1. science
2. ecology
3. pollution

Australian Beverages Council Ltd
Technical Manual
Last updated: 01 September 2004
2004
010701
Table of Contents
1.0
Date Marking Guideline for Non-Alcoholic Water Based Beverages
Page 3
2.0
Emission Estimation Technique Manual
Page 13
3.0
A Code of Good Hygienic Practices for the Soft Drink Industry
Page 42
4.0
Product Recall Procedure for the Soft Drink Industry
Page 52
5.0
General Specification for Two Litre One Piece PET Bottle
Page 75
6.0
Sensory Evaluation of the Shelf Life of Carbonated Soft Drinks
Page 84
7.0
Voluntary Manufacturing Standards for Carbonated Soft
Drink Containers
Page 90
8.0
Labelling Guideline for Non-Alcoholic Beverages
Page 103
9.0
An Examination of the Causative Factors and Preventative Measures
For the Control of Mould Growth in the Production of Bottled Water
Page 138
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Date Marki ng Guideli ne
for Non-Alco holic Water Based Beverages
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Table of Contents
1.0
Introduction
5
2.0
Food Law
6
•
Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ) Food Standards Code
•
Summary of FSANZ Standard 1.2.5 Date Marking
•
Summary of FSANZ Standard 1.2.9 Legibility Requirements
3.0
Soft Drink Stability and Shelf Life
9
4.0
Recommended Shelf Life for:
10
5.0
•
Carbonated Soft Drinks
•
Bottled Waters
•
New Age Beverages
Proper Storage and Handling
11
Table 1: Guidelines for Shelf Life in Months for Carbonated Beverages
10
Table 2: Guidelines for Shelf life in Months of Bottled Water (Including Bulk and Single 10
Serve Sizes)
Table 3: Guidelines for Shelf Life in Months for Non Carbonated Beverages
11
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1.0 Introduction
Date marking allows consumers to better determine how long a food or beverage can be
expected to retain all of its quality attributes. Quality attributes include organoleptic
properties such as colour, taste, texture and flavour. In some circumstances date marking
may also indicate how long the food can be expected to be safe for consumption.
Under the new FSANZ Joint Food Standards Code all beverages produced in either
Australia or overseas, with a minimum durable life of less than two years will be required to
be date marked with a best before date. If the food or beverage needs to be consumed
within a certain period of time for health and safety reasons a 'use-by' date must be used
instead of the 'best-before' date. Previously the 'used-by' date and the 'best-before' date
could be used interchangeably on food labels. This new standard will align Australia and
New Zealand with international food standards.
It is the beverage manufacturers responsibility to determine whether a 'use-by' date or a
'best-before' date should be used. It is also the manufactures responsibility to calculate the
'use-by' and 'best before' dates of the beverage.
In view of the above, Australian Beverages 's Technical Committee has developed the
following set of guidelines to help you and your business understand the FSANZ Joint
Food Standards Code date marking and shelf life of products. Please note these are
guidelines only and based on industry knowledge. We strongly recommended
manufacturers to assess the shelf life of individual products based on individual
ingredients and packaging materials.
The guidelines contain advice and information on:
•
•
•
FSANZ Food Regulations for Date Marking and Legibility Requirements
Soft Drink Stability and Sweeteners,
Recommended Shelf life of products including:
-
•
Carbonated Soft Drinks
Bottled Water
New Age Beverages
Storage and Handling Recommendations
Australian Beverages sees the major benefit of the Soft Drink Industry Date Marking
Guidelines is the improved quality of soft drinks offered for sale to our consumers.
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2.0
Food Law
Summary of requirements from FSANZ Standard 1.2.5, Date Marking of Packaged
Food
The FSANZ Joint Food Standards Code states that all packaged food will have to be date
marked unless the shelf life of the food is two years or more. A summary of the
requirements of the FSANZ Standards for date marking is listed below.
The FSANZ Standard prescribes a date marking system for packaged food and the form in
which those foods must be date marked. The Standard requires packaged food, with some
exceptions, to be date marked, and prohibits the sale of packaged food after the expiration
of the use-by date, where such a date mark is required.
In this Standard –
Best-before date, in relation to a package of food, means the date which signifies
the end of the period during which the intact package of food, if stored in
accordance with any stated storage conditions, will remain fully marketable and will
retain any specific qualities for which express or implied claims have been made.
NOTE: The expiry of the ‘best-before date’ does not mean that the food is no longer
marketable after this date. The food may still be satisfactory beyond this date.
Use-by date, in relation to a package of food, means the date that signifies the end
of the estimated period after which the intact package of food, if stored in
accordance with any stated storage conditions, probably will not have the quality
attributes normally expected by the consumers.
NOTE: The reference to ‘quality attributes’ in the definition of use-by date includes,
for the purposes of this Standard, attributes of the food relating to health and safety.
§
Food must be date marked
(1)
The label on a package of food, subject to subclause 2(2), must include –
(a)
its best-before date; or
(b)
its use-by date, where the food should be consumed before a certain date
because of health or safety reasons;
unless :-
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(c)
the best-before date or the use-by date of the food is two years or
more.
Exemptions form Date Marking
§
individual portion of ice cream or ice confection; or
§
small packages, except where the food should be consumed before a
certain date because of health or safety reasons.
Food must not be sold past its ‘use-by’ date.
Prescribed form of date mark
(1)
A best-before date must use the words –
‘BEST BEFORE’
accompanied by the date or a reference to where the date is located in the
label.
(2)
A use-by date must use the words –
‘USE BY’
accompanied by the date or a reference to where the date is located in the
label.
Prescribed form of date
(1)
The best-before date and use-by date must consist at least of –
(a) the day and the month for products with a best-before date or use-by
date of not more than 3 months; or
(b)
the month and the year for products with a best-before date or use-by
date of more than 3 months.
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(2)
The best-before date and use-by date must be expressed in uncoded numerical
and chronological form, other than the month, which may be expressed in
letters.
Examples:
For paragraph 5(1)(a) 3 Dec or 3 12
3 12 99 or 3 Dec 99
For paragraph 5(1)(b) Dec 99 or 12 99
3 12 99 or 3 Dec 99
§
Statement of storage conditions
(1) The label on a package of food must include a statement of any specific storage
conditions required to ensure that the food will keep for the specified period
indicated in the –
(a)
use-by date; or
(b)
best-before date.
Summary of requirements from FSANZ Standard 1.2.9 - Legibility
Requirements
This FSANZ Standard sets out general and specific legibility requirements for the labelling
of packaged foods.
In this Standard –
Size of type means the measurement from the base to the top of a letter or
numeral.
General requirements: (1)
Unless otherwise expressly permitted by this Code, each word, statement,
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expression or design prescribed to be contained, written or set out in a label
must, wherever occurring , be so contained, written or set out legibly and
prominently, and in the English language.
(2)
3.0
Where a language other than English is used in addition to the English
language on a label, the information in that language must not negate or
contradict the information on the label in the English language.
Soft Drink Stability and Shelf Life
The shelf life of soft drinks is affected by many different variables such as carbonation, pH,
temperature storage conditions and sweetener formulations.
Whether the product is artificially sweetened and the type of sweetener used can vary the
shelf life to that of sugar products. For non-nutritive sweetened products, the Ph and
storage temperatures drive the loss of aspartame sweetness over time. These conditions
also impact the stability of certain flavours in soft drinks.
There are a number of important points, which need consideration when determining the
shelf life of products:
1.
Carbonation – In PET carbonation loss may be significant when talking about shelf
life. Carbonation is what appeals to consumers for refreshment value so a loss of
carbonation will lead to a significant loss in the consumer’s perception of the
product’s quality. In the case of small packages of PET it is carbonation loss before
loss of sweetness that will dictate shelf life.
2.
Stability of Sweeteners: stability of currently used intense sweeteners can vary with
pH; the majority of soft drinks using intense sweeteners and in particular aspartame
are at the lower end of the pH scale (3.0) and may be impacted by shelf life.
3.
Temperature fluctuates throughout a 24-hour period and hence the storage
temperature assumptions should reflect this. Naturally there are also regional and
seasonal differences which need consideration. In the warmer months, soft drinks
sell in larger amounts so faster selling periods often means that stock rotation is
highest and shelf life is more manageable.
4.
Sweetener Formulations: Many companies have recently reviewed their sweetener
formulations and Aspartame/Ace K blends are now common in the marketplace.
Extension of shelf life was one of the key drivers for this change. More specifically,
the blend ratio is a key driver of shelf life with this altering as aspartame
concentration in a formulation shifts over time. This results in shifts in sweetener
synergy and perception.
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5.
Consumer Perception of sweetness and flavour is critical. This issue is driven by
what is deemed as an acceptable sweetness loss. Research indicates that a loss in
sweetness up to 25% can be tolerated before a product is deemed to taste different
from its fresh equivalent.
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4.0
Guidelines for Shelf Life of Products
Table 1: Guidelines for Shelf Life in Months for Carbonated Beverages
Packaging
Materials
Sugar
Shelf Life of Products in Months
PET
Non-Sugar
Sugar
Cans
Non Sugar
Sugar
Glass
Non Sugar
< 1 Litre
> 1 Litre
4
6
4
6
12
12
6
6
12
12
6
6
Australian Beverages ’s guidelines suggest that If the product is consumed within these
time frames, your customers can be assured that the product is of optimal quality, provided
the product has been stored under proper conditions (i.e. in cool, dark places, away from
sunlight, heat etc). It is highly likely that the product may still be safe to consume after the
best before date, but the quality may be reduced.
Table 2: Guidelines for Shelf life in Months of Bottled Water (Including Bulk and
Single Serve Sizes)
Packaging
Materials
Shelf Life of Products in Months
< 1 Litre
> 1 Litre
PET
12
12
Cans
12
12
Glass
12
12
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Table 3: Guidelines for Shelf Life in Months for Non Carbonated Beverages
Packaging
Materials
Sugar
Shelf Life of Products in Months
PET
Non-Sugar
Sugar
Cans
Non Sugar
Sugar
Glass
Non Sugar
5.0
< 1 Litre
> 1 Litre
9
9
6
6
12
12
6
6
12
12
6
6
Proper Storage and Handling
Careful attention during storage and handling will ensure quality is maintained once the
product leaves the factory. You can reward your customers with freshness and reliability if
you follow the commonsense rules that apply to storage and handling of all food products.
Soft drinks should be protected from any source of contamination, and the effects of
extreme weather conditions, at all times.
The following checklist (use Australian Beverages ’s Golden Rules Poster when available)
has been developed to ensure your products are handled and stored correctly:
1.
Examine on Delivery - check that products and packaging are in good condition
on delivery
2.
Cool and Dry - drinks should be stored in clean, cool dry area. Ideally stored
below 25 degrees Celsius. Products should be kept away from all sources of
heat
3.
Avoid sunlight- protect drinks from exposure to direct sunlight.
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4.
Off the floor and away from the walls - store goods at least 100mm off the
ground. Stack away from walls and ceilings
5.
Avoid non food products- always store and display drinks with other food
products
6.
Avoid strong odours - keep drinks away from strong odours including opened
and unopened chemicals, paints, petrol, insecticides and cleaning agents
7.
Rotate stock - rotate stock and sell earliest date or code first. Follow the "first in,
first out" rule.
8.
Stack with Care- Maintain correct stacking weight for size of containers. Do not
overload containers at the bottom or cause the stack to buckle and fall.
9.
Clean and tidy- ensure premises are clean, tidy and free of pests. Wash hands
before handling any food products. Clean up any spills as soon as they occur.
Be clean. Be cautious.
10. Opening cartons - When opening cartons, be careful not to score bottles and
cans with sharp implements
11. Display bottles on clean shelf - Place bottles on clean shelves, but be sure to
remove traces of cleaning residues. Alkaline chemicals, like detergents, weaken
PET bottles.
O Ooo
ooO
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Emi ssio n E sti matio n
Techniq ue for Soft Dri nk Manufact ure
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Table of Contents
1.0
2.0
Introduction
16
1.1
Manual Structure
16
1.2
Manual Application
17
Reporting Thresholds and Emissions
19
2.1
Transfers
19
2.2
Category 1
19
2.3
Category 2
19
2.4
Category 3
21
2.5
Emissions to Air
21
2.6
Emissions to Water
22
2.7
Emissions to Land
22
3.0
Glossary of Technical Terms and Abbreviations
23
4.0
References
24
Appendix A – Emission Estimation Techniques
A.1 Direct Measurement
25
26
A.1.1 Sampling Data
A.1.2 Continuous Emission Monitoring Systems (CEMS) Data
A.2 Mass Balance
A.2.1
Overall Facility Mass Balance
A.2.2
Individual Unit Process Mass Balance
32
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A.3 Engineering Calculations
A.3.1
35
Fuel Analysis
A.4 Emission Factors
36
Appendix B – Emission Estimation Techniques: Acceptable Reliability and Uncertainty
B.1
Direct Measurement
38
B.2
Mass Balance
38
B.3
Engineering Calculations
38
B.4
Emission Factors
39
Appendix C – List of Variables and Symbols
40
TABLE 1 – Approximate Fuel Usage Required to Trigger Category 2 Thresholds
2 – Category 2 Substances Which Trigger Reporting
3 – Stack Sample Test Results
4 – Example CEMS Output for a Hypothetical Furnace Firing Waste Fuel
Oil
EXAMPLE 1 – Using Stack Sampling Data
2 – Calculating Moisture Percentage
3 – Using CEMS Data
4 – Using Mass Balance
5 – Using Fuel Analysis Data
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1.0
Introduction
The purpose of all Emission Estimation Technique (EET) manual is to assist Australian
manufacturing, industrial and service facilities to report emissions of listed substances to
the National Pollutant Inventory (NPI). This manual describes the procedures and
recommended approaches for estimation emissions from facilities engaged in soft drink
manufacturing.
The soft drink manufacturing activities covered in this manual apply to facilities primarily
engaged in the manufacturing, canning or bottling of aerated or carbonated soft drinks,
cordials, concentrated cordials, fruit juices or fruit juices drinks of less than single strength,
syrups or non-alcoholic brewed beer or cider. These products may be either carbonated
or non-carbonated and include bottled water.
EET MANUAL:
Soft Drink Manufacture
HANDBOOK:
Soft Drink Manufacture
ANZSIC CODE:
2186
Pacific Air & Environment Pty Ltd drafted this manual on behalf of the Commonwealth
Government. It has been developed through a process of national consultation involving
State and Territory environmental authorities and key industry stakeholders. Particular
thanks are due to the Australian Beverages Council, Coca-Cola Amatil and Schweppes
Cottee’s for their assistance in the drafting of this Manual.
1.1
Manual Structure: §
Section 2 discusses the NPI reporting issues associated with the soft drink
manufacturing industry. Section 2.1 discusses the issue of transfers. Sections
2.2, 2.3 and 2.4 discuss the Category 1, 2 and 3 thresholds respectively in terms
of which substances are likely to trigger these thresholds. Sections 2.5, 2.6 and
2.7 examine the potential emissions to air, water and land respectively, which are
associated with soft drink manufacture.
•
Section 3 provides a glossary of technical terms and abbreviations used in this
manual.
•
Section 4 provides a list of references used in the development of this
manual.
•
Appendix A provides a overview of the four general types of emission estimation
techniques: sampling of direct measurement; mass balance; engineering
calculations and emission factors, as well as example calculations to illustrate
their use. Reference to relevant sections of this appendix is recommended in
understanding the application of these techniques with particular respect to the
ferroalloy industry.
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1.2
•
Appendix B provides a discussion of the reliability and uncertainty associated with
each of the emission estimation techniques presented in Appendix A.
•
Appendix C provides a list of variables and symbols used throughout this Manual.
Manual Application: Context and use of this manual
This NPI manual provides a ‘how to’ guide for the application of various methods to
estimate emissions as required by the NPI. It is recognized that the data that is
generated in this process will have varying degrees of accuracy with respect to the
actual emissions from soft drink manufacturing facilities. In some cases there will
necessarily be a large potential error due to inherent assumptions in the various
emissions estimation techniques (EETs) and / or lack of available information of
chemical processes.
EETs should be considered as ‘points of reference’
The EETs and generic emission factors presented in this manual should be seen as
‘points of reference’ for guidance purposes only. Each has associated error bands
that are potentially quite large. Appendix B discusses the general reliability
associated with the various methods.
The potential errors associated with the different EET options should be considered
on a case-by-case basis as to their suitability for a particular facility. Facilities may
use EETs that are not outlined in this document. They must, however, seek the
consent of their relevant environmental authority to determine whether any ‘in house’
EETs are suitable for meeting their NPI reporting requirements.
Hierarchical approach recommended in applying EETs
This manual presents a number of different EETs, each of which could be applied to
the estimation of NPI substances. The range of available methods should be viewed
as a hierarchy of available techniques in terms of the error associated with the
estimate. Each substance needs to be considered in terms of the level of error that
is acceptable or appropriate with the use of various estimation techniques. Also the
availability of pre-existing data and the effort required to decrease the error
associated with the estimate will need to be considered. For example, if emissions
of a substance are clearly very small no matter which EET is applied, then there
would be little gained by applying an EET which required significant additional
sampling.
The steps in meeting the reporting requirements of the NPI can be summarized as
follows:
•
For Category 1 and 1a substances, identify which reportable NPI substances
are used, produced or stored, if any, and determine whether the amounts used
or handled are above the “threshold” values and therefore trigger reporting
requirements;
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•
For Category 2a and 2b substances, determine the amount and rate of fuel (or
waste) burnt each year, the annual power consumption and the maximum
potential power consumption, and assess whether the threshold limits are
exceeded;
•
For Category 3 substances, determine the annual emissions to water and
assess whether the threshold limits are exceeded; and
•
For those substances above the threshold values, examine the available range
of EETs and determine emission estimates using the most appropriate EET.
Generally it will be appropriate to consider various EETs as alternative options
whose suitability should be evaluated in terms of:
•
The associated reliability or error bands; and
•
The cost/benefit of using a more reliable method.
The accuracy of particular EETs is discussed in Appendix B.
NPI emissions in the environmental context
It should be noted that the NPI reporting process generates emission estimates only.
It does not attempt to relate emissions to potential environmental impacts,
bioavailability of emissions or natural background levels.
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2.0 Reporting Thresholds and Emissions
2.1
Transfers: Under the NPI, the following are classed as transfers and are not required to be
reported:
•
Discharges of substances to sewer or tailing dam;
•
Deposit of substances to landfill; and
•
Removal of substances from a facility for destruction, treatment, recycling,
reprocessing, recovery or p urification.
The definition of transfer has been clarified by the NPI Implementation Working
Group as:
“All emissions of listed substances, except those which are directed to, and contained
by, purpose built facilities, are to be reported to the NPI. This applies irrespective of
whether the substances’ fate is within or outside a reporting facility boundary. With
respect to receipt of NPI-listed substances, such receiving facilities are to be
operating in accordance with any applicable State of Territory government
requirements”
A number of emissions from the soft drink manufacturing industry are classed as
transfers and are discussed in Sections 2.2, 2.6 and 2.7 of this manual.
2.2
Category 1: The Category 1 threshold is triggered if a facility handles, manufactures, imports,
processes, co-incidentally produces, or otherwise uses 10 tonnes or more of a
Category 1 substance. A facility is only required to report on the Category 1
substances that trigger thresholds. If the threshold is exceeded, emissions of these
Category 1 and 1a substances must be reported for all operations/processes relating
to the facility, even if the actual emissions of the substances are very low or zero.
The majority of soft drink manufacturing facilities are unlikely to trigger the Category 1
threshold for any of the NPI-listed substances. The possible exception is phosphoric
acid, which is used in the production of cola products (Spencer, 1999; Hage 1999). If
a facility uses phosphoric acid, it needs to determine whether it triggers the Category
1 threshold.
Although large amounts of phosphoric acid are used as a raw material, any quantities
that are emitted from the process (i.e. do not end up in the final product) are likely to
be discharged to the trade waste system. These would be classed as transfers (see
Sections 2.6 and 2.7 of this manual for the further discussion of this issue).
2.3
Category 2: -
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The Category 2 threshold is based on energy consumption or fuel use. The Category
2a threshold for fuel usage is triggered if:
•
A facility burns 400 tonnes or more of fuel or waste per year; or
•
A facility burns 1 tonne of more of fuel or waste per hour.
The Category 2b threshold is triggered if:
•
A facility burns 2000 tonnes or more of fuel or waster per year; or
•
A facility uses 60 000 megawatt hours (MWh) or more of energy; or
•
A facilities maximum potential power consumption is rated at 20 megawatts
(MW) or more at any time during the year.
‘Potential power consumption’ includes the production of heat or steam, as well as
electricity. Based on these thresholds, the amount of fuel usage required to trigger
these thresholds may be calculated (as shown in Table 1). From discussions with
the industry, the only fuel of relevance is natural gas. If site-specific information is
available for densities of fuels, this information should be used in preference to the
values assumed for the results of Table 1.
It should be noted that Category 2 threshold calculations should be performed for
total fuel usage. If a number of different fuels are used at one facility, the sum of
each individual fuel used needs to be calculated to determine whether or not the
Category 2 threshold is triggered.
Table 1 – Approximate Fuel Usage required to Trigger Category 2 Thresholds
Fuel Type
Natural Gasa
Category 2a
5.30 * 105 m3 per reporting year, or at least
1.32 * 103 in any one hour in the reporting year
Category 2b
2.65 * 106 m3
per reporting year
Soft drink manufacturing plants which use energy for pasteurization processes or those
which process high volumes of product are likely to trigger the Category 2a threshold and
perhaps the Category 2b threshold, depending on the amount of energy use (Spencer,
1999; Hage 1999). If a facility triggers the Category 2a threshold, all Category 2a
pollutants need to be reported. If a facility triggers the Category 2b threshold, all Category
2b pollutants need to be reported, in addition to Category 2a substances. The Category 2
substances are listed in Table 2.
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a
3
o
Assuming ideal gas with a density of 0.755 kg/m at 15 C and 101.325 kPa. Natural gas (NSW)
data from the Natural Gas Technical Data Handbook (AGL Gas Company (NSW) Limited,
1995)
Table 2 – Category 2 Substances Which Trigger Reporting
Category 2a Substances
Carbon Monoxide
Fluoride Compounds
Hydrochloric Acid
Oxides of Nitrogen
Particulate matter (PM10)
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Sulfur Dioxide
Total Volatile Organic Compounds
2.4
Category 2b Substances
Arsenic & compounds
Beryllium & compounds
Cadmium & compounds
Chromium (III) compounds
Chromium (VI) compounds
Copper & compounds
Lead & compounds
Magnesium Oxide Fume
Magnesium & compounds
Mercury & compounds
Nickle & compounds
Nickel Carbonyl
Nickel Subsulfide
Polychlorinated Dioxins and Furans
PLUS all Category 2a substances
Category 3:
Under Clause 13 of the NPI NEPM, the reporting threshold for a Category 3
substance is exceeded in a reporting period if the activities of the facility involve the
emission to water (excluding groundwater) of:
•
15 tonnes of more per year of Total Nitrogen; or
•
3 tonnes per year or more of Total Phosphorous.
For Soft drink manufacturing facilities, it is extremely unlikely there will be licensed
discharges to surface water. The one exception may be storm water run-off, although
it is unlikely that this run-off would contain levels of nitrogen or phosphorous which
would lead to the triggering of the Category 3 threshold. If, however, your facility has
a significant, or potentially significant, release of aqueous nitrogen or phosphorous,
you will need to go through the process of determining whether or not Category 3
reporting requirements are triggered for your facility.
2.5
Emissions to Air:
The emissions to air from soft drink manufacturing facilities, if any, will primarily
consist of emissions from natural gas combustion processes. For guidance on the
estimation of emissions from natural gas combustion process, please refer to the
Emission Estimation Technique Manual for Combustion in Boilers (Section 3.4.2).
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a
3
o
Assuming ideal gas with a density of 0.755 kg/m at 15 C and 101.325 kPa. Natural gas (NSW)
data from the Natural Gas Technical Data Handbook (AGL Gas Company (NSW) Limited, 1995)
Fugitive emissions may also be an issue within the soft drink manufacturing industry.
These emissions generally include equipment leaks, emissions from the bulk
handling or processing of raw material, windblown dust and a number of other
industrial processes.
Fugitive emissions are highly site-specific issue and will not be covered further in this
Manual. For guidance on the estimation of emissions from fugitive sources, please
refer to the Emission Estimation Technique Manual For Fugitive Emissions.
2.6
Emissions to Water:
For soft drink manufacturing facilities, it is expected that all the process liquid
effluents and water streams will be:
•
Sent to sewer;
•
Sent offsite for treatment, recycling or recovery; or
•
Recycled or reused through the process.
These may incorporate some forms of wastewater treatment. It is only in the event
that an effluent is discharged to a surface water body that reporting would be required
under the NPI.
If wastewater treatment occurs on-site (and the effluent is released to a surface water
body), it needs to be examined for potential emissions. Please refer to the Emission
Estimation Technique Manual for Sewage and Wastewater Treatment for guidance
on how to estimate these emissions.
The one possible reportable emission to water is storm water run-off. If storm water
contains NPI-listed substances, most facilities are likely to be required by their
relevant State or Territory environment agency to closely monitor and measure these
emissions. This sampling data can be used to calculate annual emissions.
2.7
Emissions to Land:
Solid wastes, slurries, sediments and spilled material may contain NPI-listed
substances. It is expected that all of these substances will be sent to sewer, sent
offsite for treatment of recycling or sent to landfill. In these situations, there is no
requirement to report on these emissions.
Therefore, it is likely that the only
reporting requirements for individual facilities will relate to the following releases to
land:
•
Spills or accidental releases of NPI-listed substances to land (if spills occur, see
the Emission Estimation Technique Manual for Organic Chemical Processing
Industries (Section 9.2) for guidance on how to estimate these releases);
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•
Releases of NPI- listed substances to groundwater (see the Emission Estimation
Technique Manual for Organic Chemical Processing Industries (Section 9.1) for
guidance on how to estimate these releases); and
•
On site disposal where the on-site disposal does not meet the definition
provided in Section 2.1 of this Manual.
3.0
Glossary of Technical Terms and Abbreviations
ANZSIC
Australian and New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification
CEMS
Continuous Emission Monitoring System
CO
Carbon Monoxide
EEA
European Environment Agency
EET
Emission Estimation Technique
EFR
Emission Factor Rating
NEPM
National Environment Protection Measure
NOX
Oxides of Nitrogen
NPI
National Pollutant Inventory
PM
Particular matter
PM10
Particular matter with an equivalent aerodynamic diameter of 10
micrometres or less (i.e. =10µm)
SO2
Sulfer dioxide
STP
Standard Temperature and Pressure (0oC and 101.3 * 103 Pa)
Transfer
Transfers consist of a deposit of a substance into landfill, or
discharge of a substance to a sewer or tailing dam, or removal
of a substance from a facility for destruction, treatment,
recycling, reprocessing, recovery or purification (NEPM, Cla use
3(3)). Emissions classed as transfers are not required to be
reported under the NPI
TSP
Total Suspended Particulate
USEPA
United States Environmental Protection Agency
VOC
Volatile Organic Compounds
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4.0
References
AGL Gas Company (NSW) Limited, 1995, Natural Gas Technical Data Book, Industrial
Applications Department – AGL Gas Company (NSW) Limited, Five Dock, Australia.
Hage, W., 1999, Coca-Cola Amatil, pers. comm., 19/08/99.
McKetta, J., 1976, Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design, Marcel Dekker,
USA.
Perry, R. and Green D., 1997, Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 7th Ed., McgrawHill, New York, USA.
Spencer, I., 1999, Schweppes Cottee’s, pers. comm., 11/08/99.
The following Emission Estimation Technique Manuals referred to in this Manual are
available at the NPI Homepage (http://www.environment.gov.au/npi.html), and from your
local environmental protection agency:
Emission Estimation Technique Manual for Combustion in Boilers;
Emission Estimation Technique Manual for Fugitive Emissions;
Emission Estimation Technique Manual for Organic Chemical Processing Industries; and
Emission Estimation Technique Manual for Sewage and Wastewater Treatment.
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Appendix A – Emission Estimation Techniques
Estimates of emissions of NPI- listed substances to air, water and land should be reported
for each substance that triggers a threshold. The reporting list and detailed information on
thresholds are contained in the ‘NPI Guide’ at the front of the Handbook.
In general, there are four types of emission estimation techniques (EETs) that may be
used to estimate emissions from your facility.
The four types described in the ‘NPI Guide’ are:
•
Sampling or direct measurement;
•
Mass balance;
•
Fuel analysis or other engineering calculation; and
•
Emission factors.
Select the EETs (or mix of EETs) that is most appropriate for your purposes. For example,
you might choose to use a mass balance to best estimate fugitive losses form pumps and
vents, direct measurement for stack and pipe emission, and emission factors when
estimation losses from storage tanks and stockpiles.
If you estimate your emission by using any of these EETs, your data will be displayed on
the NPI database as being of ‘acceptable reliability’.
Similarly, if your relevant
environmental authority has approved the use of EETs that are not outlined in this
handbook, your data will also be displayed as being of ‘acceptable reliability’
This manual seeks to provide the most effective emission estimation techniques for the
NPI substances relevant to this industry. However, the absence of an EET for a
substance in this handbook does not necessarily imply that an emission should not be
reported to the NPI. The obligation to report on all relevant emissions remains if reporting
thresholds have been exceeded.
You are able to use emission estimation techniques that are not outlined in this document. You
must, however, seek the consent of your relevant environmental authority. For example, if your
company has developed site-specific emission factors, you may use these if approved by your
relevant environmental authority.
You should note that the EETs presented or referenced in this manual relate principally to
average process emissions. Emissions resulting from non-routine events are rarely
discussed in the literature, and there is a general lack of EETs for such events. However,
it is important to recognize that emissions resulting from significant operating excursions
and/or accidental situations (e.g. spills) will also need to be estimated. Emissions to land,
air and water from spills must be estimated and added to process emissions when
calculation total emissions for reporting purposes. The emission resulting from a spill is
the net emission, i.e. the quantity of the NPI reportable substance spilled, less the quantity
recovered or consumed during clean up operations.
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A list of the variables and symbols used in this Manual may be found in Appendix C.
A.1 DIRECT MEASUREMENT: You may wish to undertake direct measurement in order to report to the NPI,
particularly if you already do so in order to meet other regulatory requirements.
However, the NPI does not require you to undertake additional sampling and
measurement. For the sampling data to be adequate and able to be used for NPI
reporting purposes, it would need to be collected over a period of time, and to be
representative of operations for the whole year.
A.1.1 Sampling Data :
Stack sampling test reports often provide emissions data in terms of kg per hour
or grams per cubic metre (dry). Annual emissions for NPI reporting can be
calculated from this data. Stack tests for NPI reporting should be performed
under representative (i.e. normal) operating conditions. You should be aware
that some tests undertaken for a State or Territory license condition may
require the test be taken under maximum emissions rating, where emissions
are likely to be higher than when operating under normal operating conditions.
An example of test results is summarized in Table 3. The table shows the
results of three different sampling runs conducted during one test event. The
source parameters measured as part of the test run include gas velocity and
moisture content, which are used to determine exhaust gas flow rates in m3/s.
The filter weight gain is determined gravimetrically and divided by the volume of
gas sampled, as shown in Equation 1 to determine the PM concentration in
grams per m3 . Note that this example does not present the condensable PM
emissions.
Pollutant concentration is then multiplied by the volumetric flow rate to
determine the emission rate in kilograms per hour, as shown in Equation 2 and
Example 1.
EQUATION 1
CPM
=
Cf / Vm, STP
=
=
=
concentration of PM or gram loading, g/m3
filter catch, g
metered volume of sample at STP, m3
=
CPM * Qd * 3.6 * [273 / (273 = T)]
where:
CPM
Cf
Vm,STP
EQUATION 2
EPM
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where:
EPM
CPM
Qd
3.6
T
=
=
=
=
=
hourly emissions of PM, kg / hr
concentration of PM or gram loading, g / m3
stack gas volumetric flow rate, m3 / s, dry
3600 seconds per hour multiplied by 0.001 kilograms per gram
temperature of the gas sample, oC
Table 3 – Stack Sample Test Results
Parameter
Symbol
Total sampling time (sec)
Test 1
Test 2
Test 3
7200
7200
7200
Moisture collected (g)
gMOIST
395.6
372.6
341.4
Filter catch (g)
Cf
0.0851
0.0449
0.0625
1.67 * 10-4
1.67 * 10-4
1.67 * 10-4
Average sampling rate (m3 / s)
Standard metered volume (m3 )
Vm, STP
1.185
1.160
1.163
Volumetric flow (m3 / s), dry
Qd
8.48
8.43
8.45
Concentration of particulate (g / m3)
CPM
0.0718
0.0387
0.0537
Example 1 – Using Stack Sampling Data
PM emissions calculated using Equation 1 and Equation 2 (above) and the stack sampling
data for Test 1 (presented in Table 3, and an exhaust gas temperature of 150oC (423 K)).
This is shown below:
CPM
=
=
=
Cf / Vm, STP
0.0851 / 1.185
0.072 g / m3
EPM
=
=
=
CPM * Qd * 3.6 * [273 / (273 + T)]
0.072 * 8.48 * 3.6 * (273 / 423 K)
1.42 kg / hr
The information from some stack tests may be reported in grams of particulate per cubic
metre of exhaust gas (wet). Use Equation 3 below to calculate the dry particulate
emissions in kg / hr.
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EQUATION 3
EPM
=
Qa * C PM * 3.6 * (1 – moist R / 100) * [273 / (273 + T)]
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
hourly emissions of PM in kilograms per hour, kg / hr
actual (i.e. wet) cubic metres of exhaust gas per second, m3 / s
concentration of PM or gram loading, g / m3
3600 seconds per hour multiplied by 0.001 kilograms per gram
moisture content, %
273 K (0oC)
stack gas temperature, oC
where:
EPM
Qa
CPM
3.6
moistR
273
T
Total suspended particulates (TSP) are also referred to as total particulate matter (total
PM). To determine PM10 from total PM emissions, a size analysis may need to be
undertaken. The weight PM10 fraction can then be multiplied by the total PM emission rate
to produce PM10 emissions. Alternatively, it can be assumed that 100% of PM emissions
are PM10; i.e. assume that all particulate matter emitted to air has an equivalent
aerodynamic diameter of 10 micrometres or less i.e. =10µm. In most situations, this is
likely to be a conservative assumption but may be a suitable to obtain a reasonable
characterization of emissions for the purposes of NPI reporting.
To calculate moisture content use Equation 4
EQUATION 4
Moisture percentage =
100% * weight of water vapour per specific volume of stack gas
/ total weight of the stack gas in that volume.
g moist
100% *
(1000 * V m,STP)
moist R =
g moist
+P
STP
(1000 * V m,STP)
Where:
moist R
gmoist
V m,STP
P STP
=
=
=
=
moisture content, %
moisture collected, g
metered volume of sample at STP, m3
dry density of stack gas sample, kg / m3 at STP {if the density is
not known a default value of 1.62 kg / m3 may be used. This
assumes a dry gas composition of 50% air, 50% CO2}
Example 2 – Calculation Moisture Percentage
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A 1.2 m3 sample (at STP) of gas contains 410g of water. To calculate the moisture
percentage use Equation 4.
g moist
100% *
(1000 * V m,STP)
moist R =
g moist
+P
STP
(1000 * V m,STP)
gmoist / 1000 * V m,STP
moistR
=
=
=
=
410 / (1000 * 1.2)
0.342
100 * 0.342 / (0.342 + 1.62)
17.4%
A.1.2 Continuous Emission Monitoring System (CEMS) Data A continuous emission monitoring system (CEMS) provides a continuous record of
emissions over time, usually by reporting pollutant concentration. Once the pollutant
concentration is known, emission rates are obtained by multiplying the pollutant
concentration by the volumetric gas or liquid flow rate of the pollutant.
Although CEMS can report real-time hourly emissions automatically, it may be
necessary to estimate annual emissions from hourly concentration data manually.
This Section describes how to calculate emissions for the NPI from CEMS
concentration data. The selected CEMS data should be representative of operating
conditions. When possible, data collected over longer periods should be used.
It is important to note that, prior to using CEMS to estimate emissions, you should
develop a protocol for collecting and averaging the data in order that the estimate
satisfies the local environmental authority’s requirement for NPI emission
estimations.
To monitor SO2, NOX, VOC, and CO emissions using a CEMS, you use a pollutant
concentration monitor that measures the concentration in parts per million by volume
dry air (ppmvd = volume of pollutant gas / 106 volumes of dry air). Flow rates should
be measured using a volumetric flow rate monitor.
Flow rates estimated based on heat input using fuel factors may be inaccurate
because these systems typically run with high excess air to remove the moisture out
of the kiln. Emission rates (kg / hr) are then calculated by multiplying the stack gas
concentrations by the stack gas flow rates.
Table 4 presents example CEMS data output for three periods for a hypothetical
furnace. The output includes pollutant concentrations in parts per million dry basis
(ppmvd), diluent (O2 or CO2) concentrations in percent by volume dry basis (%v, d)
and gas flow rates; and may include emission rates in kilograms per hour (kg/hr).
This data represents a snapshot of a hypothetical boiler operation. While it is
possible to determine total emissions of an individual pollutant over a given time
period from this data, assuming the CEMS operates properly all year long, an
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accurate emission estimate can be made by adding the hourly emission estimates if
the CEMS data is representative of typical operating conditions.
Table 4 – Example CEMS Output for a Hypothetical Furnace Firing Waste Fuel Oil
Time
O2
content
Concentration
Gas
Flow
Rate
(Q)
Production
Rate of
Product (A)
% by
volume
SO2
(ppmvd)
NOX
(ppmvd)
CO
(ppmvd)
VOC
(ppmvd)
M3 / s
tonnes /
hour
1
10.3
150.9
142.9
42.9
554.2
8.52
290
2
10.1
144.0
145.7
41.8
582.9
8.48
293
3
11.8
123.0
112.7
128.4
515.1
8.85
270
Hourly emissions can be based on concentration measurements as shown in Equation 5.
EQUATION 5
=
(C * MW * Q * 3600) / [22.4 * (T + 273 / 273) * 106]
Ei
C
MW
Q
3600
22.4
=
=
=
=
=
=
T
=
emissions of pollutant i, kg / hr
pollutant concentration, ppmvd
molecular weight of the pollutant, kg / kg-mole
stack gas volumetric flow rate, m3 / s
conversion factor, s / hr
volume occupied by one mole of gas at standard temperature
and pressure (0oC and 101.3 kPa), m3 / kg-mole
temperature of gas sample, oC
Ei
where:
Actual annual emissions can be calculated by multiplying the emission rate in kg / hr by
the number of actual operating hours per year (OpHrs) as shown in Equation 6 for each
typical time period and summing the results.
EQUATION 6
Ekyp,i
=
Σ (*E i OpHrs)
=
=
=
annual emission of pollutant i, kg / yr
emissions of pollutant i, kg / hr (from Equation 5)
operating hours, hr / yr
where:
Ekyp,i
Ei
OpHrs
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Emissions in kilograms of pollutant per tonne of product produced can be calculated by
dividing the emission rate in kg / hr by the activity rate (production rate (tonnes / hr)) during
the same period. This is shown in Equation 7 below.
It should be noted that the emission factor calculated below assumes that the selected
time period (i.e. hourly) is representative of annual operating conditions and longer time
periods should be used for NPI reporting where they are available. Use of the calculation
is shown in Example 3.
EQUATION 7
Ekpt,i
=
Ei / A
=
=
=
emissions of pollutant i per tonne of product produced, kg / t
hourly emissions of pollutant i, kg / hr
production, t / hr
where:
Ekpt,i
Ei
A
Example 3 illustrates the application of Equation 5, Equation 6, and Equation 7.
Example 3 – Using CEMS Data
This example shows how SO2 emissions can be calculated using Equation 5 based on the
CEMS data for the Time Period 1 shown in Table 4, and an exhaust gas temperature of
150C (423 K).
ESO2,1
=
=
=
=
(C * MW * Q * 3600) / [(22.4 * (T + 273 / 273) * 106]
(150.9 * 64 * 8.52 * 3600) / [22.4 * (423 / 273) * 106]
296 217 907 / 34 707 692
8.53 kg / hr
For Time Period 2, also at 150oC
ESO2,2
=
8.11 kg/hr
For Time Period 3, also at 150oC
ESO2,3
=
7.23 kg / hr
Say representative operating conditions for the year are:
Period 1
Period 2
Period 3
=
=
=
1500 hr
2000 hr
1800 hr
Total emissions for the year are calculated by adding the results of the three Time Periods
using Equation 6:
Ekpy,SO2
=
ESO2,1 * OpHrs + E SO2,2 * OpHrs + E SO2,3 * OpHrs
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=
=
(8.53 * 1500) + (8.11 * 2000) + (7.23 * 1800) kg
42 021 kg / yr
Emissions, in terms of kg / tonne of product produced when operating in the same mode
as time period 1, can be calculated using Equation 7
Ekpt,SO2
=
=
=
ESO2 / A
8.53 / 290
2.94 * 10-2 kg SO2 emitted per tonne of product produced
When the furnace is operating as in time periods 2 or 3, similar calculations can be
undertaken for emissions per tonne.
A.2 MASS BALANCE: Mass balances involve examining a process to determine whether emissions can be
characterized based on an analysis of operating parameters, material composition,
and total material usage.
Mass balance involves the quantification of total materials into and out of a process,
with the diffe rence between inputs and outputs being accounted for as a release to
the environment (to air, water, land) or as part of the facility’s waste. Mass balance is
particularly useful when the input and output streams can be readily characterized
and this is most often is the case for small processes and operations.
Mass balance can be applied across individual unit operations (see Appendix A.2.2)
or across an entire facility (see Appendix A.2.1). Mass balance techniques and
engineering estimates are best used where there is a system with prescribed inputs,
defined internal conditions, and known outputs.
It is essential to recognize that the emission values produced when using mass
balance are only as good as the values used in performing the calculations. For
example, small errors in data or calculation parameters (e.g. pressure, temperature,
stream concentration, flow, or control efficiencies) can result in potentially large errors
in the final estimates. In addition, when sampling of input and / or output materials is
conducted, the failure to use representative sample will also contribute to uncertainty.
In some cases, the combined uncertainty is quantifiable and this is useful in
determining if the values are suitable for their intended use.
A.2.1 Overall Facility Mass Balance Mass balances can be used to characterize emissions from a facility providing
that sufficient data is available pertaining to the process and relevant input and
output streams. Mass balances can be applied to an entire facility (see
Example 1). This involves the consideration of material inputs or the facility
(purchases) and material exported from the facility in products and wastes,
where the remainder is considered as a ‘loss’ (or a release to the environment).
The mass balance calculation can be summarized by:
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Total mass into process = Total mass out of process
In the context of the NPI, this equation could be written as:
Inputs
=
Products + Transfers + Emissions
Inputs
Emissions
=
=
All incoming material used in the process.
Releases to air, water, and land (as defined under the
NPI). Emissions include both routine and accidental
releases as well as spills.
Transfers
=
As defined under the NPI NEPM, transfers
Include substances discharged to sewer,
substances deposited into landfill and
substances removed from a facility for destruction,
treatment, recycling, reprocessing, recovery, or
purification.
Products
=
Products and materials (e.g. by-products)
exported form the facility.
Where:
Applying this to an individual NPI substance (substance ‘i’), the equation may
be written as:
Input of substance ‘i’ = amount of substance ‘i’ in product
+
amounts of substance ‘i’ in waste
+
amounts of substance ‘i’ transformed or consumed in
process
+
emissions of substance ‘i’.
The mass balance approach can be used for each NPI-listed substance for
which the facility has a responsibility to report. Emissions can then be allocated
to air, water, and land. Example 4 provides an example of the application of
mass balance.
Example 4 – Using Mass Balance
A chemical facility receives 1000 tonnes of an NPI- listed solvent product per annum, that
is stored on-site. It is known that this solvent product contains 2 percent water that settles
during storage, and is drained to sewer. The solubility of the solvent in water is 100 g / kg
(i.e. 0.1 weight fraction). It is known that 975 tonnes of solvent per annum is utilized in the
process, based on actual addition rate data. During the year, it was recorded that 1 tonne
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of solvent was lost due to spillage, of which 500 kg was recovered and sent for appropriate
disposal, with the rest washed to sewer.
Considering the water content of the solvent and the solubility of solvent in water the
following data can be derived:
Quantity of water received in the solvent annually:
Water = 1000 tonnes * (2 / 100) = 20 tonnes of water (containing 100 g /
kg solvent)
The solubility of solvent in this water is 100 g / kg:
Therefore, solvent in water = 20 * (0.1) = 2 tonnes of solvent
Excluding the water component, the quantity of solvent received annually is:
Total solvent (excluding water) = 1000 * 0.98 = 980 tonnes
Incorporating the solvent contained within the water component:
Total solvent received at facility (including solvent in water) = 980 + 2 =
982 tonnes solvent
Once the above quantities have been ascertained, the quantity of solvent released to the
environment can be determined as follows:
Example 4 – Using Mass Balance cont’
Solvent to sewer
=
Captured spillage
=
=
=
drainage from solvent tank + uncaptured
spillage
2000 + 500 kg
2500 kg
500 kg
As no solvent was spilled on unsealed ground, there are no emissions to land. Therefore,
the emission of solvent to air is derived as follows:
Air Emission
=
=
=
Total solvent received – sewer release –
captured spillage – solvent utilized in the
process
982 - 2.5 - 0.5 - 975
4 tonnes
Therefore, 4 tonnes of solvent is lost to the atmosphere each year from storage and
handling operations. For NPI reporting, it would then be necessary to determine the
quantity of NPI substances present in the solvent and to determine the quantities of each
of these substances emitted to atmosphere. It is important to note that any emission
controls must be taken in to account when determining your emissions (e.g. the solvent
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released to air may be routed through an incinerator before being released to the
atmosphere).
A.2.2 Individual Unit Process Mass Balance:
The general mass balance approach described above can be applied to
individual unit processes. This requires that information is available on the
inputs (i.e. flow rates, concentrations, densities) and outputs of the unit
process. The following general equation can be used (note that scm is an
abbreviation for standard cubic metres):
EQUATION 8
Ei
=
ΣQiWfiPi – ΣQoWoiPo
=
=
=
=
=
=
Flow rate of component i in unknown stream (kg/hr)
Volumetric flow rate of inlet stream, i (scm/hr)
Volumetric flow rate of outlet stream, o (scm/hr)
Weight fraction of component i in inlet stream i
Weight fraction of component i in outlet stream o
Density of streams i and o respectively (kg/scm)
where:
Ei
Qi
Qo
Wfi
Woi
Pi, Po
Information on process stream input and output concentrations is generally known as this
information is required for process control. The loss Ex will be determined through
analysis of the process. It should be noted that it is then necessary to identify the
environmental medium (or media) to which releases occur.
A.3 ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS: An engineering calculation is an estimation method based on physical / chemical
properties (e.g. vapour pressure) of the substance and mathematical relationships
(e.g. ideal gas law).
A.3.1 Fuel Analysis:
Fuel analysis is an example of an engineering calculation and can be used to
predict SO2, metals, and other emissions based on application of conservation
laws, if fuel rate is measured. The presence of certain elements in fuels which
may be used to predict their presence in emission streams. This includes
elements in fuel may be used to predict their presence in emission streams.
This includes elements such as sulfur that may be converted into other
compounds during the combustion process. The basic equation used in fuel
analysis emission calculations is the following:
EQUATION 9
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Ekpy,i
=
Qf * C i / 100 * (MWp / EWf ) * OpHrs
=
=
=
=
=
=
annual emissions of pollutant i, kg / yr
fuel use, kg / hr
operating hours, hr / yr
molecular weight of pollutant emitted, kg / kg-mole
Elemental weight of pollutant in fuel, kg / kg-mole
concentration of pollutant i in fuel, weight percent, %
where:
Ekpy,i
Qf
OpHrs
MWp
EWf
Ci
For instance, SO2 emissions from fuel oil combustion can be calculated based on the
concentration of sulfur in the fuel oil. This approach assumes complete conversion of
sulfur to SO2. Therefore, for every kilogram of sulfur (EW = 32) burned, two kilograms of
SO2 (MW = 64) are emitted. The application of this EET is shown in Example 5.
Example 5 – Using Fuel Analysis Data
This example shows how SO2 emissions can be calculated from fuel combustion based on
fuel analysis results, and the known fuel flow of the engine. Ekpy,SO2 may be calculated
using Equation 9 and given the following:
Fuel flow (Qf )
Weight percent sulfur in fuel
Operating hours
Ekpy,SO2
=
=
=
=
=
=
20 900 kg / hr
1.17 %
1500 hr / yr
Qf * C i / 100 * (MWp / EWf ) * OpHrs
(20 900) * (1.17 / 100 ) * (64 / 32) * 1500
733 590 kg / yr
A.4 EMISSION FACTORS:
In the absence of other information, default emission factors can be used to provide
an estimate of emissions. Emission factors are generally derived through the testing
of a general source population (e.g. boilers using a particular fuel type). This
information is used to relate the quantity of material emitted to some general measure
of the scale of activity (e.g. for boilers, emission factors are generally based on the
quantity of fuel consumed or the heat output of the boiler).
Emission factors require ‘activity data’, that is combined with the factor to generate
the emission estimates. The generic formula is:
EQUATION 10
Emission Factor
Mass
Unit of activity
* Activity Data
Unit of activity
time
= Emission Rate
Mass
time
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For example, if the emission factor has units of ‘kg pollutant / m3 of fuel combusted’, then
the activity data required would be in terms of ‘m 3 fuel burned / hr’, thereby generating an
emission estimate of ‘kg pollutant / hr’.
An emission factor is a tool used to estimate emissions to the environment. In this
Manual, it relates the quantity of substances emitted from a source, to some common
activity associated with those emissions. Emission factors are obtained form US,
European, and Australian sources and are usually expressed as the weight of a substance
emitted, divided by the unit weight, volume, distance, or duration of the activity emitting the
substance.
Emission Factors are used to estimate a facility’s emission by the general equation:
EQUATION 11
Ekpy,i
=
[A * OpHrs] * EFi * [1-(CEi / 100)]
=
=
=
=
=
emission rate of pollutant i, kg / yr
activity rate, t / hr
operating hours, hr / yr
uncontrolled emission factor of pollutant i, kg / t
overall control efficiency of pollutant i, %
where:
Ekpy,i
A
OpHrs
EFi
CEi
Emission factors developed from measurements for a specific process may sometimes be
used to estimate emissions at other sites. Should a company have several processes of
similar operation and size, and emissions are measured from one process source, an
emission factor can be developed and applied to similar sources. It is necessary to have
the emission factor reviewed and approved by State of Territory environment agencies
prior to its use for NPI estimations.
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Appendix B – Emission Estimation Techniques:
Acceptable Reliability and Uncertainty
This section is intended to give a general overview of some of the inaccuracies associated
with each of the techniques. Although the National Pollutant Inventory does not favour
one emission estimation technique over another, this section does attempt to evaluate the
available emission estimation techniques with regards to accuracy.
Several techniques are available for calculating emissions from soft drink manufacturing
facilities. The technique chosen is dependent on available data, and available resources,
and the degree of accuracy sought by the facility in undertaking the estimate. In general,
site-specific data that is representative of normal operations is more accurate than
industry-ave raged data.
B.1 DIRECT MEASUREMENT:
Use of stack and / or workplace health and safety sampling data is likely to be a
relatively accurate method of estimating air emissions form soft drink manufacturing
facilities. However, collection and analysis of samples from facilities can be very
expensive and especially complicated where a variety of NPI- listed substances are
emitted, and where most of these emissions are fugitive in nature. Sampling data
from a specific process may not be representative of the entire manufacturing
operation, and may provide only one example of the facility’s emissions. To be
representative, sampling data used for NPI reporting purposes needs to be collected
over a period of time, and to cover all aspects of production.
In the case of CEMS, instrument calibration drift can be problematic and uncaptured
data can create long-term incomplete data sets. However, it may be misleading to
assert that a snapshot (stack sampling) can better predict long-term emission
characteristics. It is the responsibility of the facility operator to properly calibrate and
maintain monitoring equipment and the corresponding emissions data.
B.2 MASS BALANCE: Calculating emissions from soft drink manufacturing facilities using mass balance
appears to be a straightforward approach to emission estimation. However, it is likely
that few Australian facilities consistently track material usage and waste generation
with the overall accuracy needed for application of this method. Inaccuracies
associated with individual material tracking, or other activities inherent in each
material handling stage, can result in large deviations for total facility emissions.
Because emissions from specific materials are typically below 2 percent of gross
consumption, an error of only ± 5 percent in any one step of the operation can
significantly skew emission estimations.
B.3 ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS: Theoretical and complex equations, or models, can be used for estimation emissions
from soft drink manufacturing production processes. EET equations are available for
the following types of emissions common to soft drink manufacturing facilities. Use of
emission equations to estimate emissions from soft drink manufacturing facilities is a
more complex and time-consuming process than the use of emission factors.
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Emission equations require more detailed inputs than the use of emission factors but
they do provide an emission estimate that is based on facility-specific conditions.
B.4 EMISSION FACTORS: Every emission factor has an associated emission factor rating (EFR) code. This
rating system is common to EETs for all industries and sectors and therefore, to all
Industry Handbooks. They are based on rating systems developed by the United
States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), and by the European
Environment Agency (EEA). Consequently, the ratings may not be directly relevant
to Australian industry. Sources for all emission factors cited can be found in the
reference section of this document. The emission factor ratings will not form part of
the public NPI database.
When using emission factors, you should be aware of the associated EFR code and
what the rating implies. An A or B rating indicated a greater degree of certainty than
a D or E rating. The less certainty, the more likely that a given emission factor for a
specific source or category is not representative of the source type. These ratings
notwithstanding, the main criterion affecting the uncertainty of an emission factor
remains the degree of similarity between the equipment / process selected in
applying the factor, and the target equipment / process from which the factor was
derived.
The EFR system is as follows:
A
Excellent
B
Above Average
C
Average
D
Below Average
E
Poor
U
Unrated
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Appendix C – List of Variables and Symbols
Variable
Annual emissions of pollutant i
Symbol
Units
Ekpyi
kg / yr
Ei
kg / hr
Total emissions of pollutant i per hour
Uncontrolled emission factor for
pollutant i
EFi
Kg of pollutant / units of weight,
volume, distance or duration of
activity emitting the pollutant
Overall control efficiency (emission
reduction control factor)
CEi
% reduction in emission of
pollutant i
Fuel used
Qf
kg / hr
Concentration of pollutant i
Ci
Ppmv, kg / L
Total suspended particulates in exhaust
gases or air
Operating hours
TSP
kg / hr
OpHrs
hr / yr
A
t / hr
Activity rate
Molecular weight of pollutant emitted
MWi
kg / kg-mole
Elemental weight of pollutant in fuel
EWf
kg / kg-mole
Concentration of PM or gram loading
CPM
g / m3
Filter catch
Metered volume of sample at STP
Cf
G
VmSTP
m3
Hourly emissions of PM
EPM
kg / hr
Stack gas volumetric flow rate
Qst
m3 / s
Temperature
T
Celsius ( C) or Kelvin (K)
Moisture collected
gMOIST
g
Moisture content
moistR
%
Dry density of stack gas sample at STP
pSTP
kg / m3
Emission per tonne
Ekpt,i
Kg of pollutant i per tonne of
fuel consumed
Volumetric flow rate of stack gas
Qa
Actual (ie. Wet) cubic meters
per second (m3 / s)
Material entering the process
Qi
kg / hr
Material leaving the process
Qo
kg / hr
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Appendix C – List of Variables and Symbols Continued
Variable
Symbol
Weight fraction of component i in inlet
stream
Wfi
Weight fraction of component i in outlet
stream o
Woi
Units
Density of stream i
pi
kg / m3
Density of stream o
po
kg / m3
ooOOOoo
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A Cod e of Good Hygienic Practice
for the So ft Dri nk Ind ustry
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Table of Contents
1.0
Introduction
44
2.0
Definitions
44
3.0
Design and Facilities of Plant
45
4.0
Hygiene Requirements
47
5.0
Personnel
49
6.0
Process and Controls
50
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1.0 Introduction
This Code of Practice dealing with hygiene in a soft drink plant, was first developed in
1978 in response to suggestions from the Food Standards Committee of the National
Health and Medical Research Council.
In assembling the Code, the Australian Beverages Technical Committee drew largely on
the existing material, notably the Codex Alimentarius Commission’s General Principles of
Food Hygiene. It must be noted that this Code in no way diminishes a manufacturer’s
obligation to comply with all existing laws and regulations covering hygiene, building
codes, etc.
2.0
Definitions
The following definitions shall apply: 2.1
ADEQUATE:-
Sufficient to accomplish the intended purpose in keeping with
good hygiene and public health practice.
2.2
CLEANING:-
The removal of food residues, soil, dirt, grease or other
objectionable matter.
2.3
CONTAMINATION:-
The addition of any objectionable matter, directly or indirectly,
to the product or the presence of any such matter in the
product. Contamination includes infestation.
2.4
SANITATION:-
The reduction, without adversely affecting the food, by means
of hygienically satisfactory chemical agents and/or physical
methods of
the number of micro-organisms to a level that
will not lead to harmful contamination of food.
2.5
ESTABLISHMENT:-
Any building(s) or area(s) in which food is handled and the
surroundings under the control of the same management.
2.6
FOOD HANDLING:-
Any operation in the production, preparation, processing,
packing, storage or distribution of food.
2.7
FOOD HYGIENE:-
All measures necessary to ensure the safety, wholesomeness,
and soundness of food at all stages from production or
manufacture until its final consumption.
2.8
PACKAGING
Any containers such as cans, bottles, cartons, boxes,
cases
and sacks, or wrapping and covering material such as foil,
film, metal paper, wax paper and cloth.
MATERIAL:2.9
PESTS:-
Any animals, rodents, birds and insects, capable of directly or
indirectly contaminating food.
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3.0
3.1
Design and Facilities of Plant
LOCATION:
Plants should, for preference, be located in areas which are free from objectionable
odours, smoke, dust or other contaminants and are not subject to flooding.
3.2
GROUNDS:
The grounds about a food plant shall be free from conditions which may result in the
contamination of food including, but not limited to, the following:
3.2.1 Improperly stored equipment, litter, waste, refuse and uncut weeds or grass that
may attract rodents, insects, and other pests and provide a harbour or breeding
place for them.
3.2.2 Excessively dusty roads, yards or parking areas that may constitute a source of
contamination in areas where food is exposed.
3.2.3 Inadequately drained areas that may contribute contamination to food products
through seepage or footborne filth and by providing a breeding place for insects
and micro-organisms.
3.2.4 If neighboring grounds are of the types described in 3.2.1, 3.2.2 and 3.2.3, care
must be exercised in the plant by inspection, extermination, or other means to
effect the exclusion of pests, dirt, and other filth that may be a source of food
contamination.
3.3
PLANT CONSTRUCTION AND DESIGN:
-
3.3.1 Plant buildings should be of sound construction and maintained in
good repair.
3.3.2 Adequate working space should be provided to allow for satisfactory
performance of all operations as well as ensuring that employees can perform
their duties without contamination of food or food-contact surfaces with clothing
or personal contact. Aisles or working spaces between equipment shall be
unobstructed.
3.3.3 The design should be such as to permit easy and adequate cleaning and to
facilitate proper supervision of food hygiene.
3.3.4 The design should be such as to prevent the entrance and harbouring of pests
and the entry of environmental contaminants such as smoke, dust, etc., in food
processing or component storage areas.
3.3.5 The plant should be designed to provide separation, by floor to ceiling partition,
location or other effective means, between those operations which may cause
cross-contamination of food products. It is most desirable to separate by floor
to ceiling partition the bottling room, syrup mixing areas, pre-mix and post-mix
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syrup filling areas, ingredient storage areas and non-ingredient raw materials
storage areas.
3.3.6 Floors, walls, ceilings, windows and doors in all food handling areas shall be of
such construction that they can be adequately cleaned and, where necessary,
disinfected. Where appropriate floors should be sufficiently sloped to permit
adequate drainage of liquids to trapped outlets. Floors and walls should be
waterproof and non-absorbent. Ceilings should be constructed to prevent dirt
accumulation and minimise condensation and mould development. Windows
should be constructed to prevent accumulation of dirt and those which open
should be fitted with insect screens. Doors should, where appropriate, be selfclosing and close-fitting.
3.3.7 Stairs, lift cages and auxiliary structures should be so situated and constructed
as not to cause contamination of food.
3.3.8 In food handling areas all overhead structures and fittings shall not be so
installed that foods, raw materials or food-contact surfaces are contaminated by
drip, condensation or dirt. They shall be easy to clean.
3.3.9 The plant design should be such as to provide adequate ventilation or control
equipment to minimise odours and noxious fumes and vapours (including
steam), in areas where they may contaminate food. Such ventilation or control
equipment shall not create conditions that may contribute to food
contamination.
3.3.10 Adequate natural or artificial lighting shall be provided in all areas where food
or food ingredients are examined, processed or stored and where equipment
and utensils are cleaned and in dressing and locker rooms, wash-rooms and
lavatories. Light bulbs, fixtures, skylights or other glass suspended over
exposed food in any step of preparation shall be of the safety type or
otherwise protected to prevent food contamination in case of breakage.
3.4
SANITARY FACILITIES:
3.4.1 Water supply shall be sufficient for the operations intended and shall be derived
from an adequate source. Any water that comes into contact with foods or
food-contact surfaces shall be safe and of adequate sanitary quality. Running
water at a suitable temperature and under pressure, as needed, shall be
provided in all areas where the processing of food, the cleaning of equipment,
utensils or containers, or employee hygiene facilities require.
3.4.2 Sewage disposal shall be made into an adequate system in accordance with
local authority requirements.
3.4.3 Plumbing shall be of adequate size and design and be adequately installed and
maintained to :•
carry sufficient quantities of water to required plant locations
•
properly convey liquid disposable waste from the plant
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•
not constitute a source of contamination in any way or
create an unhygienic condition.
3.4.4 Lavatories and changing facilities shall be provided in all establishments,
adequate for the number of personnel, and in compliance with local authority
requirements. Lavatories shall have flushing water closets. Lavatories shall be
maintained in good repair and in hygienic condition. Doors to lavatory areas
shall be self-closing and shall not open directly into food handling areas. Hand
washing facilities with hot and cold water, together with a suitable hygienic
means of hand drying, shall be provided adjacent to lavatories. Notices shall
be posted directing personnel to wash their hands with soap or detergent after
using the lavatory.
3.4.5 Hand washing facilities of an adequate and convenient nature shall be provided
at location in a plant where good hygiene requires personnel to wash or
disinfect and dry their hands. Such facilities shall be furnished with running
water at a suitable temperature, effective hand cleaning and disinfection
preparations, hygienic drying devices and, where appropriate, easily cleanable
waste receptacles.
3.4.6 Rubbish and waste shall be so conveyed, stored and disposed of as to
minimise odour development and prevent the attraction, breeding and
harbouring of pests, and to prevent the contamination of foods, food-contact
surfaces and water supplies.
3.5
EQUIPMENT AND UTENSILS:All plant equipment and utensils used in food handling should be:•
suitable for there intended use
§
designed to be easily cleaned, disinfected and inspected
§
capable of withstanding repeated cleaning and disinfection
§
properly maintained at all times.
The design, construction and use of such equipment and utensils should preclude
the adulteration of food with lubricants, fuel, metal fragments, contaminated water
or any other contaminants.
4.0
4.1
Hygienic Requirements
MAINTENANCE:
The buildings, equipment, utensils and all other physical facilities of the
establishment, including drains, should be maintained in good repair and in an orderly
condition.
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4.2 CLEANING AND DISINFECTION: 4.2.1 To prevent contamination of food, all equipment and utensils should be
cleaned as frequently as necessary and disinfected whenever circumstances
demand.
4.2.2 Care should be taken to prevent food from being contaminated during
cleansing or disinfection of rooms, equipment or utensils by water and
detergents or by disinfections and their solutions. Detergents and disinfectants
should be suitable for the purpose intended and should conform to public
health requirements. Any residues of these agents on a surface which may
come into contact with food should be removed by thorough rinsing with
potable water before commencing work.
4.2.3 Either immediately after cessation of work for the day or at such other times as
may be appropriate, floors including drains, auxiliary structures and walls of
food handling areas should be thoroughly cleaned.
4.2.4 Changing facilities, lavatories and washrooms should be kept clean at all
times.
4.2.5 Roadways and paths in the immediate vicinity of and serving the premises
should be kept clean.
4.2.6 Only such toxic materials as are required to maintain hygienic condition, for
use in laboratory testing procedures, for plant and equipment maintenance and
operation shall be used or stored in the plant. These materials shall be clearly
identified and used only in such manner and conditions as will be safe for their
intended use. Insecticides and rodenticides must be properly labelled and
stored in an area which can be secured from access by unauthorised
personnel, and which is not used for food, food ingredient or food container
storage.
4.2.7 Cleaned and disinfected portable equipment and utensils used in food
processing should be stored in such a way that they are protected from
contamination.
4.3 HYGIENE CONTROL PROGRAMME:Every establishment should have a proper cleaning and disinfection schedule drawn
up to ensure all areas, equipment and utensils are appropriately cleaned.
4.4 STORAGE AND DISPOSAL OF WASTE:Waste material, including single use items such as paper towels and cups, should be
stored in appropriate containers and handled, dispensed, used and disposed of in
such a manner as to avoid contamination of food, food ingredients or food-contact
surfaces.
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4.5
ANIMAL AND PEST CONTROL:4.5.1 Dogs, cats and other domestic animals should be excluded from food
processing areas.
4.5.2 There should be an effective and continuous programme for the control of
pests. Establishment and surrounding areas should be regularly examined for
evidence of infestation.
4.5.3 Should pests gain entrance to the establishment, eradication measures should
be instituted. However pesticides should only be used if other precautionary
measures cannot be used effectively and precautions must be taken to prevent
the contamination of food, food ingredients, food-contact surfaces and food
packaging materials.
5.0
5.1
Personnel
HYGIENE TRAINING:Managers of establishment should arrange for adequate and continuing training of
every employee in hygienic handling of food and in personal hygiene so that the
employees understand the precautions necessary to prevent contamination of food.
5.2
MEDICAL EXAMINATION:Persons who come in contact with food in the course of their work, should have a
medical examination prior to their employment if the official agency having
jurisdiction, acting on medical advice, considers that this is necessary, either because
of epidemiological considerations, the nature of the food prepared in a particular
establishment or the medical history of the prospective food handler. Medical
examination of a food handler should be carried out at other times when clinically or
epidemiologically indicated.
5.3 COMMUNICABLE DISEASES:The management should take care to ensure that no employee, while known or
suspected to be suffering from, or to be a carrier of a disease likely to be transmitted
through food or while afflicted with infected wounds, skin infections, sores or diarrhea,
is permitted to work in any food handling areas in any capacity in which there is any
likelihood of such person directly or indirectly contaminating food with pathogenic
micro-organisms.
Any person so affected, should immediately report to the
management that he is ill.
5.4
INJURIES:Any person who has a cut or wound, should not continue to handle food until the
injury is suitably bandaged and the bandage is completely protected by a waterproof
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covering which is firmly secured, and which is conspicuous in colour. Adequate firstaid facilities should be provided for this purpose.
5.5 WASHING OF HANDS:Every person engaged in food handling areas, should wash his hands frequently and
thoroughly with soap or other detergent under running warm potable water while on
duty. Hands should always be washed commencing work, immediately after using
the toilet, after handling contaminated material and whenever else necessary.
5.6
PERSONAL CLEANLINESS:Every person engaged in a food handling area should maintain a high degree of
personal cleanliness while on duty, and should at all times, while so engaged, wear
suitable protective clothing including head covering and footwear, all of which articles
should be cleanable unless designed to be disposed of and should be maintained in
a clean condition consistent with the nature of the work in which the person is
engaged.
5.7
PERSONAL BEHAVIOUR: Any behaviour which could result in contamination of food, such as eating, use of
tobacco, chewing (e.g. gum, stick, etc.) or unhygienic practices such as spitting,
should be prohibited in food handling areas.
5.8
GLOVES: Gloves, if used in the handling of food products, should be maintained in a sound,
clean and sanitary condition. The wearing of gloves does not exempt the operator
from having thoroughly washed hands. Gloves should be made of an impermeable
material, except where they would be inappropriate or incompatible with the work
involved.
5.9
VISITORS: Precautions should be taken to prevent visitors to food handling areas from
contaminating food. These may include the use of protective clothing. Visitors
should observe the provisions recommended in paragraphs 5.6 and 5.7.
5.10 SUPERVISION: Responsibility for ensuring compliance by all personnel with all requirements of
paragraphs 4.1 to 5.9 inclusive should be specifically allocated to competent
supervisory personnel.
6.0 Process and Controls
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All operations in the receiving, inspecting, transporting, segregating, preparing, processing
and storing of food shall be conducted in accordance with adequate hygiene principles.
Overall hygiene of an establishment should be under the supervision of an individual
assigned the responsibility for this function. This individual must have the necessary
authority to achieve proper hygiene.
6.1
Raw materials and ingredients shall be inspected and segregated as necessary to
ensure that they are clean, wholesome and fit for processing into human food, and
shall be stored under conditions that will protect against contaminants and minimise
deterioration. Bottles and cans, used for packaging products, shall be washed and
cleaned as required immediately before filling. Water used for washing or rinsing
shall be of adequate quality and shall not be re-used in a manner which may result in
contamination of food products.
6.2
Containers and carriers of ingredients should be inspected on receipt to ensure that
their condition has not contributed to the contamination or deterioration of the
products they contain.
6.3
All food processing, including packaging and storage, should be conducted under
such conditions and controls as are necessary to minimise the potential for
undesirable microbiological growth, toxin formation or deterioration or contamination
of processed food or ingredients.
6.4
PACKAGING: 6.4.1 All packaging material should be stored in a clean and hygienic manner. The
packaging material should be sound and should provide appropriate protection
from contamination.
6.4.2 Product containers should not have been used for any purpose which may lead
to contamination of the product. Where practicable containers should be
inspected immediately before use to ensure that they are in a satisfactory
condition and where necessary cleaned and/or sanitized; when washed they
should be well drained before filling. Only packaging material required for
immediate use should be kept in the packing or filling area.
6.4.3 Packing should be done under conditions that preclude introduction of
contamination into a product.
6.4.4 Where practicable products should be coded to enable identification of lots.
Records should be retained for a period of time that exceeds the shelf life of the
product.
O Ooo
ooO
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Product Recall Procedure
for the
Soft Drink I nd ustr y
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Table of Contents
1.0
Definitions
55
2.0
Introduction
56
3.0
Developing a Recall Plan
56
4.0
Recall Objectives
56
5.0
Recall Committee Members & their Responsibilities
57
5.1
Committee Members
57
5.2
Records
58
5.3
Mock Recalls
58
5.4
Other Considerations
58
6.0
Risk Assessment
59
7.0
Level of Recall
59
8.0
Notification
59
8.1
Notifying the Distribution Network and Clients
60
8.2
Notifying the Public
60
8.3
Notifying the Government
60
9.0
10.0
Mechanics of Notification
60
9.1
Product
60
9.2
Problem
61
9.3
Other Considerations
61
9.4
Confidentiality
61
Recall Letters, Paid Advertisements and the Media
62
10.1
Release
62
10.2
Paid Advertisements
63
10.3
Media Releases
64
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11.0
Product Recovery
64
12.0
Post Recall Action
64
12.1
Effectiveness of the Recall
65
12.2
Follow-up Action
65
Appendix A – Standard 3.2.2 FSC
66
Appendix B – Food Recall Procedure
67
Appendix C – Recall Notification Form Format
68
Appendix D – Coordinator Contact Details
70
Appendix E - Format for Letter to the Minister
71
Appendix F – Minister Contact Details
72
Appendix G – Newspaper Contact Details
73
Appendix H – Example of Media Release
74
Appendices
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1.0
Definitions
Sponsor
A sponsor is the provider of the product to the wholesale or retail market and may be
either a manufacturer or an importer. With the exception of extreme circumstances, recall
action should never be initiated before the sponsor of the product has been notified and
consulted.
Withdrawal
A product may be withdrawn from sale for two reasons:
1. Because of a quality defect that does not pose a potential risk to public health or
safety, or;
2. A withdrawal may be undertaken prior to a recall, pending a further investigation that
may or may not lead to a recall. If a risk to public health and safety is established, the
product must be recalled.
Recall
A recall is constituted by action taken to remove from sale, distribution and consumption,
foods which may pose a safety hazard to consumers, whereas a food withdrawl may be
undertaken for quality reasons. (ie the presence of Clostridium botulinum, Listeria
monocytogenes, toxic chemicals or harmful foreign bodies in the product.) Action may also
be taken if the product has serious defects that pose a potential health risk. (ie goods that
are incorrectly labelled or are adulterated.)
A recall may be either permanent, where the products a removed from the market and
destroyed, or temporary whereby the product may be returned to the market after
rectifying action has been taken. A recall may need to be undertaken at either a wholesale
or a consumer level.
Wholesale recall: involves the recovery of the product from wholesalers, distribution
centers and importers.
Consumer recall: is the most serious and most expensive as it involves the recovery of
the product from supermarkets, grocery stores, hospitals, restaurants, other major catering
establishments and consumers.
State & Territory Coordinator
A State or Territory coordinator is the senior food officer (or their deputy) of the health
authority in that particular jurisdiction.
Australian Coordinator
The Australian Coordinator is a Commonwealth Officer of the Food Standards Australia
New Zealand. (FSANZ)
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2.0 Introduction
The purpose of this document is to provide member companies with a set of principles and
guidelines for a product recall procedure plan which could be adapted by smaller soft drink
manufacturers or used as a guide by the larger manufacturers in developing their own
procedures.
A recall may be initiated as a result of reports refereed to sponsors or coordinators from a
variety of sources such as manufacturers, wholesalers, retailers, medical practitioners,
government agencies or consumers. A recall of goods manufactured overseas may also
be initiated by reports appearing in overseas bulletins and similar, or as a result of
information received directly from health authorities.
A recall may result due to failures in the companies quality assurance and quality control
programs as a result of accidents, product tampering or unforeseen circumstances. Where
public health and safety risks exist, State and Territory legislation can require that the
product in question be recalled and that public warning statements be issued. Because of
this FSANZ now requires that any food business engaged in the wholesale supply,
manufacture or importation of food must under Standard 3.2.2 of the Food Standards
Code (vol. II) (see Appendix A):
1.
2.
Have in place a system to ensure the recall of unsafe food,
Set out this system in a written document and make this document available to
an unauthorised officer upon request,
3.
Comply with this system when recalling unsafe food.
3.0 Developing a Recall Plan
Each product, sponsor and recall procedure situation differs and sponsors need to develop
their own procedure in order to accommodate their own particular structure and activities.
There are however are eight main stages in the procedure which need to be addressed:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Recall objectives
Convening the recall committee
Hazard/risk assessment
Determining the level of recall
Who should be notified of the recall
The mechanics of notification and recovery
Post recall reporting
Also see Appendix B
4.0 Recall Objectives
Detailed guidelines should be developed to help those involved assess the risks and
determine the companies response to the problem. A full product recall has ramifications
for governments, industry and consumers and therefore it is critical that all the necessary
information is obtained and thoroughly analysed before a decision is made. A recall plan
needs to:
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-
Stop the distribution and sale of the affected product.
Inform the public and the appropriate authorities of the problem.
Effectively and efficiently remove from the marketplace any product which is
potentially unsafe.
5.0 Recall Committee Members and their
Responsibilities
A Product Recall Co-ordinating Committee needs to:
5.1
Assess the overall problem.
Evaluate the hazard and decide on a strategy to use.
Recommend whether or not to close the production plant.
Act as the sole contact with the media and Government Authorities.
Provide information requested by the Government Authorities on the progress of
the voluntary recall action.
Recommend production may re-commence.
Committee Members
It is important that company employees in key positions are aware of the recall plan
and of the part which their sections play in that plan. Senior management personnel
should be nominated to represent the principle areas involved in a recall. Typically a
recall committee would have the following members:
-
Recall coordinator (ideally the companies senior technical executive)
The managing director
The head of public relations
The head of warehousing and distribution
The head of purchasing
The firms legal representative
In small companies the committee may consist of just one or two people, each
having a number of responsibilities. These responsibilities should be clearly defined
in the product recall procedure, in order for that person to do their job as quickly and
efficiently as possible.
5.1.1 Extra Staffing
It needs to be considered whether extra production staff may be needed in
order to allow permanent staff to deal with the recall.
5.1.2 Using a Consultancy
Many firms involved in previous recall campaigns have felt the need to use
external specialists in areas such as marketing communication. (ie
advertising and direct mail, public relations and corporate communications.)
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Many agencies can cover all these facites of business and can be found by
contacting the public relations institute in the various states and territories.
5.2
Records
To expediate a recall, records should be made and kept readily available and easy
to follow. In accordance with the principles of good manufacture, sponsors should
keep the following information on products they manufacture:
- Complete up to date histories of all batches of products, from starting materials
to finished product,
- Allow for determination of the use and disposal of all raw materials and b ulk
products,
- Provide adequate details of customers to whom the end product has been sold
or distributed.
Records should be kept for at least one year after the shelf life of the batch. If the
foods have a shelf life of two years or more, the records should be kept for at least
five years after the date of manufacture.
A record of complaints should also be kept which includes information on the type
of product, the time / date, and the action taken.
5.2.1 Distribution records
It is strongly recommended an up to date lists of distributors and retailers is
available. If the company uses intermediate distributors, it is important that
the company checks with the intermediate distributors in order to make sure
that they that they have a similar ability to quickly produce a list of retail
outlets receiving product and a means to quickly notify retailers.
5.3
Mock Recalls
In preparation for any recall, the plan should be tested by a simulation exercise
based on current products. By putting the plan into practice there is an opportunity
to rectify any problems prior to a genuine recall.
5.4
Other Considerations
Included in the procedural documentation should be essential reference
information such as :
-
A list of telephone contacts - for company personnel, Commonwealth and
State and Territory authorities, and media contacts. (see Appendices)
Blank media release.
The Food Recall Notification Form. (see Appendix C)
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6.0 Risk Assessment
The level of recall is to be determined by consultation between the sponsor, the Australian
Coordinator and where appropriate, the State or Territory coordinator. Specific information
such as the following is essential to make a proper assessment of the risk to consumers
and, the action appropriate to the situation:
-
The seriousness of the fault or complaint and its safety implications,
Whether more than one report of contamination has been received,
The likelihood of contamination in the manufacturing process,
The size and distribution of the batch,
Whether the complainant has already involved police, health officials or media.
7.0 Level of Recall
Once the risk has been analysed, the product may be either withdrawn or recalled
from the market.
A withdrawal will occur when use of the product is not likely to cause adverse health
consequences. (ie incorrect labelling k, aesthetically undesirable foreign matter, or
incorrectly formulated product.) This does not warrant a voluntary recall notification
to the Minister.
A recall will take place when there is a reasonable probability that the consumption
of the product will cause either M:
-
Serious adverse health consequences or
Consumption of the product may cause temporary or medically reversible
adverse health consequences, or
Where the probability of serious adverse health consequences is remote. (ie the
presence of toxic contaminants or harmful foreign bodies.)
8.0 Notification
Notification has three aspects;
1. Notifying the distribution network and clients
2. Notifying the public:
3. Notify the appropriate statutory authorities:
K
The exception to incorrect labelling is when it that may lead to a health risk ie sugar-containing
products labelled as non-sugar
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M
NOTE: a compulsory recall can however, be ordered if it is deemed that insufficient action has been
taken with safety related defects.
8.1
Notifying the Distribution Network and Clients
Detail methods for stopping the distribution and sale of the product, for storing the
recovered product safely, and for isolating and disposing of in a correct manner, are
required to be provided.
8.2
Notifying the Public
Detail methods which state which forms of media are to be used and how contacts
are to be informed. Public notification is essential if the product in question is
offered for sale at the retail level.
8.3
Notification of the Commonwealth and State and Territory Ministers
Responsible for Consumer Affairs and Fair Trading.
Consumer product standards, bans and recalls all come under the Commonwealth’s
Trade Practices Act. This Act gives the Minister (in practice the Minister for
Consumer Affairs or the Attorney-General), power to order a recall of consumer
goods if a voluntary recall is considered to be inadequate and to issue public
warning notices. Section 65R of the Act also requires that a supplier must notify the
Minister within two days of a voluntary recall when goods will or may cause injury to
any person. Severe penalties ($3,300) can be imposed by the Federal Bureau of
Consumer Affairs through the federal court for breeches of not only standards and
bans, but also recalls.
Complimentary State laws also exist, so it is advisable to check the precise details
of the provisions of these laws. Most states require that a party responsible for a
food or beverage subject to a mandatory recall, be liable to recall that product from
members of the public.
Full co-operation with the Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ) State
Health Departments and Office of Consumer Affairs in a product recall is of great
importance. Soft drink manufactures must lodge a copy of their product recall
procedures with the State Health Departments or authorise Australian Beverages
to lodge a copy of its recommended recall procedures on their behalf. A list of food
recall action officers for Australian and New Zealand is attached in Appendix D.
9.0 Mechanics of Notification
The following information is required to complete the notification form. (see
Appendix C)
9.1
The Product
-
Product name and description, including packaging size and type;
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9.2
9.3
9.4
-
Batch or serial numbers;
-
Use-by or best-before dates;
-
Australian sponsor and contact telephone number
-
Quantity of batch, date and amount released;
-
National distribution;
-
Overseas distribution of any exported product.
The Problem
-
Name and telephone number of the person reporting the problem;
-
Date of the report;
-
Nature of the problem;
-
Results of tests and other investigations on suspect or other samples.
Other Relevant Information
-
Availability for investigation of suspect sample or other sample;
-
Type of hazard and assessment of risk;
-
Action proposed by sponsor;
-
Proposed recall level;
-
Number of similar reports received;
Confidentiality
Some of the information provided to FSANZ may be commercially sensitive or private in
nature. If this is the case, the Authority should be told. Except where disclosure is
specifically authorised by section 39 of the Food Standards Australia New Zealand Act
1991, confidentiality of information deemed to be 'confidential commercial information', as
defined in section 3 of that Act is maintained by the Authority.
Because FSANZ is a Commonwealth authority it is subject to Commonwealth government
administrative laws, which means that its actions are open to public scrutiny. The Freedom
of Information Act 1982 makes provision for public access to certain documents in the
Authorities possession. The Authority is required to provide access to documents in its
possession unless the documents sought are within an exception or exemption specified in
the Freedom of Information legislation, for example where it is necessary to maintain
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confidentiality to protect the private and business affairs of people and organisations to
whom the information relates.
Similarly, State and Territory health authorities are subject to government administrative
laws and requirements; if these authorities are a sponsors first point of contact the sponsor
should inform them if it is supplying confidential commercial information.
10.0 Recall Letters, Paid Advertisements and Media
10.1
Releases
Initial notification for recalls should be done by telephone and followed up with
written communication within 24 hours. Recall letters sent to distributors and
overseas importers should include a factual statement of the reasons for the recall
of the product, plus specific details that will allow the product to be easily identified.
Where possible, the Australian Coordinator should agree with text of the letter
before it is sent.
10.1.1 Heading
The heading should be 'Food Recall'.
10.1.2 Composition of Text
Information on the following should be provided:
-
The name of the product
-
The package size and description of the packaging
-
The batch or serial numbers
-
Other details necessary for fool proof identification
-
The reason for the recall, nature of the hazard and the effects of
consumption
-
The need to identify and quarantine the product
-
The method of recovery, disposal to be used
-
A request to retain the letter in a prominent position for one month in
case stock is in transit
-
Distribution of the product
-
Company contacts, including telephone and fax numbers.
If recalled stock has been distributed to a limited number of retailers or
distributors and there is reason to believe that the product may have been
further distributed to other distributors or retailers, the recall letter should
include the following statement:
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"If any of the recalled stock has been further distributed by you to other
distributors or retailers please immediately let those distributors or retailers
know of the recall. Please then telephone the nearest company office shown
below so that we can make contact with the distributor or retailers supplied
by your company. Long -distance callers may use reverse charges."
10.2
Paid Advertisements
If the recall is to the consumer level, or retail level and they cannot all be identified,
advertisements paid for by the sponsor are to be placed in the daily print media of
each State and Territory in which the product may have been distributed. (see
appendices G, H)
10.2.1 Choice of Print Media
The choice of print media should be made in consultation with the Australian
Coordinator and the coordinators in the appropriate State and Territory health
authorities. The Australian coordinator has a list of the main newspapers in
each State and Territory (see Appendix C) In addition, consideration should
be given to the need to inform ethnic and regional newspapers.
10.2.2 Format
Size: Double column and 10 centimeters deep is the minimum size for
advertisements. Which should be enclosed in a diagonally hatched border,
preferably with the internationally recognised safety triangle in the top lefthand corner. See Appendix H.
Position: It is important that recall advertisements appear in the front pages
of daily print media. If this is not possible they should appear in the first half
of the newspaper. The classifieds section is not suitable.
Text: The text of the recall advertisement should be submitted to the
Australian Coordinator for confirmation before it is sent for publication.
Heading: The heading should read 'Food Recall'.
Composition of Text: The text should include information on the following:
-
The name of the product
-
The package size and a description of the package
-
Any other details necessary for fool proof identification
-
The reason for the recall
-
The need to identify and quarantine the product
-
The method of recovery or disposal
-
If the hazard to the consumer is serious, a description of possible
clinical symptoms and advice to consult a medical practitioner, if
desired.
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-
10.3
Company contacts including telephone and fax numbers.
Media Release
To ensure the widest possible dissemination, and to cover both electronic and print
media, sponsors undertaking a voluntary recall should consider issuing a media
release. The media release should contain the same information as the paid
advertisement and should be developed jointly by the sponsor, the Australian
Coordinator and the relevant State or Territory Coordinator. Again, consideration
should be given to informing ethnic and regional media. Expert advice from a
medical practitioner or other specialist may be required.
The sponsors telephone number should be given to allow 24-hour access to further
information.
Media releases are intended to bring the problem to consumers attention as quickly
as possible as there may be a delay of several days in the publication of a paid
advertisement. The policy should be based strictly on the following:
1. Only one source within the company to be authorised to issue press statements
to the media. These must be in writing.
2. Only substantiated facts should be given.
3. Unless companies are frank and open with the media, there is the risk that the
media will present its own story, based on rumour, mis-information and
unrelated circumstances.
11.0
Product Recovery
Products may be recovered by returns to supermarkets, via distribution chains or direct
returns from consumers. The product should be returned to a central site or, in the case of
a widely distributed product, to major recovery sites. The recovered product must be
stored in an area that is separate from any other food products. Accurate records must be
kept of the amount of recovered product and the codes of that product.
After recovery, a product may be corrected or reprocessed if it is fit for human
consumption. If it is unfit for human consumption and is stored in a metropolitan area it
must be destroyed or denatured under the supervision of the State or Territory health
authorities. However in isolated country areas it may be destroyed or denatured under the
supervision of the store management
12.0
Post Recall Reporting
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One month and two months after the implementation of a recall the Australian Coordinator
should be provided with an interim and a final report respectively on the recall. The reports
are to contain the following information:
-
A copy o f the recall letter faxed to customers
-
The circumstances leading to the recall
-
The action taken by the sponsor, including any publicity, with names of newspapers
in which advertisements appeared.
-
The extent of distribution of the relevant batch in Australia and overseas.
-
The result of the recall - quantity of stock returned, corrected, outstanding, etc.
-
The method of disposal with certificates of destruction.
-
Action proposed for the future to prevent a recurrence of the problem.
-
Any difficulties experienced in conducting the recall.
-
Whether any government agencies or industry organisations helped with the recall
and, if so what written information they provided.
The interim and final reports give information about the effectiveness of the recall and
form the basis of reports to State and Territory coordinators and to the Consumers
Affairs Division of the Department of the Treasury. If the reports are unsatisfactory,
further recall action may have to be considered.
12.1
The Effectiveness of Recall Action
To be effective, recall notification must reach as far as the product has been
distributed. The effectiveness of the recall is assessed on the basis of the amount of
product received as a proportion of the amount of product that left the sponsor,
while taking into account the retail turnover of the product.
12.2
Follow-up Action
In addition to assessing the effectiveness of a recall, it is necessary to follow up by
investigating the reason for the recall and taking action to prevent a recurrence of
the problem.
On completion of a recall, the sponsor is requested to provide details of proposed
action to prevent a recurrence of the problem that gave rise to the recall. Where the
nature of the problem and appropriate remedial action are not apparent, FSANZ will
investigate and, in some cases, may audit the recall process. The sponsor will
receive advance notification of this so that it can assemble the relevant records.
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Action in response to the audit will be taken by the Consumers Affairs Division of
the Department of the Treasury in conjunction with FSANZ. This might involve for
example, a review of the product.
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Appendix A
Standard 3.2.2 Food Safety Practices and General
Requirements
11
Food Disposal
(1)
A food business must ensure that food for disposal is held and kept separate
until it is:
(a) Destroyed or otherwise used or disposed of so that it cannot be used for
human consumption;
(b) Returned to its supplier
(c) Ascertained to be safe and suitable
(2)
In subclause (1), 'food for disposal' means food that:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(3)
Is subject to recall
Has been returned
Is not safe or suitable ; or
Is reasonably suspected of not being safe or suitable.
A food business must clearly identify any food that is held and kept separate in
accordance with subclause (1) as returned food, recalled food, or food that is or
may not be safe or suitable, as the case may be.
A food business must not sell food that has already served to a person to another person
unless the food was completely wrapped when served and has remained completely
wrapped.
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Appendix B:
Procedure for a Product Recall
A potential recall situation may first come to the notice of any of the following: the sponsor, retailers, health
officials, the police or consumers. It is essential to notify the sponsor BEFORE any recall action is decided
Sponsor
Record details of complaint / problem
Consult store / company procedures
Convene the product recall coordinating committee
It is essential to make a proper assessment of the risk to public health and safety and the
appropriate action required. It is advisable that the sponsor contact the relevant State or
Territory health authority and FSANZ to determine if a recall is required and must notify
relevant authorities if the decision to recall has been already made.
If necessary, recommend a 'withdrawl' step while potential risk is assessed.
If a risk to public safety is confirmed and
a recall is required.
Notify your suppliers, the
Australian Retailers
Association and any
other relevant trade
associations
If no risk is established, terminate the
process.
STOP distribution and production
(if appropriate) of the affected
product. CONTACT distributors
(wholesale, retail and other trade
customers) of the affected
product by phone and follow that
with a fax. NOTIFY the media
and the public by placing
advertisements in the
newspapers (FSANZ and health
authorities can help with the
wording of the advertisement)
Also think about a media
release. Note that press
advertisements can take two or
more days to be published.
Within two days of
initiating a recall you
have to INFORM, in
writing, the Federal
Minister for Financial
Services and
Regulation. It may be
necessary to inform
the relevant State or
Territory dept.
responsible for fair
trading.
Arrange isolation, storage and disposal of affected product. Check effectiveness of recall.
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Appendix C
Urgent Food Recall Notification Form
PLEASE COMPLETE AND FAX TO FSANZ's FOOD RECALL COORDINATOR ON 02 6271 2278
DATE
SPONSOR
Company Contact
Address
Telephone Fax
After Hours Telephone Fax
Alternative Contact
FOOD PRODUCT DESCRIPTION
Food Type
Brand Name
Best Before
Brand Name
Product Size
Date Marking
Batch Code
Where is the Date Located on the Product
APN or EAN
Quantity of the Product Affected
NATURE OF HAZARD
Has Any Testing Been Done?
If Yes, Results
LEVEL OF RECALL
Wholesale
Retail
Consumer
DISTRIBUTION
Australia
Overseas
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(please identify which States of Territories)
(please identify which countries)
QLD
TAS
NSW
NT
ACT
WA
VIC
SA
ACTION PROPOSED AND ACTION TAKEN
DISPOSAL OF PRODUCT (What do you want done with the affected product?)
OTHER RELEVANT INFORMATION
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
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Appendix D
Contact Details: Australian & State / Territory Coordinators
FSANZ
The Food Recall Coordinator
Food Standards Australia New Zealand
PO Box 7186
CANBERRA MC ACT 2610
Ph: 02 6271 2610 Fax: 02 6271 2278
Website: www.FSANZ.gov.au
New South Wales
Food Branch
NSW Health Department
PO Box 798
Gladesville NSW 1675
Ph; 02 9816 0269 Fax: 02 9817 7596
Western Australia
Environmental Health Services
Health Department of Western Australia
PO Box 8172
Stirling Street
Perth WA 6849
Ph: 08 9388 4909 Fax: 08 9382 8119
Website: www.health.wa.gov.au
South Australia
Food Section – Environmental Health
Branch
South Australian Dept of Human Services
PO Box 6 Rundle Mall
Adelaide SA 5000
Ph: 08 8226 7107 Fax: 08 8226 7102
Website:
www.health.sa.gov.au/pehs/Food/foodsection.htm
Northern Territory
Program Directorate, Environmental
Health
Territory Health Services
PO Box 40596
Casuarina NT 0811
Ph: 08 8999 2965 Fax: 08 8999 2526
Website: www.nt.gov.au/nths
Victoria
Food Program
Department of Human Services
GPO Box 4057
Melbourne VIC 3000
Ph: 03 9637 4094 Fax: 03 9637 5212
Website: www.foodsafety.vic.gov.au
Queensland
Environmental Health Unit
Queensland Department of Health
GPO Box 48
Brisbane QLD 4001
Ph: 07 3234 0952 Fax: 07 3234 1480
Website: www.health.qld.gov.au
Tasmania
Environmental Health Unit
Department of Community and Health
Services
GPO Box 125B
Hobart TAS 7001
Ph: 03 6233 3753 Fax: 03 6233 6620
Website: www.dchs.tas.gov.au
Australian Capital Territory
ACT Health Protection Service
ACT Department of Health & Community
Care
Locked Bag No 5
Westons Creek ACT 2611
Ph: 02 6205 1700 Fax: 02 6205 1705
Website: www.health.act.gov.au
New Zealand
Food and Nutrition
New Zealand Ministry of Health
PO Box 5013
Wellington New Zealand
Ph: 0011 64 4496 2360 Fax: 0011 64
4496 2340
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Appendix E
Letter to the Minister
PLEASE FAX A COPY OF THIS LETTER TO THE FEDERAL MINISTER FOR
CONSUMER AFFAIRS
IT MAY ALSO BE NECESSARY TO ADVISE THE STATE OR TERRITORY MINISTER
RESPONSIBLE FOR FAIR TRADING OR CONSUMER AFFAIRS
Federal Minister for Consumer Affairs
[and State or Territory Minister responsible for fair trading if necessary]
Dear Minister,
RE: NOTIFICATION OF PRODUCT RECALL
In accordance with section 65R of the Trade Practices Act 1974, we wish to inform you of
a product recall.
Nature of product
[Provide information that will help identify the product – for example, product name, size,
batch, and code numbers, and use-by date, type of product (such as confectionery, meat
or milk).]
Nature of the defect
[Say what the problem is; for example, bacteria or foreign matter.]
Action taken or proposed
[Say what you have done or are going to do. For example.
•
•
•
•
We have notified the manufacturer of the product and relevant government
authorities.
We have notified all retailers known to have purchased the product.
We are going to do a consumer-level recall.
We have scheduled press advertisements to appear in the (name of newspaper or
newspapers) on (date).]
Should you require any further information please contact us on (telephone number)
Yours sincerely,
[YOUR COMPANY NAME AND ADDRESS
[DATE]
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Appendix F
Contact Details: Relevant Ministers (Usually the Minister for
Consumer Affairs or Fair Trading)
It is a legal requirement to notify the federal minister responsible for consumer affairs of all
food recalls.
Federal Minister for Financial Services
& Regulation
Consumer Affairs Division
Department of the Treasury
Parkes Place
Parkes ACT 2600
Ph: 02 6263 2747 Fax: 02 6263 2830
New South Wales
State Minister for Fair Trading
Dept. of Fair Trading
NSW Consumer Affairs Agency
PO Box 972
Parramatta NSW 2124
Ph: 02 9895 0111 Fax: 02 9689 0423
Victoria
State Minister for Fair Trading and
Business Affairs
Department of Justice
GPO Box 123A
Melbourne VIC 3001
Ph: 03 9627 6000 Fax: 03 9627 6007
Western Australia
State Minister for Fair Trading
Ministry of Fair Trading
PO Box 1344
Osborne Park WA 6916
Ph: 08 9244 3748 Fax: 08 9244 3750
Queensland
State Minister for Consumer Affairs
Office of Fair Trading
GPO Box 3111
Brisbane QLD 4001
Ph: 07 3239 0133 Fax: 07 3239 0415
South Australia
State Minister for Fair Trading
Office of Consumer and Business Affairs
PO Box 469
Hindmarsh SA 5007
Ph: 08 8234 7039 Fax: 08 8234 1486
Tasmania
State Minister for Fair Trading
Office of Consumer Affairs
GPO Box 1244J
Hobart TAS 7001
Ph: 03 6233 7655 Fax: 03 6272 7852
Northern Territory
State Minister for Fair Trading
Office of Consumer Affairs and Fair
Trading
GPO Box 1722
Darwin NT 0801
Ph: 08 8999 6207 Fax: 08 8999 6260
Australian Capital Territory
State Minister for Fair Trading
ACT Legislative Assembly
GPO Box 1020
Canberra City ACT 2601
Ph: 02 6207 0423 Fax: 02 6207 0424
New Zealand
Minister for Consumer Affairs
Ministry for Consumer Affairs
PO Box 1473
Wellington New Zealand
Ph: 0011 64 4474 2750 Fax: 0011 64
4473 9400
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Appendix G
Major Australian Newspapers
National
The Australian
The Australian Financial Times
Telephone
02 9288 3000
02 9282 3415
Facsimile
02 9288 2250
02 9282 2484
Canberra
The Canberra Times
02 6280 2173
02 6280 4884
Sydney
The Sydney Morning Herald
The Sun Herald
The Daily Telegraph
The Sunday Telegraph
02 9282 2833
02 9282 2833
02 9288 3606
02 9288 3000
02 9282 3121
02 9282 3332
02 9288 3729
02 9288 3729
Melbourne The Age
The Herald Sun
The S unday Herald
03 9601 2014
03 9292 2739
03 9292 2000
03 9670 1329
03 9292 2141
03 9652 2080
Perth
The West Australian
The Sunday Times
08 9482 3716
08 9326 8326
08 9482 9091
08 9325 3360
Brisbane
The Courier Mail
The Sunday Mail
07 3666 6222
07 3666 6267
07 3666 6687
07 3666 6680
Adelaide
The Adelaide Advertiser
08 8206 2000
08 8206 3622
Hobart
The Hobart Mercury
The Launceston Examiner
03 6230 0622
03 6331 5111
03 6230 0766
03 6334 7328
Darwin
The Northern Territory News
08 8944 9801
08 8981 8392
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Appendix H
Example of Printed Media Release
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General Specificatio ns for
Two Litre, One Piece PET Bottles
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Table of Contents
1.0
Drawing and Dimensions
78
2.0
Finish
78
3.0
Colour and Clarity
78
4.0
General Appearance
78
5.0
Bottle Weight
78
6.0
Fill Point Capacity – "As Manufactured"
78
6.1
Average Fill Point Capacity
78
6.2
Individual Fillpoint Capacity
78
7.0
Individual Fill Point Capacity as Delivered
79
8.0
Perpendicularity – Empty and Filled Uncapped
79
9.0
Acetaldehyde Content and Flavour
79
10.0
Weight Loss
79
11.0
Durability
79
12.0
Vertical Load
79
13.0
Fill Point Drop Variation
80
14.0
Thermal Stability – Filled Bottles
80
15.0
Impact Resistance – Bottles
80
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16.0
Carbonation Loss – by Permeation
80
17.0
Plastic Distribution
81
18.0
Internal Pressure Resistance
81
Appendix-1: Specifications
82
Appendix-2: Vertical Load Procedure
83
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1.0
Drawings and Dimensions
The bottle shall conform to a fully dimensioned drawing (signed by both supplier and
bottler).
2.0
Finish
Shall conform to Alcoa Drawing No. 969 – 1716 – 002, be free of defects or other
irregularities which may adversely affect the seal integrity of the closure.
3.0
Colour and Clarity
Bottles shall have a colour and clarity (pearlescence) falling within limits or standards
submitted to and authorised by the bottler.
4.0
General Appearance
Blemishes (bubbles, unmelted resin, dirt specks, pitting, condensation marks etc.) shall not
constitute a more objectionable appearance than that of the limit samples submitted to the
bottler. Scuffing should not exceed acceptable limits as previously set by the bottler and
agreed by the manufacturer.
5.0
Bottle Weight
Bottle weight shall be specified on the supplier’s drawing and authorised in writing by the
bottler. The bottle manufacturing weight tolerance shall be -1.0g for nominal.
6.0
Fill Point Capacity – “As Manufactured”
6.1
Average Capacity
The arithmetic average for the fillpoint capacity of a sample of bottles at the nominal
reference fillpoint, as measured from the top of the finish down on each bottle, 72
hours after manufacture when exposed only to room temperature and 50% R.H.
and with 0 Kilopascals gauge (0 psiq) internal pressure shall be as follows:
Bottle Capacity: 2020mL
6.2
Tolerance Limits: +8 –0mL
Individual Fillpoint Capacity
The individual fillpoint capacity tolerance of bottles at the nominal reference fillpoint,
as measured from the top of the finish down on each bottle and at 72 hours afte r
manufacture when exposed only to room temperature and 50% R.H and with 0
kilopascals gauge (0 psig) internal pressure shall be as follows:
Bottle Capacity: 2020mL
Tolerance Limits: +17 – 9mL
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7.0
Individual Fill Point Capacity As Delivered
The individual fillpoint capacity tolerance of bottles at the nominal reference fillpoint, as
measured from the top of the finish down on each bottle as delivered and at least 72 hours
after manufacture and with 0 kilopascals gauge (0 psig) internal pressure shall be as
follows:
Bottle Capacity: 2020mL
Tolerance Limits: +17 -28mL
8.0
Perpendicularity – Empty and Filled Uncapped Bottles
Deviation from the perpendicular for an empty bottle or an uncapped bottle filled with
product to the nominal fillpoint (bottles should be tested as received) shall be less than
6.4mm (0.250”) (total indicator reading).
9.0
Acetaldehyde Content and Flavour
A.
The acetaldehyde concentration of freshly blown clear resin bottle as measured
by the standard 24-hour air-space analysis method shall be as follows:
1.
2.
B.
10.0
The average of a uniform sample of bottles, representing each injection
mould cavity, shall be not more than 3.0 micrograms/litre;
The maximum in any single bottle shall not exceed 4.0 micrograms/litre;
There shall be no taste or flavour change of the product from the original taste
of flavour due to contact with the bottle when the bottle is exposed to any
temperature between 2°C (36°F) and 27°C (80°F) at any % R.H. for 24 weeks
or 38°C (100°F) at any % R.H. for 7 days. Tests to determine taste or flavour
changes shall be performed by the bottler.
Weight Loss
Weight loss from the contents of the bottle shall not exceed 1% during a 24-week shelf-life
period when exposed to temperatures between 2°C (36°F) and 27°C (80°F) at any % R.H.
11.0
Durability
The bottle shall not exhibit excessive stress cracking or other breakdown to the point
where the ability of the bottle to function as intended is grossly affected under normal
handling and distribution conditions during the 24-week period after filling.
12.0
Vertical Load
When tested as per the test procedures included in Appendix II. (Attached) the vertical
load strength of the bottle shall not be less than 30kg. The bottle finish and support ledge
should not crack or deform under vertical and side loads applied during filling and closure
application.
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13.0
Fill Point Drop Variation
After exposure to 414 Kilopascals gauge (60 psig) at 24°C (75°F) for 60 seconds, the
difference between the pressurised fill height and the unpressurised fill height for individual
bottles in a sample group, originally filled to the nominal fillpoint with water, shall not vary
more than 1.5mm (.060”). The internal pressure shall be attained by injecting carbon
dioxide gas at the constant rate of 69 kilopascals gauge per second (10 psig per second).
14.0
Thermal Stability – Filled Bottles
Sealed bottles originally filled to the nominal fillpoint with product at 4.0 volumes apparent
carbonation (as read at any temperature between 2°C (36°F) and 24°C (75°F) and a
maximum of 28 kilopascals absolute (4 psia air) shall meet the following performance
criteria at any R.H. and shall develop no rocker bottoms and continue to function as
intended after storage at 27°C (80°F) for 24 weeks or 38°C (100°F) for 24 hours:
15.0
Temperature
38°C (100°F)
Time
24 hours
Diameter Increase
3.0% max.
Height Increase
3.5% max.
Perpendicularity
9.0mm max.
Fillpoint Drop
23.0mm max.
Impact Resistance – Bottles
A sealed bottle originally filled to the nominal fillpoint with a product at 4.0 volumes
apparent carbonation (as read at 24°C (75°F) from the Zahm and Nagel Table for CO2
dissolved in water) and a maximum of 28 kilopascals absolute (4 psia) air shall not fail
when dropped in any mode, except on the finish, from a height of 2 meters (6’) on to a
rigidly fastened concrete plate when exposure to any of the following conditions has not
been exceeded by the filled bottle:
16.0
Ambient Temperature
Time
2°C (36°F) to 27°C (80°F)
24 weeks
28°C (82°F) to 38°C (100°F)
24 hours
Carbonation Loss – by Permeation
The average carbonation level of a group of representative bottles originally filled to a
carbonation level 4.0 volumes of CO2 shall not be reduced by more than 15% after 12
weeks storage at 22°C (72°F).
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17.0
Plastic Distribution
The thickness of the plastic material in the walls of the container should be distributed
such that the ability of the bottle to function is not affected under normal handling
conditions. Wall thickness is one of many contributing factors to overall bottle
performance. The minimum wall thickness’ listed in Appendix I, does not necessarily
define a bottle which will comply with all the specifications in this document. These values
are listed only as a reference to suppliers.
18.0
Internal Pressure Resistance
The bottle shall withstand an internal pressure of 1035 kilopascals (150 psi) at 24°C for 60
seconds at any % R.H.
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Appendix I: Specifications
Min. Thickness
A.
Gate Area – Crystalline portion of
the bottle i ncluding the sprue
2.80mm (0.110”)
B.
Base Area – Feet and curvature to heel
0.30mm (0.012”)
C.
Heel – The lower major diameter
0.30mm (0.012”)
D.
Sidewall – Body label and panel area
0.30mm (0.012”)
E.
Shoulder – Upper major diameter
0.30mm (0.012”)
F.
Upper shoulder – Curvature above upper
major diameter below the support ledge
0.30mm (0.012”)
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Appendix II: Vertical Load Test Procedure
Equipment Required:
SATECH Tensil – Compression Tester or Equivalent Load Gauge
Procedure:
Free-standing – Empty
1.
Place the empty bottle upright in a tensile compression tester at room
temperature.
2.
Lower the cross head to the top of the finish and ensure load gauge reads 0
kilograms
(0 lbs)
3.
Apply load at the rate of 51cm per minute (20 ins/min.) until the bottle fails, (i.e.
until the resistance of the bottle to the load peaks and there is a loss of column
strength attributed to a buckling sidewall panel or collapsing shoulder).
4.
Record the load at failure.
5.
The minimum requirement for passing the vertical load test shall be 30kg (66
lbs). If the bottle passes this minimum load, the empty and filled bottle shall be
capable of meeting the vertical load requirements of bottling and stacking during
storage.
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Sensor y Assessment o f t he S hel f Li fe o f
Carbonat ed Soft Dri nk s
BY R.L MCBRIDE AND K.C. RICHARDSON
Authors ’ address : Food Res earch Laboratory, CSIRO Divis ion of
Food Res earch, PO Box 52, North Ryde NSW 2113 Aus tralia
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Table of Contents
1.0
Summary
86
2.0
Introduction
86
3.0
Method and Materials
86
4.0
Results
87
5.0
Discussion
88
6.0
Acknowledgements
89
7.0
References
89
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1.0
Summary
Six commercial soft drinks, in glass bottles and aluminium cans, were stored at 0.6°C and
ambient temperature and assessed by a consumer-type sensory panel every three months
for two years. While there was evidence of deteriorations with storage, more so at
ambient temperature than at 0.6°C, all drinks were still considered satisfactory at the
conclusion of the trial.
2.0
Introduction
In 1978 the State of New South Wales introduced mandatory date coding for those food
and beverage products with an expected shelf life of less than two years. Although soft
drinks were exempt from date coding requirements, there is still some uncertainty about
their shelf life. Richardson (1976) had suggested that the shelf life of soft drinks may, in
some instances, be less than two years; Tilley (1978) considered soft drinks to have a
shelf life of up to 12 months; and Kieninger, Koberlein & Boeck (1979) found deterioration
in the flavour of commercial cola drinks stored for 4 weeks a 40°C. The packaging of soft
drinks in two -piece aluminium cans, instead of timplate, has further complicated the issue,
since shelf life can be limited by container breakdown as well as product degradation
(Alderson, 1970).
Those previous studies which have included investigation of the shelf life of soft drinks,
have tended to focus on new product formulation (e.g. Lime & Gruse, 1972; Saeed
&Ahmed, 1977), or microbiological aspects (Panazai, 1978; Jahrig & Schade, 1979). The
present study is specifically concerned with sensory quality.
3.0
Materials and Methods
Materials: Six carbonated soft drinks, typical of commercial production in Australia, were
included in the study: cola, low calorie cola, lemon, low calorie lemon, lemonade, and
orange. All drinks contained added flavour, and the lemon drinks contained 5% lemon
juice. Both low calorie drinks were sweete ned with a mixture of sodium saccharin and
calcium cyclamate; the others were sweetened with cane sugar and varied from 10.5 to
12° Brix. The degree of carbonation (in volumes) was: cola 3.5 – 4.0, low calorie cola 3.5
– 4.0, lemon 2.6, low calorie lemon 2.6, lemonade 3.7, and orange 2.7.
Three soft drink manufacturers each supplied two products. All products were processed
locally and delivered immediately to the Food Research Laboratory in brown cardboard
cartons. Samples of each product came from the same production batch. Half the bulk
quantity of each drink was packaged in 375 ml ‘ring-pull’ aluminium cans, the other half in
1 litre screw-cap glass bottles.
Methods: Some of the bottles and cans of each product were placed in a covered storage
bay at ambient temperature, to simulate non-insulated warehouse conditions. Once side
of the storage bay was open to the air, but products were protected from direct sunlight.
The remaining samples were stored in a constant temperature room at 0.6°C. Thus there
were effectively 24 treatments; 6 drinks x 2 storage temperatures.
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Each treatment was assessed by a sensory panel every three months over a two year
period (9 assessments in all). There were 12 sessions at each three-monthly assessment
(2 sessions a day on 6 days over a 2 week period), and two drinks were evaluated at each
session. The order of evaluation of drinks over the 12 sessions was random, except that
no two drinks of the same type (e.g. cola and low calorie cola) were presented at the same
session. Twenty – four hours before each session the appropriate drinks were removed
from their respective storage conditions and kept at 5°C.
Composition of the sensory panel varied between assessments, but most assessors had
some previous experience in the sensory evaluation of food. The number of assessors at
each session ranged from 41 to 72, with a median value of a chilled (approximately 8°C)
100 ml sample of soft drink in a clear glass tumbler. They were required to drink the
sample and to rate their overall impression on a 7-point hedonic scale: Extremely good (7),
Very good (6), Good (5), Satisfactory (4), Poor (3), Very poor (2) and Extremely poor (1).
Only the verbal descriptors were attached to the response scale.
On completion of this task, the assessor returned the response scale and tumbler, and
was then presented with another drink to evaluate (except at the first assessment where
absence of the storage variable meant there were only 12 treatments). This ‘single
presentation’ design more closely simulates normal consumer assessment than
comparative evaluation (McBride & Richardson, 1979; McBride, 1980), and has been
shown to be less prone to methodological bias (McBride, 1982). Assessors were not
informed of the purpose of the test, nor were they given any information on the history of
any sample. The sensory laboratory in which the testing was conducted has been
described elsewhere (Christie, 1966).
4.0
Results
The 10,300 responses were subjected to an analysis of variance using the GENSTAT
statistical package on Cyber 76 Computer. The results are summarised in Fig.1.
There were significant difference between the hedonic scores for the six types of drink (F =
60.25, d.f. = 1/10, 213, P< .001). Overall mean scores were; cola 4.63, low calorie cola
4.46, lemon 4.8, low calorie lemon 4.23, lemonade 4.43, and orange 4.30. The low calorie
drinks were rated lower than their sugar-sweetened counterparts.
There was a significant drop in scores over the 8 storage time (F = 13.63, d.f. = 7/10, 213,
P< .0011) The overall mean score at 0 months was 4.80; at 24 months, 4.34.
The effect of storage temperature was significant (F = 85.51, d.f. – 1/10, 213, P< .001).
The mean score for drinks stored at 0.6°C was 4.56, compared with the lower value of
4.34 for those stored at ambient temperature.
Overall, the mean score for drinks stored in bottles (4.50) was marginally higher than for
those in cans (4.45), (F = 6.03, d.f. – 1/10, 213, P< .05). However, this container-type
main effect was found to be due only to the lower scores for low calorie lemon in cans; for
the other drinks the scores for bottles and cans were almost identical.
Interactions
There was a significant drink type x container type inter-action (F = 12.88, d.f. = 1/10, 213,
P< .05)
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but, as for the container main effect, this was due entirely to the low scores for low calorie
lemon in cans.
The storage time x storage temperature interaction was also significant (F = 4.65, d.f. =
7/10, 213, P< .001), indicating that the scores for samples stored at ambient temperature
dropped more than those for samples stored at 0.6 C. This is evident in Fig. 1.
A significant storage temperature x drink type interaction (F = 4.54, d.f. = 5/10, 213, P<
.001), implies that storage temperature affected the six drink types differentially.
Inspection showed least difference between the scores for low calorie cola stored at 0.6°C
and ambient temperature (4.46 and 4.37 respectively), and the largest discrepancy for
orange (4.49 at 0.6°C, 4.07 at ambient).
A small but significant storage time x container type inter-action (F = 2.47, d.f. = 7/10, 213,
P< .05) revealed a slight cross-over effect: scores for drinks in bottles were marginally
higher at the first six assessments, but the trend reversed at the last three assessments.
There was no storage time x drink type interaction, suggesting all drinks deteriorated to the
same extent during storage, not was there any storage temperature x container type
interaction.
5.0
Discussion
It is important in this experiment to distinguish between statistical and practical
significance. Although most of the main effects and first-order interactions are highly
significant statistically, it does not necessarily follow that they are highly significant in
practice. For example, Fig. 1 shows that, irrespective of treatment condition, almost all
scores lie between 4 (Satisfactory) and 5 (Good) on the hedonic scale: despite the
deterioration with storage time, highly significant statistically, only 5 of the 102 scores in
Fig. 1 lie below ‘Satisfactory’ on the hedonic scale. Figure 1 also shows that the highly
significant storage temperature effect becomes noticeable only after 12 months storage: in
the first 12 months the pattern is not consistent.
The design of this study was such that assessors were not able to make direct
comparisons between samples. McBride and Richardson (1979) and McBride (1980)
argue that, in the sensory laboratory, this provides a more valid estimate of practical shelf
life, since the only comparison possible is that which is also available to the consumer, i.e.
a comparison against a remembered level of quality. The use of large panels of
assessors, as in the present experiment, also helps to simulate consumer assessment.
The experimental design used here, with assessments at periodic intervals and with no
reference standard, can always be criticised on the grounds that it is susceptible to ‘panel
drift’; that the drip in scores may reflect assessor satiety rather than a genuine
deterioration in the product. On this point it is pertinent to note that participation in the
sensory panel was entirely voluntary; that co-operation and motivation were good
throughout; and that assessments were conducted only every three months. Besides,
there can be considerable methodological problems when reference standards are
employed (see Wolfe, 1979).
In conclusion, this experiment suggests that, provided they are protected from light,
carbonated soft drinks packed in glass or aluminium containers, have a practical shelf life
of at least two years. Even those drinks stored at ambient temperature, and which
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experienced seasonal fluctuations of more than 30 degrees Centigrade, were still
considered satisfactory at the end of testing.
6.0 Acknowledgement
We thank Mary Willcox for assistance with the statistical analyses.
7.0 References
Alderson, M.G. (1970) Fd mf. 45 (8), 67.
Christie, E.M. (1966) Fd Technol. N.Z. 1, 175.
Jahrig, A. & Schade, W. (1979) Levensmittel-Ind. 26,511.
Kieninger, H, Koberlein, A. & Boeck, D (1979) Brauwelt, 119, 384.
Lime, B.J. & Gruse, R.R. (1972) J. Fd Sci. 37, 250.
McBride, R.L. (1980) CSIRO Fd Res. Q. 40, 149.
McBride, R.L. (1982) J. Fd Technol. In press.
McBride, R.L. & Richardson, K.C. (1979) J. Fd Technol. 14, 57.
Panezai, A.K. (1978) In: Developments in Soft Drinks
Technology – 1 (Ed by L.F. Green). Applied Science Publishers, London.
Richardson, K.C. (1976) CSIRO Fd Res. Q. 36, 1.
Saeed, A.R. & Ahmed, M.O. (1977) Sudan J Fd Sci. & Technol. 9, 78.
Tilley, N. (1978) In: Developments in Soft Drinks Technology – 1 (Ed by L.F. Green).
Applied Science Publishers, London.
Wolfe, K.A. (1979) Fd Technol., Champaign, 33 (9), 43.
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Voluntar y Manufacturi ng Standard s for
Carbonat ed Soft Dri nk Co ntai ner s
Produced by: The Glass Packaging Institute of Australia in Conjunction with the
Australian Beverages Council.
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Table of Contents
1.0
Purpose
93
2.0
Scope
93
3.0
Definitions
93
3.1
Returnable Bottles
93
3.2
Non-Returnable Bottle
93
3.3
Carbonation Volumes
94
3.4
Visual Inspection
94
3.5
Visual Defects
94
3.6
Perpendicularity
95
3.7
Standard Crown Finish
95
3.8
Thread Finish
95
3.9
Bearing Finish
95
3.10
Knurling
95
3.11
Cavity Number
95
3.12
Lower Specification Valve
95
3.13
Normal Capacity
95
4.0
Requirements
96
4.1
General
96
4.2
Temper Number
97
4.3
Thermal Shock Resistance
97
4.4
Internal Pressure Strength
97
4.5
Wall Thickness
98
4.6
Impact Resistance
98
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5.0
4.7
Surface Coating
100
4.8
Visual Inspection
100
Physical Dimensions
100
5.1
General
100
5.2
Height
100
5.3
Major Body Diameter
100
5.4
Capacity
101
5.5
Weight
101
5.6
Perpendicularity
102
5.7
Bottom Characteristics
102
5.8
Bottle Identification Marks
102
Tables
Table 1:
Internal Pressure
103
Table 2:
Wall Thickness
104
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1.0 Purpose
The purpose of the Standard is to publish nationally recognised manufacturing
requirements for conventional glass bottles designed as containers for carbonated soft
drinks. This Standard is intended to provide producers, distributors, users and other
interested groups with a basis for common understanding of the characteristics of these
products. For the purpose of completeness, various physical dimensions are included as
indicative of good manufacturing practice, but not necessarily related to safety.
2.0
Scope
This Standard covers conventional returnable and non-returnable glass bottles
manufactured from soda-lime-silica glass with nominal capacity of up to and including 1
litre intended for use in the packaging of soft drinks carbonated to a miximum of five
volumes.
This Standard also covers conventional non-returnable glass bottles
manufactured from soda-lime-silica glass with nominal capacity in excess of 1 liter but not
excess of 1.25 litters, intended for soft drinks carbonated to a maximum at four volumes.
The Standard provides manufacturing requirements for temper number, thermal shock
resistance, internal pressure strength, impact resistance, visual defects, dimensional
tolerances for height and major body diameter, tolerance for capacity and weight, wall
thickness, perpendicularity, bottom characteristics, and bottle identification.
Provision is made for utilisation of automatic inspection devices for certain bottle
characteristics with the allowance of a time interval for the manufacture, acquisition and
installation of these devices. These requirements apply only to glass containers currently
being used and described as conventional containers; they do not apply to bottles which
are plastic clad, or the result of other novel or innovative engineering or design
developments. Definitions of the trade terms used and methods for identifying products
which conform to this Standard are included.
3.0
3.1
Definitions
Returnable Bottles
A returnable bottle is one which, by design, when manufactured has the mechanical
characteristics to provide for multiple service trips as a carbonated soft drink
container.
3.2
Non-Returnable Bottles
A non-returnable bottle is one which, by design, when manufactured has the
mechanical characteristics to provide for one service trip as a carbonated soft drink
container.
3.3 Carbonation Volumes
Carbonated soft drinks are made by absorbing carbon dioxide in potable water. One
volume of gas will be absorbed by water at 16°C (60°F) and zero kpa (psi) gauge
pressure (one atmosphere); correspondingly, four volumes of carbon dioxide will be
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absorbed by the water at 310 kpa (45psi) gauge pressure (four atmospheres); five
volumes, 414 kpa (60psi) (five atmosphere).
3.4 Visual Inspection
The procedure which subjects bottles being produced to visual inspection to delete
and discard bottles with observable defects.
3.4.1
3.5
Automatic Inspection – The procedure which subject bottles being produced
to scanning by mechanical, optical or electronic means or stress loading, in
order to detect and discard bottles with detectable defects.
Visual Defects
Visual defects are the significant discontinuities or irregularities in the glass container
which can be detected by visual inspection.
3.5.1
Birdswings – A string or strand of glass extending across the inside of the
bottle.
3.5.2
Butterfly Bruise – A surface crack caused by a severe blow. The fracture is
usually curved in shape extending into the glass from the outside surface.
3.5.3
Cracks – A breaking or a fracture extending into or completely through the
glass from either surface.
3.5.4
Overpress Finish – Glass fin projecting upward from the inside surface to the
extent it may be broken or chipped in normal use.
3.5.5
Split Finish – A crack extending from surface to surface extending from top of
the finish downward.
3.5.6
Stuck Glass – Extraneous sharp glass fragments adhering to a surface.
3.5.7
Choked Neck – Constriction of the inside of the neck and finish exceeding
print specifications.
3.5.8
Checks – Shallow fractures confined to one surface of the glass container.
3.5.9
Chipped Finish – An imperfection due to breakage of a fragment out of an
otherwise regular surface.
3.5.10 Crizzle Finish – A frosty appearance on the sealing surface caused by a
multitude of fine surface fractures which could prevent an adequate seal.
3.5.11 Distorted Finish – A sagging or irregular surface which could prevent an
adequate seal.
3.5.12 Off-set Seams Finish - Sealing surface or finish threads misaligned to such
an extent that proper seal or removal torque cannot be maintained.
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3.5.13 Stones – Unmelted batch or foreign matter 1.6mm (.062”) or larger in size
embedded in bottle.
3.5.14 Blisters – Bubbles or gaseous inclusions 3.2mm (.123”) or larger in size.
3.5.15 Stuck Plunger – The glass sticks to the plunger during the forming process.
Small protrusions or spikes of glass are dragged out from the inside wall of
the finish restricting clearance in the bore.
3.5.16 False Bottoms – An extra section of glass above and usually close to the
regular base. It is usually very thin, incomplete, and susceptible to breakage.
3.6
Perpendicularity
Perpendicularity of a bottle is the total horizontal deviation of the top of the bottle
from the perpendicular when rotated through 360o (See Figure 1).
3.7
Standard Crown Finish
The Standard crown finish is the upper portion of those bottles which accept a fluted
crown whose edges are crimped over the bottle opening (see figure 1).
3.8
Thread Finish
The thread finish is the upper portion of those bottles which are designed to accept a
closure over external threads (see figure 1).
3.9
Bearing Ring
The bearing ring is the portion of the bottle base which contacts the supporting
surface when the bottle is in an upright position. The contact area is on or adjacent
to the outer circumference of the container (see figure 1).
3.10 Knurling
Knurling is a pattern of small projections on the surface of the bottle (see figure 1).
3.11 Cavity Number
The cavity number is the code that identifies the individual blow mould that forms the
bottle.
3.12 Lower Specification Valve
The value which for the purpose of process control defines the lower limit below
which a re-sampling procedure is to be instituted.
3.13 Nominal Capacity
The fluid content as stated on the label of the product or embossed in the bottle
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4.0
4.1
Requirements
General
This section sets forth the inspection and test procedures to be utilised by
producers of soft drink bottles in order to comply with this Voluntary Product
Standard. Each producer who represents his product as conforming to this
Standard, shall keep such essential records for at least one year as are necessary
to document his claim that the requirements of the Standard have been met.
Conformance with this Standard is not to be interpreted to mean that all bottles in a
shipment will be free of defects.
As soon as technologically and practically possible, but in any event within a period
not to exceed 24 months after the agreed publication of this Standard, a producer of
soft drink bottles shall utilise the following automatic inspection devices as may be
commercially available to inspect all soft drink bottles which are produced:
•
•
•
•
Choked Neck
Check Detection (Finish and Base Minimum)
Split Detection
Impact Simulation. (Refer Section 4.6)
It is recognised that other automatic inspection devices for inspecting all bottles
produced are currently under development, but no time frame for their utilisation
can presently be predicted. Among those additional devices, producers of soft drink
bottles are encouraged to accelerate development and installation of such devices
for:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Down Finish
Pressure Strength
Wall Thickness
Stone Detection
Bottom Push-up Measurement
Out of Roundness
Additional sampling and testing of the product, as may be agreed upon between
producer and user, is not precluded by this section.
4.1.2
Testing Procedures – All producers of soft drink bottles shall use the
techniques for production process control listed below in paragraphs 4.2,
4.3, 4.4, 4.6, 4.7 and 4.8 until such time as appropriate automatic inspection devices are substituted therefore. Test frequencies for items 4.2
and 4.3 shall be in accordance with ASTM C224. Sampling frequencies for
wall thickness checks (4.5) will be as for internal pressure tests (4.4).
4.1.3
Re-test Procedures – If a bottle fails to meet the lower specification value
for internal pressure, wall thickness or thermal shock, four additional bottles
selected from the next succeeding production of the represented cavity or
cavities shall be tested. If a failure occurs among the four bottles selected
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for re-test, all bottles being produced from the representative cavity or
cavities shall be rejected until the condition causing the failure has been
corrected. Correction will be indicated when all four bottles of a re-test lot
pass the test.
Upon initial re-test failure, all pallets loaded with bottles produced from the
represented cavity or cavities since the last satisfactory test, shall be
quarantined. The quarantined bottles from the represented cavity or
cavities either may be rejected or shall be qualified for acceptance by
testing in groups of four in reverse order of production beginning with those
last produced following the test procedure described above until all four
bottles of the test group indicate conformance. All bottles from any test
group that did not indicate conformance when so tested, shall be rejected.
The quarantine shall then be removed.
4.2 Temper Number
Representative bottles after annealing, when examined under polarised light, shall
show no greater than Real Temper Number 4 when compared to standard discs in
accordance with the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) C148-65,
Standard Methods for Polariscopic Examination of Glass Containers*1. The
relationship between Real and Apparent Temper is shown in Appendix A. If, during
the polariscopic examination, it is discovered that certain bottles fail to meet the
prescribed limits, all non-conforming bottles shall either be destroyed or re-annealed
until the condition is corrected. Production back to the last approved examination
shall be quarantined until re-tested using the polariscope following which the
production will be released, re-annealed or destroyed.
*1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Later issues of this publication may be used providing the
requirements are applicable and consistent with the issue designated. Copies of this
publication are obtainable from the American Society of Testing and Material, 100
Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohcken, PA. 19428 2959.
Phone:
(610)
835
9585 Fax: (610) 832 9555 “www.astm.org”
4.3 Thermal Shock Resistance
Representative bottles shall withstand a hot to cold thermal shock of 40°C (75°F)
differential, from a hot water bath of 63°C ± .16°C (145°F ± 2°F) with a transfer time
of 15 seconds (± 1 second) into a cold bath of 21°C ± .16°C (70°F ± 2°F) in
accordance with ASTM C145-71, Standard Method of Thermal Shock Test on Glass
Containers *2 .
4.4
Internal Pressure Strength
The bottles taken from the lehr shall withstand the minimum internal pressure
specified in Table 1 when tested using one of the following methods:
a.
The 1 minute sustained pressure test in which pressure is sustained for 1 minute
at each level, starting at 1034 kPa (150 psi), at increments of 86.2 kPa (12.5 psi)
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up to and including 1379 kPa (200 psi) and at 172.4 kPa (25 psi) increments
thereafter, in accordance with Method A of ASTM C145-69, Internal Pressure
Test on Glass Container *2 .
b. The increment pressure test, in accordance with Method A of ASTM C147-69*4 ,
Internal Pressure Test on Glass Containers, and in which case the load duration
is 3 seconds at each level starting at 1034 kPa (150 psi) and the actual applied
pressure is 1.23 times the levels specified in the 1 minute sustained pressure test
in 4.4a. For example, for the levels of 1551 kPa (225 psi) 1379 kPa (200 psi) and
1207 kPa (175 psi) referred to in table 1, the actual applied pressures in the
bottle are 1917 kPa (278 psi) 1703 kPa (247 psi), and 1489 kPa (216 psi)
respectively.
c. The continuously increasing test, sometimes called the ramp test, in accordance
with Method B of ASTM C147-69*5 Internal Pressure Test on Glass Containers,
and in which the 1 minute equivalent pressure in increased at a constant rate of
414 kPa (60 psi) per second starting at zero psi and ending at the 1 minute
equivalent pressure as specified in Table 1. The actual pressure applied in the
bottle is given by the following equation:
PR = 1.28 P 60 + 25.9
In which PR is the actual pressure applied in the bottle, and P60 is the 1-minute
equivalent pressure as indicated by the ramp pressure test machine.
NOTE: Both the increment pressure tester and the ramp tester read out is
equivalent to 1 minute pressure strength.
This procedure does not preclude the manufacturer from using automatic random
off-line pressure testing provided that the procedure utilised will give equivalent
results to those specified above, in accordance with the ASTM C147-69*6
Internal Pressure Test on Glass Containers.
4.5
Wall Thickness
The wall thickness of the bottles shall meet the lower specification values for wall
thickness shown on Table 2. Interpretation may be necessary for special design and
fluted bottles.
4.6
Impact Resistance
When in accordance with 4.1.1 a suitable automatic device for impact simulation is
used, such as the squeeze-roll tester, the roller shall exert at least 22.68 kg (50
pound) force per vertical 25.4 mm (inch) of bottle wall loaded. Bottles failing to meet
this test level are shattered and shall be removed from the production.
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TABLE 1
INTERNAL PRESSURE STRENGTH
Minimum Internal
Type of Bottle
Capacity
Returnable
Up to and incl. 1 Litre
1551 (225 psi)
Non - Returnable
Up to and incl. 1.25 Litre
1379 (200 psi)
Pressure (kPa)
Supplementary pressure testing should be carried out after the A.C.L. Process has been
completed.
TABLE 2
WALL THICKNESS
Returnable Bottles
Diameter (O.D.)
Lower Specification
Values Wall Thickness
Up to & incl. 60mm (2-3/8”)
1.5 mm (0.060)
Above 60 mm up to & incl. 71 mm (2-25/32”)
1.8 mm (0.070)
Above 71 mm up to & incl. 80 mm (3-9/64”)
1.9 mm (0.075)
Above 80 mm up to & incl. 95 mm (3-3/4”)
2.0 mm (0.080)
Non – Returnable Bottles
Lower Specification
Diameter (O.D.)
Values Wall Thickness
Up to & incl. 168 mm (2-11/16”)
1.1 mm (.045)
Above 68 mm up to & incl. 76 mm (3”)
1.4 mm (0.055)
Above 76 mm up to & incl. 83 mm (3-1\4”)
1.5 mm (.060)
Above 92 mm up to & incl. 108 mm (4-1.8”)
1.8 mm (.070)
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4.7 Surface Coating
Adequate surface coating must be applied on non-returnable bottles in a manner
which will assure coverage of all “bottle to bottle” contact surfaces and at the same
time minimise the entry of the material into the bottle. In the absence of suitable
material approved by Australian authorities, the material used for surface coating
must be approved by the Food and Drug Administration of the U.S.A. or exempt from
their regulations. It must not contribute to the development of crown rust, interfere
with the colour or appearance of the bottle, applied label, operations at point of use
including labelling, or the soft drink quality. The presence of coating materials on the
finish of the bottle shall not affect the removal torques of convenience closures. It is
noted at the present time that surface coatings and satisfactory methods of testing
the effectiveness of coatings are in a continuing state of development and hence
such tests are not described in detail but left to the descretion of the producer.
4.8
Visual Inspection
The producer of soft drink bottles shall use continuous visual inspection for the
removal of defects listed under 3.5.1 through 3.5.16.
5.0
5.1
Physical Dimensions
General
The bottles shall be of round cross section design. The nominal height, major body
diameter, capacity and weight of the bottle shall be agreed upon between producer
and user, but the actual height, major body diameter, capacity and weight of the
bottle as manufactured, shall meet the applicable tolerance requirements;
requirements for perpendicularity, and bottom characteristics are also given.
5.2
5.3
Height:- The container height should be within the following tolerance limits, and the
range groupings are “up to but not including”.
Nominal Height Range
Tolerance
Under 203 mm (8”)
± 1.2 mm (3/64”)
203 mm & up to 254 mm (10”)
± 1.6 mm (1/16”)
254 mm & up to 305 mm (12”)
± 2.0 mm (5/64”)
305 mm & over
± 2.4 mm (3/32”)
Major Body Diameter
The major body outside diameter shall be within the following tolerance limits. The
ellipticity or “out-of-roundness” shall not exceed that shown in the second column,
and there shall be no flat spots.
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Diameter Range
Tolerance Limit
Ellipticity Not
to Exceed
50.8 – 60.3 mm
+ 1.2 mm (3/64”)
1.5 mm (0.059”)
(2” – 2-3/8”)
- 0.8 mm (1/32”)
60.3 – 69.9 mm
+ 1.6 mm (1/16”)
(2–3/8”-2-3/4”)
- 1.2 mm (3/64”)
69.9 – 92.0 mm
± 1.6 mm (1/16”)
2.4 mm (0.094”)
92.0 – 105 mm
+ 2.0 mm (5/64”)
2.7 mm (0.105”)
(3–5/8”-4-1/8”)
- 1.6 mm (1/16”)
2.1 mm (0.082”)
(2–3/4”-3-5/8”)
The bottle shall be measured at its largest exterior barrel diameter using a caliper or
equivalent device.
5.4
Capacity:- The tolerance for the capacity of both returnable and non-returnable
bottles at a specific fill point shall be as follows:-
Capacity
Tolerance
Above 150 ml and up to and incl. 200 ml
± 3.5 ml
Above 200 ml and up to and incl. 285 ml
+ 5.5
-4
Above 285 ml and up to and incl. 375 ml
+ 8.0
- 7.0
Above 375 ml and up to and incl. 500 ml
+ 10.0
- 7.0
Above 500 ml and up to and incl. 750 ml
+ 10.5
- 8.0
Above 750 ml and up to and incl. 1 Litre
+ 12.0
- 9.0
Above 1 Litre and up to and incl. 1.25
litres
5.5
+ 15.0
- 10.0
Weight:- Bottle weight may be specified to include a minimum tolerance as follows.
Above nominal weights may be used by the manufacturer to obtain correct capacity.
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Weight (g)
Tolerance (g)
Under 170
-7
170 & up to but not incl. 255
-9
255 & up to but not incl. 340
- 11
340 & up to but not incl. 480
- 11
480 & up to but not incl. 625
- 12
625 & up to but not incl. 795
- 14
795 & over
- 17
The weight shall be determined on a scale accurate to at least 0.5 grams.
5.6
Perpendicularity
The perpendicularity of bottles with both Crown and Threaded Finishes shall have a
total indication of indicator reading of less than 2% of the specified bottle height
(Maximum 317.5mm) when measured with the bottle resting on its base and rotated
360° against a centering device. Bottles over the maximum height of 317.5 mm will
have a total indicator reading of less than 6.35 mm when measured through 360°.
The measurement shall be taken at the external horizontal surface of the finish
diameter.
5.7
Bottom Characteristics
a.
Push-Up – The centre bottom push-up dimension for non-returnable bottles shall
be no less than 1.6 mm (0.062”). Returnable bottles shall rest on the bearing ring
only.
b. Knurling (Stippling) – Knurling is required and should be limited to the bearing
surface unless otherwise indicated on the bottle drawing. The required type is at
the Glass Manufacturer’s discretion.
5.8
Bottle Identification Marks
All bottles shall be legibly marked to show manufacturer’s identification symbol, plant
identification, cavity number, and year of manufacture. Reference Figure 1.
ooOOOoo
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Labelli ng Guideli ne
for Non-Alco holic Water
Based Beverages
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Table of Contents
1.0
Introduction
105
2.0
General Requirements
106
3.0
Product Description
108
4.0
Manufacturers or Importers Address
109
5.0
Lot Identification
110
6.0
Date Marking and Batch Numbers
111
7.0
Directions for Use and Storage
113
8.0
Weights and Measures Marking
113
9.0
Ingredient Labelling Requirements
116
10.0
Percentage Labelling
120
11.0
Allergen Labelling
123
12.0
Nutrition Information Requirements
125
13.0
Labelling of Electrolyte Drinks
132
Appendix 1-A
Labelling Checklist
133
Appendix 2-A
Complete Example
134
Appendix 3-A
Mandatory Declaration of Certain Substances
135
Appendix 4-A
Reference Values for an Interpretive Element - PDI
136
Appendix 5-A
Energy Factors in Relation to Food Components
137
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1.0 Introduction
New requirements for the provision of information for foods and beverages have been
included in the Australia New Zealand Joint Food Standards Code. The changes mean
that there will be more emphasis on retailers to provide information in regards to the
ingredients in the products that they sell. There will however be a greater flexibility in how
this information is to be provided.
FSANZ have given manufacturers a period of two years to comply with the new standards.
(until late 2002) During this time manufacturers can comply with either the old Food
Standards Code or the new Joint Code. Using a combination of the two codes is however
prohibited. It is hoped that the two year time frame will help to minimize manufacturers
costs in meeting the new legislation.
This guide has been developed by Australian Beverages for its members in order to assist
them with the new FSANZ labelling requirements. This document is only a guide and
manufacturers are urged to consult the FSANZ Food Standards Code before developing
their labelling. Australian Beverages accepts no responsibility for the miss-use or
misinterpretation of any of the information contained in this guide.
Other legislation that manufacturers need to be aware of include:
-
The Code of Practice on Nutrient Claims in Food Labels and in Advertisement.
(CoPoNC)
-
Codex Alimentarius
-
Commonwealth of Australia Trade Practices Act 1974
-
New Zealand Fair Trading Act 1986
-
Fair Trading Acts in each Australian State and Territory.
-
State Trade Measurement and Packaging Legislation.
For more information, or for any question in relation to any information contained in this
guide you can contact the Australian Beverages Council on 02 9662 2844 or by email at
info@australianbeverages.org
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2.0 General Requirements
(refer to FSC Standard 1.2.1 & 1.2.9)
All beverages sold through retail outlets, for catering purposes, or when being supplied to
elements of a subsidiary companyt, must bear a label containing the following information:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Date marking and batch number
Description of product
Characterising ingredients
Manufacturers or importers address
Storage requirements
Country of origin labelling
Food additives list
Ingredients list
Nutritional information
Allergen labelling
General Labelling Restrictions
- Any statement which may misrepresent the product.
- Any statement or claim that a beverage is a slimming food or has intrinsic weight
reduction properties.
- Any representation that a beverage has the approval or endorsement of a government
authority.
- The word health or any other similar words when used as part of or in conjunction with
the name of the beverage.
- The name of, or any reference to, a disease or physiological condition.
- The words 'vitamin enriched', 'vitamin fortified', or any similar words or claims.
- Any comparison between the vitamin and mineral content of the beverage and the
vitamin and mineral content of any other food or beverage.
- Words, statements, claims and expressions, which could be interpreted as advice of a
medical nature, are prohibited.
- Generally beverage labels should not include statements relating to poisonous
substances.
- The word 'pure' is restricted to describing single ingredient beverages and single
ingredients used in beverages that contain no additives.
- The use of any certificate of analysis.
t
Exemptions: beverages in an inner package which are not designed for sale without an outer
package. NOTE if these packages contain substances listed in appendix 1-a they must be
labelled with a warning statement.
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- The use of certain words and expressions such as 'polyunsaturated', 'natural', 'organic',
'low alcohol', 'non-alcoholic', 'health-enriched' etc. are restricted and guidance should be
sought from the FSC.
Print Requirements
Each word, statement, expression or design on a label must be:
1) Legible
2) Prominent
3) In English
4) In a color which provides a distinct contrast to the background
If another language is present on the label it must not contain information which
contradicts the other language.
Pictures
-
Pictorial representations and designs used for the purpose of illustrating recipes or
suggesting how beverages may be served must be immediately preceded or followed
by the statement:
'RECIPE' or 'SERVING SUGGESTION'
-
Pictorial representations or designs must not be misleading to the public.
Non alcoholic beverages must not be labeled or otherwise presented for sale in a form
which is expressly or by implication suggests that the product is alcoholic.
-
Pictures or designs may be prohibited on certain beverages and manufacturers and
importers should familiarize themselves with the restrictions in the FSC.
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3.0 Product Description
(Refer FSC Std. 1.2.2)
The Food Standards Code requires that all beverages must be labelled with sufficient
information, which will allow the product to be easily identified.
Where the Food Standards Code defines the name of a beverage, for example orange
juice, then that name is called the prescribed name and it must appear on the label. If a
name is not prescribed or a standard does not exist for a beverage the label must carry an
appropriate designator.
Designator
An appropriate designator is any name, which clearly indicates the
true nature of the beverage. It is not to represent any single ingredient
of a beverage nor is it to mislead or deceive consumers in regards to
the products origin, character, or place of manufacture.
Trademarks, Brand Names or Fancy Names
Trade names, 'fancy' names and business names can be used however they must not:
-
Represent any single constituent of a beverage
Misrepresent the composition or q uality of a beverage
Give a false or misleading indication of the product's origin, character or place of
manufacture.
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4.0 Manufacturers or Importers Address
(Reference FSC STD 1.2.2)
All labels t are required by the Food Standards Code to contain information relating to the
manufacturer of the beverage name and address to assist in recall purposes.
Labelling
A full business name including the street name, number, the
town/suburb, state* and country of either the manufacturer, packer,
vendor, or importer of the beverage is required.
If the address of the manufacturer
includes the name of the country,
then no additional country of origin
labeling is required. For imported products intended for the food service sector, (i.e. nonretail packs) the name and address of the importer must appear on the package offered for
sale. This may be the outer which contains a number of inner packages. If the importer
has knowledge of, or becomes aware that subsequent buyers are offering the inner pack
at retail level, documentation must be available to trace the goods back to the importer.
Imported Ingredients
The label must include a statement that identifies the country of origin of imported
ingredients or include information to the effect that the beverage is made from imported, or
a combination of imported and local ingredients.
*
An abbreviated state name can be used, (i.e. QLD)
t
With some exceptions: i.e. packages smaller than 100 cm , those in an outer package where
the inner packages are not for individual retail sale.
2
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5.0 Lot Identification
(Refer FSC Std. 1.2.2)
The Food Standards Code requires that all packaged beverages carry
a lot identification. A lot is a quantity of products prepared under the
same general conditions, from a particular packing or preparation unit,
during a particular period. Normally less than 24 hours.
Layout
No specific form of words is required.
The lot identification may be marks, or
codes devised by the manufacturer. There are no prescriptions for the type,size or color.
The lot identifications does not have to be set out in English language.
Exemptions
The only beverages exempt from legislation are those which are in packages of a size
smaller than 100 cm2. The outer package or bulk container must however include a lot
identification.
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6.0 Date Marking and Batch Numbers
(Refer FSC Std. 1.2.5)
Date marking offers a guide to consumers as to how long a food can be expected to retain
all of its quality attributes. Quality attributes include things such as colour, taste, texture
and flavour. In some circumstances date marking may also indicate how long the food can
be expected to be safe for consumption.
The new FSC will require all beverages produced within Australia or overseas, with a
minimum durable life of less than two years to be date marked with the best 'before date'
unless the food needs to be consumed within a certain period of time for health and safety
reasons. In this circumstance the 'use by' date must be used instead of the 'best before'
date. Previously the 'used by' date and the 'best before' date could be used
interchangeably on food labels. This will align Australia and New Zealand with international
food standards.
It is the beverage manufacturers responsibility to determine whether a 'use by' date or a
'best before' date should be used. It is also the manufacturers responsibility to calculate
the 'use by 'and 'best before' dates of the beverage.
Best Before Date
The 'best before' date is the date which signifies the end of the period during which the
intact beverage, if stored in accordance with any stated storage conditions, will retain its
quality and any other specific qualities for which express or implied claims have been
made. The 'best before' date is internationally preferred as it is better encapsulates the
intention of date marking which is to provide a guide to consumers on the shelf life of a
food in terms of food quality rather than food safety.
Beverages marked with a 'best-before' date can be sold after this date has passed,
provide that it is not damaged, deteriorated or perished. It is an offence under current Food
Laws to sell food which is damaged deteriorated, or perished regardless of whether the
food is within its specified date mark or not.
Used By Date
The 'used by' date is the date which signifies the end of the estimated period if stored in
accordance with any stated storage conditions, after which the intact beverage should not
be consumed for reasons of health and safety. Food must not be sold past it's 'used by'
date. A 'use by' date is restricted to those foods where there is a health or safety issue
involved.
Some of the health issues which need to be looked at include nutritional concerns. (i.e. the
nutritional profile of the product may be critical to the consumer's health, and
microbiological issues.)
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Date Marking Requirements
The 'best before' date and 'use by' date must express
the day,
month, and year so that they are
distinguishable. It should also be in an un-coded
chronological or numerical form. The exception to this
is the month, which can be in letters. (see example) No
date marking system other than that prescribed in this
guide or in the Food Standards Code is permitted to
be used. Manufacturers or packers codes can be
used in addition.
The date given must be used with one of the following
phrases:
-
‘Use by’ followed by the date or a reference to where
the date is located.
‘Best before’ followed by the date or a reference to
where the date is located.
Prescribed Form of Date
1) The day and the month for products
with a date of not more than three
months. I.e. 3 Dec or 3 12
2) The month and the year for products with a date of more than three months.
i.e. Dec 99 or 12 99
Exemptions
If the 'best before' date of a product is longer than two years, or the product is packaged
in a size of less than 100 cm2 , except where the food should be consumed before a certain
date because of health or safety reasons.
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7.0 Directions for Use and Storage
(See FSC standard 1.2.6)
The label on a beverage must include appropriate
directions for its use or storage where it is necessary to
ensure that the beverage will keep for a specified
period of time as indicated by the 'use by' or 'best
before' dates, for reasons of health and safety.
8.0 Weights & Measure Marking
Package weight is not governed by the
Food Standards Code. Each State and
Territory has its own legislation dealing
with declaring weight labeling require
-ments for packaged beverages. The
following legislation however has been sourced from the 1998 New South Wales
Department of Fair Trading's Guide to Trade Measurement Packaging Legislation.
Marking Measurement
All prepackaged products must be labelled with a statement which indicates the true
measurement of the article. The statement must be:
V
§
One the main display panel of the package V .
§
Marked close to, and in the same direction as any name or brand of the product.
§
At least 2 mm from the limits of the package and any other graphic or wording.
§
In English and using the metric measurement system.
§
In the case of a decimal sub -multiple, be preceded by a zero or other number.
§
If the package is entirely cylindrical, spherical, conical or oval cross-section, the
measurement marking must, in addition be positioned so that no part of the marking
is further than one-sixth of the circumference of the package from the line tha t
vertically bisects that part of the package on which the marking is required to be
made.
If another part of the package is, or are likely to be displayed instead of the main display
panel when the product is exposed for sale.
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§
Additional measurement markings are permitted provided that they are correct and
the metric marking remains predominant.
Character Size
-
Stamped or printed in a colour which provides a distinct contrast with the
background colour.V
-
In the minimum print size specified in Table A
-
Marked by an approved printing device in characters at least 3 mm high.
Table A
Maximum Package Dimension
Minimum Character Height
120 mm or under
2.0 mm
Over 120 mm but below 230 mm
2.5 mm
Over 230 mm but below 360 mm
3.3 mm
360 mm or over
4.8 mm
- The maximum package dimension: the largest measurement of either the height,
length, breadth, or diameter of the package.
Rounding of Values
The statement of measurement should be rounded downward so that the number ends
in five or zero. (zero is preferred) i.e. 487mL may be expressed as 485mL or 480mL.
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Mandatory Measurement Statements
a)
The word "net" may be included in the statement,
however it is not mandatory.
b)
Litre should be expressed as L
c)
Millilitre should be expressed as mL
d)
Permitted
units should be expressed in the
simplest manner.
e)
If the unit has no significant figures then whole
numbers should be used.
f)
Not
more than
three significant figures,
unless permitted for an
approved printing
device, should be
used. All figures should be
rounded down.
g)
Always add a whole number or a zero
of a decimal point
to the left
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9.0 Ingredient Labeling Requirements
(Refer FSC Std. 1.2.4)
With some exceptions a label must display a statement setting out all ingredients in the
beverage, including all the foods and additives used in any ingredient contributing more
than 25% of the final beverage, and all additives used in any ingredient contributing more
than 10%.
Listing Ingredients
Ingredients must be listed in descending order of their proportion by weight in the
beverage. This means that the ingredient present in the greatest proportion is
listed first and so on.
If an ingredient is given prominence on a label, for
example by the statement “contains real apple
juice”, then the proportion by weight of the
ingredient should be stated.
Added water or volatile ingredients must be declared
immediately following the ingredients with the closest
higher in-going weight but shall be calculated in accor
-dance with the in-going weight of the added water or
volatile ingredient minus the amount of that ingredient
that is evaporated in the course of the manufacture of
the beverage.
Exemptions
From an ingredient statement:
-
Beverages in packages that have a total surface area of less than 100 cm2 .
-
Beverages where the name of the product identifies all of the ingredients, and single
item foods such as mineral water, do not require a statement of ingredients.
-
Beverages which are not intended for consumer sale, (e.g. caterer packs) may be
exempted from ingredient labeling if documentation showing the ingredients
accompanies the food.
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From listing certain ingredients:
-
A flavoring of a flavoring as defined in schedule 5 of STD 1.3.1 FSC.
-
A volatile ingredient which is completely evaporated during processing.
-
Added water, which is used to reconstitute, or concentrated ingredients.
-
Added water, which forms part of a broth, brine or syrup, which is declared in the
ingredient list or is part of the beverage name.
-
Added water, which makes up less than 5% of the final beverage.
-
Processing aids which are listed in Standard 1.3.3 of the FSC.
Naming of Ingredients
Ingredients are to be identified in the ingredient list either by there prescribed name or if
there is no prescribed name, by an appropriate designator. The names of ingredients
should be detailed and accurate enough so as to ensure they are not false, misleading or
deceptive, or likely to deceive.
In the case of some ingredients, it is sufficient to state the name of the relevant class of
ingredients. For example, the term fruit can be used in place of apples, oranges etc. A list
of the classes of ingredients for which this option is available can be found in paragraph
(5)(f) of Standard A1 of the Food Standards Code.
Compound Ingredients
Compound ingredients can be listed by declaring all of the compound ingredients
separately as if they were individual ingredients of the food or by declaring the compound
ingredient by name in its appropriate place in the statement of ingredients.
If the beverage contains 5% or more compound ingredients then they must all be listed. If
it contains less than 5%, only the food additives in the compound ingredient where the
food additive is performing a technological function* in the final beverage must be listed.
Some food additives which are added as part of a compound ingredient may not be
performing a technological function in the final food due to processing. I.e. a preservative
in apple juice may not function once it has been added to a carbonated beverage. This
needs to be considered.
*
Determining when a food additive is performing a technological function in a food may be
difficult and will depend on the nature of the compound ingredient and the food in which the
compound ingredient is used. Manufacturers should consider what the critical factors are in
the final food (e.g. shelf life, color, and texture) and determine whether the food additives
added via compound ingredients are functioning in such a way as to affect these critical
factors. If they are, then it is likely that the food additives are performing a technological
function in the final food and should therefore be declared.
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Alternate Ingredients
When the composition of a beverage may vary due to the substitution of one ingredient for
a similar one, yet still performs the same function, it must be labeled so that it is clear that
one or the other ingredients may be used in the product.
Food Additives
Food additives should always be used in accordance in Good Manufacturing Practice.
(GMP) Manufacturers are responsible for justifying the use and level of additives used in
products. The following criteria according to the Codex Alimentarius states:
-
The quantity of additive used should be limited to the lowest possible level required to
accomplish the desired effect.
-
The quantity of additive that becomes a component of the food as a result of its use in
the manufacture, processing or packaging of a food and which is not intended to
accomplish any physical, or other technical effect in the food, is reduced to the extent
reasonably possible.
-
The additive is prepared and handled in the same way as a food ingredient.
The Codex Alimentarius also states that the use of food additives is only justified where
they do not present a hazard to consumers health and serve one or more of the following
purposes which cannot be carried out by nay other means either economically or
technically:
-
Preserve the nutritional quality of the food.
-
To provide necessary ingredients for foods manufactured for consumers having
specific dietary needs.
-
Enhance the shelf stability or organoleptic properties of the product.
-
To provide aid in the manufacture, processing, treatment, packing, transport or
storage of a product.
Additives should however not be used to hide or disguise any product deterioration.
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Additive Naming
When an additive can be classified into more than one class, the most appropriate name
should be used. If a food additive does not have a defined class name then it must be
declared on the label by
its prescribed name or an appropriate designator.
In the case of food additives, these may be declared
either by reference to their class name followed by the
food additive number, or by their name followed by the
full name of the substance. E.g.
'COLOUR (102) or 'COLOUR (TARTRAZINE)'
If no ingredient list is required (e.g. the package is
too small) then colours, flavours, anti-oxidants
and preservatives must still be declared e.g.
'COLOUR (124) ADDED'.
Where the composition of a beverage may be subject to minor variations by the
substitution of an additive which performs a similar function, the statement of ingredients
may list both additives in a way which makes it clear that alternative or substitute additives
are being declared.
Flavourings
The words 'flavouring' or 'flavour' can be used or a more specific name can be used.
Where the following additives are added to a beverage as a flavouring, their presence
must specifically be declared by their name or code number.
-
L-glutamic acid
monosodium glutamate, monopotassium L-glutamate,
calcium di-L-glutamate
monoammonium L-glutamate
magnesium di-L-glutamate
disodium guanylate
disodium inosinate
disodium 5c-ribinucleotides
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10.0 Percentage Labelling
(Refer FSC Standard 1.2.10)
All foods must include a declaration of the proportion of characterizing ingredients and
components of a beverage, calculated and expressed in accordance with the FSC. There
are however a number of exemptions t . In addition to this there are also a foods which do
not have a characterising ingredient such as bottled water or soft drinks. If however any
ingredient or component of these foods were emphasized in advertising or in the display
then percentage labelling would be required.
Characterising Ingredients
Means an ingredient or category of ingredients that:
- Appears in the name of the beverage.
- Is usually associated with the name of the beverage by the consumer.
- Is emphasized on the label of a beverage in words, pictures or graphics.
- Is essential to characterize a beverage, and to distinguish it from other foods in which it
might be confused with due to its name or appearance.
Does not include:
-
An ingredient or a category of ingredients which is used in small quantities for the
purpose of a flavouring*.
-
An ingredient that is a sole ingredient.
-
A category of ingredients that comprises the whole of the beverage.
-
An ingredient or category of ingredients which, while appearing in the name of the
beverage, is not such as to influence the choice of the consumer, because the
variation in quantity is not essential to characterize the food, or does not distinguish
the beverage from any others.
Examples
A component of a beverage that is naturally present, is not an ingredient of the
beverage and therefore can not be considered a characterizing ingredient. E.g.
caffeine that is naturally present in coffee cannot be considered a characterizing
ingredient.
*
Because flavourings are not considered to be a characterising ingredients, soft drinks can be
considered to be exempt from percentage labelling.
t
Exemptions: Beverages intended for catering purposes, or beverages sold in packages
3
smaller than 100 cm.
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When an ingredient is used in small quantites in a food such as a flavouring and is used to
describe a food or is mentioned in the name of the food then it need not be percentage
labelled.
Example:
Orange flavored soft drink. As the orange is a result of the use of a flavour percentage
labelling is not required as it is in to small a quantity to be considered a characterising
ingredient.
However if manufacturers emphasis a particular ingredient by the use of either words of
pictures then percentage labelling word be required.
Example:
A claim is made that the beverage contains "5% real fruit juice" would require percentage
labelling.
Declaration
Percentage labelling may be placed anywhere
on the label however it must be declared as:
-
A percentage (either the actual percentage
or a minimum percentage.)
Be rounded to the nearest whole number,
unless it is less tha n 5% in which case it
is rounded to the nearest 0.5%
The declaration may be in either the name* or in
the ingredients list^
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Calculating Characterising Ingredients
There are two methods for calculating the percentage of characterising ingredient in a
beverage.
1) The in-going weight of the ingredient expressed as a proportion of the total weight of
all the ingoing ingredients.
2) The final weight of the characterising ingredient expressed as a proportion of the total
weight of the final food. (This method is used if moisture loss occurs during
processing.)
If concentrated ingredients are used in the manufacture of a product and are reconstiuated
during the process, the weight of the reconstiuated ingredient can be used in the
calculation of the percentage of characterising ingredient.
Example: In-going weight calculation
Ingredients
Weight (g)
Carbonated Water
Colour
Artifical Sweeteners
Food Acids
Orange Juice
Preservative
540.0
1.8
84.0
2.4
30.0
1.8
Total befo re processing: 660 g
Water lossed during process: - 60 g
The percentage of fruit juice in the final product: 30 / 600 x 100 = 5.00 %
Example: Final weight in final food
Ingredients
Weight (g)
Carbonated Water
Colour
Artifical Sweeteners
Food Acids
Orange Juice
Preservative
540.0
1.8
84.0
2.4
30.0
1.8
Total Before Processing: 660 g
Total After Baking: 600 g
The percentage of fruit juice in the final product: 30 / 600 x 100 = 5.00 %
.
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11.0 Allergen Labelling
(Refer FSC Std. 1.2.3)
Mandatory Advisory Statements
Beverages are required to have a mandatory advisory statement accompanying the label if
they contain one of the following:
-
Kola beverages containing caffeine
Guarana or guarana extracts
Aspartame
Quinine
Caffeine
Caffeine is to be labeled: “CONTAINS CAFFEINE”
Aspartame
Beverages containing Aspartame are to be labelled:
PHENYLKETONURICS: CONTAINS PHENYLANINE
Guarana
Beverage is to be labelled:"CONTAINS CAFFEINE"
Quinine
Labelled with a statement: "CONTAINS QUININE"
Low Joule Beverages
Low joule beverages containing permitted mannitol, sorbitol, polydextrose, xylitol or
isomalt other than as a humectant are to state on the label”
“EXCESS CONSUMPTION MAY HAVE A LAXATIVE EFFECT”
Advisory Statements for Polyols or Polydextrose
If a beverage contains one of the following ingredients it is required to be labeled with an
advisory statement when either combined or singularly and in excess of 10 g / 100 g of
beverage.
“EXCESS CONSUMPTION MAY HAVE A LAXATIVE EFFECT”
-
Lactitol
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-
Maltitol syrup
Xylitol
Mannitol
If a beverage contains one of the following ingredients in excess of 25 g / 100 g of
beverage the following advisory statement must be present on the package:
“EXCESS CONSUMPTION MAY HAVE A LAXATIVE EFFECT”
-
Sorbitol
Erythritol
Isomalt
Polydextrose
If any of the above additives are combined in excess of 10g/100g the following statement
must be added to the packaging:
"EXCESS CONSUMPTION MAY HAVE A LAXATIVE EFFECT”
Print Format
Each word, expression or design must be set out in:
-
English language and
In a font of no less than 3 mm, or no smaller than 1.5 mm for small packages.
NOTE:
Any exemptions in relation to ingredient listing do not override the requirement to declare
the presence of the caffeine, aspartame, guarana, quinine etc.
Manufacturers who substitute one ingredient for another must clearly indicate this and an
advisory statement should be present.
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12.0 Nutrition Information Requirements
(Reference FSC 1.2.8)
All foods must now display a Nutrition Information Panel. (NIP) This differs from previous
requirement where a NIP was only required if a nutritional claim was made. The nutrients
that must be declared are:
-
Energy
Protein
Fat
Saturated fat
Carbohydrate
Sugars
Sodium
General Requirements
A NIP must include the following:
-
The number of servings of beverage in the package.
-
The average quantity of the beverage per serving expressed, in milliliters. (ml)
-
The unity quantity of the beverage.
-
The average energy content expressed in kilojoules or both in kilojoules and in
Calories, of a serving of the beverage and of the unity quantity of the food.
-
The average quantity expressed in grams of protein, fat and carbohydrates in a
serving in the unit quantity of the beverage.
-
The average quantity expressed in milligrams or millimoles of sodium in a serving of
the beverage and in the unit quantity of the beverage.
-
The name and the average quantity of any other nutrient or biologically active
substa nce in respect of which a nutrient claim has been made, expressed in grams,
milligrams or any other appropriate units that is in a serving of the food and in the unit
quantity of the beverage.
-
The average quantities set out in the panel are averages.
-
Any minimum and maximum quantities set out in the panel, are minimum and
maximum quantities.
-
Must include declarations of unavailable carbohydrate other than dietary fibre where
they have been subtracted from the carbohydrate declaration.
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Exemptions
Foods that are exempt from carrying a label in other parts of this guide are also exempt
from carrying an NIP however if a claim is made an NIP must be labelled. Other product
exempt include:
- Processing aids as defined in standard 1.3.3 FSC
- Single ingredient foods or category of ingredients.
- An additive defined in standard 1.3.1 FSC
- A herb, spice, a herbal infusion, water.
- Food in inner packages not designed for sale without an outer.
- Beverages in small packages. Where nutritional claims in relation to beverages
in small packages* have been made, the label on that package must include a
declaration expressed in accordance of the:
a) Average quantity of the claimed nutrient or biologically active
substance present per 100g of the food.
b) Average quantity of energy, carbohydrate, sugars and
dietary fibre present per unit quantity of the food where a
nutrition claim is made in respect of fibre, sugars, and any
other type of carbohydrate.
Nutrition Claims
A nutrition claim relates to the function,
presence or absence of a nutrient in a
food^. Where a nutritional claim is made
the NIP MUST list the following seven
ingredients:
- Energy
- Protein
- Fat
- Saturated fat
- Carbohydrate
- Sugars
- Sodium
Although they may relate to processing procedures, the terms 'sweetened' and 'salted' are
also considered to be nutrition claims. These are however, a number of commonly used
^
*
A trigger cluster is a group of nutrient declarations that are triggered by a claim relating to
one particular nutrient. The clusters share common characteristics and refer to fatty acids,
carbohydrates, dietary fiber, sugars, sodium, and potassium. They should be set out in
logical groups.
3
Small packages are defined as those which have an area of less than 100 cm
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names of foods that may include such terms as 'sweetcorn', where obviously no sugar or
sweetening agent has been added. Such terms would not warrant an NIP. Under new
labelling provisions, the voluntarily disclosure of a nutrient in the NIP will also be
considered a nutrition claim. For example if a manufacturer voluntarily provides the
polyunsaturated fat content of a food, additional information as triggered by a
polyunsaturated fat claim must also be provided.
Examples of Nutrition Claims
"The product is high in dietary fibre"
If this claim were made the amount
of energy, carbohydrate, sugars and
dietary fibre per 100 g would need to
be declared on the label.
Claims about Sugars, Fibre and
Carbohydrates
Require the declaration of dietary fibre and the
type of carbohydrate e.g. polydextrose, in addition
to the mandatory nutrients. (which include carbohydrates and sugars) There are also
conditions for making claims in regards to the following*:
-
Polyunsaturated or monounsaturated fatty acids
Omega fatty acids
Energy
Lactose
Gluten
Salt, sodium and potassium
Average quantity
Consumers must be alerted to the 'average' nature of these declarations or, if applicable,
to maximum or minimum values. The word 'average' the abbreviation 'avg' may be
inserted at the beginning of the 'quantity per serving' and the quantity per 100 ml columns.
Alternatively, a note below the NIP can be included. For example: 'All values are
considered averages unless otherwise indicated'.
*
See Australian New Zealand Joint Food Standards Code.
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Expression of Quantities
- The average energy content and average minimum or maximum quantities of
nutrients and biologically active substances must be expressed in the panel to no
more than three significant figures.
- Where the average energy content of a serving or unit quantity of the beverage is less
than 40 kJ, that average energy content may be expressed in the panel as 'LESS THAN
40 kJ'.
- Where the average quantity of protein, fat, classes of fatty acids, carbohydrates, sugars
or dietary fibre in the serving or unit quantity of the food is less than 1 gram, that
averages quantity may be expressed in the panel as 'LESS THAN 1g'.
-
Where the average quantity of sodium or potassium in a serving of the beverage and
the unit quantity of the food is less than 5 milligrams, that average quantity may be
expressed in the panel as 'LESS THAN 5 mg'.
Serving
The serving size in an NIP is not prescribed, however it is expected that the serving size
specified by the manufacturer would reflect a realistic portion of the food that a person
might normally consume. Any word describing a common measure or unit including metric
cup may also be used.
NIP Calculations
In order to calculate an NIP, three basic steps need to be followed. These are:
a)
b)
c)
Calculating the amount of nutrient in the product.
Calculating the energy value provided by each of the macronutrients (prepared
by using data from step a)
Preparing the NIP using data obtained from the above.
To calculate the amount of a nutrient in a product, certain information (commonly known
as food composition data), including the amount of food components per 100 g and per
serve, need to be obtained from a variety of sources which include:
§
Food Composition Tables
- Available from the Government information shop
- The main problem with using the data from this type of source is that most of the
figures are only estimates. Another problem is that some of the data collection is
not as accurate as others. For example different calculation methods, different
sample sizes etc.
§
i. Nutritional Values of Australian Foods (English & Lewis, 1991)
ii. Concise New Zealand Food Composition Tables 4 th ed.
Electronic Databases
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§
These databases tend to have the same problems as Food Composition Tables.
NUTTAB95
AUSNUT
FoodFiles 20000 (NZ)
Overseas References
- FSANZ strongly discourage the use of figures from these references as the
collection techniques and environmental factors mean that they are not particularly
accurate for Australian and New Zealand industries.
I. Food Composition and Nutrition Tables, 5th revised and completed Ed. Souci, Fachmann and Kraut (1994) GER
II. McCance and Widdowson's "the Composition of Foods, 5th ed. Holland
Welch, Unwin, Buss, Paul & Southgate (1991) UK
III. http://warp.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/data
§
Laboratory Analysis
- Very reliable and product specific, however it is important to ensure that the
laboratory used is NATA accredited.
Deriving NIPs from Food Composition Tables
The average amount of carbohydrate and average energy content of a food should not be
determined directly from food composition tables. The average amount of carbohydrate
must be derived by difference. However this method may sometimes result in a value that
is at odds with the carbohydrate and sugars values given in food composition tables.
Deriving an NIP from Recipe
It is not always possible or appropriate to determine the nutrient composition of foods,
particularly recipe foods, directly from food composition tables. There may be no entry for
the food in question. Or it may differ significantly from its standard counterpart in
formulation, making the use of existing nutrient data inaccurate. In such cases the nutrient
composition of the food should be determined from the nutrient contents of its ingredients.
The nutrient content for each ingredient can be determined from food composition
databases and tables. As values are for 100 g the amount of the ingredient used should be
divided by 100, each food component should then be multiplied by this factor. Once this
has been done two sets of information are needed to calculate the nutrient composition of
the entire recipe:
-
The nutrient composition of each ingredient
Weight of cooked product.
A x 100
B
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Average Energy Content
The average energy content should not be determined directly from food composition
tables due to energy factors used to derive this value may be different from those listed in
the standard. Two sets of information are required for the calculation:
a)
b)
The amount of each food component
The energy factor assigned to each food component (see appendix 2a)
Average energy (kJ / 100 g) = Σ WiFi
Wi = the average weight of the food component (g/100 of food)
Fi = the energy factor assigned to that food (kJ/g) see appendix 2a
The amount of food components, (carbohydrate, fat and protein) used in the calculation of
total energy should be the same as those listed in the NIP. Saturated fats and sugars are
not included in energy calculations as they have already been accounted for under total fat
and total carbohydrate respectively.
When calculating the average energy content of a food that contains substitute food
components, (i.e. polyols, polydextrose or resistant starch used to replace sugars and or
fat) there are specific energy factors assigned to these substances that must be used.
(See appendix 3a)
The amount of carbohydrate assigned an energy factor of 17kJ / g should not include any
polyols, polydextrose or resistant starch.
Percentage Daily Intake Information
Information relating to the percentage daily intake (PDI) of nutrients set out in a NIP may
be included in the panel, however it is not compulsory.
If PDI information is provided it is compulsory to
include energy, fat, carbohydrate, protein and
sodium levels, and the following statement should
be given:
In order to calculate the PDI the following
equation is required:
PDI = Amount in One Serving
Reference value*
*
x 100
For reference values see appendix 2a
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Example:
A product contains 10 grams of fat and the reference value is 70. The calculation would be
as follows: the PDI rounded to the nearest whole number would be
PDI = (10 / 70) x 100
= 14.28
= 14% (rounded to the nearest whole number)
When a PDI is used the PDI for energy, protein, fat, saturated fat, carbohydrate, sugars
and sodium must be included. PDI for fibre may be added.
Example of Completed Nutrition Information Panel
.****
Any other biologically active substance for which
impressed or implied claims have been made.
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13.0 Labelling of Electrolyte Drinks
(Refer FSC Standard 2.6.2)
The labeling on electrolyte drinks must include a declaration which includes:
-
The average energy value per
100 ml.
-
The total carbohydrate present,Including
each type of mono - saccharide and
disaccharide.
-
Milligrams and millimoles of added
minerals and electrolyte.
-
The recommended volume of frequency.
Where a claim that an electrolyte beverage is
isotonic or hypertonic, the osmolarity of the
drink in milliOsmols/L must be declared on the
label. A claim that an electrolyte drink is isotonic
may only be used if the drink has an
The label on an isotonic drink may include
wording, which implies that the product can
promote the availability of energy and prevent
dehydration that may result from strenuous
exercise.
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Appendix 1-A: Labelling Checklist
1) Date Marking and Batch Number
2) Description of the Product
3) Characterizing Ingredients
4) Manufacture or Importers Address
5) Storage Requirements
6) Country of Origin Labeling
7) Food Additives List
8) Ingredient List
9) Nutritional Information
•
Check Legibility Requirements
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Appendix 2-A: Example
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Appendix 3-A: Mandatory Declaration of Certain substances
If any of the following ingredients are present in a product it must bear a
mandatory advisory or warning label
- Cereals containing gluten and their products
- Crustacea and associated products
- Egg and egg products
- Fish and fish products
- Milk and milk products
- Nuts and sesame seeds
- Peanuts and soybeans
- Added sulphites in concentrations of 10mg / kg or more
- Royal Jelly
- Bee pollen
- Propolis
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Appendix 4-A
Reference Values for an Interpretive Element - PDI
Food
Component
Reference
Value
Basis for Reference Values
Source of Health
Recommendations for
Reference Amount
Energy
8700kJ
Based on the average energy
consumption / day for adults
and children in Australia and
New Zealand
1995 National Nutrition Survey,
Australia.
1991 Life in NZ Survey
Protein
50 g
Protein based on average for
RDI for men (55 g) and non
pregnant, non lactating women
(45 g)
Australian RDI, as per NHMRC
1991
Fat
70 g
Saturated fat based on 10 per
cent energy.
CDHSH 1994
Saturated fat
- Total
24 g
Fat based on 10 per cent
energy
CDHSH 1994
Carbohydrates
- Total
310 g
Carbohydrates based on
difference and cross reference
with survey data and
international targets (60 per
cent of energy)
No RDI or targets set. US value
for labelling set at 60% of
energy.
Sugars
62 g
Sugars based on 12 per cent
of energy
Better Health Commission
Target, Commonwealth Dept
Health 1987
Dietary Fibre
30 g/day
Dietary fibre based on 30 g per
day
Better Health Commission
Target, Commonwealth Dept
Health 1987
Sodium
2300 mg /
day
Australian RDI as per NHMRC
1991
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Appendix 5-A
Energy Factors in Relation to Food Components
Food Component
Energy Factor (kJ/g)
Alcohol
29
Carbohydrate (excluding unavailable
carbohydrate)
17
Unavailable Carbohydrate (including dietary
fibre)
8
Fat
37
Protein
17
Erythritol
1
Glycerol
18
Isomalt
11
Lactitol
11
Maltitol
16
Mannitol
9
Organic acids
13
Polydextrose
5
Sorbitol
14
Xylitol
14
ooOOOoo
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An E xami natio n of Causative
Factors & Preventati ve Measures for the
Control o f Mo uld Growt h
in t he Prod uctio n of Bottled Water
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Table of Contents
I
Introduction to Moulds
Tyrone Wilson, International Bottled Water Association
II
Packaging and Vendor Certification Mould and Fungal Prevention
Kevin Mathews, The Perrier Group of America
III
Cooler Maintenance and Handling
Gordon Wells, Elkay Manufacturing Company
IV
Environmental Factors Stewart Douglas, Mountain Park
Springs and Albert Lear, Wissahickon Spring Water Co.
V
Storage Conditions For Small Packages
Terry McSweeny, Hidell-Eyster
VI
Bottling Operations
Ted Sands, Sands & Associates
Appendix A
Trouble Shooting Checklist for Minimizing Mould Occurrence
Laura Current, Suntory Water Group
This paper was prepared by the Mould Task Group of the International Bottled Water
Association (IBWA). This paper should serve as a useful tool for bottlers to review
conditions impacting the occurrence of mold in bottled water and provide some
suggestions for how to minimize its growth during and after production of finished product.
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SECTION 1
Introduction to Moulds
Prepared By Tyrone Wilson, International Bottled Water Association
INTRODUCTION
Mould is a downy or furry growth on the surface of organic matter that typically occurs in
the presence of dampness or decay. Mould, by definition, is any fungus producing such a
growth. The fungi (singular, fungus) are a group of eucaryotic, spore-bearing organisms
that lack chlorophyll and are of great practical and scientific interest to microbiologists,
because many fungi are of microscopic cellular dimensions. Depending on the species,
fungi display a diversity of morphological appearances. The velvety blue-and –green
growth on rotting oranges and on stale cheeses, as well as whitish-gray furry outgrowths
on bread and jam, are examples of the familiar gross appearance of many multicellular
fungi.
Yeasts, like moulds are also fungi1. While moulds are filamentous and multicellular,
yeasts are usually unicellular organisms. They are generally reproduce both asexually
and sexually. The diagram below illustrates various developmental stages of a mold
typically associated with water, Aspergillus niger. Because of their need for both a low pH
requirement and high sugar content, yeasts are not highly regarded as problems for the
bottled water operation. However, for bottling operations in which various beverages
products are used on mixed filling lines, the bottler must place greater emphasis on
cleaning –in-place procedures. For guidance, IBWA has established the following
procedure when producing multiple products (e.g. water, juices, soft drinks, etc.) on mixed
lines:
Bottled water may be processed through lines or equipment used also for other food
products under the following conditions:
(1)
Process lines, including storage tanks and associated equipment, shall be used
exclusively for the production of bottled water, except for filling equipment, which
may be used also for filling other food products.
(2)
Prior to use for the bottling of water, filling equipment designed to be cleaned-inplace and used for filling other food products shall be thoroughly cleansed and
sanitized in-place in accordance with the manufacturer’s specifications and in
compliance with Section 129.80 of Title 21 of the Code of Federal Regulations and
the supplementary procedures that follow in paragraphs (3) to (7), inclusive, of this
section.
1
Yeasts are any of various single-celled ascomycetous fungi in which little or no mycelium
develops and which ordinarily reproduce by budding. Yeasts live on sugary solutions,
ferment sugars to form alcohol and carbon dioxide, and are used in making beer, whiskey,
etc. and as a leavening agent in baking. The presence of yeasts in finished drinking water
is usually associated with slow colonization in water pipes throughout public distribution
systems. This colonization may become more numerous with pipe age.
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(3)
Immediately following completion of filling operations for any other food product
other than water, the filler shall be thoroughly rinsed internally and externally with
potable water.
(4)
In accordance with filler manufacture’s instructions, any parts which are not
designed to be cleaned in-place shall be disassembled and removed. All of these
parts shall be cleansed and sanitized prior to reassembly using appropriate
cleansing and sanitizing procedures, as specified in subdivisions (c) and (d) of
Sections 129.80 of Title 21 of the Code of Federal Regulations.
(5)
All surfaces of the filler which do not contact food products shall be cleaned
manually so as to render all surfaces clean and free of any residues.
(6)
The filler shall be prepared and all appropriate connections made in accordance
with the filler manufacturer’s instructions to place the filler in the clean-in-place
mode. The following procedures are suggested:
(a)
An alkaline cleaning solution of appropriate strength shall be recirculated
through the filler to provide effective cleaning of all product contact
surfaces, with a minimum recirculation time of 20 minutes at a temperature
between 140 and 170 degrees Fahrenheit.
(b)
The cleaning solution shall be drained and followed with a potable water
rinse-to-drain for the removal of all residual cleaner alkalinity. This step
may be supplemented by the application of an acidified rinse prior to the
potable water rinse in order to neutralize any residual alkalinity on product
contact surfaces.
(7)
Following reassembly of all parts to place the filler into the product mode and just
prior to boiling water, the filler shall be sanitized in-place in accordance with
procedures specified in subdivision (d) of Section 129.80 of Title 21 of the Code of
Federal Regulations.
(8)
Any alternate cleaning, rinsing, or sanitizing operations or processes not described
in this section shall be approved in writing by the pertinent Department.
PHYSIOLOGY
Fungi are better able to withstand extreme environmental conditions than most other
microorganisms. For example, yeast and moulds can grow on a substrate or medium
containing concentrations of sugars that inhibit most bacteria. This is why jams and jellies
can be spoiled by mold but not by bacteria. Yeast and moulds can also generally tolerate
more acidic conditions than most other microbes.
Moulds are usually aerobic
microorganisms. Fungi grow over a wide range of temperature, with optimum for most
saprophytic species from 22 to 30oC; pathogenic species have a higher temperature
optimum, generally 30 to 37oC. Some fungi will grow at or near 0oC and thus can cause
spoilage of meat and vegetables in cold storage.
Fungi are capable of using a wide variety of materials for nutrition. However, they are
heterotrophic. Unlike some bacteria, they cannot use inorganic carbon compounds, such
as carbon dioxide, as their sole carbon source. Carbon must come from an organic
source, such as glucose. Some species can use inorganic compounds of nitrogen, such
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as ammonium salts. But all fungi can use organic nitrogen; this is why culture media for
fungi usually contain peptone, a hydrolyzed protein product. A comparison of the
physiological characteristics of fungi and of bacteria is summarized below2.
Characteristic
Fungi
Bacteria
Cell type
Eucaryotic
Procaryotic
Optimum pH
3.8 – 5.6
6.5 – 7.5
Optimum Temperature
22 – 30 C (saprophytes)
0
30 – 37 C (parasites)
22 – 37 C
Oxygen requirement
Strictly aerobic (molds)
Facultative (some yeasts)
Aerobic to anaerobic
Light requirement
None
Some photosynthetic groups occur
Sugar concentration in
laboratory media
4 – 5%
0.5 – 1%
Carbon requirement
Organic
Inorganic and/or organic
Antibiotic susceptibility
Resistant to penicillin, tetracyclines,
chloramphenicol; sensitive to
griseofulvin
Resistant to grisofulvin, sensitive to
penicillin, tetracyclines,
chloramphenicol
0
0
OCCURRENCE
Fungi are probably more common than any other single class of microorganisms. They
include such disparate ecological niches as mushrooms, the slow degradation of cellulose
(as evidenced by the mould on seed on fallen trees in the forest), on grain products, and
Penicillium (the species which produces the antibiotic penicillin). Fifty of the estimated
50,000 species of fungi, are approximated to be pathogenic for humans. Some fungi emit
toxins in foods resulting in carcinogenicity if present in sufficient concentration. For
example, some species of Aspergillus a fungus which grows on peanuts, produce
carcinogens known as aflatoxin which are pathogenic to humans. It does not appear that
there are any fungi naturally present in water that are directly pathogenic to humans
(Edberg, 1992).
There is extensive clinical literature regarding fungi as pathogens. However, except in
certain circumstances, the role of fungi is relegated to those of opportunistic pathogens. In
the environment, species of fungi in the mould form have been shown to be responsible for
many allergic reactions (e.g. farmer’s lung). However, it is extremely unlikely that the
concentration of fungi in drinking water would be such to result in an allergic reaction. The
ecological niche of the fungi tends to be an environmental niche rather than a human host.
Fungi are present in, and have been removed from, diverse, remote, and extreme aquatic
habitats including lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, estuaries, marine environments,
wastewaters, sludge, rural and urban storm water runoff, well waters, acid mine drainage,
asphalt refineries, jet fuel systems, and aquatic sediments. Fungi have been found in
potable water and on the inner surface of distribution pipes. They either survive water
2
th
Comparison adapted form Table 17-1, Pelczar et al., 1986, Microbiology 5 Edition, McGraw
Hill, New York, p. 344.
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treatment or they enter the system after the treatment and remain viable. Having survived
treatment of having been introduced after treatment, fungal spores can remain viable for
extended periods of time.
Fungi, like prokaryotic organisms such as bacteria,
actinomycetes, and cyanobacteria may be involved on potable water taste and odor
problems
Moulds are present (as spores) in high numbers in the air, and therefore, it is possible for
bottled water exposed to such air quality conditions over extended periods to exhibit mould
growth. While such conditions would not represent proper storage, the mould itself would
not represent a health threat. Nonetheless, the potential exposure condition warrants a
review of good manufacturing practices and sanitation procedures used at a bottling
facility.
REGULATORY
Currently, there are no fungi in the analytical group for microbial monitoring which are
regulated for dinking water. For microbiological quality of bottled water, the U.S. Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) traditionally follows the Environmenta l Protection Agency (EPA)
guidelines for E. coli and coliforms in drinking water. As EPA revises its procedures, the
FDA will continue to review them for their appropriateness for bottled water.
SIGNIFICANCE
Moulds may be found wherever nonliving organic matter occurs. In spring water near the
source, the number of mould spores is usually minimal. Unpolluted stream water has
relatively large numbers of species representing the true aquatic fungi (species possessing
flagellated zoospores and gametes), aquatic Hyphomycetes, and soil fungi. Moderately
polluted water may carry cells or spores of the three types; however, it has fewer true
aquatic fungi and aquatic Hyphomcyetes, and soil fungi are more numerous. Heavily
polluted water tends to have large numbers of soil fungi. The group designated as soil
fungi includes yeast-like fungi, many species of which have been isolated from polluted
waters.
MONITORING THE PROBLEM
Media and analytical kits, specifically designed for growing mould and yeast are currently
available from a variety of commercial suppliers. In addition, kits for sampling air for the
presence and enumeration of fungal spores may be purchased or rented for a modest fee.
These kits allow the transfer of spores to a filter surface where they may be cultured using
appropriate media.
REFERENCES
Edberg, S.E., Technical Assessment of the Microbial Health Effects of Bottled Water.
1992
FDA Bacteriological Analytical Manual, 7 th Ed. 1992.
Pelczar, M.J., Chan, E.C.S., and Krieg, N.R., Microbiology 5th Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York.
1986.
Kenneth B. Raper and Dorothy I. Fennell [eds], The Genus Aspergillus, The Williams and
Wilkins Company, Baltimore, 1965. Page 20.
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Development of the conidial apparatus in Aspergillus niger.
A, Foot cell bearing young conidiophore as a vertical branch
B, Developing conidiophore, X 182
C & D, Developing of the vesicle by swelling of the terminal portion of the conidiophore,X
280
E1 & E2, Vesicle in optical section and surface view showing early development of primary
sterigmata, X 280
F, Later stage in development of primary sterigmata, X 280
G, Young fruiting head showing secondary sterigmata bearing chains of conidia, X 280.
[Reference; Thom and Raper]
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Section II
Packaging and Vendor Certification
Mould and Fungal Prevention
Prepared By Kevin Mathews, The Perrier Group of America
I.
SUMMARY
Moulds’ ability to sporulate and disperse freely in the environment by air gives it
widespread opportunities to populate manufacturing facilities, where moisture conditions
exist. Materials used in the packaging of bottled water are often susceptible to mould or
mould spore contamination. Frequently, bottles, caps, and cardboard shipper materials
are manufactured far in advance of a bottler’s need, stored in a warehouse for long
periods of time, and then released upon order confirmation. Protection of these materials
from airborne contamination, particularly in humid environments, is an essential element to
the quality assurance program of water bottling operations. It is imperative that bottlers
take proactive steps to certify that suppliers of raw materials are taking appropriate
precautions to minimize mould contamination of their products. A successful mould
prevention program employs regular monitoring for mould in raw materials and finished
product combined with a supplier audit program. The audit process provides vendors with
feedback and invariably heightens their sense of awareness to potential mould
contamination of customer products.
II.
OBJECTIVE
This paper discusses the various factors and prevention guidelines which bottlers should
employ to safeguard their products from mold or fungal contamination originating from
vendor raw materials. Development of a supplier audit and certification program is
recommended.
III.
INDUSTRY PROSPECTIVE
Moulds are the predominant spoilage flora of seeds such as peanuts, wheat, maize, rice,
and other dried foods. Predominant in nearly all-climatic regions, several hundred genera
of moulds are known. Mould growth is highly dependent on available moisture and a
substrate to gain a foothold. Growth generally takes place through vegetative budding by
forming branching hyphae. Multiplication and dissemination of moulds is accomplished by
means of spore formation, which is useful in carrying the organism through unfavorable
environmental conditions.
While the sanitary conditions of bottling operations have improved significantly over the
past ten years in the U.S., The incidence of mould in non-carbonated bottled water
continues to be troublesome issue, resulting in recalls affecting numerous products
worldwide. Disinfectants such as ozone or ultra-violet irradiation of finished products have
not shown to be completely effective at destroying mould or mould spores under normal
bottling conditions.
Commonly, bottled water manufacturing facilities rely on outside vendors for supply of raw
materials except raw source water. Practices range from source ownership, control and
transportation to contract buying and trucking. Vertical integration of raw materials into the
bottling plant is becoming more prevalent in the United States. It is a practice commonly
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found in France and within the European economic bottling community. Here, strict
monitoring of the total environment for bacteria and moulds is routine due in part to the
exclusion of disinfectants from the bottling process but moreover to effectively controlling
contamination at every point in the process. It is necessary for pla nts that vertically
integrate as well as those that purchase from outside vendors to certify that all raw
materials are free of mould contamination.
IV.
DISCUSSION
This section discusses the importance of controlling the entry of mould and mould spores
into the bottling operation from raw material suppliers. A root cause analysis of mould
entry into bottled water products identifies six major pathways of contamination: man, the
people who carry mould spores and contaminate materials or products; process, the
mechanism which brings people, materials and equipment together, environment, the air,
soil, and activity composition of an area; equipment, the machinery and structures within a
bottling process; methods, the analytical process of mold identification; and materials, all
the components or building blocks of the finished product. Of these pathways, materials
are by far the most common pathway for contamination of mold in bottled water.
The susceptibility of packaging materials to contamination with mould or mould spores
varies according to the manufacturers environment and processing method, as well as the
moisture of the material, protection after manufacture, and the physical properties of the
material itself. With regards to the manufacturing environment, the vendor plant must
have air control which provides protection from outside spore entry. This is accomplished
through a tight, well-constructed facility with a filtered air supply which will preclude mould
spores of two micron size. Main doors and overhead doors must be kept closed at all
times when not in use, and ideally employ automatic air curtains which engage whenever
the doors are opened. These are curtains must be set to create a positive pressure
gradient forming an effective barrier to outside air.
Conditions inside the vendor plant must be maintained so that there are no standing water
conditions, or leaks from sanitation hoses or the roof. Drains in the plant must be clear,
without standing water, and cleaned regularly. All areas of the vendor plant should be
easily cleanable and not show signs of condensation which could lead to mould growth.
Epoxy based paint on floors and walls maintains a surface upon which
Mould will not easily gain a foothold. In-process or stored materials must be protected at
all times and not allowed to become wet. Humidity levels inside the plant must be kept as
low as possible. Increases in humidity must be accompanied by fast rotation of stored
product. All product must be stored on pallets up off the floor, which routinely must be
dusted and cleaned on the top to avoid normal dust and dirt build up which also serve as
breeding grounds for mould.
The major components of bottled water products are bottle, cap, label, overwrap and
carton. Commonalties to all raw material handling is to produce the item under controlled
conditions as outlined previously, and carefully protect the item during packaging, storage
and shipping. Economics in the supplier industry the past few years’ seasonality in the
business have forced many vendors to produce and store large quantities of materials in
off-site warehouses to meet obligations. The bottler should be aware of the age of the
product which leads to the susceptibility of mould. In general, the shorter the time delay
from vendor manufacturer to the bottler, the lower the risk of mold contamination. As a
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rule, raw materials packaged in clean containers and unitized covered in plastic shrinkwrap gives the very best protection.
The same provisions which apply to the vendor manufacturing location, apply to a greater
extent to the bottler. Due to the normally wet conditions found in bottling plants, mould
conditions may thrive year round. Vigilant efforts must be undertaken to store raw
materials in very dry storage locations totally separated from the wet side of processing.
Transferring pallets of goods from supplier wooden pallets to clean plastic ones or
elimination wood pallets completely in the bottler plant is ideal. Raw materials in use must
not be allowed to become “stored” in the processing area by carefully monitoring the
amount of material brought to the floor. One should never allow any raw materials to
remain on the production floor after processing concludes at day end. Protect all unused
partial pallets of raw material which becomes contaminated by falling onto the floor or off
the processing line during production must be discarded.
The following summarizes the steps which bottlers and suppliers must take in order to
safeguard against mold contamination in individual components:
• Bottle: Returnable water bottles should not be stored in excessive quantities inside
the bottler plant. It is advisable to keep no more than a one day supply on hand
at all times. Non-returnable bottles made at the water bottler location are the
ideal set up for preventing bottle mould contamination. All vendor supplies
bottles should be packaged in clean cartons or if bulk palletized, stacked on
clean slop sheets. Always insist on plastic shrink film on unitized pallets which
completely protects the bottles. Plastic slop sheets are much preferable to
cardboard, as these are readily cleanable by the supplier and not as
predisposed to mould contamination.
• Caps: Caps generally come packaged loosely in cartons or packaged in paper or
plastic bags, preferably with a heat seal closure.
• Labels: Paper labels are frequently bundle -packed in cartons. As with any paper
product, labels are prone to attract humidity in the air. Although not as critical
as product contact materials, labels are a source of mould contamination in the
plant. It is advisable to keep inventory levels as low as possible.
• Overwrap: Overwrap takes the form of plastic shrink wrap, plastic unitizers, mesh,
or cardboard. Of these, cardboard poses the most significant risk. As labels,
keep inventory levels low, monitor vendor inventories and age, and store in a
very dry location.
• Cartons: Cardboard cartons represent the largest contribution risk to mould.
Depending upon the liner type, fluting configuration and weight, cartons will
readily attract moisture in the air and provide an ideal environment for mould
growth. Cardboard cartons are normally manufactured as a knock-down flat
board, then unitized in bundles and held tight by strapping. Remove and
discard any cartons which become wet by mistake.
V.
CONCLUSION
Mould and mould spores are a natural part of the supplier and bottler environment, but
cannot be treated haphazardly. A well disciplined sanitation and quality assurance
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program must be developed and implemented by suppliers and bottlers alike to minimize
mould population. The best and most effective manner to control mould is through
employee training awareness, a formal testing program and the use of an audit program.
Certification of suppliers based on performance and audit results has proven to be highly
effective in reducing the risk of incoming mold contamination. The bottler should
incorporate into their quality assurance programs the necessary critical control points and
standards to achieve adequate product protection.
VI.
REFERENCES
Beuchat, L. 1978. Food and Beverage Mycology. AVI Publishing, Westport, CT
Buchanan, E. and Buchanan, R. 1924. Bacteriology. MacMillan Publishing, New York,
NY.
Parnes, C.A. and Branc h A. 1990. Microbiological Flora and Methods to Reduce
Contamination of Bottles/Closures Used for Production of 12oz. Deer Park Mountain
Spring Water. Clorox Technical Research Centre, Pleasanton, CA.
Mathews, K. and Dunlap, S. 1996. Vendor Audit. Perrier Group of America, Greenwich,
CT.
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Section III
Cooler Maintenance and Handling
Prepared By Gordon Wells, Elkay Manufacturing Co.
The occurrence of mould in bottled water coolers is highly site specific. In a site where
mould is present, the minimization of mould occurrence in bottled water coolers requires a
regular schedule for cooler cleaning and sanitation. Emphasis must be placed on cooler
cleaning because of the extreme resistance of mould spores to treatment with chemical
oxidation type sanitizers.
Mould spores are resistant to all oxidation type sanitizers including chlorine and iodine.
Therefore, the best means of eliminating mould from a water cooler is to physically clean
the cooler with an alkaline detergent. If a trisodium phosphate cleaner is used, then care
must be taken to rinse the cooler well to remove all residue of phosphate from the
refurbished cooler. Failure to remove traces of phosphate will result in rapid regrowth of
microbes in the cooler once water is installed.
I.
CLEANING AND SANITIZING FIXED RESERVOIR COOLERS
Drain all water from the cooler, including the hot tank. Remove the baffle
and plug the hot tank inlet with a rubber stopper. Pour the pre-mixed
cleaning solution into the cold reservoir. Use a cloth or non-metallic scrub
pad to wipe down the sides of the reservoir and the baffle. Use a pope
cleaner or flexible brush to clean the cold and cook water ways. Drain the
detergent and rinse will with clean water.
The faucets should be removed, disassembled, and placed in a detergent
solution. Special attention must be paid to cleaning of the soft gasket-like
sealing surfaces, as they typically provide better growth conditions than do
harder metal or plastic surfaces. Use a brush or ultrasonic cleaner to
remove contamination. Rinse the parts will in clean water.
Sanitize the baffle and faucets in 50 ppm chlorine sanitizer for at least 10
minutes.1
Reattach faucets to the cooler and sanitize by pouring 50 ppm chlorine
sanitizer into the cold reservoir. Make sure the hot tank inlet is plugged to
prevent chlorine sanitizer from entering the tank. Chlorine sanitizers can
be corrosive to hot tanks. Allow the sanitizer to sit for 10 minutes, then
drain through the cold and cook faucets.
Re-install the sanitized baffle using either sanitary gloves or a hand dip
station to prevent contaminating the baffle or reservoir. Place a lint free
paper towel over the reservoir and cover the cooler with a plastic bag. In
areas with high airborne mould counts, the bag should be sealed to
preclude contamination.
1
Prepare a 50 ppm free chlorine solution by mixing ¾ tsp. of household bleach in 1 gallon of
clean water. In metric measure, mix 1mL of bleach in 1L of clean water.
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CLEANING & SANITIZING REMOVABLE RESERVOIR COOLERS
Drain all water from the cooler, including the hot tank. Remove the baffle,
faucets, gaskets, etc. from the reservoir. Clean the reservoir by placing in
a mechanical washer or immersing in a detergent solution and using a
brush. Disassemble the faucets and clean, along with baffle, gaskets, etc.,
by using either an ultrasonic cleaning bath or by hand and a brush. Rinse
all cleaned parts well in clean water. Sanitize by soaking in a 50 ppm
chlorine solution for at least 10 minutes. Allow to air dry, if possible.
Use sanitary gloves or a chlorine dip station when reassembling sanitized
parts onto the cooler. Place a lint free paper towel over the reservoir and
cover the cooler with a plastic bag. In areas with high airborne mold
counts, the bag should be sealed to preclude contamination.
II.
CLEANING & SANITIZING WATERSAFETM NO-SPILL TOPS
After removing the Watersafe TM top, disassemble and remove the air filter.
Clean all parts except the air filter in a detergent solution using a brush
especially on the gaskets and the inside of the bottle probe. Rinse well
with clean water. If mould or mildew contamination is great on the gasket
material, replace the gaskets.
Sanitize the Watersafe “bowl” assembly by immersing in a 50 ppm chlorine
sanitizer for 10 minutes. Allow the Watersafe to air dry, then re-assemble
using sanitary gloves or a chlorine dip station. Replace the air filter with a
new filter, if it is dirty.
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Section IV
Environmental Factors
Prepared By Stewart Douglas, Mountain Park Springs
And Albert Lear, Wissahickon Spring Water Co.
The ubiquitous nature of moulds and spores makes their elimination from bottling
operations a difficult taks. Their presence, however, may be contained after one has a
better understanding of their origin and preferred environments. It is commonly accepted
that most spores originate outdoors and migrate indoors via air and humans. Once spores
are indoors, they thrive in the moist conditions commonly found in bottling plants. By
examining the seasonal peaks in fungal populations, factors affecting the growth of spores,
and resources for monitoring outdoor spore density, it can be possible to anticipate and to
control the presence of spores within bottling operations.
The four most common spores and their percentage of the total population found in the
environment are: Cladoporium (30%), Penicillium (18%); Alternaria (5%), and Aspergillus
(4%) (Li & Kendrick 1995). Of these four fungi, only penicillium is more numerous in urban
than rural areas (Rosas, et al. 1993).
Most fungi originate from vegetation and soil. They peak in concentration at various points
during the year. Moulds are most prevalent in the Midwest, but are also found in the
Southern Eastern regions. The concentration of moulds decreases markedly at high
altitudes and the dry regions of the west. In the Northern states, spore populations are
nominal in the winter months (June - July), emerge after the spring and peak in December,
January and February. In the South and on the West Coast, spores can be found
throughout the year (Pollen and Spores Around the World 1996).
In order to anticipate and control spore populations within the bottling facility, it is important
to understand how weather conditions lead to increased spore counts outdoors. Warm,
wet weather is especially associated with mould growth in any area of the country.
Studies indicate that in colder climates, a mild July is associated with increased spore
concentrations the next spring.
A number of environmental studies have shown that mould grown best within certain pH
and temperature ranges. Studies of Surface water show naturally occurring fungi to be
consistently present in water with pH of 5-7 and abundant in water with pH greater than 7.
Penicillium and Aspergillus sp. grow best between 20-27 degrees Celsius but become
inactive at temperatures below 15C and above 45C (Pitt 1992 and Dubey et al. 1993).
Although moulds may be active under certain conditions, most fungi can survive
unfavorable conditions such as anti-microbial treatments, extreme temperatures, lack of
water, and pH extremes by producing chlamydo spores. These thick walled spores store
food and can survive for years until favorable conditions return (Chaspuri 1992).
Outdoor spore counts may be monitored through a variety of sources. Local newspapers
or television may include spore counts in weather reports. Additionally, each week the
National Allergy Bureau (US) updates a national database for pollen and spore count
information. This information may be accessed via the internet at http://execpc.com/edi/nab/nab.html. Also available from the National Allergy Bureau at no charge is a 12
page pamphlet “Pollen and Spores Around the World” which provides details about the
seasonal peaks of pollen and spores in each state and around the world. The spore count
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data compiled by the National Allergy Bureau is collected by allergists who have been
certified by the bureau. A list of each reporting allergist and city for which they are
reporting is supplies with the free pamphlet.
There are several other factors which impact the growth of mould as it relates to the
bottled water industry. The single most important factor is humidity. Relative humidities
greater that 50% encourage mould growth while relative humidities less than 50% inhibit it
(American Academy of Allergy Asthma & Immunology, telephone information, 1 August
1996). Unfortunately, the nature of water bottling facilities may preclude the ability of
some bottlers to maintain relative humidity’s at less than 50% without potentially expensive
dehumidification systems.
It is possible to minimize the presence of fungi in bottling plants through climate control
and careful sanitization of filling rooms; however, it is important to understand the many
different vehicles on which fungi can enter the facility. Spores can be introduced via
person, empty bottles, outside equipment, and air. Bottles are often transported in trailers,
with wooden walls and floors, on wooden pallets, and in boxes – all of which can be
habitats for moulds. Conveyor belts can also transport fungi into the bottling room from
areas outside the “clean” environment (Chaspuri 1992).
One of the keys to controlling fungi is to understand the occurrence of mould in the
environment both inside and outside the facility. Outside the walls of the facility, the
presence of spores is affected by climate, weather, and environmental conditions.
Although exterior spore concentration cannot be controlled, they may be monitored
through local public information sources. Internally, fungi may be controlled or eliminated
through climate control, elimination of mold habitat, and careful sanitization.
REFERENCES
American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology. Pollen and Spores Around the
World. 1996.
Chaspuri, R. “Fungi, A Major Problem in the Tropics for the Bottled Water Industry.” IBWA
Symposium on Microbiology: A World of Different Approaches. Cincinnati, 3 October
1992.
Dubey, T., Stephenson, S. and Edwards, P. “Effect of pH on the Distribution and
Occurrence of Aquatic Fungi in Six West Virginian Mountain Streams. Journal of
Environmental Quality 23 (1994):1271-1279.
Li, D.-W. and Kendrick, B. “A Year-Round Comparison of Fungal Spores in Indoor and
Outdoor Air. “Mycologia 87:2 (1995):190-195.
Ohenoja, E. “Effect of Winter Conditions on the Fruit Body Production of Larger Fungi”.
Acta Univ. Uppsala Symb. Uppsala 3 (1995):163-168.
Pitt, R. E. “A Descriptive Model of Mould Growth and Aflatoxin Formation as Affected by
Environmental Conditions.” Journal of Food Protection 56:2 (February 1993):139-146.
Rosas, I., Calderon, C., Ulloa, M. and Lacey, J. “Abundance of Airborne Penicillium CFU
in Relation to Urbanization in Mexico City.” Applied and Environmental Microbiology 59:8
(August 1993):2648-2652.
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Section V
Storage Conditions for Small Packages
Prepared By Terry McSweeny, Hidell-Eyster
Fungal spores are ubiquitous in nature, and serve to provide a mechanism for dispersion
of viable fungal entities. However, the spores of the terrestrial fungi are not motile and
therefore, possess no mechanism to ensure that they contact a hospitable growth
environment upon their release from the parent organism. To compensate for this
haphazard and uncertain dispersion, vegetative fungi routinely produce and release tens
to hundreds of thousands of spores per parent organism, a fact which has important
ramifications to the bottled water industry.
Due to their prodigious production, fungal spores can be found in nearly every
environment on the surface of the globe, and tend to become concentrated in the indoor
air of occupied structures. In fact, the spore concentration may be hundreds of times
higher in indoor air than in the surrounding outdoor air. Furthermore, the spore profiles in
these environments may demonstrate seasonal fluctuations, with fungal spore
concentrations peaking in the tens of thousands per cubic meter of air in the warmer and
wetter months.
When faced with these odds, and considering that fungal spores may be only slightly
larger than 1 micron in diameter, it becomes readily apparent that preventing the entrance
of spores to bottled product is an overwhelming task. It is also a cruel reality that one
spore, too small to be seen with the naked eye, can easily grow to a macroscopic size
easily observable by casual observation.
Another consequence of the fungal spore cycle which impacts the bottled water industry is
the extreme resistance of the spores themselves. Because fungal spores are “designed”
to spend extended periods of time in harsh environments, they must be tremendously
hardy. This high resistance to adverse environmental conditions imparts a level of
resistance to ozone and other disinfectants commonly used on the bottled water industry.
Ozone may be very successful at killing vegetative (actively growing) fungi but cannot be
expected to produce an adequate kill of fungal spores at realistic concentrations and
contact times.
Ozone is known to be very effective at killing bacteria, which are the primary competitors
of the fungi in natural environments. Application of ozone in the bottling process therefore
produces and environment capable of supporting the growth of fungi relatively free of their
bacterial competitors.
Relatively little research has been conducted on the capacity of ozone and other drinking
water disinfectants to inactivate fungal spores. One such paper by Rosenweig, et al.
1983 indicates that a CT (disinfectant Concentration (in mg/L) multiplied by contact Time
(in minutes)) value of approximately 600 was required for a 2 log (99%) reduction in fungal
spores at 25 degrees Celsius and neutral pH. Various authors have reported CT values of
Approximately 0.1 to 0.2 for a similar chlorine inactivation of coliform bacteria. Although
no similar study has yet been reported on the effects of ozone inactivation of fungal
spores, numerous authors have reported CT Values of 0.01 to 0.02 for a 2 log inactivation
of coliform bacteria. If direct extrapola tion is appropriate, a 2 log reduction of fungal
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spores by ozone would require an approximate CT value of 60. Such a dosing is
equivalent to a 1 mg/L concentration of ozone with a contact time of 60 minutes. These
are unrealistic conditions considering the ozonation techniques currently available to the
bottled water industry. Although somewhat esoteric, this discussion does serve to highlight
the extreme environmental stability and disinfectant resistance of fungal spores, a fact
already well known to those in the industry who have experienced fungal spoilage of
bottled product and have attempted to correct this problem with increased ozone levels.
It must be reiterated that a complete elimination of fungal spores from the operating
environment is not attainable and is therefore not a realistic goal. Given the above
discussion, the goal must be to eliminate the presence of fungal spores in bottled product
to the greatest extent possible, and this must be the common goal of each individual and
organization in the entire manufacturing process, from equipment suppliers to warehouse
personnel and each individual involved in the process.
In the majority of cases, fungal spores in bottled product will germinate and grow to an
observable size within 30 to 35 days after production. There are, however, extenuating
circumstances which may delay the appearance of growing fungus. This delayed growth
is usually attributable to the storage conditions of the product water and the physiology of
the contaminating fungus.
To gain a better understanding of how storage conditions may impact fungal growth, it is
first necessary to describe the fungal spore formation and germination processes in
greater detail. One such discussion is provided by Griffin, 1994, and involves six discrete
phases: (1) formation, (2) maturation, (3) dormancy, (4) after-ripening, (5) activation, and
(6) germination.
Spore formation may be triggered by any number of environmental stimuli, including
changes in nutritional conditions, temperature, light, carbon dioxide concentration, and
humidity. The exact trigger or combination of triggers are impossible to predict, and will
vary by species of fungi. These triggers are usually closely related to the environmental
conditions in which the fungi is living, and are most commonly associated with changing
temperature and/or humidity levels. Due to this environmental relationship, seasonal
elevated spore production is common.
Spore dormancy may result from exogenous or constitutive controls. Exogenous
conditions are those which are imposed by the growth environment, for example extreme
heat, freezing temperatures, or overabundance or lack of water. Constitutive dormancy is
directly imposed by the genetics of the fungus and cannot be reversed simply by changing
Environmental conditions. Dormancy, during which fungal spores remain viable but are
not metabolically active, allows extended periods of storage in adverse environmental
conditions.
The next three components of the spore cycle, maturation, after-ripening, and activation,
are involved in the germination of the spore and the growth of the vegetative organism.
These phases occur either after constitutive dormancy or exogenous dormancy have been
broken. The differences which distinguish these spore cycle phases are somewhat open
to interpretation; however, it is sufficient to know that specific environmental conditions
may be necessary to induce the changes in the spore which eventually lead to
germination, without being distracted by the subtle differences between, these phases.
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In short, the environmental triggers of these spore cycle phases are important for the
bottler to control in order to prevent the product released to market from exhibiting growth
of fungus after it has been placed on store shelves.
Maturation and after-ripening are aging processes which the spore must complete before it
is capable of germination. The major difference between these two processes is that
maturation usually involves metabolic changes resulting in a visibly different shape or form
of the spore, while after-ripening does not involve such observable morphologic changes.
The swelling of a spore prior to germination, or the appearance of certain cellular
constituents would be an example of maturation processes.
After-ripening is not a universal requirement among the fungi, but is most common in fungi
whose spores must survive prolonged periods of adverse environmental conditions. The
most common after-ripening conditions include extended storage in the cold followed by
warming temperatures, or alternating warm-cold treatment. Maturation and after-ripening
are usually lengthy processes, and may require weeks to complete. The causes of the
after-ripening requirements are not all clear, although it has been suggested that certain
temperature controlled metabolic changes must occur before germination is possible.
Unlike maturation and after-ripening, activation processes are usually short in duration
(minutes to hours) and routinely involve an abrupt change in environmental conditions
from those of the maturation and after-ripening periods. Elevated temperatures or
treatment with certain chemical agents are the most common activation triggers.
Germination, defined as the actual beginning of vegetative growth, us ually occurs shortly
after activation.
An examination of the following example illustrates the relevance of the discussion about
storage conditions. Product which has been manufactured and stored in a local
warehouse for approximately 30 days. It is typical for this product to show a level of fungal
spoilage, in most temperate regions of the world somewhere around 1 to 2%. It would be
helpful to know if the remaining product which is currently free of fungi will remain free.
It all depends on the physiology of the fungus, and in particular whether its spores
demonstrate exogenous or constitutive dormancy and what the environmental conditions
are that trigger the spore germination phases of the spore cycle (maturation, after-ripening,
and activation).
Although there are various fungal species that can contaminate the product, some
generalizations can be made. Fungal spores which demonstrate extended dormancy
periods are usually those which originate in areas of the world where extreme
environmental conditions and fluctuations are the norm. This would include areas with
long cold winters or long how summers, and may also include tropical areas with extended
and well defined rainy seasons.
Although there are various fungal species that can contaminate the product, some
generalizations can be made. Fungal spores which demonstrate extended dormancy
periods are usually those which originate in areas of the world where extreme
environmental conditions and fluctuations are the norm. This would include areas with
long cold winters or long hot summers, and may also include tropical areas with extended
and well defined rainy seasons.
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From the perspective of the fungus, these extended periods of spore dormancy and the
use of environmental triggers to break dormancy make sense because it prevents the
spores from germinating during the times of the year when environmental conditions are
most harsh, and successful growth of the fungus is less likely. Maturation, after-ripening,
and activation processes may, therefore, be seen as fungal responses to changing
environmental conditions that signal the onset of conditions more likely to support
successful growth.
Fungal spoilage of product is then most likely to occur when the storage conditions of the
product mimic those which naturally signal the spore that it is time to grow. For example,
storage of bottled product in an overheated warehouse followed by movement into a more
temperature controlled retail facility could serve as after-ripening and activation processes.
Similarly, storage of product in cold warehouses followed by warming storage
temperatures, either as the result of a change in storage location or normal seasonal
cycles, could trigger after-ripening and activation. As stated above, the exact combination
of environmental triggers which results in after-ripening and/or activation of the spore is
difficult to predict; however, an educated guess can be made by examining the natural
growth conditions of the contaminating fungus.
In summary, the vast majority of fungal spoilage will occur within 30 to 35 days after
bottling of the product. However, depending upon the spore cycle of the contamination
fungus, it is possible to experience growth of the organism months after it has been placed
into storage. The likelihood of this delayed growth, and the conditions which cause it, can
only be predicted by examining the natural environmental conditions in which the
contamination fungus grows.
REFERENCES
Rosenzweig, W.D., Minnigh, H.A. and Pipes, W.O. (1983). Chlorine Demand and
Inactivation of Fungal Propagules. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 45(1): 187 –
192.
Griffin, D.H. (1994). Spore Dormancy and Germination. In: Fungal Physiology, John Wiley
and Sons, New York, pp. 376 – 396.
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Section VI
Bottling Operations
Prepared By Ted Sands, Sands & Associates
I.
GUIDELINES
The purpose of this operational guideline is to assess the concerns and to recommend
preventive and monitoring actions that apply “five gallon” returnable and non-returnable
bottle operations. Identification of similarities and differences in both bottling operations
will also be discussed.
This operational guidelines assumes that the bottler is familiar with information published
by IBWA and has equipment, training and experience as will as established
microbiological controls through the use of multi-barrier techniques.
As discussed previously (see Sections IV & V), fungi, yeasts, molds and spores, can
survive under various conditions of temperature, humidity, chemical or other exposure to
control treatment under which bacteria could not exist. Consequently, while prevention of
bacterial entry is very important and treatment is critical to control bacteria, prevention of
fungal entry becomes as critical as treatment.
For example, spores of fungi can survive under extreme environmental conditions and are
quite resistant to chemical or radiation treatment. However, once the fungus begins to bud
or branch it becomes more susceptible to treatments. Because both states will
simultaneously exist, prevention and treatment must deal with all states and conditions.
A.
Returnable Bottles
Returnable Bottles should be inspected at the incoming point for visible damage,
contamination, odor or other irregularities.
The presence of bacteria in a returnable container whether newly manufactured or
returned form a customer should be expected prior to the washing and sanitizing process
of the bottling operation. The application of ozone is effective in controlling the growth of
naturally occurring bacteria at the time of bottling.
However, to minimize the occurrence of mould formation from the bottle, the normal
washing and sanitizing process may not be adequate. Furthermore, exposure of bottles to
low levels of fungi will not be readily visible.
The extent of the presence of mould spores is incoming bottles is important to evaluate
and may be determined by interception methods, such as:
1.
Training delivery personnel to recognize signs of mould in cooler dispensers
and bottles received from a customer and marking bottles for special
attention at the bottling plant.
2.
Identifying and reporting signs of mould in cooler and dispensers for
cleaning and replacement.
3.
Establishing testing protocol for fungi, etc.
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4.
Regularly and periodically testing by swabs or other means to discover level
of algae, moulds, etc. in incoming bottles to establish frequency and level
by season.1
5. Regular and periodic testing of coolers and dispensers for levels of
contamination
6. Consider means of reducing contamination at coolers and dispensers.
7. Implement means of changing washing, sanitizing, and bottling operations
to remove and control fungi from returned bottles to prevent and control
recycling of contaminants in returnable bottles.2
8. Improve methods of changing cooler washing, sanitizing and servicing
operations to remove and control algae and fungi from returned coolers and
dispensers in order to prevent and control recycling of contaminants.
B.
New Bottle Specification, Receipt and Storage1
1. Returnable new bottles.
Under current general practice, care for new returnable bottles received
from the vendor is not significantly different form that given to returned used
bottles. However, to control moulds, consideration should be given to:
B.
a.
Instituting a process control over new bottles similar to that described
in Subpart A.
b.
Instituting a prevention control system at manufacturing, warehousing
and handling before entry into the bottling line similar to that for nonreturnable bottles.
Bottling Operation – Bacteria and Mold (Fungus) Control
1. Bacteria
The multi-barrier systems developed over the years to control bacteria and
other contaminants have served the industry well, even though they are
under continuous scrutiny for improvement.
These steps include:
a.
Water source protection and collection.2
b.
Loading and unloading.
c.
Transport to bottling plant (pipeline or tank). Pre-treatment to storage.
d.
Improved storage tank material. Venting, cleaning and treatment
systems.
1
Presently, new returnable bottles are assumed to have been produced and stored under
exposed conditions which would subject them to contamination similar to returned used
bottles.
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e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
l.
m.
n.
o.
p.
q.
r.
s.
t.
Improved distillation, reverse osmosis, ion exchange and filtration
systems
Ambient air filtration (and Ultra Violet Treatment) in bottling, bulk
storage, bottle and final goods storage.
Product water sediment filtration media and cartridges.
Charcoal or compressed air filtration.
Bottle washing systems.
Washing compounds, solutions, temperatures and CT management.
Sanitizing compounds and CT management.
Applications of ozone to product with CT management to product and
rinse water, and storage systems
Application of Ultra Violet with CT to product and rinse water, and
storage systems.
Closed and/or pressurized filling systems.
Controlled manufacturing, storage and handling, feeding and sealing
of crowns and closures.
Improved start up and shut down methods.
Increased protection of filled containers from dust, precipitation, travel
and temperatures.
Improved testing protocol and record keeping.
Package identification, handling, storage and field monitoring.
Better employee training for testing, water bottling, and product
handling.
2. Moulds
Moulds and yeasts, are often thought of as “bacterial” because of some
similarities. For instance each of the barriers which have served well for
bacterial control can have some salutary result against the causes of
moulds, but taken as a whole, they are not as effective. To a large extent
this is because of the higher resistance of spores. For example, ozone has
provided excellent service to the industry as applied to the bottling process,
and is usually used as the final barrier to bacteria; however, it has been less
effective on spores. The same can be said for ultra violet, filtration,
chlorine, washing compounds, temperature, CT levels, air management,
product collection and storage.
Additionally, in post-bottling storage or handling, exposure to time and
temperature may not cause severe product quality degradation even if nonpathogenic bacteria growth, minor sedimentation of container deterioration
could occur. However, if the causes of moulds are present, severe product
degradation can occur and becomes identifiable through visibility, odor,
and/or taste. The rate and extent of the development of moulds is
enhanced by increases in temperature. This is a serious problem with nonreturnable bottles, because it destroys the acceptability of the product and
damages the image of the product and the brand. It is an even greater
problem with returnable bottles, because the “see” (i.e., spore) of the
2
There is some evidence that the proliferation of new and previously unused sources of water
may have introduced spore bearing suppliers into some bottling operations.
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problem will be returned to the bottler to cause another cycle of
contamination. Even worse, it can inoculate coolers, dispensers and
bottling equipment.
Conversely, a contaminated dispenser or cooler can inoculate many bottles.
Because barriers used for bacteria control have been partially or fully
effective against bacteria, each succeeding barrier became more effective,
and the overall result has been very satisfactory. Of course, one can see
that if one step, or more than one step, was ineffective or partially effective,
than the burden on the final barrier became critical. As long as that final
barrier was adequately effective for the bacteria encountered, the partial or
total failure of previous barriers was not crucial.
Thus, while the same concept of multi-barrier control can be applied to
mould causing agents, the efficacies of each barrier are different for mould
causing material than for bacteria (even as it is for different kinds of
bacteria). In general, the steps used to control bacteria must also be taken
to control mould forming material, but certain steps must be enhanced and
additional barriers must be applied.
Primarily this applies to the
enhancement of water and air filtration and the enhanced use of ultra violet
and ozone, to the extent that this does not cause product degradation.
Where the presence of mould causing spores is found, filtration to below 0.5
microns becomes essential. This applies not only to product water, but to
rinse water whether used as part of returnable bottle rinsing system. It
further applies to air used for the rinsing or drying of bottles, to air
exhausted into a bottling area from pneumatic power equipment, and to
ambient air in bottling facilities. The intrusion of airborne bacteria, while a
problem, can usually be controlled by the multi-barrier techniques.
However, because airborne spores are more resistant, they may not be
controlled as effectively.3
These matters apply not just to bottle filling operations, but also to the
manufacturing, storing and handling of empty bottles, and to the
manufacturing of closures.
D.
Non-returnable Bottles
The recent exponential growth in the use of non-returnable bottles has had a
significant effect in the industry in many ways, and certainly not just operationally.
1. For the purpose of this report, the primary operational effects have been:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Reduction in water volume to bottle interior surface ratios (ozone
residual).
Rinsing, not washing of bottles.
Longer storage life of sealed containers before use.
Higher temperature storage conditions.
Higher visibility of interior of water container.
Conditions of individual bottle storage.
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2. Prevention will require increased attention to these matters relating to the
multi barrier approach:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
E.
Enhanced levels of control of ambient and pneumatic power air
exhaust, in blow molding and closure forming facilities.
Training of blow molding and closure forming employees.
Handling and storage of bottles and closures form point of molding or
forming to containers, warehousing, silos, transport, unloading,
decasing, etc.
Storage, opening, feeding and treatment of closures before
application.
Transport of bottles to and from rinser to filler/capper.
Methods of rinsing/washing bottles, with or without detergents,
sanitizers or elevated temperatures.
Airborne Bacteria – Spores
An important barrier is control, filtration and treatment of incoming air to
bottling rooms, washing or rinsing areas and empty bottle storage areas.
The use of filtered air supply to maintain positive pressure bottling rooms is
well established. Improvements in filtering treated or untreated media, and
supplemental ultra violet treatment have also shown benefits.
It is necessary to monitor the air contaminant load in order to maintain
affective filtering systems. Factors affecting load are movement around air
inlet, air velocity (windstorm), load (dust, pollen, etc.), humidity and season.
The most helpful monitoring method is to periodically collect air samples in
media dishes at various locations on a regular basis to assess weather and
seasonal changes. A sampling protocol of exterior air, warehouse air, inlet
air, filter discharge and bottling room air (particularly around open bottle
lines and filler/capper) are important. Matching results with tests of finished
product aids in developing methods to control airborne contamination.
To test for bacteria and spore levels, techniques normally employed for
bacterial testing, with specifically developed media for the type of
contaminants anticipated should be used.4
Testing in this context is intended to be indicative of spores or moulds, not
necessarily to identify specific classes or spores or moulds. However, the
average layman can soon recognize the various types of growths and
relative concentrations on media in order to assess barrier efficacy.
3
Many contaminants identified as “waterborne: can be and are also transported in air and thus
can be considered as “airborne”.
4
Many media are for specific testing, such as (Heterotrophic Plate Count) HPC, and contain
inhibitors to prevent growth of moulds. Therefore, utilize media as appropriate. A media
supplier can help in making the proper selection(s).
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APPENDIX A
TROUBLE-SHOOTONG CHECKLIS
FOR MINIMIZING MOULD OCCURRENCE
Prepared By Laura Current, Suntory Water Group
I.
SUMMARY
The information provided in this manual will be valuable in helping bottlers resolve or
prevent mould problems in their facilities. The following document should help you
determine critical areas within the plant which should be monitored or evaluated to trouble
shoot mould problems and help reduce the number of occurrences in your facilities. It
should be noted that some of the items in the Appendix were referenced in the previous
sections. The following outline should be helpful as a trouble-shooting guide.
II.
BOTTLING OPERATIONS – RETURNABLE AND NONRETURNABLE
CONTAINERS
A.
B.
Non-Returnable Container Storage
1.
Insure that containers are stored
2.
Insure that supplier maintains clean tier sheets on pallets
of PET bottles
3.
Insure that all partial pallets of containers are covered and
wrapped.
Non-returnable Container De-Bagging or De-Palletizing
1.
C.
Conveyors
1.
2.
3.
4.
D.
Insure that the de-bagging table or de-palletizing are
located away from open exterior doors and fans.
Maintain a routine schedule for cleaning and sanitizing
conveyor belts and covers.
Insure that conveyor covers are cleaned (top of cover &
under cover).
Remove all air curtains on conveyor entrance to bottling
rooms.
When possible install drop pans to keep the production
area as dry as possible.
Non-Returnable Container Rinsers
1.
2.
3.
Clean and sanitize rinser exterior daily.
When possible enclose rinser in bottling room with HVAC
system.
When possible rinse containers with ozonated rinse water.
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4.
E.
F.
G.
Pipe rinser discharged to drain to keep area as dry as
possible.
Bottling Room
1.
When possible maintain cool temperature in bottling room
to reduce humidity.
2.
Clean and sanitize walls and floors on a routine schedule.
3.
Maintain and clean HVAC filters and vents.
Filler Operator
1.
When production line goes down or filler is stopped, run
rinsed/washed bottles out from rinser/washer all the way
through filler.
2.
When rinsed/washed bottles have been left on line, put
bottles back on line prior to rinser/washer before line starts
up.
3.
Never leave bottles on line or caps on hopper or basket
overnight.
4.
Never leave bottles under filler valves during breaks or
downtime.
5.
Always check ozone concentration after every downtime
and/or break.
Capper
1.
Insure air supply is clean, filtered, and dried.
2.
If using a cap hopper to blow caps into bottling room,
upgrade air intake filter (intake usually on floor).
3.
Clean and sanitized capper, cap basket, and cap hopper
daily.
4.
After capping equipment has been sanitized, remove as
much of the excess water as possible (blow down with
filtered air, wipe down with clean dry cloth, or wipe down
with alcohol).
5.
When possible purchase caps that have been packaged in
a plastic bag inside a box.
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H.
Quality Control
1.
Maintain retain samples on all production runs.
2.
Inspect retain samples at least once a month.
3.
Evaluate production records and QC records every time a
defective product is found.
4.
Incorporate military time into bottle date code to facilitate
problem solving.
5.
Add Y & M as routine micro test for finished product.
6.
Insure that you ha ve at least 8 minutes contact time in the
contact tank.
7.
Insure that the ozone level does not drop below 0.1 mg/L.
8.
Routinely run Y & M micro test on various points on
production line (empty bottles, rinsed/washed bottles, rinse
water, etc.).
ooOOOoo
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