT policy plan is essential for the successful inte-
Based on the various studies, we know that
gration of ICT in education. This is the case in all
there are a number of factors that can contribute
sectors: primary and secondary education, as well
to an ICT policy plan’s role as an impetus for
as vocational training and higher education. The
successful ICT integration in schools.
schools that succeed in integrating ICT in their
curricula are usually those that have developed a
1. Team involvement and coordination
comprehensive ICT policy plan. Studies have also
Successful schools involve the whole school
identified a close link between ICT policy plans
team in developing their ICT policy plans. An
and both classroom innovation and changes to
individual teacher or ICT coordinator will never
pupils’ learning activities (Baylor & Ritchie, 2002).
be able to develop an effective and efficient ICT
Other researchers argue that ICT policy plans can
policy plan on their own. The schools that use
contribute to the sustainability of ICT as a specific
ICT successfully are those whose ICT policy plan
form of educational innovation (Jones, 2003). In
is drawn up and developed by the entire school
other words, an ICT policy plan can help schools
team. All of the teachers are closely involved in
incorporate ICT as a classroom innovation.
the development process, and they are encour-
The ICT policy plan:
impetus for development
24
policy planning’ concept (Vanderlinde, Dexter, et
aged to think about the plan’s content and to
relate it to their classroom activities. In other
words, the process of developing an ICT policy
Our conclusion is that schools that develop an
plan motivates the entire school team to think
ICT policy plan are more successful than their
about ICT’s place in the school and in the class-
non-plan counterparts at integrating ICT, and that
room. Research (Vanderlinde, Van Braak, et al.,
they develop better methods for doing so (Baylor
2012) shows, however, that this process must be
& Ritchie, 2002). Not only do these schools
led by a ‘visible’ coordinator, such as the school
use ICT more frequently during the school year
principal or the ICT coordinator. This person then
(Tondeur, et al., 2008), but they also clearly use
structures the policy plan development process
25
and monitors the progress made.
depending on each school’s individual situation
Ruben Vanderlinde
Johan van Braak
Author
Research also shows that schools differ
and context. Generally speaking, the ICT policy
Main author
significantly in the way they structure this process.
plans of successful schools include five elements
ruben.vanderlinde@ugent.be
As a result, ICT policy plans can vary consider-
(see Vanderlinde, Van Braak, et al., 2012):
ably, depending on the situation of the individual
• A vision of ICT’s place in education
school.
• An outline of ICT-related costs
• An ICT policy relating to infrastructure
2. Cyclical process
We know that working together on an ICT policy
plan creates a certain dynamic within a school
team (Vanderlinde, Van Braak, et al., 2012). An
(hardware and software)
• Policy concerning teachers’ development of
their ICT skills
• ICT’s role in the curriculum
Ruben Vanderlinde works in the Department
Johan van Braak also works in the Department
of Educational Studies at Ghent University. He
of Educational Studies Department at Ghent
received his Ph.D. in 2011 for his dissertation
University, where he researches ICT integra-
on ICT policy planning in primary schools.
tion in education. He was Ruben Vanderlinde’s
supervising professor during the dissertation
phase of Vanderlinde’s Ph.D. studies.
effective ICT policy plan provides teachers with
specific guidelines. It lets them know what is
Because ICT policy plans can contain so many
expected of them. This implies that an effective
different elements, they give schools a powerful
ICT policy plan is always a ‘work in progress’
tool in their efforts to integrate ICT successfully.
(Fishman & Zhang, 2003). In other words, it is
Moreover, an effective ICT policy plan contains
not a one-time exercise, but a process that con-
more than just specific guidelines for teachers
tinuously changes and evolves. It is a long-term
– it also addresses particular issues the school
endeavor, and should be updated and amended
faces as an organization. In other words, ICT
at regular intervals, for example in order to inte-
policy plans encompass elements touching on
grate new technologies into the plan.
both didactics and school management.
3. Starting from a clear vision of good education
This paper originally appeared in Dutch in 4W
The most successful ICT policy plans are those
2013(1) as Wat maakt een beleidsplan zo effec-
that are grounded in a clear vision of the nature
tief? (pp. 30-37). Translation: Balance Translation,
of ‘good’ education that is supported by the staff
Maastricht.
(Fishman & Zhang, 2003; Vanderlinde &
Van Braak, 2012). In other words, a school
must first formulate its vision of ‘good’ education
before considering the role of ICT in that context. When a school takes the time to develop
that particular vision, it has a better chance of
finding out how ICT can support teaching and
learning in the classroom.
4. Comprehensive content
As noted earlier, we know that school-based ICT
policy plans can contain a variety of elements,
26
27
What we know about
ICT policy plans
Want to know more?
Baylor, A.L. & Ritchie, D. (2002). What factors facilitate teacher skill, teacher
morale, perceived student learning in technology-using classrooms? Computers & Education, 39, 395-414.
● Schools that successfully integrate ICT have an ICT policy plan that is
developed and supported by the school’s entire staff. Schools with effective
Fishman, B.J. & Zhang, B.H. (2003). Planning for technology: The link between
ICT policy plans involve their teachers in the plan’s development and allow
intentions and use. Educational Technology, 43, 14-18.
teachers to determine its content. The plan offers teachers guidelines for
integrating ICT into their teaching.
Jones, R.M. (2003). Local and national ICT policies. In R.B. Kozma (Ed.),
Technology, innovation and educational change: A global perspective (pp. 163-
● Effective ICT policy plans are always premised on the school’s vision of
194). Eugene, OR: International Society for Technology in Education.
education. The school must define what it means by a ‘good education’
before exploring the role of ICT in that context.
Tondeur, J., Van Keer, H., Van Braak, J. & Valcke, M. (2008). ICT integration
in the classroom: Challenging the potential of a school policy. Computers &
● The process of developing an ICT policy plan is much more important
Education, 51, 212-223.
than merely having such a document. ICT policy plan development is a
cyclical process, and plans must be updated and amended at regular
Vanderlinde, R. & Van Braak, J. (2010). Implementing an ICT curriculum in
intervals.
a decentralised policy context: Description of ICT practices in three Flemish
primary schools. British Journal of Educational Technology, 41, 139-141.
Vanderlinde, R., Van Braak, J. & Dexter, S. (2012). ICT policy planning in a
context of curriculum reform: Disentanglements of ICT policy domains and
artifacts. Computers & Education, 58, 1139-1350.
Vanderlinde, R., Dexter, S. & Van Braak, J. (2012). School-based ICT policy
plans in primary education: Elements, typologies, and underlying processes.
British Journal of Educational Technology, 43, 505-519.
28
29
4
Handwriting versus
typing: What does
neuroscience have
to say?
Jolien C. Francken (MSc, MA)
Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Center for
Cognitive Neuroimaging, Radboud University, Nijmegen
‘Steve Jobs’ schools, iPad apps for babies and a school
laptop for every child: computers are an indispensable part
of education for the current generation of children. In the
media, experts lock horns with one another in their efforts to
prove or disprove that this is progress. One of the opponents
of computer use by children is Manfred Spitzer, a German
psychiatrist. In his book, Digital Dementia, he contends that
children learn from human contact, from genuine experiences
– and not from computer screens.
One of Spitzer’s claims is that handwriting is es-
Paradoxically enough, digital tools can ac­tually
sential to the development of children’s reading
provide support for handwriting. The ‘abc Pocket­
skills: “Young Chinese children who learn and write
Phonics’ app is only one of many computer
characters on the computer do not retain them as
programs designed to help children improve their
well. You have to draw them, with your own hands.
handwriting skills on a computer, tablet, or interac-
That’s how you remember them! That’s how our
tive whiteboard.
brain works” (NRC Next, June 25, 2013).
30
Know What Works and Why • 4W • English Edition, October 2013
31
But what effect does typing have on reading and
from one another even when they are presented
writing skills? And do people who rarely write by
in different sizes and typefaces, you have to pay
hand lose certain motor or cognitive skills? Are
specific attention to certain characteristics of the
there differences in brain activity between hand-
letters while ignoring others.
writing and typing? Little proper scientific research
Researchers believe that children learn to
has been done regarding these questions, in
make this distinction by handwriting letters. Their
part because it is difficult to find two groups to
handwriting is not particularly stable at first, and
compare: very few people refrain completely
the resulting variation in the letters they write is
from using computers. Despite this, a number
essential to that process. The very fact that they
of studies are trying to answer these questions.
both write and see differing versions of a letter
Effect of typing on motor skills
Figuur 1:
The characters that adults had to learn to recognize as part of the study conducted by Longcamp, et al., 2008
teaches them its crucial, fixed characteristics.
The researchers tested this hypothesis by
there were differences in the development of
If you write by hand infrequently, your penman-
teaching letters to a group of children who had
the ‘reading area’ of the brain.
Handwriting and the learning
of new motor programs
ship skills will deteriorate and you will probably
not yet learned to read, either by having them
In a follow-up study, the researchers specifi-
In addition to the hypothesis that writing by
write slower – this will not come as a surprise to
write the letters by hand or by simply showing
cally examined the difference between typing
hand results in more variation and thus to im-
anyone. But do your fine motor skills in general
them the letters. Both groups learned to recognize
and writing by hand. The outcome was the
proved performance in learning letters, there is
also suffer if you type more than you handwrite?
the letters, but only the group that learned them
same: the left fusiform gyrus area was more
another, complementary explanation. There is a
One study compared two groups of adults: a
by handwriting them had higher levels of brain
active when viewing letters learned by hand-
strong link between observing and acting: you
‘computer’ group (that primarily used a computer
activity in the left fusiform gyrus area (an area of
writing them than it was when viewing letters
learn observation skills better when you perform
for word processing), and a ‘handwriting’ group.
the brain that is engaged when adults read letters)
learned by typing them or following their shape
the related action. The same is true for reading
Both groups were asked to complete a number of
when viewing the letters (James, 2010).
with a finger. That means that it is the act of
and writing. But how does that work, exactly?
tests designed to test their fine motor skills.
What do differences in brain activity matter if
writing the letters by hand that activates this area
When a person learns to write a letter by
On one of the tests, in which the participants
both groups of children learned to recognize the
of the brain (James & Engelhardt, 2012).
hand, a specific motor program is stored in their
were asked to use a pen to follow a line without
letters? Children are not born with specialized
In other words, even in children who have not
brain: a kind of description of the precise move-
going off the line, the computer group completed
‘reading’ or ‘writing’ areas in their brain: these
yet learned to read, handwriting activates the
ments that must be performed in order to write
the task much more slowly than the handwriting
are areas they develop in childhood through
same area of the brain that is activated in adult
a certain letter. This motor program is activated
group (Sulzenbruck et al., 2011). This implies that
their experience with language. Child develop-
readers when they see a letter. This does not
when you want to write the same letter again.
typing more and handwriting less affects not just
ment researchers often study adults first to see
happen if children learn letters by typing them.
Neuroscientists believe that the same motor pro-
penmanship, but other related basic motor skills
how the brain functions once development is
One explanation for this is that there is a wider
gram is also activated when you see that letter.
as well.
complete. They then compare this with the brain
variety produced in letters that are written by
When you learn a new letter by typing it, you
activity of children – in this case children who
hand. If that were the only difference children
do not create the unique motor program that
had not yet learned to read. The brain activ-
would also be able to better remember them
accompanies the handwriting of that letter. This
ity of the group of children who learned letters
when being shown the letters in different type-
is because the action of typing has no intrinsic
Letter recognition is an early phase of learning
by writing them by hand demonstrated more
faces. This has not yet been studied, but there
relationship with the shape of the letters – you
to read fluently. The speed and accuracy with
‘adult’ brain activity than the group of children
seems to be yet another important difference
make the same movement regardless of which
which kindergartners can identify letters is a good
who learned letters simply by looking at them.
between handwriting and typing.
key you press. The link that is created by typing
predictor of their future reading skills (James &
In other words: both groups of children could
Engelhardt, 2012). In order to distinguish letters
recognize the letters after being trained, but
The effect of handwriting
on reading skills
32
does nothing to teach you to recognize letters.
33
Figure 2:
Areas of the brain that are more active when test subjects observe letters they learned by writing rather
than by typing (Longcamp, et al., 2008).
MidFG
IFG
4
PCL
0
IPL
z = 19
z = 37
z = 61
Handwriting versus typing
adults when they are reading are also activated in
These studies show that writing by hand has a
children who learn letters by handwriting.
substantially different effect on various cognitive
functions than typing on a keyboard. Researchers
Although these studies point to a single conclu-
believe that this difference is attributable to the
sion – that handwriting is different from typing
motor activity – the act of handwriting itself. First,
– there is no evidence that children who do not
handwriting instills better fine motor skills. Sec-
have the motor skills acquired by handwriting are
ond, reading (observing and recognizing letters)
unable to learn to read. The studies simply show
uses information from the motor programs you
that a motor component in reading education
use to write letters, and children do not develop
makes learning to read easier.
those motor skills, or develop them as well, when
they learn letters by typing. Moreover, the varia-
This paper originally appeared in Dutch in 4W
tion in children’s letter production is essential to
2013(3) as Schrijven versus typen: wat zegt de
their learning the fixed characteristics of letters,
neurowetenschap? (pp. 6-13). Translation:
which contributes to their ability to recognize
Balance Translation, Maastricht.
letters and distinguish them from one another.
Finally, the areas of the brain that are active in
Does that mean you will be less able to remem-
perfor­ming, imagining, and observing actions
ber the letter?
(Longcamp et al., 2008).
One study involved adults who had to learn
A similar study, in which the subjects were
Jolien Francken
new letters, either by writing them by hand or by
children who had not yet learned to read, also
Author
j.francken@donders.ru.nl
using a keyboard. The researchers then admin-
showed that the subjects recognized the letters
istered a test to determine whether the subjects
they had learned by writing them by hand better
recognized the orientation of the new letters (as
than they did the letters they had learned on the
a reader does when identifying a ‘b’ versus a
computer (Longcamp et al., 2005).
‘d’) while simultaneously measuring their brain
Learning letters by writing them by hand
activity with an fMRI scanner.
results in better recognition of the new letters,
Jolien Francken is a Ph.D. candidate at the
The subjects recognized the letters better
both by adults and by children who have not yet
Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and
and for a longer period of time if they had writ-
learned to read. When subjects are shown the
Behavior, Center for Cognitive Neuroimaging
ten them by hand. These subjects’ brain activity
newly learned letters, the areas of the brain in-
at Radboud University in Nijmegen, the
was greater in a number of areas when a
volved with motor activity are activated, but only
Netherlands. She works in the research groups
comparison was made between letters learned
if they learned those letters by handwriting them.
headed by Peter Hagoort and Floris de Lange
by handwriting and those learned by typing:
This shows that letter-specific motor programs
and is investigating the influence of language on
Broca’s area (IFG) and the left and right parietal
are involved in reading as well as in writing.
perception.
areas (IPL). We know from earlier research
that these areas of the brain are involved in
34
35
What we know about
writing versus typing
Want to know more?
James, K.H. (2010). Sensori-motor experience leads to changes in visual processing in the developing brain. Developmental Science, 13(2), 279-288.
Learning letters and writing them by hand results in four differences in compa-
James, K.H., & Engelhardt, L. (2012). The effects of handwriting experience on
rison to typing:
functional brain development in pre-literate children. Trends in Neuroscience
and Education, 1(1), 32-42.
● Handwriting creates a unique motor program for the letter in the motor
areas of the brain, which contributes to letter recognition.
Longcamp, M., Boucard, C., Gilhodes, J.C., Anton, J.L., Roth, M., Nazarian,
B., & Velay, J.L. (2008). Learning through hand- or typewriting influences
● Handwriting produces more variation. This promotes abstraction, which
is important in letter recognition.
● Children who have not yet learned to read activate the adult ‘reading’
visual recognition of new graphic shapes: behavioral and functional imaging
evidence. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 20(5), 802-815.
Longcamp, M., Zerbato-Poudou, M.T., & Velay, J.L. (2005). The influence
area of the brain more when they see a letter they learned by hand-
of writing practice on letter recognition in preschool children: a comparison
writing than when they see a letter they learned by typing.
between handwriting and typing. Acta Psychologica, 119(1), 67-79.
● People who frequently write by hand have better basic motor skills.
Sulzenbruck, S., Hegele, M., Rinkenauer, G., & Heuer, H. (2011). The death of
handwriting: secondary effects of frequent computer use on basic motor skills.
Journal of Motor Behavior, 43(3), 247-251.
36
37
5
Practical examples
as a resource
for professional
development
Jo Tondeur, Natalie Pareja Roblin, Johan van Braak
Ghent University
Figure 1:
Model for using practical examples as a resource for professional development
IMPACT ON
THINKING
• Affirmation
• Broadening
• Strategic thinking
CAREFUL AND COMPLETE
PRESENTATION
Petra Fisser
Netherlands Institute for Curriculum Development (SLO)
Joke Voogt
INNOVATIVE
CONTENT
USABLE IN
TEACHER’S
OWN PRACTICE
EXAMPLES OF
EDUCATIONAL PRACTICE
University of Twente
Seeing how colleagues use ICT in their classrooms can be
inspiring – “I’m going to do it that way, too!” – but simply
copying someone else’s example is not a fundamental
change in behavior. To achieve that, one’s personal views
must also evolve. Examples of educational practice that
SPECIFIC DIRECTIONS
FITS INTO POLICY AND
ICT INFRASTRUCTURE
promote such evolution contribute to teachers’ professional
development.
We’ve all seen the short ‘educational and enter-
cusses such examples of educational practice (in
taining’ films shown on study days for teachers;
short: practical examples) because, if they meet
the ones that show practical, real-world classroom
certain conditions, they can inspire teachers to
examples, such as teachers demonstrating how
integrate ICT into their daily classroom teaching.
IMPACT ON
ACTIONS
• Superficial use
• Adoption/Imitation
• Adaptation
to use a new ICT application. This article dis-
38
Know What Works and Why • 4W • English Edition, October 2013
39
How do practical examples promote
professional development?
cal example to fit his or her specific context,
The use of practical examples to support teach-
as the available ICT infrastructure or stu-
ers’ professional development presumes that
dents’ ICT skills.
making adjustments for such circumstances
people are inclined to follow a good example.
Good practical examples can forge
the link between doing and
thinking, thereby promoting
professional development
That presumption is sometimes borne out.
The second is the impact on how someone thinks:
Kelchtermans and his colleagues (2008) write that
• Affirmation of the individual’s own views. If
observing practical examples does ‘something’ to
a teacher can identify with the practical ICT
the respondents. That ‘something’ ranges from in-
example and the underlying educational vision,
spiring them to think about their practice differently
he feels as though his own views have been
to getting them to make far-reaching changes
affirmed. The same thing can happen if the
in classroom and school practices. The fact that
experience contrasts strikingly with his own
teachers respond to practical examples in differ-
approach: formulating grounds for rejecting a
ent ways relates in part to the quality of the those
practical example is also a type of professional
examples, a topic we address again below. We
development.
first present the various responses that practical
• Broadening of existing views. For many teach-
examples may provoke. For the sake of complete-
ers, observing practical examples provides
ness, we note that the findings of Kelchtermans
an opportunity to examine their own teaching
and his colleagues refer to practical examples
practices from another perspective and thus to
in general, while this article focuses on practical
broaden their views about using ICT. They put
examples relating to ICT integration in education.
their own knowledge and views about the role
The first aspect is the impact on actions,
of ICT in educational processes to the test, as
meaning the specific changes that teachers make
it were, increasing their ability to take well-
to their behavior. Kelchtermans identifies three
types of change:
• Superficial use. The teacher follows tips or
reasoned decisions.
• Development of strategic thinking. The question of how a practical example can be ap-
uses materials provided in the example, such
plied in one’s own situation prompts teachers
as educational software, without making
to think about how they can persuade their
any comprehensive changes. This was the
colleagues/principal to work together on ICT
type of change most frequently observed by
integration.
Kelchtermans and his colleagues. It results
in very little professional development.
• Adoption and/or imitation. The teacher adopts
identified a third effect: the immediate rejection of
the practical example in its entirety. Because
the practical example. They observed this effect
substantive knowledge of the example is lack-
primarily when the respondents were unable to
ing, this often leads to superficial ICT use.
identify with anything in the example shown.
• Adaptation. The teacher adapts the practi-
40
Finally, Kelchtermans and his colleagues also
Although observing practical examples can result
41
in a wide variety of responses from teachers,
using ICT, making it clear what the effects
preparation and implementation. In short,
The circumstances under which the practical
they can only be viewed as having contributed
will be in terms of efficiency, effectiveness,
the teacher learns about the conditions and
examples are presented to them also play a role.
to the professional development of teachers if
and motivation.
equipment on which the example is based
Simply having the teachers watch them is not
and can use that knowledge to make a com-
sufficient (Van den Berg, et al., 2008). Practical
parison with his own situation.
examples must always be seen in relation to the
concrete actions (‘doing’) go hand in hand with
a change in their personal views (‘thinking’). The
link between thinking and doing is the key. If that
2) Usability: the example can
be adopted and integrated
A practical example inherently involves a
5) Presentation: careful and complete
specific situation from which they originate and
It is essential that the practical example
must be interpreted (or reinterpreted) to suit the
link is missing, there is a risk that the teacher will
specific situation, making it a difficult source
simply opt to superficially apply tips and tricks
from which to draw general lessons. For
should provide the observer with a careful
teacher’s own teaching situation. Finally, collec-
using the latest gadgets (Sang, et al., 2012). In
the teacher, it is important that the practical
and complete impression of the application.
tive interpretation and analysis by the teacher’s
short, professional development consists of two
example answer the question of how he or
This means that, in addition to the result, the
colleagues acts as a validating filter for accepting
elements: hands-on development and minds-on
she can use it in his or her teaching. A good
example should also show the goals and pro-
the practical example as a useful tool for his own
development. In this case, that means acting
practical example shows why the ICT applica-
cess that led to the result, including the ‘chal-
teaching practice (Simons, et al., 2003).
and thinking differently when it comes to ICT in
tion in question would work in that situation by
lenges’ involved, such as technical difficulties
Teachers do not need to learn how to put exam-
education. Good practical examples can forge
devoting attention to the specific context. The
and how the people involved dealt with them.
ples into practice; instead, they must learn to in-
the link between doing and thinking, thereby
same is true for the degree to which the ICT
If a practical example only presents success
terpret inspiring examples from the vantage point
promoting professional development (Van den
application in the example can be integrated
stories, it will quickly be dismissed as overly
of their own context and to apply those examples
Berg, et al., 2008).
into multiple fields of learning and/or used
idealistic and untrustworthy (Tondeur, et al.,
in their own teaching practice. That will enable
with pupils in different grade levels.
2012). Multimedia presentations of practical
them to develop new lesson plans that include
examples (such as video case studies) offer
the use of ICT (Tondeur, et al., 2013) and to test
good opportunities for highlighting elements
those lesson plans in an authentic setting. Based
such as context, theory, and didactic infor-
on evaluation and feedback, a practical example
What makes a practical example
a ‘good’ practical example?
3) Instructions for use: specific instructions
The question, therefore, is what features a
A good practical example specifically shows
for didactic practice
practical example must have to bring about this
teachers how the ICT application can
mation (see the article about TPACK in 4W
may thus result in a new ICT application being
dual effect (i.e., changing what the teacher does
promote learning. It outlines what the ICT
2013:2). Good practical examples can thus
introduced to the classroom.
and how he thinks). In other words, what makes
application will demand from the teachers:
present ICT as both an end and a means.
a practical example a “good” practical example?
the roles they will be expected to play, the
If we put ourselves in the teacher’s place, we
activities they will be able to offer, and how
realize that an example must answer all the
they can determine whether the material was
From observing examples to
integrating ICT in the classroom
questions he might pose: “What is innovative
successfully learned (Van den Akker, 1988;
If a practical example meets the above criteria,
about the ICT application?” “How can I use it in
Voogt, 2010).
it will likely be a source of inspiration for profes-
my teaching?” “What does this mean for me in
terms of my teaching methodology?” “Do we as
a school already have everything we need to
4) Organization: fits into ICT school
policy and infrastructure
In addition to answering substantive,
practical example also addresses organi-
the teachers to whom the example is provided.
1) Content: it is innovative and
zational questions: what infrastructure will
This is in­fluenced by their personal background
be needed, what software will be used, how
(their experience and expectations) and the
well does the example fit in the school’s ICT
school context.
new and demonstrates opportunities for
42
Translation, Maastricht.
example does not depend exclusively on its fea-
five different features:
adds value to teaching practice
fessionalisering (pp. 22-30). Translation: Balance
in this respect is that the impact of a practical
tures, but also on what those features mean to
A good practical example offers something
2013(3) as Praktijkvoorbeelden als bron voor pro-
sional development. An important side note
pedagogical, and didactic questions, a good
follow this example?” We distinguish between
This paper originally appeared in Dutch in 4W
policy, how much time will be needed for
43
Jo Tondeur
Main author
Johan van Braak, Natalie Pareja Roblin,
Petra Fisser & Joke Voogt
jo.tondeur@ugent.be
Authors
Jo Tondeur is post-doctoral researcher at
Johan van Braak and Joke Voogt are senior
Ghent University (FWO, Research Foundation -
lecturers at Ghent University and the University
Flanders). He researches school development,
of Twente, respectively. They are both involved
educational innovation, and instructional design.
in studying ICT integration in education.
His current line of research focuses on ICT
integration in teacher training programs.
Natalie Pareja Roblin is a post-doctoral researcher at Ghent University. She is studying
the interaction between educational research
and practice.
Petra Fisser is a curriculum developer at SLO.
She promotes continuing professional development in the field of ICT in education.
44
45
What we know about
practical examples
Want to know more?
Kelchtermans, G., Ballet, K., Peeters, E., Piot, L. & Verckens, A. (2008). OBPWO 04.04. Goede praktijkvoorbeelden als hefboom voor schoolontwikkeling.
Identificatie van determinanten en kritische kenmerken. kenmerken (English:
● Good practical examples of new ICT applications can bring about a
change in how teachers act and think.
Good practical examples as an impetus for school development. Identification of
determinants and critical remarks). Koepelrapport (English: Linkage Report), 56
pp. Leuven: KU Leuven, Centre for Education Policy and Innovation.
● To achieve this change, a practical example must meet three conditions: it must present a specific, innovative ICT practice (example),
Sang, G., Valcke, M., Van Braak, J., Tondeur, J., Zhu, C. & Yu, K. (2012). Challeng-
demonstrate what it actually does (description), and explain why it
ing science teachers’ beliefs and practices through a video-case-based interven-
does what it does (explanation).
tion in China’s primary schools, Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 40(4),
363-378.
● Simply having teachers watch practical examples of ICT applications is not enough. In order to put examples into practice, teachers
Simons, H., Kushner, S. H., Jones, K. & James, D. (2003). From evidence-based
must be able to interpret (or reinterpret) them to suit their own teach-
practice to practice-based evidence: the idea of situated generalization. Research
ing situation.
Papers in Education, 18(4), 303-311.
Tondeur, J., Hacquaert, J., Thys, J., Vandeput, L. & Hustinx, W. (2012). iTeacher
Education: Wat leren we uit praktijkvoorbeelden? (English: iTeacher Education:
What do we learn from practical examples?). Velon/Velov-conferentie 2012.
Antwerp, Belgium.
Tondeur, J., Van Braak, J., Sang, G., Voogt, J., Fisser, P. & Ottenbreit-Leftwich,
A. (2012). Preparing pre-service teachers to integrate technology in education:
A synthesis of qualitative evidence. Computers & Education, 59(1), 134-144.
Van den Akker, J. (1988). The teacher as learner in curriculum implementation.
Journal of Curriculum Studies, 20(1), 47-55.
Van den Berg, E., Wallace, J. & Pedretti, E. (2008). Multimedia cases, teacher
education and teacher learning. In J. Voogt & G. Knezek (Eds.), International
Handbook of Information Technology in Primary and Secondary Education (pp.
475-487). New York: Springer.
Voogt, J. (2010). A Blended In-service Arrangement for Supporting Science
Teachers in Technology Integration. Journal of Technology in Teacher Education,
18(1), 83-109.
46
47
In this issue:
1. Using ICT to optimize the memorization of facts
Know What Works and Why
Know What Works and Why is a scientific
publication of Kennisnet.
Hedderik van Rijn & Menno Nijboer
2. Educational software for young children
Adriana G. Bus
‘Know What Works and Why’ [Weten Wat Werkt en
3. What makes an ICT policy plan so effective?
Waarom] publishes articles regarding the benefits and
Ruben Vanderlinde & Johan van Braak
effect of ICT applications in education. It covers ICT
applications applied not only for didactic purposes,
4. Handwriting versus typing: What does
but also in the school organization and in professional
neuroscience have to say?
development. The articles help education professionals
Jolien Francken
to assess whether a particular ICT application would be
appropriate for them and likely to succeed in their context.
English Edition, October 2013
5. Practical examples as a resource for
professional development
Jo Tondeur, Natalie Pareja Roblin, Johan van Braak,
Petra Fisser & Joke Voogt