OVERVIEW OF CHILDHOOD LEUKEMIA AND ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ON THE TYENDINAGA MOHAWK TERRITORY
OVERVIEW OF CHILDHOOD LEUKEMIA AND ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ON THE TYENDINAGA MOHAWK TERRITORY FINAL REPORT October 2013 Prepared For: Chief and Council Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte 13 Old York Road Deseronto, Ontario K0K 1X0 6605 Hurontario Street, Suite 500 , Mississauga, Ontario ▪ L5T 0A3 Tel: 905-364-7800 ▪ Fax: 905-364-7816 ▪ www.intrinsik.com DISCLAIMER Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. (Intrinsik) provided this report for the Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte Chief and Council (hereafter referred to as the MBQ) solely for the purpose stated in the report. The information contained in this report was prepared and interpreted exclusively for the MBQ and may not be used in any manner by any other party. Intrinsik does not accept any responsibility for the use of this report for any purpose other than as specifically intended by the MBQ. Intrinsik does not have, and does not accept, any responsibility or duty of care whether based in negligence or otherwise, in relation to the use of this report in whole or in part by any third party. Any alternate use, including that by a third party, or any reliance on or decision made based on this report, are the sole responsibility of the alternative user or third party. Intrinsik does not accept responsibility for damages, if any, suffered by any third party as a result of decisions made or actions based on this report. Intrinsik makes no representation, warranty or condition with respect to this report or the information contained herein other than that it has exercised reasonable skill, care and diligence in accordance with accepted practice and usual standards of thoroughness and competence for the profession of toxicology and environmental assessment to assess and evaluate information acquired during the preparation of this report. Any information or facts provided by others, and referred to or utilized in the preparation of this report, is believed to be accurate without any independent verification or confirmation by Intrinsik. This report is based upon and limited by circumstances and conditions stated herein, and upon information available at the time of the preparation of the report. Intrinsik has reserved all rights in this report, unless specifically agreed to otherwise in writing with the MBQ. This report may only be reproduced by the MBQ for internal use. A Review of the Scientific Literature on Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Other Childhood Cancers Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 OVERVIEW OF CHILDHOOD LEUKEMIA AND ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ON THE TYENDINAGA MOHAWK TERRITORY INTRODUCTION The Chief and Council of the Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte (MBQ) requested that Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. (Intrinsik) complete a review of environmental conditions at the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory (TMT). The literature and data review were requested based on concerns raised by members of the MBQ community surrounding three cases of acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) diagnosed in children who live on the reserve. However, we note that one of the children reportedly lived in a home that had municipally supplied water from Deseronto and did not attend the MBQ school. Additionally, a fourth child was diagnosed with a brain tumor. The three cases of childhood ALL were all diagnosed within the same 6-month period which is higher than expected for a population of 2,500 (StatCan, 2011). The MBQ community has concerns about the quality of their local drinking water and questions have been raised about the potential link between childhood leukemia and environmental contamination. Although regional health authorities have largely discounted the link between environmental contaminants and ALL, Intrinsik has conducted an independent scientific literature review and an assessment of local environmental data to further explore this issue and address community concerns. Intrinsik is also aware that Dr. Mike Green Medical Officer, of First Nations and Inuit Health (FNIH) Ontario Region agreed to investigate these ALL cases. However, it is our understanding that after initial discussions were positive, he did not receive the required informed consent approval from any of the families. Hence, he was unable to undertake an investigation into the matter. Intrinsik has also been informed that there are possibly more cases of ALL in the surrounding Tyendinaga Township just outside of the TMT. SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE REVIEW ON CHILDHOOD CANCER (APPENDIX A) Intrinsik conducted a literature review of childhood cancers with a particular focus on leukemia, cancer clusters and possible causes. The review included sources from the scientific literature (e.g., peer-reviewed scientific journal articles) and grey literature (e.g., government agency reports, non-government organization (NGO) information and online publications). Potential linkages between childhood leukemia (specifically ALL) and environmental factors were examined. What is Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL)? Leukemia is a type of cancer that can occur in children and adults. Leukemia starts in the bone marrow (i.e., the soft material inside of most bones) where blood cells are made. The cancer develops when blood stem cells begin producing abnormal blood cells called leukemia cells. There are two types of leukemia cells that result in two different types of cancer; myeloid cells lead to mylogenous leukemia and lymphoid cells lead to lymphoblastic leukemia, such as ALL. There are also two different sub-types of all called B-cell and T-cell ALL. Over time, the abnormal leukemia cells crowd out the normal blood cells and prevent them from functioning properly in the body (CCS, 2009). Review of the Scientific Literature on Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Other Childhood Cancers Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 1 Leukemias are also described as being acute or chronic which explains how fast the cancer grows. Acute leukemias start suddenly and symptoms can worsen quickly, whereas chronic leukemias develop slowly over months to years and may not cause any symptoms early on. Almost all cases of childhood leukemia are acute. Leukemia is the most common form of cancer, accounting for approximately 1 in 3 new cases and 1 in 4 deaths each year. In children and teens, ALL is the most common form of leukemia and is diagnosed in 3 out of 4 cases. The most common age range for the development and diagnosis of ALL is from 2 to 4 years old (CCS, 2009). The Leukemia and Lymphoma Society of Canada (LLSC, 2011) estimated that 480 Canadians would be diagnosed with ALL in 2010. Based on the population statistics for 2010 (approximately 34 million people according to StatCan, 2012), this estimate equates to a cancer incidence rate of 1.4 new cases of ALL per 100,000 people per year. This calculated incidence rate for Canada is comparable to the rates for ALL in the US. The National Cancer Institute (NCI, 2012) reported an age-adjusted incidence rate of 1.6 cases of ALL per 100,000 men and women per year. These rates were also reported by race including “American Indian/Alaskan Native” which has been provided herein due to a lack of similar information for Canadian First Nations. The ALL incidence rates in Native American men and women were reported as 1.5 per 100,000 and 1.0 per 100,000, respectively (NCI, 2012). These incidence rates for the US and Canada indicate that for a population of roughly 2,500 people living in the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory (StatCan, 2012) you would expect 0.035 people to be diagnosed with ALL each year, that is, one new case of ALL every 29 years. Therefore, having three children in the TMT diagnosed with ALL in a single year, is considered highly unusual for a population of this size. What Causes ALL? There is no definitive cause of ALL; however, the Canadian Cancer Society has a list of potential risk factors for the development of ALL. A risk factor is anything that may increase a person’s risk of developing a certain type of cancer. Cancers can be a caused by a combination of risk factors; however, most children who develop ALL have no risk factors at all. The Canadian Cancer Society considers certain genetic syndromes (such as Down Syndrome), exposure to high levels of radiation (e.g., atomic bomb survivors), and infection of a certain virus (called HTLV-1) to be risk factors associated with the development of ALL. There are also a number of possible and unknown risk factors but these do not have enough scientific evidence to support them being linked to ALL. What Does the Science Tell Us About ALL? A search was conducted for scientific articles that discuss childhood leukemia and ALL specifically. Articles were found by searching in a large online database called PubMed that contains over 22 million articles from scientific journals and books. Additionally, the GoogleTM internet search engine was used to find further information including government and health agency reports, NGO documents and other useful information sources. A number of different studies were reviewed and summarized, which looked at whether various factors were related to childhood leukemia, including radon exposure, infection, pesticides and other chemicals, parental smoking, and electromagnetic fields (EMF). Overall, the weight of scientific evidence has not found that exposure to environmental contaminants causes an increased risk of childhood ALL. Furthermore, there was no well-established linkage to benzene exposure and development of childhood ALL. Review of the Scientific Literature on Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Other Childhood Cancers Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 2 The review also looked at the prevalence of cancer clusters. A cancer cluster is used to describe a group of cancer cases that occur in the same general area and timeframe and are considered to be in excess of expected background rates. Collectively, the studies found evidence of clusters of childhood leukemia that have occurred around the world including Hong Kong, Great Britain and in North America. The largest known cancer cluster in history was over a dozen children diagnosed with ALL within a few years in Churchill County, Nevada. In response to the discovery of this cancer cluster, the Centres for Disease Control (CDC) in the US conducted a large study of 200 individuals living in the area to try and determine the cause of the ALL. Questionnaires were completed by residents and samples of blood, urine and saliva were collected, as well as yard soil, tap water, household dust and indoor air. Since the community was concerned that chemicals in the environment may have contributed to the ALL, samples were tested for known environmental contaminants. Independently, an expert panel and the CDC report both concluded that there was no evidence to suggest that the cases of ALL in Churchill County were from any environmental contaminant including arsenic in the groundwater and jet fuel from the nearby naval air station (CDC, 2003). Overall, the weight of scientific evidence has not found that exposure to environmental contaminants causes an increased risk of childhood ALL. Many health authorities have noted that despite the identification of a few risk factors (e.g., certain genetic syndromes and high doses of ionizing radiation) the majority of childhood leukemia cases are diagnosed with no known risk factors or causes. The American Cancer Society has stated that “there are very few known lifestyle-related or environmental causes of childhood leukemia, so it is important to know that in most cases there is nothing these children or their parents could have done to prevent these cancers” (ACS, 2013). Therefore, it would be highly unlikely that environmental conditions in the TMT posed an increase risk factor to the children who developed ALL in the community. For more details on the literature review, please see the technical report “A Review of the Scientific Literature on Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Other Childhood Cancers” in Appendix A. DATA REVIEW AND SCREENING LEVEL RISK ASSESSMENT (APPENDIX B) Despite the fact that the scientific literature review found that the weight of evidence found no direct link between chemicals in the environment and ALL, which is consistent with what local health officials have said, Intrinsik completed a detailed review of available environmental data collected on the TMT over the past 20 years. The data review was completed not because there are any suspected environmental factors related to the cases of ALL at the TMT, but instead it was part of CHEMICAL a due-diligence effort to address community health concerns in general. RISK EXPOSURE TOXICITY Intrinsik was provided with environmental data (e.g., soil, water, air) that had been collected around the community. These data were used as part of a screening level risk assessment (SLRA) that was carried out to evaluate whether there are any potential health risks to the MBQ community. The assessment looked at how chemicals enter and Review of the Scientific Literature on Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Other Childhood Cancers Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 3 move through the environment and considered whether they may cause harm to human health. In order for there to be a potential risk to health the chemical must be present at a high enough level (chemical concentration), people must have a way to come into contact with the chemical (exposure route), and the chemical must have the ability to cause some sort of harm to human health (toxicity). If any one of these three things is missing, then there would not be a risk to human health. The SLRA looks at each of these factors (i.e., chemical concentration, exposure route and toxicity) to determine whether there is any potential risk to members of the MBQ community. For the SLRA, four areas of interest for assessing risk (also known as areas of potential environmental concern) were identified within the TMT, including: The Former Tyendinaga Landfill; Tyendinaga Mohawk Airfield; Quinte Mohawk School; and Drinking Water for Homes Each of these areas have been included in the risk assessment either because of historical operations (e.g., the landfill and the airfield) or because community members (adults and children) have expressed concern (e.g., the school and the drinking water). One additional area of interest that was requested to be included in the evaluation was the Waste Management (Richmond) landfill located north of the TMT. It is important to note that although some data were available for all of these areas of interest, a detailed Phase I Environmental Site Assessment (ESA) has never been completed for the entire TMT. Therefore, all assumptions and conclusions are based on currently available information only. The Former Tyendinaga Mohawk Landfill The former Tyendinaga Mohawk Landfill was used as a garbage disposal area for the TMT from about 1968 to 2005. After the landfill was closed, a cap was built to cover the landfill area and keep the contents from escaping. Since the property was used for the disposal of household waste, it is still possible that there are chemicals present at the site which could have been released into soil or groundwater. For this reason, environmental data collected in the area of the former landfill were reviewed and included in the SLRA to evaluate whether there is a potential for it to pose a human health risk. The landfill property is a large fenced in area containing the covered landfill mound and surrounding areas that are both vacant and undeveloped. Based on available data, there is approximately 1 metre of soil below the surface followed by limestone bedrock. The bedrock is fractured or cracked which means that it has a higher potential for chemicals and water to move through it. Groundwater is also found underneath the landfill property (and the TMT) at two different depths. The shallow groundwater is present to approximately 4 metres and the deep groundwater extends from 10-15 metres below the ground surface to a depth of greater than 40 m (Geo-Analysis Inc., 1990). The groundwater is generally expected to flow in a southeasterly direction toward Sucker Creek and the Bay of Quinte (CRA, 1994b). As noted above, if the chemical, exposure or toxicity is missing, then there is no potential for human health risk. Since there are no people expected to be spending time on the former landfill (i.e., nobody lives or works on the property and the area is fenced), there is no way for a chemical to harm human health based on the assumptions described in the SLRA. This Review of the Scientific Literature on Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Other Childhood Cancers Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 4 assessment was based on current land use only and does not consider future operations or developments. Although the SLRA found that there was likely no opportunity for the landfill to pose a human health risk, available data collected from the site were still reviewed to address community concerns. Based on available data collected at the landfill over the past 20 years (Geo-Analysis Inc., 1990; CRA, 1994b; Aqua Terre, 1997; XCG, 2004; 2005; 2013a; 2013b), certain chemicals (e.g., benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes) were found in both shallow and deep groundwater; however, current data collected in 2012 found that levels of these chemicals detected in the shallow groundwater had dropped significantly and are below the Ontario Drinking Water Standards (MOE, 2006). A sampling event in winter 2013 found two benzene exceedances in the shallow aquifer downgradient of the landfill; however, XCG (2013b) concluded that the concentrations were likely from groundwater mixing with the deep aquifer containing naturally elevated levels of benzene partly due to the fact that wells located closer to the landfill did not have detectable benzene. There was no evidence of landfill leachate impacting the groundwater or nearby surface water (XCG, 2013b). Benzene was found in a single shallow groundwater sample above the MOE benchmark for indoor air; however, since there are no buildings on the landfill property, there is no potential risk to human health under the current land use. Overall, the landfill does not appear to be impacting soil and groundwater in the surrounding area. Therefore, it was concluded that the former landfill does not pose unnecessary human health risk to the MBQ community. In December 2012, Ministry of the Environment (MOE) staff visited the former landfill and made some recommendations regarding the maintenance of the landfill cap and storm water collection pond, they also recommended installation of a groundwater monitoring well (MOE, 2013). Intrinsik believes that these are prudent recommendations that should ensure the ongoing protection of community health and we understand that Chief and Council are currently in the process of, or have already implemented these recommendations at the landfill property (2013c). Tyendinaga Mohawk Airfield The Tyendinaga Mohawk Airfield was originally constructed in 1916 and was used as a military training facility during World War I and World War II. The airfield facilities have also been used for manufacturing, business, and up until recently, were the location of the First Nations Technical Institute (FNTI). Due to the nature of current and past operations at the airfield, it was included as an area of concern in the SLRA. A number of environmental investigations completed at the airfield found that there were metals and organic chemicals in the airfield’s soil and groundwater (PWGSC, 1994; Aqua Terre, 1997; OMM&A, 1997; CG&S, 1999; XCG, 2001b, 2007b). Based on an assessment of the available data, the SLRA found that concentrations of some chemicals in soil and groundwater may exist above applicable human health screening benchmarks (MOE, 2011; CCME 2008; 2010; 2013). This suggests that further environmental sampling and investigation should be completed at the airfield to provide more current data. An exceedance of an environmental benchmark does not mean that there is immediate risk to health, instead it is an indication that additional work should be conducted. Although there is a large amount of uncertainty surrounding the environmental quality of the airfield, it is encouraging that recent drinking water tests show that the water is safe for drinking. Intrinsik understands that the MBQ have repeatedly requested that INAC support the updating of these environmental assessments. Quinte Mohawk School Review of the Scientific Literature on Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Other Childhood Cancers Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 5 The Quinte Mohawk School provides educational services for children in the MBQ community from kindergarten to grade 8. The school property contains a one-storey building, a large baseball field, sports track and paved playground. The building has 13 classrooms, a gymnasium, library, computer lab and a daycare centre (Phoenix OHC, 2012). The school was selected as part of the assessment because children are present on a regular basis, and the location is of great interest to the community. Some community members also suspect that benzene in groundwater related to the landfill could impact school drinking water; therefore, a review of available drinking water data was completed. There are currently no soil data available for the school; however, drinking water and air samples were collected. Based on available data collected at the school by Health Canada/MBQ (2012) and the Ontario Clean Water Agency (OCWA, 2013b), no organic compounds were detected in the drinking water samples and all of the chemicals were below the Ontario Drinking Water Standards (MOE, 2006). Therefore, none of the chemicals measured in drinking water (i.e., volatile organic compounds, semi-volatile organic compounds, pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls, and petroleum hydrocarbons) were considered to pose a health risk to children at the school and the water is safe for drinking. Air samples were collected at nine locations on the school property (eight indoor and one outdoor); however, the applied methods used only a 1-hour sample collection time (more common for occupational exposures), whereas it is more appropriate to collect 8 to 24-hour samples. Based on the air data, levels of benzene inside the school were within the normal range found in typical Canadian households (WHO, 2000; Phoenix OHC, 2012; Spengler et al., 2000). Additionally, chlorofluorocarbons and carbon tetrachloride were found at similar levels in both indoor and outdoor air samples which suggest that they may be commonly found in ambient air. An additional round of air sampling using methods that are typically used in environmental (non-occupational) situations could be undertaken at the school for due-diligence purposes and to look for seasonal variation. That being said it is not necessarily required based on the fact the drinking water was considered safe for consumption and to the best of our knowledge there are no known environmental concerns surrounding the school property. Based on the available information, the school is a safe place for kids to drink the water and breathe the air, including for exposure to benzene. Drinking Water for Homes In 2012, water samples were collected at 32 different locations in the TMT (Health Canada/MBQ, 2012; 2013). Although most of the locations sampled were local households, some samples were also taken from MBQ community buildings. The water samples were tested for an acceptable suite of environmental chemicals and all but one of the results were below the Ontario Drinking Water Standards. One sample collected at the MBQ Community Centre found barely detectable levels of ethylbenzene but the concentration was below the Ontario Drinking Water Standards and is not a concern to human health. One water sample collected at a local residence found measurable trichloroethylene, but at a level below the Ontario Drinking Water Standard. It is recommended that this location be re-sampled to verify these results. This issue is not related to landfill conditions. Finally, one sample in the Shannonville area contained nitrate at a concentration that exceeded the Ontario Drinking Water Standard and the Maximum Acceptable Concentration set by Health Canada. Although nitrate is not uncommon in groundwater, due to the breakdown of organics Review of the Scientific Literature on Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Other Childhood Cancers Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 6 and fertilizers in soil (Health Canada, 1992), it can be a human health concern for infants (<6 months old). Additional sampling of nitrate (and a related chemical nitrite) should be conducted for a greater number of homes and re-sampled at the previous location. Overall, from a chemical perspective, the water on the TMT is safe to drink, although Intrinsik understands that a precautionary boil water advisory is still in effect across the TMT on the basis of bacteriological concerns. The Richmond Landfill The Richmond Landfill is located on Beechwood Road, RR #6, in the Town of Greater Napanee, County of Lennox and Addington. The Richmond Landfill was operated by Waste Management of Canada Corporation. For the purpose of the assessment, the Richmond landfill was not included as area of potential environmental concern (APEC) for inclusion in the SLRA since it is not located on the TMT; however, it was included for discussion since we understand that it is a topic of concern amongst members of the MBQ community. Recently, an agreement was made between the MBQ, Concerned Citizens Committee of Tyindenaga and Environs, the Director of the MOE, and the Waste Management Corporation of Canada to address potential concerns associated with the former operation of the Richmond Landfill located north of the TMT (ERT, 2012). It is Intrinsik’s understanding that agreed upon hydrogeologic investigations are currently underway to examine the potential off-site impacts associated with the Richmond Landfill. Since this data is not currently available, an assessment of the Richmond Landfill has not been completed at this time. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Overall, the weight of scientific evidence has not found that exposure to environmental contaminants causes an increased risk of childhood ALL. Many health authorities have noted that the majority of childhood leukemia cases are diagnosed with no known risk factors or causes. The American Cancer Society has stated that “there are very few known lifestylerelated or environmental causes of childhood leukemia, so it is important to know that in most cases there is nothing these children or their parents could have done to prevent these cancers” (ACS, 2013). Despite the fact that the scientific literature review found that there was not likely to be a direct link between chemicals in the environment and ALL, a detailed review of environmental data and SLRA were completed to address overall community health concerns. Overall, environmental conditions reviewed for TMT did not suggest a potential risk to health of community members. The former landfill is not a source of off-site contamination in groundwater. Chemical concentrations in drinking water were below levels of concern and the water is safe to drink. Investigations conducted for the schools air and drinking water have concluded it is a safe place for children. Intrinsik provides the following recommendations that could be considered by the MBQ for follow-up: If there are suspected additional environmental concerns beyond those identified in this report within the community then a historical environmental review or Phase I ESA could be considered to identify any former activities that could have impaired environmental quality within the community; Review of the Scientific Literature on Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Other Childhood Cancers Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 7 The comprehensive draft Phase I ESA should be updated and finalized for the airfield, including areas south of Airport Road. This assessment would identify potential historical contaminating activities and current activities that could be of environmental concern. The results of the Phase I ESA could be used to target an intrusive Phase II ESA of the area; A second round of indoor and outdoor air samples could be collected at the school. Alternative sampling methods, such as those typically used in environmental (nonoccupational) assessment could be considered. This will help to confirm the previous sampling results and provide any seasonal variation. That being said it is not necessarily required based on the fact the drinking water was considered safe for consumption and to the best of our knowledge there are no known environmental concerns surrounding the school property; Drinking water sampling should be redone for the home that had detectable concentrations of TCE. Although this is not anticipated to be a health concern it would be prudent to ascertain if it was a false positive result; Given the presence of nitrate above standards for the only location it was tested, it is recommended that all 32 locations be sampled for nitrate and nitrite to determine the concentrations of these parameters in community drinking water; and Continue following and implementing the MOE recommendations of ensuring integrity of the landfill cap and installation and sampling of a sentinel downgradient groundwater well. In closing, Intrinsik has prepared this report based on the data provided to us by the MBQ. Based on our review of this data we believe that it is highly unlikely that environmental conditions posed an increase risk factor to the children who developed ALL in the community. It is unfortunate that further medical follow-up cannot be pursued at this time, given that Dr. Green of Health Canada did not received informed consent from the families. Overall, environmental conditions reviewed for the Tyendinaga Mowhawk Territory did not suggest a potential link to the cases of ALL or other health risks to community members. In the event that new environmental data becomes available in the TMT, any discussion on potential health risks contained within this report should be revisited. Christopher Ollson, Ph.D. Senior Environmental Health Scientist Elliot Sigal President Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. 6605 Hurontario Street, Suite 500 Mississauga, ON L5T 0A3 Phone: 905-364-7800 email: collson@intrinsik.com Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. 6605 Hurontario Street, Suite 500 Mississauga, ON L5T 0A3 Phone: 905-364-7800 email: esigal@intrinsik.com Review of the Scientific Literature on Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Other Childhood Cancers Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 8 REFERENCES ACS (American Cancer Society). 2013. 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Prepared for Public Works and Government Services Canada. December 1997. Phoenix OHC. 2012. Survey of Airborne Benzene and Other Volatile Organic Compounds at the Quinte Mohawk School. Phoenix OHC, Inc. Ref. No.: 6015. December 5, 2012. PWGSC. 1994. Report on Results of Phase II Environmental Issues Inventory for Tyendinaga First Nation Indian Reserve No. 38. Public Works and Government Services on behalf of Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. March 1994. Review of the Scientific Literature on Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Other Childhood Cancers Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 10 Spengler, J.D., Samet, J.M., and McCarthy, J.F. (eds). 2000. Indoor Air Quality Handbook. McGraw-Hill. pp. 33.11. Cited in: Phoenix OHC (2012). StatCan. 2011. Census Profile – Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory. Available online at: http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dppd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CSD&Code1=3512004&Geo2=PR&Code2=35 &Data=Count&SearchText=Tyendinaga%20Mohawk%20Territory&SearchType=Begins &SearchPR=01&B1=All&Custom= [Accessed April 2013]. StatCan. 2012. Statistics Canada population by year, by province and territory. Available online at: http://www.statcan.gc.ca/tables-tableaux/sum-som/l01/cst01/demo02a-eng.htm [Accessed April 2013]. WHO. 2000. WHO Air Quality Guidelines for Europe. Chapter 5.2: Benzene. Second Edition. World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen, Denmark. XCG. 2001b. Phase 2 Environmental Site Assessment – Drill Hall Area, Tyendinaga, Ontario. XCG Consultants Limited. 1-664-06-02. June 28, 2001. XCG. 2004. 2003 Groundwater and Surface Water Quality Monitoring, Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte Landfill on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory. XCG Consultants Limited. 1-664-2001. March 8, 2004. XCG. 2005. 2004 Groundwater and Surface Water Quality Monitoring, Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte Landfill, Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory. XCG Consultants Limited. 1-664-20-02. November 25, 2005.hile XCG. 2007b. Additional Phase II Environmental Site Investigations – Drill Hall Area, Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory, Ontario. XCG Consultants Limited. 1-2146-03-02. February 23, 2007. XCG. 2013a. Review of the Historical Groundwater Quality Observations, Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte (MBQ) Landfill. XCG Consultants Limited. 1-664-14-05. January 25, 2007. XCG. 2013b. Semi-Annual Groundwater and Surface Water Monitoring Program at the Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte Landfill, Fall 2012 and Spring 2013, Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory. Prepared for the Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte. May 30, 2013. XCG. 2013c. Post-Closure Care Plan Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte Landfill Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Ontario. May 28, 2013. Review of the Scientific Literature on Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Other Childhood Cancers Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 11 APPENDIX A A REVIEW OF THE SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE ON ACUTE LYMPHOBLASTIC LEUKEMIA AND OTHER CHILDHOOD CANCERS FINAL REPORT October 2013 Prepared For: Chief and Council Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte 13 Old York Road Deseronto, Ontario K0K 1X0 6605 Hurontario Street, Suite 500 , Mississauga, Ontario ▪ L5T 0A3 Tel: 905-364-7800 ▪ Fax: 905-364-7816 ▪ www.intrinsik.com DISCLAIMER Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. (Intrinsik) provided this report for the Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte Chief and Council (hereafter referred to as the MBQ) solely for the purpose stated in the report. The information contained in this report was prepared and interpreted exclusively for the MBQ and may not be used in any manner by any other party. 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Intrinsik makes no representation, warranty or condition with respect to this report or the information contained herein other than that it has exercised reasonable skill, care and diligence in accordance with accepted practice and usual standards of thoroughness and competence for the profession of toxicology and environmental assessment to assess and evaluate information acquired during the preparation of this report. Any information or facts provided by others, and referred to or utilized in the preparation of this report, is believed to be accurate without any independent verification or confirmation by Intrinsik. This report is based upon and limited by circumstances and conditions stated herein, and upon information available at the time of the preparation of the report. Intrinsik has reserved all rights in this report, unless specifically agreed to otherwise in writing with the MBQ. This report may only be reproduced by the MBQ for internal use. A Review of the Scientific Literature on Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Other Childhood Cancers Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Leukemia is a type of cancer that can affect both children and adults. Leukemia originates in the stem cells of the bone marrow (i.e., soft material that fills the centre of most bones) that make blood cells. Blood stem cells are immature blood cells that develop into either myleoid or lymphoid stem cells. Myleoid stem cells eventually develop into one of three types of mature blood cells (CCS, 2009): Red blood cells which carry oxygen to all tissues in the body; Platelets which form clots in damaged blood vessels to prevent bleeding; and White blood cells (called granulocytes and monocytes) which destroy bacteria and help fight infection. Leukemia develops when blood stem cells in the bone marrow begin producing abnormal blood cells called leukemia cells. Myelogenous leukemias develop from abnormal myleiod cells and lymphoblastic leukemias (also called lymphocytic leukemias) develop from abnormal lymphoid cells. Leukemias are also grouped according to the rate at which the cancer develops and grows. Acute leukemias start suddenly and symptoms worsen quickly, often developing in days to weeks. Almost all cases of childhood leukemia are acute. Chronic leukemias develop slowly over months to years, may not cause any symptoms early on and are more common in adults (CCS, 2009). There are four main types of leukemia: Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL); Acute Myelogenous Leukemia (AML); Chronic Lymphoblastic Leukemia (CLL); and Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia (CML). Overall, leukemia represents 3.3% of all cancers diagnosed in Canada and 3.8% of all cancer deaths (CCS, 2012). Out of all newly diagnosed cancer cases in Canada in 2012, 1,400 were estimated to be in children and youth age 0-19 years. From 1998 to 2007 there has been a statistically significant decrease in the leukemia mortality rates across all age groups, including children (CCS, 2012). However, cancer remains the second leading cause of death in Canadian children older than one month (CCS, 2009). Childhood cancer incidence rates are highest among young children (birth to 4 years) and leukemia is the most common childhood cancer accounting for 33% of new cases and 27% of deaths each year (CCS, 2009). The survival rate for childhood ALL has improved over the past several decades. In the 1960’s 5-year survival rates were less than 10%; however, studies have found that the 5-year survival rate was 83.7% of children and adolescents diagnosed with ALL between 1990 and 1994, and 90.4% for those diagnosed between 2000 and 2005. The survival rates have increased for boys and girls of all ethnic groups, the only exception being infants (<1 year old) who had a higher likelihood of mortality due to treatment side effects (ACS, 2012). It is for these reasons that early diagnosis of ALL in children is important. The Leukemia and Lymphoma Society of Canada (LLSC, 2011) estimated that 480 Canadians would be diagnosed with ALL in 2010. Based on the population statistics for 2010 (approximately 34 million people according to StatCan, 2012), this estimate equates to a cancer incidence rate of 1.4 new cases of ALL per 100,000 people per year. This calculated incidence rate for Canada is comparable to the rates for ALL in the US. The National Cancer Institute (NCI, 2012) reported an age-adjusted incidence rate of 1.6 cases of ALL per 100,000 men and women per year. These rates were also reported by race including “American Indian/Alaskan A Review of the Scientific Literature on Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Other Childhood Cancers Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Native” which has been provided herein due to a lack of similar information for Canadian First Nations. The ALL incidence rates in Native American men and women were reported as 1.5 per 100,000 and 1.0 per 100,000, respectively (NCI, 2012). These incidence rates for the US and Canada indicate that for a population of roughly 2,500 people living in the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory (StatCan, 2012) you would expect 0.035 people to be diagnosed with ALL each year, that is, one new case of ALL every 29 years. Therefore, having three children in the TMT diagnosed with ALL in a single year, is considered highly unusual for a population of this size. The following report is a literature review of childhood leukemia with a particular focus on acute lymphoblastic leukemia, cancer clusters and potential risk factors. The review included sources from the primary literature (e.g., peer-reviewed scientific articles) and grey literature (e.g., government agency reports, non-government organization (NGO) information and online publications). Peer-reviewed scientific articles were obtained through PubMed; a database containing over 22 million citations from MEDLINE, life sciences journals and online books. This review is intended to provide an overview of the evidence presented on childhood leukemia; it is not an exhaustive review of all available publications on the topic. Although there is no single known cause of childhood ALL, several potential risk factors have been identified that may increase the risk of developing this type of leukemia. A risk factor is considered any substance or condition that may increase an individual’s risk of developing a specific form of cancer. Findings surrounding possible causes and risk factors of childhood leukemia from peer-reviewed scientific articles obtained from the literature search have been summarized in the body of this report. Overall, there is little to no scientific evidence that suggests exposure to environmental contaminants may cause an increased risk of development of childhood ALL. Many health authorities have noted that despite the identification of a few risk factors (e.g., certain genetic syndromes and high doses of ionizing radiation) the majority of childhood leukemia cases are diagnosed with no known risk factors or causes. The American Cancer Society has stated that “there are very few known lifestyle-related or environmental causes of childhood leukemia, so it is important to know that in most cases there is nothing these children or their parents could have done to prevent these cancers” (ACS, 2013). Intrinsik is also aware that Dr. Mike Green Medical Officer, of First Nations and Inuit Health (FNIH) Ontario Region agreed to investigate these ALL cases. However, it is our understanding that after initial discussions were positive, he did not receive the required informed consent approval from any of the families. Hence, he was unable to undertake an investigation into the matter. Intrinsik has also been informed that there are possibly more cases of ALL in the surrounding Tyendinaga Township just outside of the TMT. A Review of the Scientific Literature on Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Other Childhood Cancers Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 A REVIEW OF THE SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE ON ACUTE LYMPHOBLASTIC LEUKEMIA AND OTHER CHILDHOOD CANCERS Table of Contents Page EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................................ I 1.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 1 1.1 What is Leukemia?....................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL) .......................................................................... 3 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................. 6 2.1 Childhood Leukemia in the Primary Literature .............................................................. 6 2.2 Cancer Clusters ......................................................................................................... 10 2.2.1 Case Study: Childhood Leukemia Cluster in Churchill County, Nevada .............. 11 3.0 CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................................................... 14 4.0 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................. 15 4.1 Peer-Reviewed Literature........................................................................................... 15 4.2 Grey Literature & Other References ........................................................................... 16 List of Tables Table 1-1 Table 2-1 Canadian Cancer Society Classification of Risk Factors for ALL (CCE, 2013) .... 4 List of Search Terms and Limitations Used in Literature Review ......................... 6 List of Figures Figure 1-1 Schematic of maturation of blood cells in the bone marrow (CCS, 2009) ............ 2 A Review of the Scientific Literature on Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Other Childhood Cancers Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 A REVIEW OF THE SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE ON ACUTE LYMPHOBLASTIC LEUKEMIA AND OTHER CHILDHOOD CANCERS 1.0 INTRODUCTION Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. (Intrinsik) was retained by the Chief and Council of the Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte (MBQ) in order to conduct a scientific literature review of the potential risk factors associated with childhood leukemia, and to provide an assessment of environmental data at the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory (TMT). The literature and data review were requested based on concerns raised by members of the community surrounding three cases of acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) diagnosed in children who live on the reserve. The three cases of childhood ALL were all diagnosed within the same 6-month period which is statistically unusual since the TMT has a population of only 2,500 individuals (StatCan, 2011). This apparent increase in the incidence of cancer within a limited timeframe and geographical region is known as a cancer cluster. The MBQ community has concerns about the quality of their local drinking water and questions have been raised about the potential link between childhood cancer clusters and environmental contamination. However, Intrinsik was informed by Chief and Council that one of the children diagnosed with ALL lived in the neighborhood supplied by municipal water from Deseronto and did not attend the MBQ school. Although regional health authorities have largely dismissed the link between environmental contaminants and ALL, Intrinsik has conducted an independent scientific literature review and an assessment of local environmental data to further explore this issue and address community concerns. The data review and risk assessment have been provided in Appendix B as a separate technical report entitled “A Screening Level Risk Assessment of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory”. The following is a literature review of childhood cancers with a particular focus on acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), cancer clusters and potential risk factors. The review included sources from the primary literature (e.g., peer-reviewed scientific articles) and grey literature (e.g., government agency reports, non-government organization (NGO) information and online publications). Potential linkages between childhood leukemia and environmental factors were examined. Intrinsik is also aware that Dr. Mike Green Medical Officer, of First Nations and Inuit Health (FNIH) Ontario Region agreed to investigate these ALL cases. However, it is our understanding that after initial discussions were positive, he did not receive the required informed consent approval from any of the families. Hence, he was unable to undertake an investigation into the matter. Intrinsik has also been informed that there are possibly more cases of ALL in the surrounding Tyendinaga Township just outside of the TMT. 1.1 What is Leukemia? Leukemia is a type of cancer that can affect both children and adults. Leukemia originates in the stem cells of the bone marrow (i.e., soft material that fills the centre of most bones) that make blood cells. Blood stem cells are immature blood cells that develop into either myleoid or lymphoid stem cells. Myleoid stem cells eventually develop into one of three types of mature blood cells (CCS, 2009): A Review of the Scientific Literature on Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Other Childhood Cancers Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 1 Red blood cells which carry oxygen to all tissues in the body; Platelets which from clots in damaged blood vessels to prevent bleeding; and White blood cells (called granulocytes and monocytes) which destroy bacteria and help fight infection. Lymphoid stem cells develop into lymphocytes which are another type of white blood cell. Lymphocytes make antibodies to help fight infection and are usually found in the lymph nodes and lymphatic system (e.g., in the spleen and blood). Figure 1-1 shows the different types of mature blood cells that come from stem cells. Figure 1-1 Schematic of maturation of blood cells in the bone marrow (CCS, 2009) Leukemia develops when blood stem cells in the bone marrow begin producing abnormal blood cells called leukemia cells. Myelogenous leukemias develop for abnormal myleiod cells and lymphoblastic leukemias (also called lymphocytic leukemias) develop from abnormal lymphoid cells. Over time, the leukemia cells crowd out the normally functioning red and white blood cells and platelets, impacting their ability to function properly within the body (CCS, 2009). Leukemias are also grouped according to the rate at which the cancer develops and grows. Acute leukemias start suddenly and symptoms worsen quickly, often developing in days to weeks. Almost all cases of childhood leukemia are acute. Chronic leukemias develop slowly over months to years, may not cause any symptoms early on and are more common in adults (CCS, 2009). Overall, there are four main types of leukemia: Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL); Acute Myelogenous Leukemia (AML); Chronic Lymphoblastic Leukemia (CLL); and Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia (CML). In addition to determining the type of leukemia, there are also different subtypes. For example, ALL can be further classified into two major subtypes (B-cell and T-cell) which are based on the type of lymphocyte (CCS, 2009). Out of all diagnosed cases of ALL, approximately 85% begin from B lymphocytes (B-cell) and 15% of cases are from T lymphocytes (T-cell). Treatment of ALL is dependent on a number of important factors including: age; the phase of ALL; overall health of the individual; and ALL subtype (CCS, 2009). A Review of the Scientific Literature on Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Other Childhood Cancers Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 2 The Canadian Cancer Society (CCS, 2012) in collaboration with the Public Health Agency of Canada and Statistics Canada published an annual report of national cancer statistics. It was estimated that 5,600 new cases of leukemia would be diagnosed in 2012, with 2,350 cases in Ontario alone. Overall, leukemia represents 3.3% of all cancers diagnosed in Canada and 3.8% of all cancer deaths (CCS, 2012). Out of all newly diagnosed cancer cases in Canada in 2012, 1,400 were estimated to be in children and youth age 0-19 years. From 1998 to 2007 there has been a statistically significant decrease in the leukemia mortality rates across all age groups, including children (CCS, 2012). However, cancer remains the second leading cause of death in Canadian children older than one month (CCS, 2009). Childhood cancer incidence rates are highest among young children (birth to 4 years) and leukemia is the most common childhood cancer accounting for 33% of new cases and 27% of deaths each year (CCS, 2009). The survival rate for childhood ALL has improved over the past several decades. In the 1960’s 5year survival rates were less than 10%; however, studies have found that the 5-year survival rate was 83.7% of children and adolescents diagnosed with ALL between 1990 and 1994, and 90.4% for those diagnosed between 2000 and 2005. The survival rates have increased for boys and girls of all ethnic groups, the only exception being infants (<1 year old) who had a higher likelihood of mortality due to treatment side effects (ACS, 2012). The Leukemia and Lymphoma Society of Canada (LLSC, 2011) estimated that 480 Canadians would be diagnosed with ALL in 2010. Based on the population statistics for 2010 (approximately 34 million people according to StatCan, 2012), this estimate equates to a cancer incidence rate of 1.4 new cases of ALL per 100,000 people per year. This calculated incidence rate for Canada is comparable to the rates for ALL in the US. The National Cancer Institute (NCI, 2012) reported an age-adjusted incidence rate of 1.6 cases of ALL per 100,000 men and women per year. These rates were also reported by race including “American Indian/Alaskan Native” which has been provided herein due to a lack of similar information for Canadian First Nations. The ALL incidence rates in Native American men and women were reported as 1.5 per 100,000 and 1.0 per 100,000, respectively (NCI, 2012). These incidence rates for the US and Canada indicate that for a population of roughly 2,500 people living in the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory (StatCan, 2012) you would expect 0.035 people to be diagnosed with ALL each year, that is, one new case of ALL every 29 years. Therefore, having three children in the TMT diagnosed with ALL in a single year, is considered highly unusual for a population of this size. Since this review is centred on childhood leukemia, the following sections focus mainly on acute lymphoblastic leukemia and, to a lesser extent, acute myelogenous leukemia which are the two most common types of leukemia diagnosed in children. 1.2 Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL) Leukemia is the most common form of cancer in children, accounting for almost 1 in 3 cases (ACS, 2013). Out of the different types of leukemia, chronic leukemias (CLL and CML) are rare in children. Acute lymphoblastic leukemia is the most common form of leukemia diagnosed in children and teens with 3 out of 4 leukemia cases being ALL. This type of cancer is most common in early childhood with the majority of cases found in children between the ages of 2 and 4 years old. Cases of AML tend to be more spread out but are slightly more common during the first 2 years of life and during the teenage years (ACS, 2013). A risk factor is considered any substance or condition that increases an individual’s risk of developing a specific form of cancer. Most cancers are the result of a combination of many risk factors; however, some people diagnosed with ALL do not have any identifiable risk factors. There is no known single cause of ALL. Table 1-1 provides an overview of the Canadian Cancer A Review of the Scientific Literature on Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Other Childhood Cancers Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 3 Society’s classification of potential risk factors for acute lymphoblastic leukemia, which are described in detail below (CCE, 2013). Table 1-1 Canadian Cancer Society Classification of Risk Factors for ALL (CCE, 2013) Risk Factors* * Possible Risk Factors Genetic syndromes High doses of radiation HTLV-1 Previous radiation therapy Previous chemotherapy Exposure to benzene Being overweight or obese Unknown Risk Factors Occupational exposure to low dose radiation Exposure to electromagnetic fields Risk factors are generally listed in order from most significant to least significant. In most cases, it is impossible to rank the relative significance of individual risk factors with absolute certainty. Risk Factors Genetic Syndromes: having certain genetic syndromes can increase the risk of developing childhood ALL, including (CCE, 2013): o Down Syndrome – a condition that results from having an extra copy of chromosome 21 and is associated with a number of birth defects, intellectual disability, a characteristic facial appearance and poor muscle tone in infancy. o Bloom Syndrome – a condition caused by a large number of chromosomal abnormalities that result in a smaller stature, high-pitched voice and a characteristic facial appearance. o Fanconi Anemia – a condition characterized by a decrease in the production of blood cells (all types) in the bone marrow. o Ataxia-telangiectasia – a rare condition that impacts the nervous system causing difficulty with balance and coordination and causes a weakening of the immune system. o Li-Fraumeni Syndrome – a rare condition that greatly increases the risk of developing many types of cancer including breast cancer, osteosarcoma, soft tissue sarcomas, brain cancer and leukemia. o Other Genetic Syndromes – may also increase the risk of leukemia such as neurofibromatosis type 1 (i.e., von Recklinghausen disease), Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome, and Klinefelter syndrome. High Doses of Radiation: being exposed to high doses of radiation can be a risk factor for development of cancer. Survivors of the atomic bomb explosions in Japan during the second world war, and people exposed to radiation from nuclear reactor accidents, have an increased risk of developing ALL; however, most leukemias occurring after exposure to radiation are AML rather than ALL (CCE, 2013). HTLV-1: infection with the human T-cell leukemia/lymphoma virus, type 1 (HTLV-1) increases the risk of developing a rare type of adult T-cell ALL later on in life. Although HTLV-1 can be transmitted from mother to child through breast milk, HTLV-1 is associated with adult ALL, not childhood ALL (Nicot, 2005). The prevalence of HTLV-1 is largely limited to Japan and the Caribbean, it is very uncommon in Canada (CCE, 2013). Possible Risk Factors A Review of the Scientific Literature on Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Other Childhood Cancers Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 4 The following are identified by the Canadian Cancer Society as possible risk factors that are speculated to have some association with ALL, but the weight of scientific evidence has not found a causal link between these possible factors and an increased incidence of ALL. Further study is required (CCE, 2013). Previous radiation therapy: radiation used to treat cancer or other health issues increases the risk of secondary leukemia, but it is more commonly AML. Previous chemotherapy: certain types of chemotherapy used to treat children or adults can increase the risk of secondary leukemia, but it is more commonly AML. Exposure to benzene: exposure to benzene can increase the risk of leukemia; although the leukemia is more commonly AML, some studies have shown an association with ALL. Being overweight or obese: people who are overweight or obese have a higher risk of developing certain types of cancer including leukemia, than people with normal body weight. Unknown Risk Factors Occupational exposure to low doses of radiation and exposure to electromagnetic fields are both identified as unknown risk factors of ALL. These factors are classified as unknown due to the lack of available evidence or inconclusive results; therefore, it cannot be determined whether these risk factors are or are not associated with ALL (CSE, 2013). The American Cancer Society (ACS, 2013) also describes potential risk factors associated with childhood leukemia and has a list of “uncertain, unproven or controversial risk factors” including: Infections early in life; Mother’s age when child was born; Parent’s smoking history; Fetal exposure to hormones such as diethylstilbestrol (DES) or birth control pills; Father’s workplace exposure to chemicals and solvents; and Chemical contamination of groundwater. So far, the available scientific research has not found a causal link between any of these factors and childhood leukemia. For a more detailed review of the literature see Section 2.0. A Review of the Scientific Literature on Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Other Childhood Cancers Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 5 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW The following scientific literature review was conducted to identify and evaluate the potential causes and risk factors associated with childhood leukemia, to evaluate the prevalence of cancer clusters, and examine the potential linkage between environmental exposures and ALL. This review is intended to provide an overview of the evidence presented on childhood leukemia; it is not an exhaustive review of all available publications on the topic. Peer-reviewed scientific articles were obtained through PubMed; a database containing over 22 million citations from MEDLINE, life sciences journals and online books. Specific search terms were used to capture relevant articles (Table 2-1). Table 2-1 List of Search Terms and Limitations Used in Literature Review Search Terms Leukemia Childhood Leukemia Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia Leukemia Risk Factors Cancer Cluster Environmental Exposure and Cancer Limitations English Language Human Subjects Abstracts that were retrieved from the literature search were evaluated for their relevance in addressing issues surrounding childhood leukemia (with a focus on ALL). Any articles that were thought to be relevant, or whose relevance was uncertain based only on the abstract were carried forward for full-text evaluation where available. Additionally, a review of the grey literature was conducted using the GoogleTM internet search engine. Due to the large volume of results (e.g., over 3,500,000 hits for “acute lymphoblastic leukemia”) only the most relevant results were scanned for government and health agency reports, NGO documents and other online sources. The findings from the scientific and grey literature searches are discussed below. 2.1 Childhood Leukemia in the Primary Literature Although there is no single known cause of childhood ALL, several potential risk factors have been identified that may increase the risk of developing this and other types of leukemia. Findings surrounding possible causes and risk factors childhood leukemia from peer-reviewed scientific articles obtained from the literature search have been summarized below. Lubin et al. 1998 As part of an age-matched case-control study of childhood ALL in the US, Lubin et al. (1998) investigated the association between incidence of ALL in children (<15 years) and residential radon exposure. This study was conducted to determine whether findings linking radon exposure to childhood cancer in previous studies, all of which had limitations that compromised their validity, could be supported. Radon detectors were placed in homes where subjects lived for at least 6 months. Radon levels could be estimated for 97% of the exposure period for the eligible 505 case subjects and 443 control subjects. Results found that the time weighted average (TWA) radon concentrations were 65.4 Bqm-3 for case subjects and 79.1 Bqm-3 for control subjects. The calculated relative risks (95% confidence intervals) indicated no association between radon exposure and childhood ALL. Confounding variables such as age, A Review of the Scientific Literature on Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Other Childhood Cancers Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 6 household income, birth order, birth weight, sex, type of residence, and TWA magnetic field measurements were also assessed and no significant association was found within any of these other factors. Furthermore, the authors found no association within subgroups defined by maternal and paternal ages as the subject’s birth, parental occupations or parental smoking habits. Infante-Rivard et al. 2000 The relationship between ALL and pre- and postnatal markers of exposure to infection, as well as breast-feeding were evaluated by Infante-Rivard et al. (2000). A population-based casecontrol study was conducted in Quebec, Canada. A total of 491 incident cases of children between the ages of 0-9 from 1980 to 1993 were included along with 491 controls matched for age, sex and place of residence at the time of diagnosis. Data were collected by conducting telephone interviews with the mother or father of the child. A questionnaire was used that requested information on different potential markers of exposure to infection during pregnancy and infancy including: birth order and number of children in the family; maternal use of antibiotics during pregnancy, first year of life and at time of diagnosis; a history of recurrent infections in the mother; presence of a dog or cat in the house between pregnancy and diagnosis; day care nursery attendance; and feeding type (bottle or breast-fed) and duration. Analysis of the data resulted in certain markers being associated with a significant increase in the risk of ALL such as having older or younger siblings (e.g., having older siblings: OR = 2.12; 95% CI: 1.57-2.85), higher birth order (e.g., ≥3: OR = 1.83; 95% CI: 1.30-2.57), and mother’s use of antibiotics during pregnancy (OR = 1.5; 95% CI: 1.02-2.21). Conversely, attending daycare at or before 2 years of age (e.g., ≤ 2 years old: OR = 0.49: 95% CI: 0.31-0.77) and breast feeding (e.g., >3 months: OR = 0.67; 95% CI: 0.47-0.94) were significantly protective of development of ALL. The authors conclude that their results “support the view that infection may be involved in the aetiology of childhood leukemia and that timing of exposure is important.” Belson et al. 2007 In 2007, Belson et al. published a review article that looked at the demographics of childhood leukemia and the various risk factors that have been associated with the development of childhood ALL or AML. The authors provided an evaluation of several potential risk factors associated with childhood cancer including ionizing and non-ionizing radiation, hydrocarbons, pesticides, alcohol use, cigarette smoking and illicit drug use. They also reviewed genetic and infectious risk factors and other variables such as maternal reproductive history and birth characteristics. Ionizing radiation is one of the few exposures that has been statistically significantly linked to childhood leukemia, particularly for AML. The magnitude of risk posed by exposure to ionizing radiation is highly dependent on the dose, the duration of exposure and the age of the individuals at the time of exposure. Studies looking at the prevalence of leukemia among survivors within 1000 m of the atomic bomb explosions at Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan found that the incidence of leukemia was 20-fold higher than the general population (Mahoney, 1955). For chemicals, studies have mainly focused on direct (e.g., used in the home) and indirect (e.g., brought in on clothing, etc.) exposures to hydrocarbons and pesticides. Hydrocarbons are organic compounds found in many household (e.g., glues, adhesives, cleaning products, paint strippers, tobacco smoke and gasoline) and industrial products. The most widely recognized A Review of the Scientific Literature on Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Other Childhood Cancers Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 7 hydrocarbon is benzene, which has been found to have a positive dose-response relationship with leukemia, particularly AML in occupational settings and in rodent laboratory studies. It should be noted however that in 2010 the authors of this paper published a correction stating “...that although benzene is a known carcinogen associated with adult leukemia, in general, it is not associated with the development of childhood AML or ALL” (Belson et al., 2010). With regard to pesticide exposure, many studies have suggested a link to childhood leukemia; however, most of these are limited by use of non-specific pesticide information, small sample size and potential recall bias. In a review of 18 studies that looked at pesticide exposure and childhood cancer, no clear association based on parental exposure, timing of exposure or histological type of leukemia were found (Zahm and Ward, 1998). The authors conclude that despite advances in the medical treatment of childhood leukemia, the underlying cause of ALL and AML remain unclear. In general, the only environmental exposure that has been significantly linked to development of childhood ALL or AML is from ionizing radiation. Turner et al. 2010 In 2010, Turner et al. conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of previous observational epidemiologic studies that have examined the relationship between residential pesticide exposures and childhood leukemia in general. The inclusion criteria for selection of studies published from 1950 – 2009 included; original epidemiologic research on childhood leukemia, a case-control or cohort design, and at least one index of residential pesticide exposure/use. It should be noted that there were few data regarding the frequency or duration of pesticide use, with most studies included in the meta-analysis reporting only “ever/never” use of or exposure to pesticides. Overall, there were 17 studies identified in the systematic literature review, 15 of which were included in the meta-analysis. The results found that exposures during pregnancy to unspecified residential pesticides (summary OR = 1.54; 95% CI, 1.13–2.11; I2 = 66%), insecticides (OR = 2.05; 95% CI, 1.80–2.32; I2 = 0%), and herbicides (OR = 1.61; 95% CI, 1.20–2.16; I2 = 0%) were positively associated with childhood leukemia. Exposures during childhood to unspecified residential pesticides (OR = 1.38; 95% CI, 1.12–1.70; I2 = 4%), and insecticides (OR = 1.61; 95% CI, 1.33–1.95; I2 = 0%) were also positively associated with childhood leukemia; however, there was no association with herbicides. The authors acknowledge that there are limitations to their analysis including the possibility for publication bias and inclusion of studies that relied exclusively on parental reports as measurement of pesticide use. This type of exposure assessment does not include actual measurements of pesticides levels and only uses questions based on yes or no responses (e.g., have you ever used pesticide products in the home?). The odds ratios that were reported in the study by Turner et al. describe a positive association between residential pesticide use and childhood leukemia but this method of analysis cannot be extended to imply causation. The authors conclude that “further work is needed to confirm previous findings based on self-report, to better describe potential exposure-response relationships, to assess specific pesticides and toxicologically related subgroups of pesticides in more detail, and to assess the potential role of preconceptional paternal exposures. Large prospective studies of children with biomonitoring data and discovery of biomarkers of past exposure would aid in this regard.” Milne et al. 2011 Prenatal parental smoking has been suggested as a possible risk factor for childhood ALL since chemicals in tobacco smoke are carcinogenic, cause DNA damage, and can cross the placenta. A Review of the Scientific Literature on Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Other Childhood Cancers Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 8 The association between parental smoking habits and risk of ALL was investigated in an Australian population-based case-control study that included 388 cases and 868 controls (<15 years old) recruited between 2003 and 2006. In the Australian study, both of the parents provided information about their smoking habits from the age of 15 years up until the birth of the child. The results of this study found that maternal smoking was not associated with increased risk of ALL, but the odds ratio for paternal smoking (>15 cigarettes per day) around the time of the child’s conception was 1.35 (95% CI: 0.98, 1.86). Based on these results, Milne et al. (2011) conducted meta-analyses of paternal smoking, including the results from the Australian study and from previous studies. The results produced odds ratios of 1.15 (95% CI: 1.06, 1.24) for any paternal smoking around the time of the child’s conception and 1.44 (95% CI: 1.24, 1.68) for smoking >20 cigarettes per day during this time. The authors discussed the study limitations including socioeconomic differences between case and control fathers, with controls having a higher than average socioeconomic status which may have led to an underrepresentation of paternal smoking for that group. The authors conclude that their findings indicate that both timing and dose of paternal smoking are important influences on the potential risk of childhood ALL. For example, they found that paternal smoking of at least 15-20 cigarettes per day around the time of conception is associated with a 30%-40% increase in risk, while a past history of smoking (even at higher doses) does not appear to increase risk of ALL. Reid et al. 2011 In response to previous studies that reported an increase in the risk of ALL among children whose parents were occupationally exposed to extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields (EMF), Reid et al. (2011) used data from an Australian case-control study to examine the potential relationship. In total, 379 case and 854 control mothers, and 328 case and 748 control fathers completed an occupational history survey that identified whether they were exposed to EMF in the workplace either before or after the birth of the child. Exposures to EMF were determined largely by questions pertaining to proximity to electrical machinery, other occupational exposures were also accounted for including solvents, paint, resins, ionizing radiation, lead and exhaust. The results found that there was no association between maternal (OR = 0.96; 95% CI: 0.74 – 1.25) or paternal (OR=0.78; 95% CI: 0.56-1.09) exposure to EMF and an increased risk of childhood ALL. The authors acknowledge the potential for recall bias given the study methodology but note that if recall bias played a significant role, results would have been more likely to show a positive association. In conclusion, the study did not find an increased risk of ALL in the offspring of parents occupationally exposed to EMF. Vinceti et al. 2012 In 2012, Vinceti et al. conducted a population-based case-control study in a community in northern Italy to assess the potential impacts of exposure to benzene and PM10 from vehicular traffic on leukemia risk in children. The study included 83 cases of acute childhood (0-14 years) leukemia diagnosed from 1998-2009 with 332 controls matched for birth year, sex and place of residence at the time of diagnosis. An exposure assessment was conducted for benzene and PM10 by geo-coding residences of cases and controls and modelling ambient air concentrations from local traffic using an Italian transport database (1990-2007). When stratified by age group (<5 years and >5 years), the results showed a higher relative risk (RR) of disease associated with benzene exposure in children younger than 5 years old (RR = 2.72; 95% CI: 1.23-6.01) when compared to older children. Furthermore, subgroup analysis according to leukemia type A Review of the Scientific Literature on Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Other Childhood Cancers Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 9 showed much higher associations for myeloid leukemia (RR = 5.46; 95% CI: 1.12-26.51) than for lymphoblastic leukemia (RR = 1.95 (95% CI: 0.58-6.50). The authors acknowledge that there were many areas of uncertainty and sources of error including the emission factors used, vehicle traffic estimates, and only achieving moderate correlation between modeled and measured ambient air levels. They also note that in an attempt to isolate benzene and PM10 there may be other confounding factors (e.g., pollutants) that could have contributed to the observed results. 2.2 Cancer Clusters Cancer clusters can be described as distinctive groupings of excess cases of cancer observed within a small geographical location at limited periods of time. There have been studies published in the peer-review scientific literature that look into the incidence of cancer clusters across the globe. Summaries of some of the key studies found in the literature have been provided below, along with a case study of a large childhood cancer cluster investigation in the U.S. Alexander et al. 1997 Alexander et al. (1997) conducted a study looking at clustering of childhood ALL in Hong Kong in response to an unresolved, longstanding debate concerning the definition, existence, frequency and interpretation of childhood leukemia clusters. The study relied on incidence data of childhood leukemia (CL) in Hong Kong from 1984-1990 that included a total of 261 cases of CL, with 205 of these cases being ALL. The data were examined for incidence of spatial clustering using small census areas and for association with population mixing. Of particular interest was the “childhood peak” of ALL, (considered to be between 24 months and 7 years) which has been hypothesized to be caused by unusual patterns of exposure and response to common infections. The results of the analysis showed evidence of spatial clustering of ALL at ages 0-4 years (P = 0.09) and in the childhood peak (P < 0.05). Furthermore, when the analyses were restricted to the small consensus areas where extreme population mixing may have occurred, the incidence of ALL was elevated and significant evidence of clustering was found at 0-4 years (P<0.007) and in the childhood peak (P = 0.032). The authors note that the findings in this study are consistent with those from the UK and are supportive of an infectious etiology hypothesis, specifically for ALL in the childhood peak. McNally et al. 2006 An investigation was carried out by McNally et al. (2006) to analyze for space-time clustering in a large set of national population-based data from Great Britain for the period 1969-1993. In total, 32,295 cases of childhood cancer (0-14 years) were analyzed using threshold of closeness in space (0.5-7.5 km) and time (0.1-1.5 years). The results of the analysis showed statistically significant evidence of space-time clustering for ALL over the whole age range (P = 0.04), but especially for the age group 1-4 years (P = 0.03). The authors note that this is the largest study ever conducted looking at space-time clustering and that the results are in agreement with other smaller studies from the UK and elsewhere. They claim that the only major limitation of the study was that the analyses dates and places of diagnoses and did not include dates and paces of birth, which were unavailable. It was concluded that “the current A Review of the Scientific Literature on Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Other Childhood Cancers Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 10 results certainly provide support for an infectious component in the aetiology of childhood leukemia and are in agreement with prior hypotheses.” Kinlen et al. 2008 The population mixing hypothesis proposes that large population influxes into rural or isolated areas are conducive to an infective epidemic of which childhood leukemia is a rare consequence. The study conducted by Kinlen et al. (2008) looked at the incidence of childhood leukemia on a national scale in relation to the proportion of individuals who moved (based on a change of address) over a 14-year period. All cases of childhood leukemia registered in the French National Registry of childhood haematopoietic malignancies and diagnose between 1990 and 2003 were included. The area in which a subject resided (called a commune) was determined and each commune was classified according to economic activity, commuters, population size, and distance between dwellings (urban/non-isolated or rural/isolated). Out of the 36,347 communes in mainland France, 60% were considered isolated and were occupied by only 18.5% of the total population. Migrations that occurred between two national population censuses were used as a proxy for population mixing. The results of the study found an increase in the incidence of childhood leukemia, specifically in the age range of 0-4 years, observed with the proportion of migrants that came from another region, particularly in the isolated commune group. Isolated communes with a weighted average migration distance of >185 km were at a significant increased risk (SIRR = 1.41 [1.09; 1.83]). 2.2.1 Case Study: Childhood Leukemia Cluster in Churchill County, Nevada In July 2000, a health care provider notified state health officials that several children in Churchill County, Nevada had recently been diagnosed with ALL (CDC, 2003). By, February 2001, the Nevada state Health Division (NHSD) had identified 12 children in the area who had been diagnosed with leukemia since 1997. In reaction to these findings, the state convened an expert panel of cancer specialists, epidemiologists and public health officials to review the cases. The expert panel recommended that the state request technical assistance from the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) to investigate whether environmental contaminants in Churchill could be endangering human health. Shortly after the release of the expert panel report, 2 new cases of childhood leukemia were added, bringing the count to 14. By the end of 2001 a total of 15 children had been diagnosed; however, one child died before the CDC study initiation (CDC, 2003). The CDC responded to the request by leading a multi-agency effort to conduct a comprehensive, cross-sectional exposure assessment. The study included a total of 205 participants representing 14 case families and 55 comparison families (CDC, 2003). All participants were asked to complete mailed questionnaires, participate in personal interviews, donate biological samples (blood, urine and cheek swab), allow environmental sampling in their home and provide information about previous local residences that could also be sampled. The blood, urine and cheek swab samples were collected in a local clinic and sent to the CDC laboratories in Atlanta, Georgia where they were analyzed for toxic metals, pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and markers of past exposure to infectious diseases. Environmental samples were also collected from the homes of case and control families, including indoor air, play yard soil, tap water and household dust. Household samples were analyzed for heavy metals, pesticides, PCBs, VOCs, radon and radionuclides (CDC, 2003; Rubin et al. 2004). A Review of the Scientific Literature on Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Other Childhood Cancers Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 11 The initial expert panel review of the cases was presented in a publically available report (Robinson et al. 2001) which stated that “scientific understanding of the biology of ALL prevented the committee members from predicting the cause of the observed epidemic.” The committee noted that theories about environmental chemical exposure causing the cancer cluster have received the greatest amount of public attention and concern. However, the committee noted that in the absence of cases of AML, which is more commonly associated with chemical exposures, it is unlikely that the cases of childhood leukemia in Churchill County are the result of toxic environmental exposure (Robinson et al., 2001). The committee then identified the population mixing theory as a possible explanation, which suggests that clusters of childhood leukemia could be the result of a rare reaction to infectious agents (e.g., viral and bacterial) that occurs in a very small number of children. This hypothesis does not suggest that ALL is infectious, but that it is an unusual complication to a common infection that could occur in some individuals. This theory is supported by the fact that excess cases of ALL eventually subside, presumably because of increased population immunity over time. Finally, the panel acknowledges the possibility that the cluster of ALL cases in the region could have been caused by random chance (Robinson et al., 2001). The CDC study final report is also available online for public review (CDC, 2003). The results of the extensive environmental and biological sample and analysis program are summarized below (CDC, 2003): Levels of most chemicals in urine and blood samples from study participants were not elevated compared to national levels. Arsenic levels were elevated in urine and tap water samples. Levels in urine were not higher in case than comparison participants and levels in tap water did not differ between case and comparison families. Tungsten levels were elevated in study participant’s urine samples but the levels did not differ between case and comparison subjects. Tungsten was detected in all tap water samples; however, there is currently no reference level for tungsten in water. Levels of some non-persistent pesticides in some participant’s urine samples were slightly elevated; however, the levels did not differ between case and comparison subjects. Levels of non-persistent pesticides were not elevated in environmental samples collected. Levels of DDE (a breakdown product of DDT) were elevated in blood samples, but the levels did not differ between case and control participants. Case children have slightly older fathers than comparison children. No evidence of retrovirus infection or activity was found. Overall, the CDC report concluded that “elevations of some chemicals were identified, but these elevations did not explain the incidence of childhood leukemia in Churchill County.” After reviewing the findings, the expert panel also stated that there was no evidence to suggest that the cluster was due to any environmental contaminant including arsenic in the water and jet fuel emissions from the nearby naval air station. The only potential cause that the panel could not exclude was the effect of recent large temporary influxes of personnel at the Fallon Naval Air Station for training. The military station went from 20,000 personnel per year in the early 1990’s to 55,000 in the year 2000. In an editorial written by Kinlen and Doll (2004) they stated that although the cause of the Churchill County cancer cluster was never determined it is worth noting that one of the largest defined clusters of childhood ALL in history occurred in association A Review of the Scientific Literature on Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Other Childhood Cancers Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 12 with one of the most extreme examples of population mixing ever recorded (i.e., introduction of over 100,000 military personnel to the area in a few years). A Review of the Scientific Literature on Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Other Childhood Cancers Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 13 3.0 CONCLUSIONS Overall, the weight of scientific evidence has not found that exposure to environmental contaminants causes an increased risk of childhood ALL. Many health authorities have noted that despite the identification of a few risk factors (e.g., certain genetic syndromes and high doses of ionizing radiation) the majority of childhood leukemia cases are diagnosed with no known risk factors or causes. The American Cancer Society has stated that “there are very few known lifestyle-related or environmental causes of childhood leukemia, so it is important to know that in most cases there is nothing these children or their parents could have done to prevent these cancers” (ACS, 2013). Therefore, it would be highly unlikely that environmental conditions in the TMT posed an increase risk factor to the children who developed ALL in the community. Christopher Ollson, Ph.D. Senior Environmental Health Scientist Elliot Sigal President Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. 6605 Hurontario Street, Suite 500 Mississauga, ON L5T 0A3 Phone: 905-364-7800 email: collson@intrinsik.com Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. 6605 Hurontario Street, Suite 500 Mississauga, ON L5T 0A3 Phone: 905-364-7800 email: esigal@intrinsik.com A Review of the Scientific Literature on Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Other Childhood Cancers Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 14 4.0 REFERENCES 4.1 Peer-Reviewed Literature Alexander, F.E., Chan, L.C., Lam, T.H., Yuen, P., Leung, N.K., Ha, S.Y., Yuen, H.L., Li, C.K., Li, C.K., Lau, Y.L. and Greaves, M.F. 1997. Clustering of childhood leukemia in Hong Kong: association with the childhood peak and common acute lymphoblastic leukemia and with population mixing. British Journal of Cancer 75(3):457-463. Belson, M., Kingsley, B., and Holmes, A. 2007. Risk factors for acute leukemia in children: a review. Environmental Health Perspectives 115(1):138-145. Infante-Rivard, C., Fortier, I. And Olson, E. 2000. Markers of infection, breast-feeding and childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. British Journal of Cancer 83(11):1559-1564. Kinlen, L, and Doll, R. 2004. Population mixing and childhood leukemia: Fallon and other US clusters. British Journal of Cancer 91:1-3. Lubin, J.H., Linet, M.S., Boice Jr, J.D., Buckley, J., Conrath, S.M., Hatch, E.E., Kleinerman, R.A., Tarone, R.E., Wacholder, S., Robinson, L.L. 1998. Case-control study of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia and residential radon exposure. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 90(4):249-300. Mahoney, M.C., Moysich, K.B., McCarthy Jr., P.L., McDonald, R.C., Stepanenko, V.F., Day, R.W. 2004. The Chernoble childhood leukemia study: background and lessons learned. Environmental Health 3(1):12. Cited In: Belson, 2007. McNally, R.J.Q., Alexander, F.E., and Bithell, J.F. 2006. Space-time clustering of childhood cancer in Great Britain: A national study, 1969-1993. International Journal of Cancer 118:2840-2846. Milne, E., Greenop, K.R., Scott, R.J., Bailey, H.D., Attia, J., Dalla-Pozza, L., de Klerk, N.H., and Armstrong, B.K. 2011. Parental prenatal smoking and risk of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. American Journal of Epidemiology 175(1):43-53. Nicot, C. 2005. Current views in HTLV-I-associated adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma. American Journal of Hematology 78(3):232-239. Reid, A., Glass, D.C., Bailey, H.D., Milne, E., de Klerk, N.H., Downie, P., Fritschi, L. for the AusALL Consortium. 2011. Risk of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia following parental occupational exposure to extremely low-frequency electromagnetic fields. British Journal of Cancer 105:1409-1413. Rubin, C.S., Holmes, A.K., Belson, M.G., Jones, R.L., Flanders, W.D., Kieszak, S.M., Osterloh, J., Luber, G.E., Blount, B.C., Barr, D.B., Steinberg, K.K., Satten, G.A., McGeehin, M.A., Todd, R.L. 2007. Investigating Childhood Leukemia in Churchill County, Nevada. Environmental Health Perspectives 115(1):151-157 Turner, M.C., Wigle, D.T., Krewski, D. 2010. Residential pesticides and childhood leukemia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Environmental Health Perspectives 118(1):33-41. A Review of the Scientific Literature on Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Other Childhood Cancers Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 15 Vinceti, M. Rothman, K.J., Crespi, C.M., Sterni, A., Cherubini, A., Guerra, L., Maffeis, G., Ferretti, E., Fabbi, A., Teggi, S., Consonni, D., De Girolamo, G., Meggiato, A., Palazzi, G., Paolucci and Malagoli, C. 2012. Leukemia risk in children exposed to benzene and PM10 from vehicular traffic: a case-control study in an Italian population. European Journal of Epidemiology 27:781-790. Zahm, T.F., and Ward, M.H. 1998. Pesticides and childhood cancer. Environmental Health Perspectives 106:893-908. 4.2 Grey Literature & Other References ACS (American Cancer Socitey). 2012. Childhood Leukemia Rates Improve Significantly. Available online at: http://www.cancer.org/cancer/news/news/childhood-leukemiasurvival-rates-improve-significantly [Accessed April 2013]. ACS (American Cancer Society). 2013. Childhood Leukemia: What are the risk factors for childhood leukemia? American Cancer Society, Available online at: http://www.cancer.org/cancer/leukemiainchildren/detailedguide/childhood-leukemia-riskfactors [Accessed February 2013]. CCE (Canadian Cancer Encyclopedia). 2013. Risk factors for acute lymphocytic leukemia. Canadian Cancer Society. Available online at: http://info.cancer.ca/cceecc/default.aspx?Lang=E&toc=64&cceid=4609 [Accessed February 2013]. CCS (Canadian Cancer Society). 2012. Canadian Cancer Statistics 2012. Canadian Cancer Society, Public Health Agency of Canada and Statistics Canada. ISSN: 0835-2976. May 2012. Available online at: http://www.cancer.ca/~/media/CCS/Canada%20wide/Files%20List/English%20files%20h eading/PDF%20-%20Policy%20-%20Canadian%20Cancer%20Statistics%20%20English/Canadian%20Cancer%20Statistics%202012%20-%20English.ashx [Accessed March 2013]. CCS (Canadian Cancer Society). 2009. What is leukemia? About Cancer, Types of Cancer. Canadian Cancer Society. Available online at: http://www.cancer.ca/Canadawide/About%20cancer/Types%20of%20cancer/What%20is%20leukemia.aspx [Accessed February 2013]. CDC (Centres for Disease Control) 2003. Cross-Sectional Exposure Assessment of Environmental Contaminants in Churchill County, Nevada. Final Report. Available online at: http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/clusters/Fallon/study.htm [Accessed February 2013]. LLSC. 2011. Leukemia and Lymphoma Society of Canada. Disease Information and Support, Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia, Incidence. Available online at: http://www.llscanada.org/diseaseinformation/leukemia/acutelymphoblasticleukemia/incide nce/ [Accessed April 2013]. NCI. 2012. National Cancer Institute. Surveillance Epidemiology and End Results (SEER) Stat Fact Sheets: Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia. Available online at: http://seer.cancer.gov/statfacts/html/alyl.html [Accessed April 2013]. A Review of the Scientific Literature on Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Other Childhood Cancers Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 16 NSHD (Nevada State Health Division) 2003. Nevada State Health Division News Release: CDC tests reveal that none of the results of tests on biologic or environmental samples suggest a link between an environmental exposure and increased risk for leukemia. Available online at: http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/clusters/Fallon/Fallon_press_release.pdf [Accessed February 2013]. Robinson, L.L., Sinks, T., Smith, A.H., and Smith, M. 2001. Acute lymphoblastic leukemia, Fallon, Nevada: Review and recommendations the expert panel. February 15, 2001. StatCan (Statistics Canada). 2011. Census Profile – Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory. Available online at: http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dppd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CSD&Code1=3512004&Geo2=PR&Code2=35 &Data=Count&SearchText=Tyendinaga%20Mohawk%20Territory&SearchType=Begins &SearchPR=01&B1=All&Custom= [Accessed April 2013]. StatCan. 2012. Statistics Canada population by year, by province and territory. Available online at: http://www.statcan.gc.ca/tables-tableaux/sum-som/l01/cst01/demo02a-eng.htm [Accessed April 2013]. A Review of the Scientific Literature on Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Other Childhood Cancers Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 17 APPENDIX B A SCREENING LEVEL RISK ASSESSMENT OF AREAS OF POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERN ON THE TYENDINAGA MOHAWK TERRITORY FINAL REPORT October 2013 Prepared For: Chief and Council Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte 13 Old York Road Deseronto, Ontario K0K 1X0 6605 Hurontario Street, Suite 500, Mississauga, Ontario ▪ L5T 0A3 Tel: 905-364-7800 ▪ Fax: 905-364-7816 ▪ www.intrinsik.com DISCLAIMER Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. (Intrinsik) provided this report for the Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte Chief and Council (hereafter referred to as MBQ) solely for the purpose stated in the report. The information contained in this report was prepared and interpreted exclusively for MBQ and may not be used in any manner by any other party. Intrinsik does not accept any responsibility for the use of this report for any purpose other than as specifically intended by MBQ. Intrinsik does not have, and does not accept, any responsibility or duty of care whether based in negligence or otherwise, in relation to the use of this report in whole or in part by any third party. Any alternate use, including that by a third party, or any reliance on or decision made based on this report, are the sole responsibility of the alternative user or third party. Intrinsik does not accept responsibility for damages, if any, suffered by any third party as a result of decisions made or actions based on this report. Intrinsik makes no representation, warranty or condition with respect to this report or the information contained herein other than that it has exercised reasonable skill, care and diligence in accordance with accepted practice and usual standards of thoroughness and competence for the profession of toxicology and environmental assessment to assess and evaluate information acquired during the preparation of this report. Any information or facts provided by others, and referred to or utilized in the preparation of this report, is believed to be accurate without any independent verification or confirmation by Intrinsik. This report is based upon and limited by circumstances and conditions stated herein, and upon information available at the time of the preparation of the report. Intrinsik has reserved all rights in this report, unless specifically agreed to otherwise in writing with MBQ. This report may only be reproduced by MBQ for internal use. A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page i A SCREENING LEVEL RISK ASSESSMENT OF AREAS OF POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERN ON THE TYENDINAGA MOHAWK TERRITORY Table of Contents Page 1.0 INTRODUCTION ..............................................................................................................................1 1.1 Screening-Level Risk Assessment Objectives and Approach.......................................................2 2.0 SCREENING LEVEL RISK ASSESSMENT ....................................................................................4 2.1 Identification of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern and Key Receptor Locations ............4 2.2 SLRA for the Former Tyendinaga Mohawk Landfill .......................................................................5 2.2.1 Data Review ..........................................................................................................................6 2.2.2 Potential Exposure Pathways ............................................................................................. 12 2.2.3 Receptor Locations of Concern .......................................................................................... 13 2.2.1 Contaminants of Concern ................................................................................................... 13 2.2.2 Conceptual Site Model........................................................................................................ 15 2.2.3 Evaluation of Potential Human Health Risks ...................................................................... 15 2.2.4 Gap Analysis ....................................................................................................................... 16 2.2.5 Apparent Naturally Elevated BTEX Groundwater Conditions ............................................ 16 2.3 Tyendinaga Mohawk Airfield ...................................................................................................... 17 2.3.1 Data Review ....................................................................................................................... 17 2.3.2 Summary of Chemicals of Concern Previously Detected at the Airfield ............................ 28 2.3.3 Potential Exposure Pathways ............................................................................................. 28 2.3.4 Receptor Locations of Concern .......................................................................................... 29 2.3.5 Contaminants of Concern ................................................................................................... 29 2.3.6 Conceptual Site Model........................................................................................................ 30 2.3.7 Evaluation of Potential Risks .............................................................................................. 30 2.3.8 Gap Analysis ....................................................................................................................... 32 2.4 Quinte Mohawk School ............................................................................................................... 33 2.4.1 Data Review ....................................................................................................................... 33 2.4.2 Evaluation of Potential Risks .............................................................................................. 35 2.4.3 Gap Analysis ....................................................................................................................... 35 2.5 Homes ........................................................................................................................................ 36 2.5.1 Data Review ....................................................................................................................... 36 2.6 Waste Management Landfill ....................................................................................................... 38 3.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................. 40 4.0 CLOSURE ..................................................................................................................................... 41 5.0 REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................. 42 A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page ii List of Tables Table 2-1 Table 2-2 Table 2-3 Table 2-4 Table 2-5 Table 2-6 Table 2-7 Table 2-8 Likelihood of Exposure through Pathways of Concern Stemming from the Former Landfill .......................................................................................................................................... 12 Contaminants of Concern Identified for the Former G.H. Rice Building .......................... 24 Contaminants of Concern in Soil Identified for the former Buildings on Johnson’s Lane 26 Contaminants of Concern in Soil and Groundwater at the Airfield ................................... 28 Maximum Concentrations of Contaminants of Concern in Soil (µg/g) ............................. 29 Maximum Concentrations of Contaminants of Concern in Groundwater (µg/L) .............. 29 Comparison of Maximum Measured Soil Concentrations to Regulatory Guidelines and Standards (µg/g) ............................................................................................................... 31 Comparison of Maximum Measured Groundwater Concentrations to Regulatory Guidelines and Standards (µg/L)...................................................................................... 31 List of Figures Figure 2-1 Figure 2-2 Figure 2-3 Figure 2-4 Figure 2-5 Figure 2-6 APECs and Receptor Locations at the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory ...............................5 Local Hydraulic Gradient of Shallow Aquifer .................................................................... 11 Inferred Shallow Aquifer Groundwater Flow ..................................................................... 14 Conceptual Site Model for the Former Tyendinaga Mohawk Landfill .............................. 15 Site Plan of the Buildings Present at the Airfield ca. 2001 ............................................... 22 Conceptual Site Model for the Tyendinaga Mohawk Airfield ............................................ 30 A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page iii 1.0 INTRODUCTION The Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte (MBQ) retained Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. (Intrinsik) to evaluate over twenty years of environmental investigation reports that have been conducted on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory (TMT). This work was carried out at the request of Chief and Council, with our primary point of contact being Mr. Dan Brant, the Chief Administrative Officer (CAO). Over the past year three children living on the TMT were diagnosed with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), and a fourth with a brain tumour. This apparent cluster of childhood cancers diagnosed within a short period of time has caused concern amongst some community members that these cases could be linked to environmental conditions. As presented in Appendix A, “A Review of the Scientific Literature on Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Other Childhood Cancers”, there is little to no scientific evidence linking exposure to environmental contaminants to an increased risk of development of childhood ALL. Regardless, the objective of this report was to review the environmental documentation provided and determine if there are any significant environmental concerns that could, at this stage, be linked to community health concerns. The scope of work included completion of the following tasks: a. Review environmental site assessments (ESA), water quality, air quality and other general environmental reports provided by the CAO; b. Determine whether previous investigations and reporting have complied with the accepted best practices of the time relating to evaluation of environmental conditions, and whether adequate information has been provided to conduct a health risk assessment; c. Identify areas of potential environmental concern (APECs); d. Conduct a Screening Level Risk Assessment (SLRA) for each of the APECs, if warranted; and, e. Identify any gaps in existing information and provide recommendations for future work (if required). Intrinsik employed a Screening Level Risk Assessment (SLRA) approach to this undertaking. This allows for a qualitative assessment of environmental conditions, potential exposure scenarios, and provides a discussion of what, if any, additional quantitative work would be warranted. This method is in the spirit of the tiered approach to conducting site-specific and community-based health risk assessments. Intrinsik acknowledges that our evaluation was focused through discussion with the CAO and on the reports provided by the MBQ. A comprehensive Phase I Environmental Site Assessment (ESA), including a historical environmental review of all activities that have occurred on the TMT, was outside this scope of work. Therefore, any areas of concern not covered in this assessment should be dealt with separately by the appropriate qualified persons. A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 1 1.1 Screening-Level Risk Assessment Objectives and Approach Intrinsik was provided with environmental data (e.g., soil, water, air) that had been collected in the TMT. These data were used as part of an SLRA that was CHEMICAL carried out to evaluate whether there are any potential health risks to the MBQ community. The assessment looked at how chemicals enter and move through the environment and considered whether they may cause harm to human health. All chemicals (be them man RISK made or natural) have the potential to cause adverse EXPOSURE TOXICITY effects in people and the environment. However, in order for there to be a potential risk to health the chemical must be present at a high enough level (chemical concentration), people must have a way to come into contact with the chemical (exposure route), and the chemical must have the ability to cause some sort of harm to human health (toxicity). If any one of these three things is missing, then there would not be a risk to human health. The SLRA looks at each of these factors (i.e., chemical concentration, exposure route and toxicity) to determine whether there is any potential risk to members of the MBQ community. Through many years of study and research, government agencies (including Canadian, Provincial and Federal organizations) and scientists around the world have developed a process that allows for the qualitative and quantitative assessment of chemicals in the environment; this process is called Environmental Risk Assessment. When the focus is on people, it is called a Human Health Risk Assessment (HHRA). Both Federal and Ontario standards, guidelines and regulatory guidance were applied to this assessment given the unique nature of the TMT. An HHRA follows a tiered approach from screening level to site-specific quantitative assessment of risk. The scope and tier of a risk assessment applied to each project is a function of the amount of data available, level of contaminant concentrations, and knowledge of the site. After an initial review of provided documentation, Intrinsik determined that a SLRA would be the most appropriate approach to review conditions on the TMT. This SLRA provides a qualitative evaluation of the potential for environmental induced health impacts in the MBQ community. APECs and key receptor locations were assessed and ultimately an evaluation of potential risk was provided. If insufficient data were available for the SLRA, then gaps were identified and additional work was recommended. In order to provide such an opinion, this report evaluated the potential for complete exposure pathways linking an APEC to receptor locations of high priority within the TMT. If it was reasonably determined that there are complete exposure pathways from an APEC to the community, then it was necessary to identify: (1) the types of environmental contaminants that community members could be exposed to; and, (2) whether concentrations of these chemicals could potentially impact human health. The SLRA is an information-gathering and interpretation process, designed to plan and focus future assessment activities. The key tasks requiring evaluation within this process include the following: 1. Site characterization: a review of available site data to identify areas of potential environmental concern; A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 2 2. Identification of exposure pathways: takes into account characteristics of the site, such as physical geography and the presence of different environmental media (e.g., soil, groundwater, surface water, etc.); 3. Receptor characterization: to identify “receptors of concern”, which include those with the greatest probability of exposure to environmental contaminants from the area of interest and those that have the greatest sensitivity to contaminants; and, 4. Chemical characterization: involves the identification of the contaminants of concern based on environmental sampling and monitoring data. Using this information, a conceptual site model (CSM) was developed for each area, identifying the potential pathways of exposure and the receptor locations which could be impacted by contamination. A gap analysis, where warranted, has been provided at the end of each evaluation. The potential for adverse health effects resulting from exposure to chemicals in the environment is directly related to the ways in which individuals become exposed. If there is no possible exposure to a chemical, regardless of its toxic potency or environmental concentration, there is no potential for the development of adverse health effects. Exposure to contaminants of concern (COCs) in groundwater was assessed through both direct (i.e., ingestion and dermal contact) and indirect (i.e., inhalation of vapours in outdoor and indoor air) pathways. Exposure to COCs in soil was also assessed through both direct (i.e., oral, dermal, and inhalation of soil/dust) and indirect (i.e., inhalation of vapours in outdoor and indoor air) pathways. Ultimately, the SLRA evaluates each of the APECs, the receptors locations of concern, and provides an evaluation of the likelihood that members of the MBQ community could be exposed to environmental contaminants originating from the APECs. Details of the SLRA conducted for MBQ community in the TMT are provided in Section 2.0. A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 3 2.0 SCREENING LEVEL RISK ASSESSMENT 2.1 Identification of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern and Key Receptor Locations Based on our understanding of community concerns, and conversations with the CAO, a number of APECs and key receptor locations were identified for evaluation within the SLRA. The following areas have been evaluated in more detail below (Figure 2-1): 1. The former Tyendinaga Mohawk Landfill; 2. Tyendinaga Mohawk Airfield; 3. Quinte Mohawk School; and, 4. Drinking Water for Homes. Another suspected source specifically requested for evaluation was the Waste Management landfill located north of the TMT. Background information concerning former and current uses of these locations by the community, as well as potentially contaminating activities that historically occurred at these locations, was evaluated. No comprehensive Phase I ESA has been completed for the entire community; therefore, only those areas addressed in the reports provided to Intrinsik by the MBQ have been evaluated herein. As the TMT is a large area, there is the potential that the APECs considered in this report do not include all potential sources of environmental contamination. Other potential sources of environmental contamination that may be associated with localized uses such as fuel oil storage, solvent use, or materials manufacturing were not included. A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 4 Figure 2-1 2.2 APECs and Receptor Locations at the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory (Edited from Bing Maps) SLRA for the Former Tyendinaga Mohawk Landfill The former Tyendinaga Mohawk Landfill (“the former landfill”) is approximately 5 hectares in size and served as the main waste disposal area for the MBQ community from approximately 1968 until 2005 (XCG, 2007a). The former landfill is located in Tyendinaga Township at the south end of Lot 24, Concession 2, approximately 400 m south of Highway 2 (York Road) and 200 m north of the Sucker Creek (CRA, 1994a). Due to the nature of operations (i.e., waste disposal), age, and geological location, the former landfill has been identified as an area of environmental interest which could potentially act as a source of environmental contaminants within the community. It was also communicated to Intrinsik from the CAO that some community members believe that the landfill could be a significant source of benzene in soil, and may be impacting surrounding groundwater, including beneath the school. In 1993, MBQ (1993a) finalized a Capital Planning Study, which concluded that due to capacity limitations operations should be closed. As a follow-up, it was also determined that based on population growth at the TMT and standardized waste production characteristics, the lifespan of the landfill would be approximately four years (ending ca. 1998-1999), following which a new facility would be required (CRA, 1994a). Landfilling of materials from the MBQ community at the former landfill ceased in 2005 (XCG, 2007a). Wastes from the community were then diverted to a private landfill outside of the TMT. In 2007, a multi-layer engineered cap and a storm water management pond were installed at the former landfill to reduce rainwater infiltration and erosion of the underlying waste (XCG, 2007a; MOE, 2013). A waste depot was also constructed at the site of the former landfill to act A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 5 as a transfer station between the community and the private off-TMT landfill. A leachate, groundwater, and downgradient surface water monitoring program has since been initiated at the former landfill to evaluate whether there is any indication of environmental impacts stemming from former operations. 2.2.1 Data Review In order to evaluate the environmental quality of the former landfill APEC and the potential for impacts to the wider TMT community, the following environmental reports were evaluated in depth: Geo-Analysis Inc. 1990. Report on Hydrogeological Investigation of the Tyendinaga Landfill Site. Prepared at the request of the Mohawks Council of the MBQ. August 1990. Malroz Engineering Inc. 1993. Tyendinaga Landfill Site Soil. Soil Used for Interim Cover. Prepared for Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, Ontario Region. July, 1993. File: 035/4R06. EAGLE. 1993. Soil materials for use as interim cover at Tyendinaga Territory Landfill Site. Assembly of First Nations, Effects on Aboriginals from the Great Lakes Environment (EAGLE). August 4, 1993. MBQ. 1993b. Letter to Mr. Steven V. Rose (Malroz Engineering Inc.) regarding acceptance of soil at landfill site. August 10, 1993. Original signed by Glenda “Sam” Maracle. CRA. 1994b. Hydrogeologic Investigation - Tyendinaga Mohawk Landfill Site. ConestogaRovers and Associates. Ref. No. 4379 (1). April 1994. Malroz Engineering Inc. 1994. Environmental Screening Report. Proposal for Soil Materials to be Used as Interim Cover, Tyendinaga Territory Landfill Site. Prepared for Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte. May 2, 1994. File: 035/5L27. Aqua Terre. 1997. Detailed Site Assessment and Remedial Options Study of the Former G.H. Rice Building and Active Landfill Site, Tyendinaga First Nation. Final Report. Prepared for: Public Works and Government Services Canada. 95-570. March 24, 1997. XCG. 2004. 2003 Groundwater and Surface Water Quality Monitoring, Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte Landfill on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory. XCG Consultants Limited. 1-664-2001. March 8, 2004. XCG. 2005. 2004 Groundwater and Surface Water Quality Monitoring, Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte Landfill, Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory. XCG Consultants Limited. 1-664-20-02. November 25, 2005. XCG. 2013a. Review of the Historical Groundwater Quality Observations, Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte (MBQ) Landfill. XCG Consultants Limited. 1-664-14-05. January 25, 2007. XCG. 2013b. Semi-Annual Groundwater and Surface Water Monitoring Program at the Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte Landfill, Fall 2012 and Spring 2013, Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory. Prepared for the Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte. May 30, 2013. A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 6 In addition, Intrinsik was provided a draft Phase I ESA Tyendinaga Airport, TMT, XCG draft dated December 3, 2010. Given that this is a draft document that is almost two years old Intrinsik did not rely on the information. That is not to comment on the quality, rather that it is a draft report. It is believed that the majority of waste dumped at the landfill was residential or commercial in nature, likely consisting of paper products, food waste, scrap metal, and wood waste (CRA, 1994a). It is Intrinsik’s understanding, based on personal communication with the MBQ Chief and Council, that removal of hazardous wastes and tires was completed prior to disposing waste into the landfill. While it is probable that the majority of waste brought to the former landfill were relatively inert in nature, detailed waste inventories were not kept. It is uncertain whether hazardous materials were ever brought to the site, or in what amounts, and therefore, could represent a source of environmental contamination. Therefore, there is significant uncertainty as to what the potential contaminants could be, if any. While many modern landfills also receive mixed residential and commercial waste, engineered leachate mitigation systems are often implemented into landfill design to prevent environmental impacts. Likely owing to the age and rural nature of the landfill, it was not engineered to include a liner, leachate collection system, or a storm water control system (XCG, 2001a; MOE, 2013). Due to the fact that the landfill was opened and operated prior to enactment of the Environmental Protection Act, there was no regulatory framework to guide the process at the time. Consequently, the landfill was managed in a way that was consistent with common practices at other rural waste disposal sites at the time. A number of community members have raised concerns surrounding the 1993 import of soil from a property owned by Anglin Bay Development Inc. in Kingston, Ontario for use as interim cover to improve the aesthetics and environmental controls at the landfill (Malroz, 1993). The property was historically used as a lumber yard and later, a fuel storage facility (EAGLE, 1993). A total of approximately 7,000 m3 of soil were available for transport to the landfill (Malroz, 1993). The Tyendinaga Mohawk Council agreed to receive the materials at no cost to the MBQ (MBQ, 1993b). Soil material was immediately stockpiled on the landfill property and used to grade the site (Malroz, 1993). The soil that originated from the Anglin Bay property did not meet the MOE requirements for residential property use due to elevated concentrations of metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) (Malroz, 1993; 1994). The soil, however, generally met MOE requirements for use at commercial/industrial properties. Based on bulk analysis and leachate testing of the soils transported to the landfill, the soil was considered to be “nonhazardous solid industrial waste” and suitable for use at landfills in Ontario (Malroz, 1993, 1994). Therefore, Intrinsik specifically looked for these chemicals in subsequent environmental sampling events to determine if the import of this fill material may have affected groundwater quality. In addition to the lack of an engineered leachate mitigation system, the underlying geology of the former landfill site poses a difficult environmental challenge as characterized by CRA (1994b). The bedrock in the area is limestone of the Verulam formation that is overlain by a thin soil overburden consisting of generally less than 1.0 m of Farmington loam. The limestone has been found to be weathered and fractured with joints of approximately 2 m deep. Groundwater is found within the limestone fractures or highly fractured zones (CRA, 1994b). This underlying geology (i.e., fractured bedrock with thin loam overburden) could allow for potential contaminants present within the landfill to leach and contaminate the groundwater in the absence of engineered controls. A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 7 There are two groundwater aquifers: a shallow overburden aquifer and a deep confined aquifer (Geo-Analysis Inc,, 1990; CRA, 1994b; XCG, 2013a). The shallow aquifer is present in fractures or highly fractured zones of the limestone bedrock at depths less than 4 m, while the deeper aquifer is present approximately 10 to 15 meters below ground surface (mbgs) and extends down to approximately 40 mbgs (Geo-Analysis Inc., 1990; CRA, 1994b; XCG, 2013a). Groundwater flow in the both aquifers is believed to be generally toward the southeast at a velocity of approximately 1 m/yr towards Sucker Creek and ultimately the Bay of Quinte (GeoAnalysis Inc.,1990; Aqua Terre, 1997). While not observed, it is expected that groundwater will discharge into the Sucker Creek, 150 m from the landfill. However, regardless of whether the groundwater actually discharges to the creek, the final discharge location for the aquifer is the Bay of Quinte (CRA, 1994b), either directly or via Sucker Creek (Geo-Analysis Inc., 1990). Groundwater monitoring has been conducted over the past twenty years in order to ensure that any leachate from the landfill is not impacting the nearby environment and residential drinking water wells. A preliminary assessment of the potential impacts from the landfill were evaluated by Geo-Analysis Inc. (1990) through collection of surface water, groundwater and residential well water samples. Two surface water samples were collected dowgradient of the landfill and were tested for several inorganic parameters (organic parameters were not tested), the results were not suggestive of any landfill leachate reaching the creek. Additionally, sampling of groundwater (4 residences and all on-site deep bedrock groundwater wells) found detected levels of several organic and inorganic parameters in water. In discussing the bedrock geology, the report notes that the Verulam Formation is known to have bitumen (hydrocarbon) associated with the shale beds(Geo-Analysis Inc., 1990). In 1994, groundwater samples collected from downgradient monitoring wells were analyzed by CRA (1994b) and those results were interpreted such that there was no indication of “landfillderived alteration” of groundwater quality. Similarly, downgradient surface water chemical analyses taken from the Sucker Creek during the same investigation also did not indicate impacts (CRA, 1994b) when compared with upgradient samples. It was therefore the opinion of CRA (1994b) that the “surface water quality of Sucker Creek has not been affected by the presence of the landfill area”. However, an investigation by Aqua Terre (1997), which evaluated groundwater and surface water quality near the former landfill concluded that there was the potential that it could be impacting the creek based on elevated iron and manganese concentrations. However, as iron and manganese are relatively innocuous and common in the environment, it is difficult to identify impacts to surface water based on their presence. Further investigation by XCG (2004; 2005) similarly evaluated groundwater and surface water quality near the former landfill. Based on analyses of both upgradient and downgradient locations (Figure 2-2), they also concluded that there was no evidence that local groundwater is negatively influenced by the former landfill. Therefore, based on these three investigations it is not suspected that either groundwater or creek water were negatively affected by leachate from the landfill. A recent assessment by XCG (2013a) evaluated the groundwater monitoring data at the former landfill from a significant number of investigation reports conducted between 1990 and 2012, including those conducted by CRA (1994b), XCG (2004; 2005), and Aqua Terre (1997). This report presented monitoring data from both upgradient and downgradient locations, and from both the shallow and deep aquifers. Based on this information, it would be expected that if the former landfill was impacting the local groundwater quality, downgradient wells would have higher contaminant concentrations than upgradient wells. A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 8 XCG (2013a) identified several parameters which were detected at concentrations (from various sampling events) in groundwater and exceeded the Ontario Ministry of the Environment (MOE) Brownfields Regulation (Ontario Regulation 153/04) Table 6 and 8 Site Condition Standards (MOE, 2011). These standards are designed to be protective of both human health and ecological receptors for locations which source groundwater for potable use and have shallow soil (Table 6 Standards) or are near water bodies (Table 8 Standards). Nine chemical parameters were identified to only once be at concentrations greater than the Site Condition Standards during monitoring and are not anticipated to be related to the former landfill (XCG, 2013a). Sixteen other chemicals at the former landfill were identified more than once at concentrations above the Site Condition Standards. XCG (2013a) did not provide a definitive conclusion that any of these chemicals were at elevated concentrations due to the presence of the former landfill. Further, XCG (2013a) indicated that it was unlikely that measurements for twelve of the parameters were related to the landfill. While these results do not preclude the potential that downgradient locations may never be impacted, they do provide an indication that any leachate derived from the landfill is not rapidly migrating or that the leachate is being significantly diluted in close proximity to the landfill. The summary provided by XCG (2013a) indicated on a number of occasions the presence of benzene, ethylbenzene, toluene, and xylenes (collectively, BTEX) in the shallow and deep aquifers, upgradient and downgradient, of the former landfill. Concentrations of BTEX compounds appear to have dropped significantly in several of the shallow monitoring wells, both upgradient and downgradient, to levels below the Ontario Drinking Water Standards as of 2012. Benzene was found in a single shallow aquifer well at a concentration that slightly exceeded the MOE benchmark protective of indoor air. However, benzene was not detected in any of the downgradient shallow aquifer wells. Concentrations of BTEX in the deeper wells appear to be fairly consistent. Detected concentrations of benzene in 2012 ranged from 6.6 to 65.4 µg/L at five deep well locations downgradient (but in close proximity) from the landfill mound. Benzene was only measured at two deep well locations upgradient at concentrations of 84.1 and 1.2 µg/L. Another investigation was completed by XCG (2013b) to assess the quality of surface water and groundwater surrounding the closed MBQ landfill in the TMT. Groundwater samples were collected from all existing on-site wells and two surface water samples were taken from different locations along Sucker Creek. In addition, a landfill drainage inspection was carried out. The results of the surface water sampling indicate that the landfill has not impacted Sucker Creek. Analysis of the deep aquifer wells found some parameters at concentrations that exceeded the federal and provincial standards; however, most of these exceedances were believed to be the result of naturally occurring substances in the groundwater (XCG, 2013b). Shallow groundwater samples collected in winter of 2013 found concentrations of benzene in excess of the provincial and federal standards at two monitoring wells downstream of the landfill. However, XCG (2013b) suggested that because six other downgradient wells, including some much closer to the landfill, did not contain any detectable benzene it does not appear that these concentrations are attributable to landfill leachate. XCG (2013b) suggested that the two exceedances may be attributable to mixing of shallow and deep aquifers that contain naturally elevated levels of benzene. Additional investigation was recommended. Based on the available data provided by various consultants (CRA, 1994b; Aqua Terre, 1997; XCG, 2004; 2005; 2013a; 2013b), the landfill does not appear to be negatively impacting off-site groundwater or soil in the surrounding area. Additionally, there seems to be no potential A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 9 exposure pathway since there are no residences in the immediate vicinity of the landfill, the only houses present in the vicinity are upgradient of the landfill, and many buildings have had drinking water testing conducted which suggest that, from a chemical perspective, the water is acceptable for consumption (See Section 2.5). Any potential groundwater impacts appear to be localized immediately downgradient from the landfill. There was no indication in the environmental data reviewed that the landfill cover material imported in the early 1990s had impacted groundwater conditions above those that would suggest a potential health threat. Furthermore, there is no evidence to suggest that benzene is present at levels that could pose a potential health risk in the vicinity of the landfill. A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 10 Figure 2-2 Local Hydraulic Gradient of Shallow Aquifer (Taken from XCG, 2005) A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 July 2013 Page 11 2.2.2 Potential Exposure Pathways Based on the available data provided by various consultants (CRA, 1994b; Aqua Terre, 1997; XCG, 2004; 2005; 2013a), the landfill does not appear to be negatively impacting the groundwater or surface water quality of the Sucker Creek or any downgradient installed monitoring wells. While these results do not preclude the potential that downgradient locations may never be impacted, they do provide an indication that any leachate derived from the landfill is not rapidly migrating or that the leachate is being significantly diluted. In 2007, a multi-layer engineered cap was installed at the former landfill by XCG to reduce rainwater infiltration and erosion of the underlying waste as part of the landfill closure procedures (XCG, 2007). The cap included the use of four layers: a vegetated organic layer (topsoil), a protective drainage layer (fill), a barrier layer (low permeability soil) and fill for grading. Based on the presence of the engineered multi-layer cap, it is unlikely that there is the potential for impacted soils to migrate to locations outside of the former landfill area as fugitive dusts. Therefore, the likelihood that MBQ community members at locations outside of the landfill will be exposed to chemicals adsorbed to dusts from the former landfill is considered unlikely. As a result, risks associated with the ingestion and inhalation of soil particles and dermal contact with soil impacted by chemicals from the former landfill will not be considered further in this assessment. Therefore, given the localized nature of groundwater impacts there were no pathways of concern identified as having the potential to result in exposure to contaminants of concern (Table 2-1). Table 2-1 Likelihood of Exposure through Pathways of Concern Stemming from the Former Landfill Pathway of concern Likelihood of MBQ Community Exposure Soil ingestion (outdoor) Unlikely Soil dermal contact (outdoor) Unlikely Soil particulate inhalation (outdoor) Unlikely Vapour inhalation of chemicals associated with landfill gas Vapour inhalation of chemicals present in soil (indoor) Groundwater (potable water) ingestion Unlikely Groundwater (potable water) dermal contact Unlikely Vapour inhalation of chemicals present in groundwater (indoor) Unlikely Unlikely Unlikely Justification Restricted access; landfill is capped with vegetation and clean fill Restricted access; landfill is capped with vegetation and clean fill Restricted access; landfill is capped with vegetation and clean fill Minimal gas generation due to the size and design of the site No buildings on the landfill property There are no potable wells on-site and groundwater impacts are localized and contained to the site. There are no potable wells on-site and groundwater impacts are localized and contained to the site. There are no homes located within 30 m of the site and clean wells have been demonstrated before the landfill boundary. Given that there was little to any evidence of groundwater chemical impacts from the landfill and if present they are localized to within the property boundary, and that there were no defined operable exposure pathways, Intrinsik believes qualitatively that the landfill and surrounding A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 July 2013 Page 12 groundwater does not pose an undue risk to the residents of the TMT. Hence, no further evaluation of this APEC is required. Recommendations for continued groundwater monitoring should be developed by a qualified professional and if conditions change such that impacted groundwater is leaving the site, these risk findings should be revisited in the future. 2.2.3 Receptor Locations of Concern There are no receptor locations of concern given that no off-site impacts of groundwater from the landfill were detected. Intrinsik understands that there was some concern within the community that the landfill could be impacting the drinking water supply of the Quinte Mohawk School. However, the school is located approximately 1 km northwest, and hydraulically upgradient of the former landfill. Furthermore, it is Intrinsik’s understanding that the water well used by the school is at a higher elevation (approximately 8 m) than the landfill. Based on the local hydrogeology of the former landfill site, groundwater in the shallow aquifer is likely moving towards the Sucker Creek in the southeast (CRA, 1994b). There was also no indication of benzene or other contaminants being significantly elevated in groundwater emanating from the landfill. Therefore, this is not an operable exposure pathway for children to be exposed to chemicals at the school. 2.2.1 Contaminants of Concern Several reports have evaluated the environmental quality of the former landfill site in the past twenty years (CRA, 1994b; Aqua Terre, 1997; XCG, 2004; 2005; 2013a; 2013b). These monitoring programs have indicated on a number of occasions the presence of benzene, ethylbenzene, toluene, and xylenes (collectively, BTEX) in the shallow and deep aquifers, upgradient and downgradient, of the former landfill. Based on the available data provided by various consultants (CRA, 1994b; Aqua Terre, 1997; XCG, 2004; 2005; 2013a; 2013b), the leachate does not appear to be leaving the landfill property boundary and negatively impacting the environmental quality of the TMT. Therefore, there are no chemicals of concern for this APEC at concentrations that would pose a potential health risk to residents. A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 July 2013 Page 13 Figure 2-3 Inferred Shallow Aquifer Groundwater Flow (Edited from Bing Maps; Based on information from XCG (2005) and Aqua Terre (1997)) A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 July 2013 Page 14 2.2.2 Conceptual Site Model The conceptual site model (CSM) brings together the information gathered during the assessment. The CSM provides an outline of the general exposure scenarios evaluated by bringing together the contaminants of concern, receptors, and viable exposure pathways into one overall conceptual framework. In the current evaluation of the former landfill, based on the available information, there were no operable exposure pathways for chemicals to come into contact with people at elevated concentrations (Figure 2-4). Figure 2-4 2.2.3 Conceptual Site Model for the Former Tyendinaga Mohawk Landfill Evaluation of Potential Human Health Risks The CSM developed for the former landfill brings together the information gathered during the assessment. In doing so, it provides an outline of the general exposure scenarios to be evaluated, by combining the chemicals; receptors and exposure pathways into one overall conceptual framework. As there are no receptors likely to be present on the former landfill property for frequent and extended periods of time, it is unlikely that there is the potential for vapours from volatile chemicals present in waste, soil or groundwater to impact human health. Also, due to the presence of the engineered multi-layer cap, it is unlikely that there is the potential for waste or impacted soils to migrate to locations outside of the former landfill area as fugitive dusts. While A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 July 2013 Page 15 elevated concentrations of BTEX were identified in the deep aquifer underlying the former landfill property, there are no nearby downgradient wells which use this as a potable water source. Based on the available information, it was determined that there are no known operable exposure pathways for any receptors of concern to be exposed to chemicals at the former landfill. As a result, it was concluded that the former landfill does not pose an undue risk to health of the members of the MBQ community. 2.2.4 Gap Analysis In order to adequately assess the potential risks to human receptors located at or near the former landfill, each exposure pathway was characterized. As part of this characterization, it is also important to evaluate any data gaps which may provide uncertainty in the SLRA process. The current data gap analysis encompassed the review of all available sampling data, with a goal of identifying areas of inadequate information. This analysis provides recommendations for the collection of additional data, which may allow for further refinement of the risk assessment assumptions and risk estimates. Based on the available information (CRA, 1994b; XCG, 2004; 2005; 2013a; 2013b), it does not appear likely that the former landfill is impacting the environmental quality outside of its physical boundaries. Given that there are over 20 years of groundwater data available for the site, it appears that sufficient data has been collected to conclude that there is not an undue risk to the MBQ from this facility. Ontario Ministry of the Environment (MOE) staff undertook a review and site visit in December 2012 to evaluate the conditions of the former landfill (MOE, 2013). While the MOE does not have jurisdiction in the TMT, staff were invited to the former landfill and requested to provide recommendations for the MBQ Council to consider. The findings of this investigation were provided in a reported dated January 10, 2013 (MOE, 2013). Many of the recommendations provided by MOE (2013) staff pertain to the upkeep and maintenance of the engineered cap and storm water collection pond. In addition, the MOE recommended the installation of a downgradient groundwater well to further characterize quality of leachate. Intrinsik believes that these are prudent recommendations that should ensure the ongoing protection of community health and we understand that Chief and Council are currently in the process of implementing these recommendations at the landfill property (2013c). In the future, if testing of downgradient groundwater wells indicates chemical concentrations different that those identified in previous reports then the potential health risks should be revisited. 2.2.5 Apparent Naturally Elevated BTEX Groundwater Conditions Concentrations of BTEX have been measured in both shallow and deep groundwater over the past twenty years. These have been measured upgradient as well as downgradient from the landfill. Therefore, they are not believed to be associated within any source other than naturally occurring phenomena. It has been speculated by others that the BTEX compounds are naturally occurring within the bedrock of the area. The Verulam formation, present beneath the overburden has been identified as having bituminous deposits in interspersed shale layers (Slaine and Barker, 1990). An investigation of the Trenton group and Verulam formation at a landfill in Belleville, Ontario, A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 July 2013 Page 16 indicated natural concentrations of benzene were typically between 50 to 200 µg/L (Slaine and Barker, 1990). These levels are similar to those captured by investigations in the deeper wells at the former landfill (XCG, 2013). Understanding the characteristics of this potentially naturally occurring phenomena may allow a qualified professional to determine if the plume is isolated away from community infrastructure and requires no action, or if it impacts a wider area. It may also be possible to determine if the BTEX impacts are anthropogenic or if they are naturally occurring as part of the interspersed Verulam formation. At this point it is Intrinsik’s understanding that there are no potable groundwater wells located in close proximity to the landfill and thus no potential health risk is anticipated for community members. It does however point to the need to ensure that any new drinking water wells to be installed within the community should be checked for these chemical constituents. 2.3 Tyendinaga Mohawk Airfield The Tyendinaga Mohawk Airfield (“the airfield”) was originally developed in 1916 and served as a military training facility during World War I and World War II (PWGSC, 1994; Aqua Terre, 1997). It is unclear when the airfield was no longer used for military service but some buildings at the airfield were decommissioned for MBQ use in 1958 (Aqua Terre, 1997). The airfield is located in Tyendinaga Township on Airport Road, approximately 1,600 m west of County Road 49 and approximately 250 m north of the Bay of Quinte. In addition to the airfield’s use as a military training location, buildings located at the airfield have been used for manufacturing, private enterprise, and institutional uses (PWGSC, 1994). Historically, the airfield and some associated buildings were used as the location of the First Nations Technical Institute (FNTI), which is a post-secondary institution. However, Intrinsik understands that the FNTI has moved to a building that is adjacent to the current MBQ Council office, but that there is still an active fixed-wing aviation training program being operated by the Institute at the airfield. 2.3.1 Data Review In order to evaluate the environmental quality of the airfield APEC and the potential for impacts to the wider TMT community, the following environmental reports were evaluated in depth: PWGSC. 1994. Report on Results of Phase II Environmental Issues Inventory for Tyendinaga First Nation Indian Reserve No. 38. Public Works and Government Services on behalf of Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. March 1994. Aqua Terre. 1997. Detailed Site Assessment and Remedial Options Study of the Former G.H. Rice Building and Active Landfill Site, Tyendinaga First Nation. Final Report. Prepared for: Public Works and Government Services Canada. 95-570. March 24, 1997. Oliver, Mangione, McCalla & Associates (OMM&A). 1997. Summary Report G.H. Rice Demolition & Soils & Bedrock Remediation Tyendinaga First Nation, Ontario, Indian & Northern Affaris. Prepared for Public Works and Government Services Canada. December 1997. CG&S. 1999. Final Report Groundwater Remedial Investigation Former G.H. Rice Building Site, Tyendinaga First Nation. Prepared for Public Works and Government Services Canada by CH2m Gore & Storrie Limited. January, 1999. A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 July 2013 Page 17 XCG. 2001b. Phase 2 Environmental Site Assessment – Drill Hall Area, Tyendinaga, Ontario. XCG Consultants Limited. 1-664-06-02. June 28, 2001. XCG. 2007b. Additional Phase II Environmental Site Investigations – Drill Hall Area, Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory, Ontario. XCG Consultants Limited. 1-2146-03-02. February 23, 2007. Health Canada/MBQ. 2012. Re: 20 Reports from the Schedule 23 & 24 Sampling Project. Drinking Water Chemical Analysis reports provided by Health Canada, Environmental Public Health Services to the Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte. December 2012. Health Canada/MBQ. 2013. 12 Remaining Reports from the Schedule 23 & 24 Sampling Project. Drinking Water Chemical Analysis reports provided by Health Canada, Environmental Public Health Services to the Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte. January 8, 2013. Due to the nature of historical and current operations (i.e., military, aviation, and manufacturing facility), age, and hydrogeology, the airfield has been identified as an area of environmental interest which could potentially be a source of environmental contaminants within the community. Native soils underlying the airfield nearby areas are characterized by a thin silty sand overburden approximately 0.90 m in depth (Aqua Terre, 1997). Underlying this layer is fractured limestone bedrock which occasionally is present as exposed outcrops. The bedrock has been found to be weathered and fractured with joints of approximately 1 m deep (Aqua Terre, 1997). Groundwater is found within the limestone fractures at a depth of approximately 2 m (Aqua Terre, 1997). This underlying geology (i.e., fractured bedrock with thin overburden) allows for any potential contaminants present within the airfield lands to leach and potentially impact the groundwater. Groundwater flows at a velocity of approximately 60 m/yr to the southeast, eventually discharging into the Bay of Quinte, approximately 500 m away. Seven sampling programs were conducted at the airfield in the vicinity of the FNTI. The first assessment, conducted in 1993 by PWGSC (1994) evaluated a number of areas on the airfield lands, including the runways, hangars, and former military buildings. Based on satellite imagery, most of the buildings evaluated in this report have been demolished. The second assessment, conducted in 1995 by Aqua Terre (1997), focused on the former G.H. Rice building located south of Airport Road at the airfield complex. The third report (OMM&A, 1997) documents the demolition of the G.H. Rice building and the remediation of soil and groundwater in the vicinity. The fourth and fifth assessments conducted by XCG (2001b; 2007b) evaluated the former drill hall property and the most recent assessments were conducted in November and December 2012 (Health Canada/MBQ, 2012; 2013), which evaluated the potable water supply of two locations at the airfield as well as some downgradient locations. This section discusses the findings of those assessments. A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 July 2013 Page 18 PWGSC (1994) The assessment conducted by PWGSC (1994) focused on several areas both on and off the airfield complex, aiming to prioritize locations for environmental remediation. It appears to have been a Phase II ESA conducted to the best practices of the day. However, it would not meet current regulatory requirements for conduct of a Phase II ESA, by either the Federal or Provincial Governments. The PWGCS investigation included the hangars, runway areas, the drill hall, Roads Department building and the G.H. Rice Building (Figure 2-5). Hangars Despite the presence of a number of underground storage tanks (USTs) and liquid waste tanks, few environmental samples were taken in the area of the hangars. Soil samples were taken from test pits at one location near the hangar buildings, which serve as the location of the FNTI, for analysis for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) based on the presence of a pole mounted transformer. Soil samples were also evaluated for organic vapours using a hand held monitor. No groundwater samples were taken. The hangars are served by a water intake pipeline from the Bay of Quinte but this water is reported to be used only for cleaning. PWGSC (1994) reported that potable water is sourced by bottle water. Soil around the transformer was not found to be impacted by PCBs and no organic vapours were identified (PWGSC, 1994). Based on these results, PWGSC (1994) concluded that there were no known immediate concerns present at the hangars. Therefore, no COCs were retained for further evaluation from this location in the SLRA. Runway Areas Soil was evaluated at two locations in the vicinity of the runways: a closed landfill believed to have last been used in the 1960s, and a radar plane which may have been used as a prototype testing area (PWGSC, 1994). One soil sample from the closed landfill, believed to have been used to dump kitchen waste, was evaluated for inorganic parameters and organic compounds (i.e., petroleum hydrocarbons (PHCs), BTEX, and phenols). Similarly, a single soil sample from the radar plane, which is located in the middle of the airfield, was evaluated for inorganic parameters and organic compounds (i.e., polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), PHCs, BTEX, and phenols). Glycol is not believed to be an issue at the airfield as deicing was conducted using heat from the hangar or isopropyl alcohol (PWGSC, 1994). No groundwater samples were taken from either of these areas. The soil samples from both the closed landfill and radar plane produced acceptable concentrations of inorganics based on the Canadian Environmental Quality Guidelines (CEQG) presented by PWGSC (1994). Concentrations of PHCs were detected in the sample at closed landfill; however, the detected compounds were not considered volatile and were not detected at levels of concern when compared against the CEQG. Based on these results, PWGSC (1994) concluded that there were no known immediate concerns present at the runway. Therefore, no COCs were retained for further evaluation from this location in the SLRA. Drill Hall An assessment of the drill hall was undertaken as part of the PWGSC (1994). However, this part of the report could not be located for the current SLRA. Fortunately, two assessments A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 July 2013 Page 19 completed by XCG (2001b; 2007b) evaluated the environmental quality of this location and are each discussed later in this section. Roads Department Building An assessment of the Roads Department building was undertaken as part of the PWGSC (1994) investigation. However, as with the Drill Hall, some of the report could not be located for the current SLRA. From the available sections, it was concluded that three fuel oil and waste oil USTs were present on the property at the time of the investigation (PWGSC, 1994). Soil was evaluated at four locations in the vicinity of the diesel fuel UST on the north side of the building (PWGSC, 1994). Elevated concentrations of thallium, boron, and molybdenum were detected at these locations but were believed by PWGSC (1994) to be representative of background levels. Elevated concentrations of total PHCs were also found to be elevated but concentrations of volatile fractions were not detected. No groundwater samples were indicated in the report. It was noted that the structural integrity of the waste oil tank was unacceptable and a sump pump was found to be oily (PWGSC, 1994). This may indicate the existence of groundwater contamination by PHCs. G.H. Rice Building The assessment at the G.H. Rice building targeted three areas of concern on the property. The property was the location of a resin impregnation facility used for manufacturing various goods from the 1970s until 1993 with documented chemical spills. The three areas of concern were a fuel storage tank, spill area, and a former sewage holding tank. Soil samples were taken from boreholes at each location and analyzed for inorganics, PHCs, BTEX, and phenols. Soil samples were also evaluated for organic vapours using a hand held monitor. While no direct groundwater samples were taken, it was assumed that the tap water from the building was sourced from a local well. A tap water sample was also analyzed inorganics, PHCs, BTEX, and phenols. It was determined from the soil analysis that the soil on the northern portion of the G.H. Rice Building was impacted by PHCs and phenol. Elevated concentrations of thallium, boron, and molybdenum were also detected at these locations but were believed by PWGSC (1994) to be representative of background levels. Strong odours were detected inside the building floor and organic vapour concentrations were measured at approximately 2 to 3 ppm. A water sample collected from the bathroom faucet was found to have many non-detect parameters with some inorganics detected at levels below available standards. The only parameters that were found to be elevated above the federal guidelines at the time were iron, manganese and sodium, but they were not determined to be a health concern. Due to the age of the data and technical limitations at the time, some of the laboratory detection limits are higher than the current MOE site condition standards. However, based on the overall results of the investigation and the fact that remediation of the G.H. Rice building has since been completed (along with confirmatory sampling) (OMM&A, 1997), these inorganic parameters were not included as COPCs. Based on this evaluation, PWGSC (1994) identified the site as having a ‘high risk’ potential that required action. However, these same contaminants and issues were not subsequently verified by an investigation completed by Aqua Terre (1997). Following our initial review, Intrinsik A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 July 2013 Page 20 received a report documenting the demolition of the G.H. Rice building and remediation of soil and groundwater in the area. The details of this report are summarized below (OMM&A, 1997). A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 July 2013 Page 21 Figure 2-5 Site Plan of the Buildings Present at the Airfield ca. 2001 (Taken from XCG, 2001b) A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 July 2013 Page 22 Aqua Terre (1997) The assessment conducted by Aqua Terre (1997) focused on the former G.H. Rice building located south of Airport Road at the airfield complex. Evidence of spills of chemicals was also noted in the report. Soil samples were taken from test pits and boreholes on the G.H. Rice property for analysis for inorganic parameters and organic compounds (i.e., petroleum hydrocarbons, phenols, and formaldehyde) based on the historical uses on the property. Groundwater monitoring wells were installed and samples were collected for analysis for a wide range of organic compounds; such as petroleum hydrocarbons, volatile organic compounds, acid/base extractable organic compounds, phenols, and formaldehyde. In addition, water supply wells for three downgradient locations were sampled for organic compounds (i.e., volatile organic compounds, formaldehyde, and phenols). Two of these locations were businesses located approximately 125 m to the south and east of the G.H. Rice building. Aqua Terre (1997) indicated that these two locations did not use the groundwater as potable water (i.e., the wells were no longer in use). Groundwater samples were also collected from two potable water wells at a residence on Johnson’s Lane. Soil results were compared by Aqua Terre (1997) against the MOEE (1996) Remediation Criteria for Soil for industrial/commercial land use in a potable water condition. Concentrations of petroleum hydrocarbons in the gas/diesel range were detected in a soil test pit and exceeded the applicable 1996 MOEE Criterion for TPH – Gas/Diesel. Total phenols were also calculated to exceed the combined standards of chlorinated and non-substituted phenols. While formaldehyde was detected in several of the test pits, at the time of the report, there were no remediation criteria recommended by Ontario or the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME). A single soil sample had molybdenum concentrations that were above MOEE standards. However, it was not anticipated that this concentration was associated with historical contaminating activities and was considered isolated by Aqua Terre (1997). Boreholes were advanced under the foundation of the G.H. Rice building to determine if spills within the building had impacted to the soil below. As with the test pits conducted outdoors, concentrations of formaldehyde and phenols were again detected in soil. Groundwater results were compared by Aqua Terre (1997) against the CCME (1991) Interim Canadian Environmental Quality Criteria for Contaminated Sites that provided remediation criteria for drinking water and the Alberta Environment (1990) MUST Level 1 Subsurface Remediation Guidelines. Intrinsik recognizes that the 1990s were early years in environmental site investigation and criteria development. It appears that investigations were completed to the standards of the day, although environmental quality criteria and the science behind their derivation have improved dramatically over the past two decades. Concentrations of petroleum hydrocarbons, totals phenols, and formaldehyde were detected in groundwater at several sampling locations throughout the property. Elevated concentrations of petroleum hydrocarbons, total phenols, and formaldehyde in excess of applicable standards were detected at the sampling location nearest to the drum storage area. Additionally, concentrations of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and total xylenes (collectively referred to as BTEX) were detected at the same location. Ethylbenzene and toluene were captured at levels in excess of the aesthetic objectives set by CCME (1991). Previously, environmental standards were not available for individual substituted and branched phenols, and phenol; however, standards for many of these compounds are now provided by MOE (2011). A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 23 Upon further review of the analytical data sheets, concentrations of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol, 2,4dimethylphenol, pentachlorophenol, 2-methyphenol, 3-methylphenol, 4-methylphenol, and phenol were all detected in groundwater. Concentrations of the three methylphenol isomers were collectively identified as cresols (total). Water samples collected from the two downgradient business complexes were found to have detectable concentrations of formaldehyde and benzene. However, the detected concentrations were below the applicable potable water standards previously discussed. While it is unclear whether these two locations also used benzene or formaldehyde as part of operations, the presence of these contaminants in groundwater could have indicated the potential for contaminants originating from the former G.H. Rice building migrating downgradient. The water samples from the downgradient residence were analyzed for BTEX compounds that were associated with those found at the G.H. Rice building. Phenols and formaldehyde were not analyzed for. None of the BTEX compounds of interest were detected at concentrations above their reportable analytical detection limits. Therefore, based on these data, no contaminants of concern from this location were retained for the evaluation. Based on the sampling and analytical comparison conducted by Aqua Terre (1997) for soil and groundwater, a number of chemicals identified at the former G.H. Rice building were retained as contaminants of concern for further assessment of the airfield APEC. The identified contaminants of concern are presented in Table 2-2. Table 2-2 Contaminants of Concern Identified for the Former G.H. Rice Building Soil Formaldehyde Groundwater Benzene Dimethylphenol, 2,4Ethylbenzene Formaldehyde Methylphenol, 2/3/4- (total cresols) Phenol Pentachlorophenol Phenol Toluene Trichlorophenol, 2,4,6Xylenes OMM&A (1997) In 1997, the firm of OMM&A (1997) was retained by Public Works and Government Services Canada to provide quality assurance during the demolition, decommissioning and remediation of the G.H. Rice building located on the airfield in the TMT. The G.H. Rice building was formerly used as a phenolic resin impregnation plant that was operational from the 1970’s to the 1990’s. Plant operations resulted in localized contamination (BTEX, total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH), phenols and formaldehyde) of soil, bedrock and groundwater in excess of the Federal and Provincial guidelines. During the demolition and decommissioning building materials were separated for recycling purposes whenever possible and a total of 300.45 m2 of asbestos containing materials were disposed of at the Canadian Waste Landfill site in Deseronto, Ontario. Additionally, a total of 854.65 metric tonnes of overburden soil and bedrock were removed during the excavation for off-site disposal. The excavation was backfilled with Granular B material. Confirmatory soil sampling was conducted following the excavation. Six samples were collected and analyzed for A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 24 BTEX, TPH, phenols and formaldehyde. All parameters measured in soil were below the applicable Federal and Provincial guidelines with one exception. Toluene was detected in soil at 3.9 µg/g in the granular material that slightly exceeded the provincial standards but was in compliance with the federal guidelines. Further confirmatory sampling of the granular material was conducted a few weeks later and found that toluene was below both the provincial and federal standards. A groundwater sample was also collected during the excavation which was submitted for analysis and found that toluene was in excess of the federal and provincial guidelines. However, all other parameters were in compliance. In total, 12,000 L of contaminated groundwater were pumped from the excavation and properly disposed of by a licensed liquid waste contractor. Further sampling in deeper groundwater wells found elevated levels of benzene and toluene in excess of applicable criteria. The report concluded that complete delineation of the groundwater was undefined and off-site migration of impacted groundwater was possible. Due to the fact that this remediation work was completed after the environmental investigation conducted by Aqua Terre (1997), the data from the confirmatory soil and groundwater sampling in the OMM&A (1997) report will supersede the contaminant concentrations measured in Aqua Terre (1997). CG&S (1999) Public Works and Government Services Canada, on behalf of the MBQ and Indian and Northern Affairs, retained CG&S to undertake a groundwater investigation at the former G.H. Rice building on the TMT. The objective of the investigation was to develop a remediation program to address impacted groundwater that was believed to have been impacted by operations at the former G.H. Rice facility. This investigation was completed based on results of previous investigations and remediation by OMM&A (1997) that had identified the presence of benzene, toluene, phenols and formaldehyde. In February and March 1998, CG&S drilled additional deep monitoring wells and conducted test pitting and shallow groundwater sampling in the vicinity of the former building. Three separate sampling events were conducted where shallow and deep groundwater samples were collected and analyzed for the identified contaminants of concern. Based on the laboratory results it was determined that the occurrence of benzene and light chain hydrocarbons in the groundwater zone was more typical of natural oil and gas deposits than of “manufactured” organic chemicals associated with former operations of the G.H. Rice building site. Consequently, and after evaluation of potential remedial options, a “do nothing” remedial approach was regarded as appropriate for the site. This approach was deemed appropriate since it was determined by CG&S that naturally occurring petroleum hydrocarbons were the source of the deep impacted groundwater and are not associated with previous manufacturing activities. XCG (2001b) The assessment conducted by XCG (2001b) focused on the Drill Hall, Fire Hall, former OR (orderly) Quarters and Mess buildings, and a tank nest, in response to the findings of a Phase I ESA completed for the general area. The Phase I report completed by XCG identified these locations of potential environmental concern on the basis of a number of observations; namely, coal residues, staining near transformers, and two excavated USTs that were observed during a site visit (XCG, 2001b). Additionally, it was suspected by XCG (2001b) that refuse building materials were buried in the areas around the former OR Quarters and Mess buildings. The drill A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 25 hall, fire hall and OR quarters and mess buildings are located south of Airport Road on Johnson’s Lane. The tank nest is part of the Works Building beside the airfield hangars. Buildings on Johnson’s Lane A total of 71 test pits were completed in the area of these assessment locations and 30 soil samples were taken for analysis (XCG, 2001b). Soil samples from the Drill Hall were analyzed for metals and/or PAHs, associated with the coal residues observed. One soil sample collected from the Fire Hall area was analyzed for metals, PAHs, and PCBs, associated with staining near a transformer. A total of 12 soil samples were analyzed for lead, with one additional sample analyzed for metals near the former OR Quarters and Mess associated with buried building materials. Three other samples were taken to identify if building materials contained asbestos. From these intrusive activities, areas around the drill hall were found to have elevated soil concentrations of metals and PAHs, possibly associated with the coal residues. Metals, including arsenic, barium, cadmium, mercury, nickel, thallium, and zinc, were found to be in excess of the applicable MOE and/or CCME criteria (XCG, 2001b). PAHs, including anthracene and phenanthrene were also found at concentrations in excess of the applicable standards. Groundwater samples were not collected for this location; however, an oily film was noted on the surface of accumulated groundwater within some of the test pits (XCG, 2001b). Areas around the fire hall were also found to have elevated soil concentrations of heavy metals and PAHs. Metals, including lead and mercury, were found to be in excess of the applicable MOE Standards (XCG, 2001b). Several PAHs, including anthracene, dibenz(a,h)anthracene, naphthalene, and phenanthrene were also found at concentrations in excess of the applicable MOE Standards. Concentrations of all identified chemicals in soil did not exceed the applicable CCME guidelines. The location identified as potentially being stained with transformer fluids was not found to be impacted by PCBs. However, it was suspected by XCG (2001b) that the staining is associated with PHCs instead but this was not substantiated. Groundwater samples were not collected for this location (XCG, 2001b). Areas near the OR Quarters and Mess were believed to in-filled with refuse building materials. These areas were found to have elevated concentrations of lead and barium. Asbestoscontaining materials were also identified but not believed to be a risk to human health provided that they remain buried (XCG, 2001b). Groundwater samples were not collected for this location (XCG, 2001b). Based on the sampling and analytical comparison conducted by XCG (2001b) for soil, a number of chemicals identified at the drill hall, fire hall, and OR quarters and mess buildings were retained as contaminants of concern for further assessment (Table 2-3). Table 2-3 Contaminants of Concern in Soil Identified for the former Buildings on Johnson’s Lane Anthracene Arsenic Barium Cadmium Dibenz(a,h)anthracene Mercury Naphthalene Nickel Phenanthrene Thallium Zinc - Tank Nest The former tank nest from which the two USTs were excavated was investigated by advancing 7 boreholes, 3 of which were later converted to monitoring wells. A total of 5 soil samples were A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 26 collected from the boreholes based on “worst-case” hand-held vapour monitor measurements and visual and olfactory clues (XCG, 2001b). Soil samples were analyzed for BTEX and PHCs. Groundwater sampling was later conducted and one sample from each of the three wells was collected and analyzed for BTEX and PHCs. Concentrations of diesel and heavy range PHCs were identified in soil but were at levels below the applicable MOE standards. Groundwater samples were not collected for BTEX and gasoline range PHCs at these locations but were not believed to be an issue as they were not detected in soil (XCG, 2001b). Groundwater samples were found to have elevated concentrations of diesel and heavy range PHCs but were at levels below the acceptable criteria (XCG, 2001b). Based on the sampling and analytical comparison conducted by XCG (2001b) for soil and groundwater, no chemicals were retained as contaminants of concern at the tank nest area for further assessment. XCG (2007b) In response to the assessment conducted by XCG (2001b), a supplementary Phase II was conducted by XCG (2007b) to better characterize impacts associated with the Drill Hall. The Phase II report (XCG, 2001b) identified a number of chemicals in soil that were at levels in excess of the applicable guidelines and standards. These chemicals were metals and PAHs. The supplemental investigation aimed to further delineate impacts to the environmental quality of the area around the drill hall. A total of 63 test pits were completed in the area of these assessment locations and 22 soil samples were taken for analysis (XCG, 2007b). Soil samples from the drill hall area were analyzed for heavy metals, VOCs, PAHs, and PHCs. Areas around the drill hall were found to have elevated soil concentrations of metals and PHCs. Concentrations of beryllium and boron in soil were found to be in excess of the applicable MOE Standards (XCG, 2007b). Concentrations of PHC F3 were also found to be in excess of the applicable MOE standards. Groundwater samples were not collected for this location (XCG, 2007). Groundwater was not anticipated to be impacted (XCG, 2007b) based on the limited soil impacts. Based on the sampling and analytical comparison conducted by XCG (2001b) for soil, a number of chemicals identified at the drill hall, fire hall, and OR quarters and mess buildings. However, the follow-up Phase II conducted by XCG (2007b) did not identify these chemicals as elevated. It is unclear why these impacts were not re-encountered. This may indicate that impacts to the soil in the areas around the drill hall are isolated. Based on the sampling and analytical comparison conducted by XCG (2001b) for soil, the following chemicals were retained as contaminants of concern at the drill hall for further assessment: beryllium, boron, and PHC F3. Health Canada/MBQ (2012) Water supply samples were taken during a single sampling event from the two locations at the airfield in November 2012. These two locations were identified as being taken from the drinking water supply of the ‘FNTI Residence Building’ and the ‘Mohawk Air Terminal’. Water supply samples were also taken from a residence located east of the airfield on Airport Road. It is unclear whether these samples were taken from water wells located on the property or from the building itself. However, it is suspected for the purposes of this report that they were tap A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 27 water collected samples. The water samples were analyzed for a wide range of potential environmental contaminants including metals and organic compounds (i.e., volatile organic compounds, semi-volatile organic compounds, pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls, and petroleum hydrocarbons). No organic compounds were detected at concentrations above the analytical detection limit in either of the two samples, and all metal concentrations were below the Ontario Drinking Water Standards. Therefore, based on these data, the water samples tested from the two locations at the airfield are believed to be acceptable for potable water use. No contaminants of concern from these two locations at the airfield were retained for the evaluation. Health Canada/MBQ (2013) Water supply samples were taken during a single sampling event from the Johnson’s Lane pump station located south of the airfield in December 2012. It is unclear whether these samples were sourced from water wells located on the property or elsewhere (i.e., Bay of Quinte). The water samples were analyzed for a wide range of potential environmental contaminants including metals and organic compounds (i.e., volatile organic compounds, semivolatile organic compounds, pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls, and petroleum hydrocarbons). No organic compounds were detected at concentrations above the reportable detection limit in the sample, and all metal concentrations were below the Ontario Drinking Water Standards. Therefore, based on these data, the water sample tested at the Johnson’s Lane pump station south of the airfield is believed to be acceptable for potable water use. No contaminants of concern from this location were retained for further evaluation. 2.3.2 Summary of Chemicals of Concern Previously Detected at the Airfield Based on the reports discussed above, thirteen chemicals in soil and two chemicals in groundwater at the airfield were retained as COCs to be evaluated (Table 2-4). Table 2-4 Contaminants of Concern in Soil and Groundwater at the Airfield Soil Anthracene Arsenic Barium Beryllium Groundwater Benzene 2.3.3 Boron Cadmium Dibenz(a,h)anthracene Mercury Naphthalene Nickel PHC F3 Phenanthrene Thallium Zinc Toluene Potential Exposure Pathways Perhaps the single largest challenge to Intrinsik’s undertaking was dealing with this APEC. At this stage we are not familiar enough with the activities of the FNTI, their buildings, or continued operations in this location. In addition, it appears from the documentation that the environmental data we have, although relevant at the time of collection, should not be relied on in 2013. The data are simply too old and site conditions may have changed over the years. Based on the information Intrinsik was provided we do not believe that there is likely an immediate undue health threat for people using the existing facilities in the area. This is primarily based on the water samples collected and analyzed in 2012. However, to ensure A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 28 ongoing protection of health of those using the facility it is recommended that this area undergo additional environmental investigation. 2.3.4 Receptor Locations of Concern Anyone potentially trespassing on the airfield grounds or using any of the buildings that remain on site would be the primary receptors of potential concern. They could be exposed to contaminants outdoors through direct contact with impacted soils or through potential vapours in the case of volatile organic compounds. In addition, downgradient homes between the airfield and the Bay of Quinte were also considered potential receptors. The Quinte Mohawk School is located approximately 2 km upgradient and northwest of the airfield. Therefore, it would not have been impacted by any historical activities that may have occurred at the airfield. 2.3.5 Contaminants of Concern Comprehensive Phase I and Phase II ESA investigations have not been completed for the airfield complex. With the exception of recent drinking water testing, the most recent environmental data is from 2007. Due to the age of these reports, the data only provide an indication of the potential COCs and their environmental concentrations in the area. Based on the reports evaluated, thirteen chemicals in soil and two chemicals in groundwater at the airfield were retained as COCs to be evaluated further. The maximum concentration of each of these chemicals for both soil and groundwater is provided in Tables 2-5 and 2-6. Table 2-5 Maximum Concentrations of Contaminants of Concern in Soil (µg/g) COC Anthracene Arsenic Barium Beryllium Boron (HWS) Cadmium Dibenz(a,h)anthracene Mercury Naphthalene Nickel PHC F3 Phenanthrene Zinc Maximum Concentration 1.33 22.7 858 1.4 2.3 4 0.28 1.33 0.30 58 450 1.26 202 Sample Location Area Study TP-15A TP-13B TP-24M TP-267 TP-267 TP-14-15-30 TP-FH-0-3 TP-FH-0-3 TP-FH-0-3 TP-14-15-30 TP-22 TP-15A TP-14-15-30 Drill hall Drill hall Drill hall Drill hall Drill hall Drill hall Fire hall Fire hall Fire hall Drill hall Drill hall Drill hall Drill hall XCG (2001b) XCG (2001b) XCG (2001b) XCG (2007b) XCG (2007b) XCG (2001b) XCG (2001b) XCG (2001b) XCG (2001b) XCG (2001b) XCG (2007b) XCG (2001b) XCG (2001b) Table 2-6 Maximum Concentrations of Contaminants of Concern in Groundwater (µg/L) COC Benzene Toluene Maximum Concentration Sample Location Area Study 870 590 MW98-2A (DUP) MW98-2A G.H. Rice building G.H. Rice building CG&S (1999) CG&S (1999) A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 29 2.3.6 Conceptual Site Model The CSM presented in Figure 2-6 brings together the information gathered during the problem formulation phase. The CSM provides an outline of the general exposure scenarios to be evaluated by bringing together the contaminants of concern, receptors, and viable exposure pathways into one overall conceptual framework. This framework was utilized to guide the evaluation of risks posed to the receptors locations of concern stemming from the contamination present at the airfield. For the current assessment, exposure scenarios were considered to evaluate potential human health risks associated at each receptor location of concern (i.e., FNTI and a downgradient residence). Figure 2-6 2.3.7 Conceptual Site Model for the Tyendinaga Mohawk Airfield Evaluation of Potential Risks Comprehensive Phase I and Phase II ESAs have not been conducted for the airfield and it is unclear, based on their age, if the reports provided by MBQ are representative of current environmental conditions at the airfield. That said, the results of soil and groundwater sampling programs completed by Aqua Terre (1997) and XCG (2001b; 2007b) were utilized to assess potential risks. Selected exposure parameters and assumptions represent a reasonable worstcase scenario that is considered to be protective of sensitive members of the general population. The TMT is an area in which federal environmental criteria would apply, hence the maximum soil concentrations were compared against the CCME Soil Quality Guidelines (Table 2-7) and A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 30 groundwater concentrations were compared against the Federal Interim Guidelines (Table 2-8). Maximum soil and groundwater concentrations were also compared to the MOE (2011) Table 6 Site Condition Standards for residential/parkland/institutional land use with coarse-textured soil protective of shallow soils (Tables 2-7, 2-8), since these values represent recently derived health-based standards. Table 2-7 Comparison of Maximum Measured Soil Concentrations to Regulatory Guidelines and Standards (µg/g) COC Maximum Concentration MOE Table 6 Site Condition Standarda CCME Soil Quality Guidelineb Anthracene 0.67 1.33 2.5c Arsenic 18 12 22.7 Barium 390 500 858 Beryllium 1.4 4 4 Boron (HWS) 1.5 2.3 NV Cadmium 1.2 4 10 Dibenz(a,h)anthracene 0.1 0.28 1c,e Mercury 0.27 1.33 6.6 Naphthalene 0.30 0.6 0.6c Nickel 50 58 100 PHC F3 300 300d 450 Phenanthrene 1.26 6.2 5c Zinc 200 202 340 Bolded value highlighted in grey scale indicates that at least one of the regulatory guidelines/standards is exceeded by the maximum soil concentration. NV No value. A regulatory guideline/standard is not available for this chemical. a MOE (2011) Table 6 Site Condition Standards for potable groundwater scenario for residential/parkland/institutional property use with shallow coarse textured soil. b CCME (2013) Soil Quality Guidelines for the Protection of Environmental and Human Health for residential/parkland property use unless otherwise indicated. c CCME (2010) Soil Quality Guidelines for the Protection of Environmental and Human for Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons for residential/parkland property use. d CCME (2008) Canada-wide Standards for Petroleum Hydrocarbons in Soil for residential/parkland property use. e Based on an acceptable incremental cancer risk level of one-in-one hundred thousand, as per Health Canada (2012a). Table 2-8 Comparison of Maximum Measured Groundwater Concentrations to Regulatory Guidelines and Standards (µg/L) COC Maximum Concentration MOE Table 6 Site Condition Standarda Federal Interim Groundwater Quality Guidelineb Benzene 0.5 5c 870 Toluene 24 24c 590 Bolded value highlighted in grey scale indicates that at least one of the regulatory guidelines/standards is exceeded by the maximum groundwater concentration. a MOE (2011) Table 6 Site Condition Standards for potable groundwater scenario for residential/parkland/institutional property use with shallow coarse textured soil. b Environment Canada (2012) Interim Groundwater Quality Guidelines for residential/parkland land use with coarse textured soil unless otherwise indicated. Environment Canada (2010) interim guidelines do not include an evaluation of drinking water quality and defer to the Canadian Drinking Water Quality Guidelines. The value presented is the lower of the two values. c Health Canada (2012b) Canadian Drinking Water Quality Guidelines Based on the comparison in Table 2-7 and Table 2-8, several chemicals measured in soil and groundwater were found at concentrations in excess of either the MOE (2011) or the CCME (2008; 2010; 2013) guidelines/standards. This suggests that further environmental investigation would be warranted to ascertain current soil and groundwater conditions in the area. An A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 31 exceedance of an environmental standard does not suggest immediate risk to health; rather it suggests that additional work should be undertaken. 2.3.8 Gap Analysis It does not appear as though a full site characterization of the airfield property has ever been conducted. Although investigations that have occurred on the site since 1994 appear to have conformed to best environmental practices of the day, current environmental conditions are not known. Owing to the varied uses of the airfield in the past century (i.e., military training facility, airfield, industry), it is recommended that the comprehensive Phase I ESA draft document from 2010 be updated and finalized. This Phase I ESA assessment would help to guide any additional intrusive work that could be undertaken in a Phase II ESA. Such an evaluation would better characterize the impacts to soil and groundwater by those chemicals with concentrations in excess of the applicable soil and groundwater standards/guidelines. The maximum measured concentrations of chemicals were predominantly identified at locations south of Airport Road. A detailed investigation may also provide better insight into other areas which could require further investigation. Therefore, as there is a considerable amount of uncertainty surrounding the environmental quality of the airfield, further investigation is required to provide firm conclusions as to whether environmental impacts at the airfield pose a health risk to the MBQ. It is encouraging that the recent drinking water well tests indicate that the water sources do not appear to have been impacted by environmental contaminants and are fit for consumption. A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 32 2.4 Quinte Mohawk School The Quinte Mohawk School (“the school”) provides educational services for children of the MBQ community from kindergarten to grade 8. There is also a daycare present within the school. The school is located on York Road, and is bounded by Ridge Road and Sadie’s Lane. The school lands consist of a single permanent one-storey school building, a large baseball field, sports track, and paved playground. The school building includes 13 classrooms, a gymnasium, a library, a computer lab, and the daycare centre (Phoenix OHC, 2012). Adjacent to the east of the school is the Kanhiote Tyendinaga Territory Public Library which is separated from the school by a parking lot and driveway. The school was selected as an area of concern because of the sensitive receptors (i.e., toddlers and children) located there. Intrinsik understands that when the cases of childhood ALL were diagnosed that considerable attention was focused on the school as a potential common exposure to all of the children. 2.4.1 Data Review In order to evaluate the environmental quality of the school the following environmental reports were evaluated in depth: XCG. 2005. 2004 Groundwater and Surface Water Quality Monitoring, Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte Landfill, Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory. XCG Consultants Limited. 1-664-20-02. November 25, 2005. Health Canada/MBQ. 2012. Re: 20 Reports from the Schedule 23 & 24 Sampling Project. Drinking Water Chemical Analysis reports provided by Health Canada, Environmental Public Health Services to the Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte. December 2012. Phoenix OHC. 2012. Survey of Airborne Benzene and Other Volatile Organic Compounds at the Quinte Mohawk School. Phoenix OHC, Inc. Ref. No.: 6015. December 5, 2012. OCWA. 2013b. Re: Quinte Mohawk School Schedule 23 and 24 Sampling Results. Letter to Mr. Todd Kring, Director of Community Infrastructure, Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte. Ontario Clean Water Agency. February 14, 2013. It does not appear that any intrusive environmental investigations have taken place at the school; no reports of this nature were made available for the current assessment. To our knowledge a Phase I ESA has not been completed for this area and it is unknown what the land use was prior to building of the school. Based on the geology of the area (CRA, 1994b), it is assumed that the bedrock underlying the school is limestone, likely fractured, which is overlain by a thin soil. Groundwater underlying the school likely flows south, eventually discharging into the Bay of Quinte. The school is serviced by a water reservoir tank and potable water well (OCWA, 2013a). Phoenix OHC (2012) indicated that no significant renovations have taken place at the school in recent years. Two water sampling programs have been conducted at the school by Health Canada/MBQ (2012) and Ontario Clean Water Agency (OCWA, 2013b). Both of these assessments only focused on the quality of the potable water supply and did not evaluate the environmental quality of any other media. Additionally, an indoor air quality study was conducted at the school by Phoenix OHC (2012). A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 33 Health Canada/MBQ (2012) Water supply samples were taken during a single sampling event from the school in November 2012. It is unclear whether these samples were taken from a water wells located on the property, the water reservoir tank, or from the building itself. The water samples were analyzed for a wide range of potential environmental contaminants including metals and organic compounds (i.e., volatile organic compounds, semi-volatile organic compounds, pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls, and petroleum hydrocarbons). While no organic compounds were detected at concentrations above their analytical detection limits, some metal concentrations were identified. However, all of the detected metals were found at concentrations below the acceptable Ontario Drinking Water Standards and none of the reportable detection limits exceeded those standards. Therefore, based on these data, the water samples analyzed at the school are acceptable for drinking (potable) water use and none of these chemicals were retained as contaminants of concern for further evaluation at the school. OCWA (2013b) Water supply samples were taken by Ontario Clean Water Agency during a single sampling event at the school in February 2013. It is unclear whether these samples were taken from water wells located on the property, the water reservoir tank, or from the building itself. The letter (OWCA, 2013b) appears to indicate that the sample was collected from a treated water source indicating that the sample was likely taken from a tap within the building. The water samples were analyzed for a wide range of potential environmental contaminants including metals and organic compounds (i.e., volatile organic compounds, semi-volatile organic compounds, pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls, and petroleum hydrocarbons). As with the sampling conducted by MBQ/Health Canada (2012), no organic compounds were detected at concentrations above their analytical detection limits. Some metals were identified in the water but none were found at concentrations which exceeded the Ontario Drinking Water Standards. Also, none of the reportable detection limits exceed the Standards. This sampling event served to confirm the results of November 2012. Phoenix OHC (2012) An assessment conducted in December 2012 (Phoenix OHC, 2012) evaluated the indoor air quality at various locations at the school. Two methods were utilized during the investigation. Due to community concerns about exposure to benzene, concentrations of benzene were assessed at eight indoor locations and one outdoor “control” location (Phoenix OHC, 2012). Additionally, indoor air quality was assessed at four locations using an “open characterization”, where the top 35 chemicals by concentration were identified. Air samples were collected using thermal desorption tubes using the EPA TO-17 methodology. The sampling period for each of the samples was one hour. Measured concentrations of individual chemicals and total VOCs were compared with occupational guidelines. The approach utilized by Phoenix OHC (2012) was based on occupational approaches and is not the preferred approach for environmental sampling. However, the data were adequate for screening purposes and identification of any potential environmental concerns. In each of the four locations utilizing “open characterization” sampling, the VOCs detected at the highest concentration were mainly related to perfuming agents or personal care products (Phoenix OHC, 2012). Very few chemicals that could be considered environmental A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 34 contaminants were detected at concentrations high enough to be among the top 35 chemicals reported by the sampling approach. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and carbon tetrachloride were also detected in each of the indoor samples (Phoenix OHC, 2012). The presence of CFCs and carbon tetrachloride in indoor air may originate from a variety of sources. CFCs and carbon tetrachloride were historically used as refrigerants and may be entering the indoor environment from a leaking piece of equipment such as an older model water fountain or refrigerator. Carbon tetrachloride may also result from the use of household cleaning products (NTP, 2012). Interestingly, concentrations of both CFCs and carbon tetrachloride were also detected outdoors at levels comparable to the indoor samples. It cannot be determined whether the presence of CFCs and carbon tetrachloride are associated with an indoor source or if these concentrations are simply present in ambient air. The presence of both CFCs and carbon tetrachloride in all samples may indicate sample or analytical contamination. Benzene was not identified as one of the top 35 chemicals by concentration in any of the open characterization analyses. Concentrations of benzene were assessed at eight indoor locations and one outdoor “control” location (Phoenix OHC, 2012) also utilizing the EPA TO-17 approach. The results of indoor air sampling indicated that indoor air concentrations of benzene were found to be relatively low, ranging from 0.2 to 2.9 µg/m3. These concentrations are well within the levels that are commonly found in homes across Canada. Spengler et al. (2000; Phoenix OHC, 2012) found that the winter season average concentration of benzene in 754 Canadian households was 6.39 µg/m3. Another study found an average of 7.4 µg/m3 in Canadian households (WHO, 2000). Background levels of benzene in residential indoor air in 14 studies evaluated by US EPA (2011) were found to range from non-detectable levels to 4.7 µg/m3. Based on these evaluations, the range of 0.2 to 2.9 µg/m3 identified at the school is considered normal. XCG (2005) Based on the regional hydrogeology of the TMT, groundwater in the shallow aquifer underlying the school is likely moving south towards the Bay of Quinte or the southeast towards Sucker Creek. As previously indicated it does not appear that the former landfill has impacted groundwater quality in the vicinity of the school. 2.4.2 Evaluation of Potential Risks Analyses of potable water and air samples taken from the school do not indicate the presence of environmental contamination. Based on the available information, it was determined that there are no complete exposure pathways as there are no COCs identified at the school. As a result, it was concluded that there are no unacceptable risks to the MBQ community associated with the school. 2.4.3 Gap Analysis During the air quality assessment it is unclear why the open characterization approach was taken by Phoenix OHC (2012) as most of the chemicals identified are not considered to be common environmental contaminants. It is recommended that additional indoor air sampling be conducted at the school in order to verify previous results using a different sampling method that is preferred for environmental exposures. Instead of the open characterization approach utilized by Phoenix OHC (2012), it is recommended that laboratory analyses for common or priority environmental contaminants be completed such as those evaluated by MOE (2011). This will A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 35 minimize that number of detections for chemicals commonly in air that are associated with personal care products instead of those associated with environmental contamination. Additionally, consideration should be given to utilizing a longer sampling period, such as 8 or 24 hours. The use of a longer sampling period will provide indoor air concentrations which are more representative of the daily exposures. This additional round of air sampling would also capture any seasonal variation in indoor air quality. Finally, the additional round of sampling is not recommended based on any current concerns associated with the school, it is simply to verify previous results (consistent with industry best-practices) using a more appropriate environmental sampling method. 2.5 Homes Homes are distributed widely throughout the TMT with two distinct clusters or neighbourhoods; one in Shannonville, and the other between Bayshore Road and Highway 2 near Deseronto. Many other homes on the TMT are located along Norway’s Road, Ridge Road, and York Road. 2.5.1 Data Review Intrinsik was asked to review the recent drinking water sampling event data for a number of homes from the following reports: Health Canada/MBQ. 2012. Re: 20 Reports from the Schedule 23 & 24 Sampling Project. Drinking Water Chemical Analysis reports provided by Health Canada, Environmental Public Health Services to the Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte. December 2012. Health Canada/MBQ. 2013. 12 Remaining Reports from the Schedule 23 & 24 Sampling Project. Drinking Water Chemical Analysis reports provided by Health Canada, Environmental Public Health Services to the Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte. January 8, 2013. Health Canada/MBQ (2012; 2013) An assessment conducted in November 2012 (Health Canada/MBQ, 2012) and December 2012 (Health Canada/MBQ, 2013) evaluated the potable water supply of thirty two locations on TMT. This included wide distribution of homes throughout the TMT. Many of the homes sampled were in Shannonville or along York Road. Other sample locations included homes spread throughout TMT and some MBQ community buildings. For the purposes of this report, these community buildings were included in the assessment of the homes, and were identified as “the homes”. Some of the other locations included a small number of community buildings. The results of water testing at some of these locations have already been discussed within this report (i.e., FNTI, Quinte Mohawk School). This section discusses the findings at the remaining locations. Schedule 23 and 24 lists of parameters, as defined by O. Reg. 170/03, part of the Ontario Safe Drinking Water Act, was used to direct the chemical analyses. This list is extensive, and includes chemical groups such as VOCs, SVOCs, PCBs, pesticides, metals, and other inorganic parameters. Analytical results from each location were compared with the Ontario Drinking Water Standards (ODWS), under Ontario Regulation 170/03 of the Safe Water Drinking Act. Water supply samples were taken from the kitchen faucet during a single sampling event from thirty two homes and community buildings. While some metal concentrations were identified at concentrations above the reportable detection limits, none of the metals were found at concentrations which exceeded the ODWS at A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 36 any location. Furthermore, none of the reportable detection limits exceed the applicable standards. Concentrations of a single inorganic compound were found above the ODWS at a single location. This exceedance of the standards is discussed below. Organic compounds were not detected at concentrations above the reportable detection limit in the analyzed samples and none of the reportable detection limits exceed the applicable standards, with the exception of two locations discussed below. A potable water sample collected from the Mohawk Community Centre was found to contain a barely detectable concentration of ethylbenzene. However, concentrations were found to be below the maximum acceptable concentration (MAC) set by the Ontario Drinking Water Standards and as such are not considered a health concern. The report provided by Health Canada/MBQ (2012) indicated that the well sourced for potable water at the community centre was located near a fuel storage tank. Health Canada/MBQ (2012), recommended that this tank should not be located near a water supply area. However, Intrinsik understands that the fuel tank is a propane tank, and thus would not impact local groundwater or be the source of ethylbenzene. We do not believe that further action is warranted. A potable water sample collected from a residence within the TMT was found to contain a detected concentration of trichloroethylene (1.0 µg/L). While concentrations in compliance with the MAC set by the ODWS, they were slightly above the MOE (2011) Table 6 Site Condition Standards of 0.5 µg/L, which is protective of groundwater to indoor air pathways for residential properties with shallow soil. It is important to determine both the source and the maximum concentration of trichloroethylene at the residence. It is recommended that the drinking water supply of this location be re-sampled in order to determine if the detected concentration was a false positive or if trichloroethylene is present in the drinking water. If it is determined that trichloroethylene is present in the drinking water, the property should be investigated for any potential sources of TCE. Additionally, the drinking water from any neighbours should also be tested. Intrinisik wishes to emphasize this is not an issue for drinking water. It is simply being recommended as a follow-up measure. This issue is not related in any way to conditions at the landfill. A potable water sample collected from a home in the Shannonville area within the TMT was found to contain a detected concentration of nitrate. This was the only residence tested for this parameter. A nitrate (as nitrogen) concentration of 15.6 mg/L was found to be above the MACs of 10 mg/L set by the Ontario Drinking Water Standards (MOE, 2006) and Health Canada (1992). A related chemical, nitrite, was not detected in the water sample. The MAC from both Ontario (MOE, 2006) and Health Canada (1992) for combined nitrate and nitrite (as nitrogen) is also 10 mg/L. When analyzed alone, the MAC for nitrite (as nitrogen) from both Ontario and Health Canada is 1.0 mg/L. Nitrates are often present in groundwater as a result ground surface infiltration of inorganic fertilizers and decomposing organic matter (MOE, 2006; Health Canada, 1992). Detected concentrations of nitrate in potable well water are considered to be normal, however, it is important to identify the source of the nitrate and determine if water purification is required. Nitrite is less commonly detected in groundwater as it is quickly oxidized to form nitrate (Health Canada, 1992). Nitrate and nitrite can be a human health concern for infants (<6 months old). Concentrations of concern for infants for nitrate and nitrite are not a concern for older children or adults (Health Canada, 1992). Of the thirty two locations for which potable water samples were analyzed, it is unclear why only one residence was tested for nitrate and nitrite. Nitrate and nitrite are not part of the Schedule 23/24 lists, as defined by O. Reg. 170/03, part of the Ontario Safe Drinking Water Act. It is A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 37 recommended that the sample location from which nitrate was detected above the Ontario (MOE, 2006) and Health Canada (1992) MACs be retested for concentrations of nitrate and nitrite to confirm measured levels. Furthermore, since nitrate was only sampled at one location, and was found to be at levels in excess of the MACs set by the MOE (2006) and Health Canada (1992), it is recommended that all thirty two wells be re-sampled for nitrate/nitrite to determine if this is a local or area-wide issue. The two locations with detected concentrations of ethylbenzene and trichloroethylene should also be re-sampled to confirm results. These potential issues are not related to conditions at the former landfill. Overall, the results of the drinking water survey are encouraging and do not suggest environmental contamination of the groundwater drinking water supply on the TMT. However, additional water sampling was recently conducted by Health Canada in summer 2013. One sample location found detectable concentrations of benzene (11.2 µg/L in a raw water sample) above the MACs (5 µg/L) set by the MOE (2006) and Health Canada (2009). This well should be re-tested to verify these results and determine if the exceedance is localized and whether further testing in the area is required. 2.6 Waste Management Landfill Another landfill, operated by Waste Management of Canada Corporation, has been identified in the area north of the TMT. This landfill, known as the Richmond Landfill, is located on Beechwood Road, RR #6, in the Town of Greater Napanee, County of Lennox and Addington. The MOE issued Conditions of the Amended Environmental Compliance Approval (ECA) No. A371203, January 9, 2012 to Waste Management under Section 20.3 of the EPA. This decision was appealed to the Environmental Review Tribunal by a number of groups, including the MBQ. The ERT granted leave to appeal in March 2012. In April, 2013, “Further Minutes of Interim Settlement were reached between the parties, including the MBQ, to address potential concerns associated with the former operation of the Richmond Landfill located north of the TMT (ERT, 2012). The following statements were made as part of this agreement: “The Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte are concerned that contaminants may be emanating from the Richmond Landfill Site and may be polluting surface water courses which flow through their territory and thereby may cause harm to the traditional food sources and to the health of citizens of the Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte, and therefore sought and were granted Party status by the Tribunal” “The Parties agree that there is evidence that leachate is migrating off-site from the Richmond Landfill Site and causing off-site groundwater impacts in excess of Reasonable Use limits under the Ministry of the Environment’s Guideline B-7, contrary to ECA No. A371203.” “The Parties agree that due to the complexity of the site hydrogeology and a lack of groundwater monitoring wells downgradient of the area of known off-site contamination, further hydrogeologic investigations would provide additional information that would greatly assist in resolving the issues in dispute in this appeal.” (ERT, 2012) A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 38 A series of hydrogeological and other investigations were agreed to in the document. Intrinsik understands that these investigations are currently underway. Once results of these investigations are available information can be evaluated for any potential health risk to community members. A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 39 3.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The following conclusions and recommendations are provided based on the information made available to Intrinsik and reviewed as part of this investigation. The environmental reports prepared over the years for the MBQ, including drinking water samples collected by Health Canada, complied with best practices of the day and were generally suitable for evaluating potential for health concerns within the community. It should be noted that the Intrinsik authors are qualified risk assessors and not environmental site investigators. Several reports provided by the MBQ have evaluated both the hydrogeological characteristics and the environmental quality of the former landfill site over the past twenty years. These reports have come to the general conclusion that the landfill is not negatively impacting any nearby homes or the Sucker Creek. The inferred local groundwater flow indicates that groundwater is moving in a southeasterly direction away from the school, community buildings, and nearby homes. Concentrations of BTEX compounds are present in a deeper aquifer underlying the landfill but are not currently present in the shallower aquifer. As there are no receptors present on the former landfill and there are no potable (drinking) water wells in use directly downgradient from the landfill, it is not believed that the former landfill poses a health risk to the MBQ community. The analyses conducted for the airfield indicated that historical maximum concentrations of some metals and organic compounds in soil and groundwater exceeded the Ontario or Federal soil and groundwater standards/guidelines. Much of the data is old and additional site characterization is required to better evaluate current environmental conditions in the vicinity of the airfield. Drinking water samples collected in the buildings indicated that drinking water is safe for use and does not pose a health risk from a chemical perspective. It is Intrinsik’s understanding that the MBQ have raised the issue of conducting more detailed environmental site assessment at the airfield repeatedly with INAC over the years. Drinking water and indoor air sampling were recently conducted at the school. Water results did not indicate any environmental impact and suggest that the water is safe for drinking from a chemical perspective. The analytical results indicate that the air is safe to breathe. Measured levels of benzene in air were considered to be within background ranges in Canada. Based on the available information, there is no reason to be concerned for children’s health at the school or daycare. This is particularly true in the case of benzene in either air or water samples. The drinking water quality of 32 residential and community locations throughout the TMT was analyzed once for an extensive number of inorganic and organic parameters. No metals were identified at concentrations above the Ontario Drinking Water Standards (ODWS). Trichloroethylene was detected at one location slightly above the MOE (2011) Site Condition Standards but below the ODWS. Nitrate was detected at the only location sampled in excess of the ODWS. Additional characterization is required to better evaluate the presence of these chemicals in the drinking water at homes on the TMT. In no way are these findings related to conditions at the former landfill. Overall, drinking water results from the homes do not indicate environmental concerns and water is considered to be safe, including for benzene, for consumption from a chemical perspective. Intrinsik provides the following recommendations that could be considered by the MBQ for follow-up: A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 40 If there are suspected additional environmental concerns beyond those identified in this report within the community then a historical environmental review or Phase I ESA could be considered to identify any former activities that could have impaired environmental quality within the community; The draft Phase I ESA prepared in 2010 should be updated and finalized for the airfield, including areas south of Airport Road. This assessment would identify potential historical contaminating activities and current activities that could be of environmental concern. The results of the Phase I ESA could be used to target an intrusive Phase II ESA of the area; A second round of indoor and outdoor air samples could be collected at the school. Alternative sampling methods, such as those typically used in environmental (nonoccupational) assessment could be considered. This will help to confirm the previous sampling results and provide any seasonal variation. That being said it is not necessarily required based on the fact the drinking water was considered safe for consumption and to the best of our knowledge there are no known environmental concerns surrounding the school property; Additional home sampling of drinking water should be completed for those issues identified within the report; Given the presence of nitrate above standards for the only location it was tested, it is recommended that all 32 locations be sampled for nitrate and nitrite to determine the concentrations of these parameters in community drinking water; and Continue following and implementing the MOE recommendations of ensuring integrity of the landfill cap and installation and sampling of a sentinel downgradient groundwater well. Overall, environmental conditions reviewed for the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory did not suggest a potential link to the cases of ALL or other health risks to community members. 4.0 CLOSURE Intrinsik has prepared this report based on the reports and data provided to us by the MBQ. Based on our review of this data we believe that it is highly unlikely that environmental conditions posed an increase risk factor to the children who developed ALL in the community. In the event that new environmental data becomes available in the community any discussion on potential health risks contained within this report should be revisited. Christopher Ollson, Ph.D. Senior Environmental Health Scientist Elliot Sigal President Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. 6605 Hurontario Street, Suite 500 Mississauga, ON L5T 0A3 Phone: 905-364-7800 email: collson@intrinsik.com Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. 6605 Hurontario Street, Suite 500 Mississauga, ON L5T 0A3 Phone: 905-364-7800 email: esigal@intrinsik.com A SLRA of Areas of Potential Environmental Concern on the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc. – Project # 21180 October 2013 Page 41 5.0 REFERENCES Amdur, M.O., Doull, J., and Klassen, C.D. (Eds.). 1991. Casarett and Doull’s Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poisons. 4th Edition. Pergamon Press Ltd., New York, NY. ATSDR. 2005. Carbon Tetrachloride, Public Health Statement. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Department of Health and Human Services, Center of Disease Control. August, 2005. Aqua Terre. 1997. 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