1. No category

List of Figures, Tables, Abbreviations
1. LIST OF FIGURES
Figures
Description
Pages
Figure 1.1.
Maps showing the location of the study area. (a) Satellite
image shows the Borneo Island, and highlighted are the
location of the study area (in the red rectangle). (b)
Simplified geological map of Sabah shows the outline of
Neogene basins and their sub-basin and provinces (after
Leong and Azlina, 1999).
4
Figure 1.2.
The study area, Dent Peninsula, with outcrops localities
(geological map after Haile and Wong, 1965).
5
Figure 2.1.
Schematic NW-SE sequential cross-sections show
geological evolution of Sabah (after Tongkul, 1991, sketch
taken from Leong, 1999).
16
Figure 2.2.
Palinspastic reconstruction of the Mid Eocene (~42.5 ma) Celebes Sea break-up and development of the SE Pacific
margin accretionary complex on Cretaceous oceanic crust;
likely deep marine sedimentation (ISIS, 2005).
17
Figure 2.3.
Palinspastic reconstruction of the Middle Eocene to early
Miocene (~42.5 to 20.5 ma) - The South China Sea
“break-up” and the development of fore-arc basin and
accretionary wedge; likely deep marine turbidite deposition
(ISIS, 2005).
17
Figure 2.4.
Palinspastic reconstruction of the Early Miocene (20.5 ma)
- Sabah Orogeny occurred when the South China Sea
microcontinent collided with the Palawan Arc and North
Borneo; likely deep marine gravity slide and melange
deposition (ISIS, 2005).
18
Figure 2.5.
Palinspastic reconstruction of the early Miocene to mid
Miocene (~19.0 to 15.5 ma) with Andaman Sea „breakup‟
giving rise to Sulu Sea back-arc basin development and
basin-fill “axial” fluviodeltaic to shallow marine and deep
marine sedimentation in the northern area (ISIS, 2005).
18
Figure 2.6.
Palinspastic reconstruction of the Middle Miocene (~15.5 –
13.0 ma) - Andaman Sea break-up where Sulu Sea
spreading ceased, but likely continued axial fluvio-deltaic
and shallow marine sedimentation (ISIS, 2005).
19
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List of Figures, Tables, Abbreviations
Figure 2.7.
Late Miocene (~11.6 – 5.5 ma) - The accretionary prism to
the north widens and the sediment depocentre shifts to the
South-East and the Manalunan trough develops in South
with slope turbidite deposition (ISIS, 2005).
19
Figure 2.8.
Palinspastic reconstruction of the Pliocene to Recent (~5.5
- 0 ma) - The Melieu Orogeny creating transpression in
Celebes Sea and inversion and wrench in NE Borneo;
likely low rates of paralic sedimentation in the North with
slope turbidite deposition in the south (ISIS, 2005).
20
Figure 2.9.
Lithostratigraphy of Dent Peninsula (modified
Balaguru, 2006a & 2006b; Petronas, 2007).
after
23
Figure 2.10.
Geological map of Dent Peninsula (modified after ISIS,
2005; Haile and Wong, 1965).
27
Figure 2.11.
The merged NW-SE onshore-offshore geological cross
section with seismic line (after ISIS, 2005).
28
Figure 2.12.
Structural sketch map of Sabah from various sources
showing three main sets of faults (N-S wrench fault, NWSE trending extension and wrench, and NE-SW trending
extension and wrench) and the bends of the fold-thrust belt
and similar pattern offshore (as quoted after Leong, 1994).
30
Figure 2.13.
Structural trend in the Dent Peninsula locally shows the
position and lateral extent of Tabin Fault (Ismail Che Mat
Zin, 1994).
31
Figure 2.14.
(A) Model of the subduction zone for the Miocene volcanic
rocks of SE Sabah. I to IV is an alternative models for
melting in intra-plate settings applicable to the PliocenePleistocene volcanic rocks of SE Sabah (after Chiang,
2002).
34
Figure 3.1.
Atomic H/C versus O/C or van Krevalen diagram is based
on elemental analysis of kerogen (data from Peters, 1986).
44
Figure 3.2.
The HI versus OI diagram based on Rock Eval pyrolysis of
whole rock used to describes the type of organic matter in
source rock (data from Peters, 1986).
44
Figure 3.3.
Diagram shows Hydrogen Index (HI) versus Tmax indicates
the different kerogen type upon the different stages of
maturity (the data after Mukhopadhayay, et al., 1995).
45
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XV
List of Figures, Tables, Abbreviations
Figure 4.1.
Summary of the methodology performed iin this study.
55
Figure 4.2.
(a) Tools and chemicals that are being used for preparing
mount blocks (b) prepared polish-blocks, refractive index,
and oil immersion for petrographic analysis.
57
Figure 4.3.
Leica CTR6000 Photometry Microscope.
59
Figure 4.4.
a) Stage of EOM extraction using soxhlet extractor; b)
stage of solvent evaporation using rotary evaporator; c)
stage of collecting EOM into vial.
61
Figure 4.5.
The stages of collecting hydrocarbon fractionation by
column chromatography, started with separation of 3
hydrocarbon fractions using column chromatography,
followed by solvent evaporation stage using rotary
evaporator, and stage of collecting hydrocarbon fraction
into small vial.
63
Figure 4.6.
The stages used in thin layer chromatography; a)
preparation of plate leveler slurred plates on plate leveler,
b) plates soaking into ethyl acetate, c) plates soaking in
Petroleum ether after spotted by EOM, d) stage of
hydrocarbon separation.
66
Figure 4.7.
a) Gas chromatography system; b) Mass-spectrometer
68
Figure 4.8.
The setting of the gas chromatography performed in this
study.
68
Figure 4.8
a) Sample probe of the Py-GC attached to the back inlet;
b)
Double-Shot
Pyrolyzer
Py-2020iD;
c)
Gas
chromatography.
70
Figure 4.9.
Setting of the double-shot pyrolyses programme.
71
Figure 4.10.
Setting programme in Double-Shot Analysis.
71
Figure 4.11.
(a)The Spectrum 300 Spotlight FTIR-Microscope used for
imaging and maceral mapping under reflected light; (b)
Spectrum-100 FTIR Spectrometer used for powder
samples using universal ATR sampling accessory.
74
Figure 4.12.
Scanned background of gold plate.
75
Figure 4.13.
Background spectrum of ATR.
75
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List of Figures, Tables, Abbreviations
Figure 4.14.
Summary of the basin modelling work flow using IES
Petromod version 10.0 SP1.
80
Figure 5.1.
Location of sedimentological log according to samples
locality.
82
Figure 5.2.
Field photographs of Tungku conglomerate unit at Locality
55. a) Steeply dip angle (010/50) trending to the ENE. b)
Close up of the strike-slip fault plane. c) Right lateral
movement trending NE-SW. d) Dilation surface showing
bidirectional of wrench faults.
85
Figure 5.3.
Lithological log at Locality 55 which shows a very thick
conglomerate unit (Abbreviation as defined in Appendix 2).
86
Figure 5.4.
Field photograph of Tungku conglomerate unit at Stop 45
at Ladang Ikhtisas Semporna Quarry. a) Outcrops of
conglomerate unit overlain by sandstone unit. b) Close up
view showing an angular unconformity that separate the
basal sandy unit of Sebahat Formation and conglomeritic
unit of Tungku Formation as shown by erosional surface.
87
Figure 5.5.
Lithological log at Stop 45 outcrop at Ladang Ikhtisas
Semporna Quarry (Abbreviation as defined in Appendix 2).
88
Figure 5.6.
Field photograph of Sebahat Formation outcrop at Locality
56. a) Picture showing dark grey silty mudstone
interbedded with thin siltstone. b) The siltstone beds often
form as calcareous lenses. c) Examples of the dark grey
silty mudstone (GMd) which was sampled for analyses.
90
Figure 5.7.
Field photograph of Sebahat Formation outcrop at Locality
6. a) Outcrop of highly bioturbated grey silty shale. b)
Close up view shows the trace fossil possibly
Ophiomorpha? which indicates shallow marine sediments.
91
Figure 5.8.
Lithological log of Locality 56, Ladang Sebahat 1 Quarry
(foothill, 50 m away from vey thick conglomerate unit of
Figure 5.2) (Abbreviation as defined in Appendix 2).
92
Figure 5.9.
Lithological log of Locality 6, nearby Telecomunication
Tower at Chenderawasih town (Abbreviation as defined in
Appendix 2).
92
Figure 5.10.
Field photograph of Sebahat Formation outcrop at Locality
11. The sandy facies of Ganduman Formation was
93
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List of Figures, Tables, Abbreviations
onlapped on the muddy facies of Sebahat formation.
Figure 5.11.
Lithological log of outcrop at Locality 11, Ladang Felda
Sahabat 36 pass by (onlapping sequence) (Abbreviation
as defined in Appendix 2).
94
Figure 5.12.
Field photograph of outcrop at Stop 68 shows stacked
channelised sandy units (CHSSt) associated with
interdistributary lagoonal mudstone (GMd) and flood plain
coal seams (SdCo). The thick, cross-bedded channelised
sandstones are interpreted to represent distributary
channels of prograding deltas.
98
Figure 5.13.
Lithological log of outcrop at Stop 68 shows the maximum
flooding surface, indicated by coal seam (Abbreviation as
defined in Appendix 2).
99
Figure 5.14.
Field photograph of outcrop of stacked channelised
sandstone (ChSSt) at Locality 3. a) Vertical burrows of
Ophiomorpha. b) Cross bedding sandstone. c) Through
cross bedding sandstone.
100
Figure 5.15.
Lithological log of multi-storey stack channelized
sandstones at
Locality 3 (Abbreviation as defined in
Appendix 2).
101
Figure 5.16.
Field photograph of outcrop at Locality 26 which shows the
upper shoreface sediments. b) Thin laminated very fine
grained sandstone and siltstone (LmSSt) with commonly
observed mud drapes and Planolites and Ophiomorpha.
102
Figure 5.17.
Figure 5.17. Lithological log of outcrop at Locality 26.
103
Figure 5.18.
a) outcrop at Locality 15 shows the heterolithic mudstones
and very fine grained sandstone lithofacies (HMS) that
capped by thin coal seam (Co). b) Close up view that
shows the two layers of coal seam.
104
Figure 5.19.
Lithological log of outcrop at Locality 15 (Abbreviation as
defined in Appendix 2).
105
Figure 5.20.
The interbedded sandstone and grey silty mudstone with
grey mudstone indicates lower shoreface deposits at
Locality 48. This sediment indicates six set of
parasequences (PS1-PS6). The Ophiomorpha burrows are
common within the GSMd facies.
106
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List of Figures, Tables, Abbreviations
Figure 5.21.
Lithological log of outcrop at Locality 48 (Abbreviation as
defined in Appendix 2).
107
Figure
5.21.1
Fossil assemblages of benthic faunas within the GSMd
facies of Upper Ganduman Formation which indicate
shallow marine environment, particularly shoreface; (a)
Smaller brachiopods and gastropods fossil; (b) Larger
brachiopod? (c). Oyster fossils.
108
Figure 5.22.
a) The lithofacies of the excavated Togopi Limestone
outcrop at Locality 52 in the Sahabat 24 limestone quarry;
b) The upper part shows the consolidated marl (CLSt); c)
Coral fragments inside the unconsolidated limestone
(UCLSt); d) The nodular unconsolidated limestone.
110
Figure 5.23.
Transitional contact surface between the Togopi Formation
and Upper Ganduman Formation at Locality 20 indicates a
possible unconformity.
111
Figure 5.24.
Lithological log of outcrop at Locality 52 (Abbreviation as
defined in Appendix 2).
112
Figure 5.25.
Lithological log of outcrop at Locality 20 (Abbreviation as
defined in Appendix 2).
112
Figure 5.26.
Collected samples representing source rock facies for
analyses. Amb: Amber clast, taken within grey silty
sandstone facies (GSMd); GSMd: Facies of grey silty
sandstone comprises coaly fragments and amber clast;
GMd: Facies of grey silty mudstone.
115
Figure 5.26
(cont.).
Collected samples representing source rock and reservoir
rock facies for analyses. SdCo: Sandy coal (carbagilite);
BCo: Brown coal or lignites; Co: Bright-black coal; SSt:
Medium grain white silty sandstone
116
Figure 5.27.
Collected samples representing reservoir rock facies for
analyses. CLSt: Consolidated limestone; SSt: Brown
coarse grain bioturbated sandstone; ULSt: Unconsolidated
silty limestone with vuggy porosity; CLSt: Consolidated
fossiliferous limestone.
117
Figure 5.28.
The distribution of palynomorph of the respective samples.
Figure 5.29.
Photomicrograph of variaties of pollens that indicates
different plant species and significantly dominated by
120121
122
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List of Figures, Tables, Abbreviations
mangrove plants.
Figure 5.30.
Stacked bar graph shows the distribution of different
species of pollens in different depositional environments.
Relatively, the pollens and spores are dominated by
mangrove plant species.
123
Figure 5.31.
Image of Orbulina sp.
126
Figure 5.32.
Characterization of depositional environments in
Malaysian Basin using foraminiferas and palynomorph
(after Mazlan et. al., 1999).
127
Figure 5.33.
The reconstructed model of depositional environments of
the Dent Group sediments as responsed to the relative
sea level fluctuation (modified after Noad, 1998 and ISIS,
2005).
136138
Figure 5.34.
Composite lithostratigraphic logs in the Dent Peninsula
(not to the scale).
139
Figure 5.35.
The proposed depositional environment model to
characterize the source rock facies within Sebahat and
Ganduman formations from early Middle Miocene to
middle Pliocene (modified after Noad, 1998 and ISIS,
2005).
140
Figure 5.36.
a) A Py-GC pyrogram of a coal clast within coaly
sandstone shows the presence of cadinane (Cad); b)
Dipterocarpacea pollen found within the coaly sandstone
sample.
143
Figure 5.37.
Total Ion Chromatogram significantly preserved terrestrial
compound as indicates by extreme high nC30.
144
Figure 5.38.
Mass fragmentogram of ion 191 shows the Oleanane and
Lupane peaks as a terrestrial signals. Also shown is
oleanane molecular compound.
144
Figure 5.39.
FTIR spectrum obtained from reworking amber typically
shows an angiosperm plant type as indicated by relative
high CH2CH3 and CH3 Bending peaks and low vinylidene
peak.
145
Figure 6.1.
Ternary diagram of percentage maceral content in the coal
samples of the two formations shown.
150
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List of Figures, Tables, Abbreviations
Figure 6.2.
Stacked graph bar shows the average estimation of
phytoclast composition in the analysed samples.
150
Figure 6.3.
The crossplot of TOC vs phytoclast content within the
mudstones samples show a reasonably good relationship
as shown by linear interpolation with R2 is approximately
0.8.
151
Figure 6.4.
Gelification Index (GI) versus Tissue Preservation Index
(TPI) cross plot shows the paleomire of peat swamp of
coal (modified after by Diessel, 1986 and Kalkreuth and
Leckie, 1989).
154
Figure 6.5.
Coal facies diagram of VI vs GWI shows the hydrologic
condition during the peat deposition (after Calder et al.,
1991).
154
Figure 6.6.
The tellocollinite band (T) shows slightly low reflectance,
probably caused by bitumen impregnation; (D)=
heterogeneous desmocollinite bands; (S)= suberinite;
(SF)= high reflectance of structured fusinite.
156
Figure 6.7.
(Te)=Structured tellinite showing well preserved cellular
plant tissue.
157
Figure 6.8.
(Co)=Intermediate reflectance of disseminated ovoid‟s
bodies of corpocollinite.
157
Figure 6.9.
Sample SR13. Special occurrences of fluorescent vitrinite.
Under UV light (right), the cellular texture of textinite was
clearly enhanced and fluorescing dull yellow.
157
Figure 6.10.
Sample SR33. The heterogenous desmocollinite
associated with reddish clay and brownish disperse
liptodetrinite matrix and bounded by thick cuticles layer.
The cutinite was strongly fluorescing under UV light with
yellow colour.
160
Figure 6.11.
Sample SR32. The cutinite arrangments formed a series of
banded layer (left side) while sporinite formed clusters
(right side). Both the cutinite and sporintie showed strong
fluoresce under UV light. The resinite formed as isolated
dark grey rounded bodies within sclerotinite which
fluoresces weak yellow.
160
Figure 6.12.
Sample SR33. Thin suberinite layers associated with
161
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List of Figures, Tables, Abbreviations
Figure 6.13.
phlobaphinite bounding the tellocollinite bands and
surrounded by disaggregated desmocollinite. The
suberinite and the expelled bitumen are fluorescing yellow
under UV light.
Sample SR21. The resinites appear as elliptical lipid
bodies within voids as structureless vitrinite matrix
fluoresce strongly under UV light.
161
Figure 6.14.
Sample SR32. High reflecting sclerotinite possibly formed
from bacteria alteration of cellular tissue. The cell lumens
were filled by brownish resinite.
163
Figure 6.15.
Sample SR33. The high reflectance fusinite shows an
elongated disorder cellular texture.
163
Figure 6.16.
Sample SR27. High reflectance semi-fusinite. The thin
suberinite layers associated with phlobaphinite was
bounding the tellocollinite bands, surrounded by
disaggregated desmocollinite. The suberinite and filled
pores resinite fluorescing in yellow under UV light.
Rounded to sub-rounded recycled phytoclast associated
with quartz and shows high relief.
163
Figure 6.18.
Low relief elongated particle of plant fragment associated
with reddish clay indicates in-situ plant fragments.
165
Figure 6.19.
Low relief semi-structured plant texture which indicates insitu plant materials.
165
Figure 6.20.
A: A trimodal VR histogram shows the influence of
bitumen impregnation and reworked vitrinite could produce
high value of standard deviation; B: In-situ coal with
indigenous vitrinite tends to show unimodal histogram with
low standard deviation.
169
Figure 6.21.
Correlation between VR and Tmax shows a reasonably
good correlation for Sebahat data, whilst poor correlation
obtains for Ganduman data.
170
Figure 6.22.
The vitrinite reflectance measurements
accordingly to formation younging order
constructed
170
Figure 6.23.
Cross plot of TOC versus S2 of the Sebahat and the
Ganduman samples.
173
Figure 6.24.
Tmax value of the analyzed samples shows slight increase
of maturity corresponds to the ages (the range is after
176
Figure 6.17.
Petroleum Source Rock Evaluation and Basin Modelling of the Tertiary Dent Group, Dent Peninsula, East Sabah ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
165
XXII
List of Figures, Tables, Abbreviations
Figure 6.25.
Tissot and Welte, 1984).
Source rocks quality based on the S1 and S2 values
(modified after Peters and Cassa, 1994).
176
Figure 6.26.
Cross-plot of S1 versus TOC for identifying the migration
or contamination of hydrocarbons (after Hunt, 1995).
177
Figure 6.27.
Bar graph of extractable organic matter of various lithology
and formation.
180
Figure 6.28.
Triangular diagram of Saturate-Aromatic-NSO compounds.
183
Figure 6.29.
Graph bar shows the source beds rating of hydrocarbon
compound.
183
Figure 6.30.
The patterns of n-alkanes distributions which have been
recognized comprise unimodal nC17, unimodal nC24,
unimodal nC30, and bimodal (dominant nC24 and nC30).
188
Figure 6.31.
Pristane/Phytane ratio shows the redox condition during
the organic matter deposition (modified after Didyx et al,
1978 and Sofer, 1984).
190
Figure 6.32.
Cross plot of Pr/nC17 versus Ph/nC18 used to determine
depositional environment condition of the respective
analyzed source rocks (modified after Hunt, 1995).
191
Figure 6.33.
Marine versus terrestrial environment as indicates by
nC30/nC17 crossplot (after Peters et al, 2005).
192
Figure 6.34.
CPI and OEP values as indicator for relative thermal
maturity (after Peters and Moldowan, 1993).
192
Figure 6.35.
Co-elution of Oleanane-12-ene with Urs-12-ene in C30
region.
195
Figure 6.36.
Molecular structure of Lup-20(29)-ene-3-one which is
beleived to be a biological precursor for Lupane.
195
Figure 6.37.
The calculated Olenane Index (Ol/Ho).
197
Figure 6.38.
The ratio of moretane to hopane (Mo/Ho) indicates most of
the samples are thermally immature.
197
Figure 6.39.
The measured Ts/ (Ts + Tm) ratio for the thermal maturity
estimation.
198
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List of Figures, Tables, Abbreviations
Figure 6.40.
The measured homohopanes isomerization ratio to
estimate the thermal maturity.
198
Figure 6.41.
The pyrograms of Py-GC traces of three different types of
samples.
202
Figure 6.42.
Graph bar shows the selected ratio of the functional
groups, obtained from the ATR-FTIR spectrum.
207
Figure 6.43.
Source rock quality assessment based on TOC content
210
Figure 6.44.
Comparison between total EOM and hydrocarbons yields.
210
Figure 6.45.
HI vs Tmax crossplot shows the kerogen type and relative
thermal maturity (modified after Mukhopadhayay et al.,
1995).
213
Figure 6.46.
Cross-plot of S2 versus TOC shows the distribution of
analysed samples in relation to the kerogen type (modified
after Gülbay and Korkmaz, 2008).
214
Figure 6.47.
Classification of kerogen type of the analyzed coal
samples from Ganduman and Sebahat formation by using
the relative abundance of n-octene (C8), m + p-xylene (Xy)
and phenol (Phe) (modified after Larter, 1984).
214
Figure 6.48.
Description of biomarkers within the crude oil samples
from offshore Central Sabah sub-basin (after Leong and
Azlina, 1999).
222
Figure 6.49.
Description of biomarkers within the extracted source rock
samples.
223
Figure 6.50.
Comparison of Pritane/Phytane ratio between source
rocks extract and crude oil samples.
225
Figure 6.51.
Comparison of nC30/nC17 ratio between source rocks
extract and crude oil samples.
225
Figure 6.52.
Comparison of CPI values between the source rocks
extract and crude oil samples.
226
Figure 6.53.
Biomarkers correlation of Oleanane Index between source
rocks extract and crude oil samples.
226
Figure 6.54.
Biomarkers comparison of the average homohopane
227
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List of Figures, Tables, Abbreviations
isomerization ratio between source rocks extract and
crude oil samples.
Figure 6.55.
GC-MS fingerprints of extracted limestone and sandstone
of possible reservoir rocks.
231
Figure 6.56.
Comparison of Pritane/Phytane (Pr/Ph) ratio between
reservoir rock extract and crude oil samples.
232
Figure 6.57.
Comparison of CPI value between reservoir rock extract
and crude oil samples.
233
Figure 6.58.
Comparison of nC30/nC17 ratio between reservoir rock
extract and crude oil samples.
233
Figure 6.59.
Biomarkers comparison of Oleanane Index (Olean-(12)ene / 18α-Hopane) between reservoir rock extract and
crude oil samples.
234
Figure 6.60.
Biomarkers comparison of the average homohopane
isomerization ratio (C31, 32, 33 22S / (22S+22R)) between
reservoir rock extracts and crude oil samples.
234
Figure 7.1.
The merged of NW-SE onshore-offshore geological cross
section with interpreted seismic section shows the
Sebahat-1 well penetrating top of carbonates (after ISIS,
2005).
236
Figure 7.2.
The digitized section comprises of seven original layers.
237
Figure 7.3.
Facies definition properties include geochemical data and
kerogen kinetics
239
Figure 7.4.
Global mean sediment water interface temperatures (oC)
(after Wygrala, 1989).
241
Figure 7.5.
Vitrinite reflectance data from three offshore wells used as
calibration data for modelling.
243
Figure 7.6.
Bottom Hole Temperature (BHT) data versus depth from
three offshore wells used as temperature calibration data
for modelling.
243
Figure 7.7.
Reasonably good correlation obtained for temperature
curve with a small deviation curve of vitrinite reflectance in
both model and actual data.
245
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List of Figures, Tables, Abbreviations
Figure 7.8.
The chart shows heat flow history that related to
paleotectonic activities (tectonic history data after
Balaguru, 2006a).
246
Figure 7.9.
The vertical extraction line is an extracted stratigraphic
thickness from 2D model to view the 1D burial chart.
249
Figure 7.10.
Burial history chart shows maturity of Libung source rocks.
250
Figure 7.11.
Burial history chart shows maturity of Tungku and Sebahat
source rocks.
251
Figure 7.12.
Sedimentation sequence, hydrocarbon charge
migration routes of the respective source rocks.
and
255258
Figure 7.13.
Location of the gas seepages found in onshore and occur
at present day.
258
Figure 7.14.
The evidence of gas seepage in Felda Sahabat 49, Palm
Oil Plantation.
259
Figure 7.15.
Location of the traps (as shown in circle) was accumulated
by different hydrocarbon compositions.
261
Figure 7.16.
Highlighted in the yellow circles are the structural trap
formation as simulated by closed fault scenario has
accumulated by gas.
261
Figure 7.17.
Highlighted in the red circle is the structural trap formation
as simulated by open fault scenario has accumulated by
oil.
Highlighted in the green circle is the stratigraphic trap
formation as simulated by closed fault scenario has no
accumulation.
262
The simulated open fault model showing an accumulation
of oil occurs at the easternmost fault structural trap (as
pointed by green arrow).
The simulated closed fault model showing an
accumulation of gaseous occurs at the fault structural trap
(as pointed by red arrows).
264
Figure 7.18.
Figure 7.19.
Figure 7.20.
Petroleum Source Rock Evaluation and Basin Modelling of the Tertiary Dent Group, Dent Peninsula, East Sabah ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
262
264
XXVI
List of Figures, Tables, Abbreviations
2. LIST OF TABLES
Tables
Description
Table 3.1.
Principle methods used for source rocks characterization
(after Tissot, and Welte, 1984).
37
Table 3.2.
Parameters to estimate the source rocks efficiency based
on the amount of organic matter (after Peter and Cassa,
1994).
39
Table 3.3.
Kerogen type with related macerals dominant indicates oil
generative potential and depositional environment
(modified after Peters and Cassa, 1994 and Stach et. al.,
1982).
40
Table 3.4.
Classification of coal macerals into subgroups and groups,
based on the Australian Standard system of nomenclature
AS2856, (1986) (modified after Tissot and Welte, 1984
and Diesel, 1992).
42
Table 3.5.
The approximate correlation of various maturation
indicators for organic matter (after Hunt, 1995).
48
Table 3.6.
Biomarkers indicative of source rock organic matter input
and depositional conditions (after Hunt, 1995).
50
Table 5.1.
Six source rocks facies and two reservoir rocks identified
based on sedimentological description.
114
Table 5.2.
The assemblages of benthonic and planktonic foraminifera
correspond with environments and water depth (after
Phleger, 1960).
125
Table 6.1.
Average percentage of maceral point counting of coal
samples.
148
Table 6.2.
General percentage estimation of maceral group
composition within different formation of different lithology.
149
Table 6.3.
Vitrinite reflectance measurements indicate the maturity of
organic matter.
168
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XXVII
List of Figures, Tables, Abbreviations
Table 6.4.
Table shows the data from Rock Eval Pyrolyses and Leco
TOC analysis.
172
Table 6.5.
Data of extractable organic matter (EOM) derived from
rocks.
179
Table 6.6.
Data of hydrocarbon fractions that were separated from
EOM.
Tabulated n-alkane data derived from total on
chromatogram (TIC).
182
Table 6.8.
Biomarker parameters of triterpanes from the m/z 191 ion
fragments.
196
Table 6.9.
Quantitative data based on the peak height measurements
of the second shot Py-GC pyrograms.
203
Table 6.10.
204
Table 6.11.
The assigned peak compound relative to the region of
absorption (after Mastalerz and Bustin, 1996).
Tabulated quantitative data of the ATR-FTIR spectrum.
Table 6.12.
Comparison of biomarker parameters with VR and Tmax.
224
Table 6.13.
Comparison of biomarker parameter ratios for oil-oil
correlation.
232
Table 7.1.
Paleo water depth estimation from fossil assemblages and
paleodepositional environments.
240
Table 7.2.
Present day surface heat flow measurements in Sulu Sea
and Celebes Sea.
241
Table 7.3.
The estimation of maturity data of source rock intervals
which were obtained from burial history chart via closed
fault scenario (vitrinite reflectance after Sweeney and
Burnham, 1990).
251
Table 6.7.
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205
XXVIII
List of Figures, Tables, Abbreviations
3. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Abbreviations
Description
Amb
Amber clast
ATR-FTIR
Attenuated Total Reflectance-Fourier Transform Infra Red
BCo
Brown coal or lignites facies
BHT
Bottom Hole Temperature
C
Carbon
Cad
Cadinane
CLSt
Consolidated limestone
Co
Bright-black coal facies
CPI
Carbon preference index
EHC
Extractable hydrocarbons content
EOM
Extractable organic matter
GC
Gas Chromatography
GC-MS
Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry
GI
Gelification Index
GMd
Facies of grey silty mudstone
GSMd
Facies of grey silty sandstone
GWI
Ground Water Index
HI
Hydrogen index
Ho
Hopane
Petroleum Source Rock Evaluation and Basin Modelling of the Tertiary Dent Group, Dent Peninsula, East Sabah ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
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List of Figures, Tables, Abbreviations
m
Meter
N
Numbers
NA
Not available
Ol
Oleanane
OM
Organic matters
Ph
Phytane
Ph
Phytane
PI
Production index
PPL
Plane polarization light
Pr
Pristane
Pr
Pristane
Py-GC
Pyrolysis-Gas Chrmatography
S1
Free HC
S2
Present potential of the source rocks
Sh
Shale
Siltst
Siltstone
SSt
Sandstone
STD. DEV.
Standard Deviation
TIC
Total Ion chromatogram
Tmax
Temperature at maximum generation of S2
Tmax
Maximum temperature
TOC
Total organic content
TOC
Total Organic Carbon
TPI
Tissue Preservation Index
Petroleum Source Rock Evaluation and Basin Modelling of the Tertiary Dent Group, Dent Peninsula, East Sabah ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
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List of Figures, Tables, Abbreviations
ULSt
Unconsolidated silty limestone
VI
Vegetation Index
VR
Vitrinite reflectance
wt
Weight
X-nicol
Cross-nicol
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