1. art and entertainment
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1
Storms in Mobile Networks
arXiv:1411.1280v1 [cs.NI] 5 Nov 2014
Gokce Gorbil, Omer H. Abdelrahman, Mihajlo Pavloski and Erol Gelenbe Fellow, IEEE
Abstract—Mobile networks are vulnerable to signalling attacks
and storms that are caused by traffic patterns that overload
the control plane, and differ from distributed denial of service
(DDoS) attacks in the Internet since they directly attack the
control plane, and also reserve wireless bandwidth without
actually using it. Such attacks can result from malware and
mobile botnets, as well as from poorly designed applications, and
can cause service outages in 3G and 4G networks which have been
experienced by mobile operators. Since the radio resource control
(RRC) protocol in 3G and 4G networks is particularly susceptible
to such attacks, we analyze their effect with a mathematical
model that helps to predict the congestion that is caused by an
attack. A detailed simulation model of a mobile network is used
to better understand the temporal dynamics of user behavior and
signalling in the network and to show how RRC based signalling
attacks and storms cause significant problems in the control plane
and the user plane of the network. Our analysis also serves to
identify how storms can be detected, and to propose how system
parameters can be chosen to mitigate their effect.
Index Terms—Network Attacks, Malware, App Malfunctions,
UMTS Networks, 3G, 4G, Signalling Overload, Performance
Analysis, Simulation
I. I NTRODUCTION
MART DEVICES have not gone unnoticed by cybercriminals, who have started to target mobile platforms [1]–
[4], and subscribers and mobile network operators (MNOs)
face new security challenges [5], including the identification
and mitigation of signalling attacks and storms, which overload the control plane through traffic that causes excessive
signalling in the network. The susceptibility of mobile networks to such attacks has been identified [6]–[9], and they
have now become a reality that MNOs have to face regularly
due to deliberate, malicious actions either by malware running
on the smart devices inside the mobile network, or by Internet
hosts outside the core network.
Thus signalling attacks and storms are indeed an emerging
cyber-security threat in mobile networks, which are a major
component of our cyber infrastructure. As we look at the
future, we can expect that UMTS and LTE networks will
also support major machine-to-machine communications [10]
where the human being is not in the loop to identify and
remediate against an apparent attack. In the first instance, we
can expect that UMTS will have to be secured against such
attacks and into the future that LTE should be an increasing
S
G. Gorbil, O.H. Abdelrahman, M. Pavlovski and E. Gelenbe are with
the Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Imperial College, London, UK, SW7 2AZ, e-mail: {g.gorbil, o.abd06, m.pavloski13,
e.gelenbe}@imperial.ac.uk
Manuscript received September 1, 2014; revised xxx xx, 2014. Accepted
for publication xxx xx, 2014.
c 2014 IEEE. Personal use of this material is permitted. However,
permission to use this material for any other purposes must be obtained from
the IEEE by sending a request to pubs-permissions@ieee.org.
object of studies to detect and mitigate against signalling
storms and attacks [11]–[13].
The mobile world witnessed its first botnet in 2012 [14],
through which an attacker can disrupt mobile services by a
DDoS-like [15] attack, overloading the control plane of the
mobile network through excessive signalling, rather than the
data plane as in traditional DDoS attacks in the Internet.
The attacker usually compromises a large number of mobile
devices forming a mobile botnet [16], which can also be
leveraged for other malicious activities in addition to launching
signalling attacks. Although in principle some of these attacks
can be mitigated by smart routing [17] inside the core network,
such facilities are currently not available.
In order to improve the efficiency of the attack, the attacker
can actively probe the network in order to infer the network’s
parameters [18]–[20], and also identify IP addresses at specific
locations within the network [21]. Indeed, a review of 180
MNOs showed that 51% of them allow mobile devices to
be probed from the Internet, by either assigning them public
IP addresses, allowing IP spoofing, or permitting mobile-tomobile probing within the network [21,22]. Smart mobile
devices are also increasingly used in emergency management
systems, especially in urban environments [23]–[25]. Thus
they are likely to be targeted in conjunction with other physical
or cyber attacks in order to further compromise the safety and
confidentiality of civilians and emergency responders [26,27].
Since the radio resource control (RRC) protocol in UMTS
and LTE networks [28,29] is susceptible to signalling attacks,
the objective of this paper is to analyse the effect of RRCbased signalling attacks and storms in UMTS networks. While
earlier work in this area has focused on signalling behavior
from an energy perspective [30]–[32], we hope to provide a
greater understanding of the bottlenecks and vulnerabilities in
the radio signalling system of mobile networks in order to
pave the way for the detection and mitigation of signalling
attacks and storms.
For this purpose, we first present a probability model [33] of
signalling state transitions for a single UMTS user, from which
we derive analytical results regarding the user’s behaviour
when attacked and the impact it has on the network. We
also present results from simulation experiments, which enable
us to clarify the temporal dynamics of user behavior and
signalling and to validate the mathematical model. Then we
show how certain specific system parameters such as timeouts can be used to lessen or mitigate the effect of storms and
signalling attacks.
II. S IGNALLING S TORMS
Signalling storms are similar to signalling attacks, but
they are mainly caused by poorly designed or misbehaving
c 2014 IEEE
0000–0000/00$00.00 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EMERGING TOPICS IN COMPUTING, VOL. XX, NO. X, MONTH 2015
mobile applications that frequently establish and tear-down
data connections in order to transfer small amounts of data.
Many mobile applications are designed and developed by software companies who mainly have an “Internet” background
and thus are not familiar with the control plane of mobile
networks. They therefore assume that connectivity is a given
and design their applications without taking into account the
specifics of mobile networks. A good example is the case of
an Android VoIP application popular in Japan, which used
frequent keep-alive messages even when the users were idle,
causing a signalling overload and a major outage in the mobile
network [34]. In a similar incident, the launch of the free
version of the Angry Birds application on Android caused
excessive signalling load due to the frequent communications
generated by the in-game advertisements [35]. Such problems
have prompted the mobile network industry to promote best
practices for developing network-friendly applications [36,37].
Some applications, which may not normally generate excessive signalling, go haywire when an unexpected event occurs,
such as loss of connectivity to an Internet server. For example,
an important feature of smartphones is the ability to receive
“push notifications” from cloud services in order to notify the
user of an incoming message or VoIP call. This feature is
enabled by having the mobile device send periodic keep-alive
messages to a cloud server. In normal operation, this keepalive period is a large value, e.g. 5 minutes. However, if for any
reason the cloud service becomes unavailable, then the mobile
device will attempt to reconnect more frequently, generating
significantly higher signalling load than normal in the process
as has recently been reported [38].
Signalling storms could also result from large-scale malware
infections which target the user rather than the network, but
generate excessive signalling as a by-product of malicious
activity. Examples of malware that would cause signalling
storms if many users are infected are SMS/email spammers,
adware, premium service abusers and botclients. All of these
malware generate frequent but small amounts of data, requiring repeated signalling to allocate and deallocate radio
channels and other resources, and therefore have a negative
impact on the control plane of the network. Unfortunately for
the MNOs, such malware are among the top threats currently
encountered on smartphones and tablets [3,39,40].
Recent incidents have shown that the threat of signalling
attacks and storms is very real and that they have the potential
to cause major outages in mobile networks. Unlike flash
crowds which last for a short time during special occasions
and events such as New Year’s Eve, signalling attacks and
storms are unpredictable and they persist until the underlying
problem is identified and resolved by the MNO. Considering
their impact on the availability and security of mobile networks, it is evident that MNOs have a strong incentive to
safeguard their users from malware and to proactively detect
and mitigate signalling attacks and storms in order to protect
their infrastructure and services [5,41].
III. T HE R ADIO R ESOURCE C ONTROL P ROTOCOL
In UMTS networks, the radio resource control (RRC) protocol is used to manage resources in the radio access network
2
Radio access network
(RAN)
Core network (CN)
HSS
Internet
SGSN
UE
Node B
GGSN
RNC
Fig. 1. The basic architecture of a UMTS network. UEs are the mobile
terminals, e.g. smartphones, connected to the mobile network via base stations
(Node Bs). Node Bs maintain the radio channels with the UEs. The RNC
controls the radio resources and the Node Bs in the RAN.
(RAN) [28]. It operates between the UMTS terminals, i.e. the
user equipment (UE), and the radio network controller (RNC).
Figure 1 shows the basic architecture of a UMTS network,
depicting the RAN and the core network (CN) elements
comprising the packet-switched domain of the mobile network.
The RNC is the switching and controlling network element
in the RAN. It performs radio resource management (RRM)
functions in order to guarantee the stability of the radio
path and the QoS of radio connections by efficient sharing
and management of radio resources. The RRC protocol is
utilized for all RRM-related control functions such as the
setup, configuration, maintenance and release of radio bearers
between the UE and the RNC. The RRC protocol also carries
all non-access stratum signalling between the UE and the CN.
In order to manage the radio resources, the RRC protocol
associates a state machine to each UE, which is maintained
synchronized at the UE and the RNC via RRC signalling
messages. The RNC controls the transitions between the RRC
states based on information it receives from the UEs and
the Node Bs on available radio resources, conditions of the
currently used radio bearers, and requests for communication
activity. As shown in Fig. 2, there are typically four RRC
states, given in order of increasing energy consumption and
data rate: idle, cell-PCH, cell-FACH and cell-DCH. In the rest
of this paper, we refer to state cell-X simply as X. Whenever
the UE is not in the idle state, it is in connected mode and
has a signalling connection with the RNC. In connected mode,
the location of the UE is known by the RNC at the level of
a single cell, which is maintained by cell updates sent by the
UE either periodically or when it changes cells. We describe
the RRC states in more detail below.
Idle: This is the initial state when the UE is turned on.
In this state, the UE does not have a signalling connection
with the RNC, and therefore the RNC does not know the
location of the UE. Its location is known by the CN at the
accuracy of the location area or routing area, which is based
on the latest mobility signalling the UE performed with the
CN. Any downlink activity destined for a UE in idle mode
will require paging in order to locate the UE at the cell level.
Since the UE does not have an RNC connection, it cannot
send any signalling or data until an RNC connection has been
established.
FACH: The UE is in connected mode, and the radio
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RRC states
UE energy
consumption
Data rate
DCH
100x Idle
~10 Mbps
40x Idle
~10 kbps
2x Idle
0
5
7
FACH
15
PCH
6
Idle
TABLE I
RRC STATE TRANSITIONS AND NUMBER OF SIGNALLING MESSAGES
EXCHANGED
Transition
3
3
1 (norm)
0
Fig. 2. RRC states. The figure on the left shows the typical number of
signalling messages exchanged within the RAN for each transition. The other
figures show the approximate energy consumption and maximum data rate at
the UE.
connection between the UE and the RNC uses only common
channels which allow low-rate data transmission.
DCH: The UE is in connected mode, and the radio connection uses resources dedicated to the UE. While in DCH,
the UE may use shared channels, dedicated channels or both.
The data rate of the connection is significantly higher than the
FACH state, but energy use is also higher.
PCH: This is a low-energy state that allows the UE to
maintain its RNC connection and thus stay in connected mode,
but it cannot send or receive any traffic while in this state.
While in PCH, the UE listens to paging occasions on the
paging channel. This state is optional and it can be enabled or
disabled by the MNO according to their policies. Although the
PCH state is a low-energy state, the UE still consumes more
power than in the idle state. Therefore, some MNOs choose
to disable the PCH state in order to allow the UE to return
to idle mode quickly and thus reduce its energy consumption.
We will investigate the effect of the PCH state on signalling
load in Sec. VI.
State demotions from a higher to a lower state,
e.g. DCH→FACH, occur based on radio bearer inactivity
timers at the RNC. The exact order of state demotions is
dependent on MNO policy, but a progression as shown in
Fig. 2 is common, although some MNOs skip the FACH
and/or PCH states. State promotions from the idle and PCH
states occur depending on uplink and downlink activity. For
example, when the UE has uplink data to send, it sends an
“RNC connection request” if in idle, or a “cell update” if in
PCH, to the RNC in order to move to a state where it can send
and receive data. Whether the UE is promoted to the FACH
or DCH state is dependent on MNO policy. A FACH→DCH
transition is performed based on buffer occupancy of the
uplink and downlink radio links as observed by the RNC.
Table I summarizes when RRC state transitions occur and
the number of signalling messages exchanged to effect each
transition. In our simulations, we assume the RRC state
progression given in Fig. 2. The UE goes from idle to FACH
initially, and then to DCH if the buffer threshold is reached.
The UE goes from DCH to FACH upon demotion from DCH.
Whether the UE goes from FACH to PCH, or to idle, depends
on whether the PCH state is enabled. For an x → y transition,
we use rxy and cxy to denote the number of signalling
3
Triggering event
Idle→FACH Uplink or downlink traffic
PCH→FACH Uplink or downlink traffic
FACH→DCH Radio link buffer threshold (Θ) reached,
Θ = 1500 B
DCH→FACH Expiry of inactivity timer T1 = 6s
FACH→Idle Expiry of inactivity timer T2 = 12s, PCH
disabled
FACH→PCH Expiry of inactivity timer T2 = 4s, PCH
enabled
PCH→Idle
Expiry of inactivity timer T3 = 20min, PCH
enabled
rxy
cxy
15
3
7
5
-
5
5
3
3
-
6
3
messages exchanged within the RAN and between the RAN
and the CN, respectively.
The RRC protocol was designed to manage the limited radio
resources among multiple UEs and to decrease energy use at
the UE. It is therefore biased towards demoting the UE to a
lower state as soon as possible, especially if the UE is in the
DCH or FACH state. Indeed, as the number of smartphones
accessing UMTS networks has increased, the industry has
introduced improvements and changes in order to get more
data rate out of limited radio resources, such as HSDPA and
HSUPA, and to improve the energy use of smartphones. For
example, fast dormancy enables the UE to indicate to the
RNC when it has no more uplink data to send for a speedier
demotion to the PCH or idle state. In addition, some MNOs
choose to disable the PCH state in order to allow the UE
to return to idle mode quickly and thus reduce its energy
consumption. As we will discuss in Sec. VI, this tendency
to perform hasty RRC demotions result in excessive signalling
load in the mobile network, especially in the case of deliberate
attacks or signalling storms that result from poorly designed
applications.
The RNC will customarily release radio resources for a
UE soon after activity ceases in its channel, making those
resources available for other UEs. Thus it uses short inactivity
timers, which are in the order of 2–10 seconds (see Table I).
These short timers make the RRC protocol susceptible to
signalling attacks, as an attacker that approximately determines
the values of the T1 and T2 timers can then launch a devastating attack from a relatively small number of compromised
UEs, as we discuss in Sec. VI. In addition, when combined
with the “chatty” nature of many mobile applications, the
tendency to deallocate radio channels quickly necessarily leads
to increased RRC signalling in order to reconfigure or setup
channels that were released a short time ago, rendering the
mobile network vulnerable to RRC based signalling storms.
We thus focus on the RRC protocol in order to better
understand its signalling behavior, and investigate under which
conditions signalling load becomes excessive. In the next
section, we develop a mathematical model of the signalling
behavior of the UE, and later derive analytical results from it.
Section V describes our simulation model of UMTS networks.
In Sec. VI, we describe our experimental setup and discuss our
findings on the effect of signalling attacks targeting the RRC
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cell_DCH
¾FD
DL
¸H
¸L
¸H
¿H-1
¾PD SPD0 ¸
H
SPF0
¸L
SFP0
SFI
¾PF
¾PF
¾PF
SPD1
T2-1
F0
¿H-1
SFD2
¾PD
SIF0
SIF1
¿H-1
¸L
¿L-1
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Idle
Fig. 3.
¾IF
¾DF
I
SID1
SID0
T1-1
SDF0
¾FD
¾IF
¸L
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SFD0
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cell_PCH
Markov model of the signalling behavior of the UE
protocol.
IV. M ODELING S IGNALLING B EHAVIOR OF THE UE
Analytical models [42] are a useful way to gain insight into
the main performance interactions within a telecommunications system. Thus we will first review the work in [43] for a
single UE’s signalling behavior which focuses on the potential
of causing signalling storms. We then extend the analysis to
include the effect of congestion which limits the signalling
load that a set of misbehaving UEs can impose on the network
during a storm.
Consider a UE which generates both normal and malicious
connections, and suppose that its RRC state machine is described by Fig. 2. We will represent the state evolution of the
UE by a Markov model as presented in Fig. 3. Let λL and
λH be the rates at which low and high bandwidth connections
are normally made, and µL and µH be the rates at which
these connections terminate. Furthermore, denote by FL the
state when the UE is using the bandwidth of FACH, and by
DL and DH the states when low and high rate requests are
handled while the UE is in DCH. Since the amount of traffic
exchanged in states FL and DL is usually very small, we
assume that their durations are independent but stochastically
identical. At the end of normal usage, the UE transitions from
FL to F0 or from DH , DL to D0 , where F0 and D0 are the
states when the UE is inactive in FACH and DCH, and before
the timers T2 and T1 expire. If the UE does not start a new
session for some time, it will be demoted from D0 to F0 , and
from F0 to P , and will then return from P to I (i.e. PCH →
Idle) when inactivity timer T3 expires. Since the UE is not
able to communicate in P , the transition P → I is performed
by having the UE first move to FACH, release all signalling
connections, and finally move to I.
The attacking or misbehaving connections falsely induce
the UE to move from one state to another without the user
actually having any usage for such requests. Since in these
cases a transition to an actual bandwidth usage state does not
take place, unless the user starts a new session, the timers will
demote the state of the UE. Consequently, the attack results in
the usage of network resources both by the computation and
state transitions that occur for session handling, and through
bandwidth reservation that remains unutilised.
4
To perform a signalling attack, the attacker would need
to infer the radio network configuration parameters (i.e. the
timers Ti and radio link threshold Θ), and also monitor the
user’s activity in order to estimate when a transition occurs
so as to trigger a new one immediately afterwards. Naturally
there will be an error between the actual transition time and
the estimated one, and we denote the expected value of the
difference between the two time instants by τL and τH for
malicious transitions to FACH and DCH, respectively. In a
similar manner, if the storm is caused by a misbehaving mobile
application, then τL , τH represent the level of “synchronization” between the malicious traffic bursts and the UE’s state
changes; for instance τH = 0 indicates the extreme case in
which a high rate burst is sent immediately after a demotion
from DCH.
−1
Finally, let σxy
be the average time needed to establish
and/or release network resources during state promotion or
demotion x → y, and Sxy be the corresponding state when
the UE is waiting in state x for the transition to complete. Note
that this overhead is incurred only when the UE moves from
one RRC state to another, while changes within the same RRC
state (e.g. from inactive to active) occur instantaneously and
are seamless to the UE. If πs is the stationary probability that
the UE is in state s, then the average signalling load (msg/s)
on the RNC generated by the UE due to both normal and
malicious traffic is:
−1
γr (w) = πI [(λL + τL−1 )rIF + (λH + τH
)rID ]
−1
+ πP [(λL + τL−1 )rP F + (λH + τH
)rP D ]
−1
+ [πF0 + πFL ](λH + τH
)rF D
+ πD0 T1−1 rDF + πF0 T2−1 [rF P 1F→P + rF I 1F→I ]
+ πP T3−1 rP I 1F→P ,
(1)
where the characteristic function 1x→y takes the value 1 if
the transition x → y is enabled and 0 otherwise, and w is a
congestion parameter which we define in the following section.
The UE also generates signalling with the CN whenever
it moves from or to the Idle state, leading to an average
signalling load on the SGSN given by:
−1
γc (w) = πI [(λL + τL−1 )cIF + (λH + τH
)cID ]
+ πF0 T2−1 cF I 1F→I + πP T3−1 cP I 1F→P .
(2)
A. Modeling Congestion in the Control Plane
The analytical model we just described can be solved
in closed-form [43] when the average transition delays are
known, allowing to determine the conditions and parameters
for which signalling misbehavior has the most serious consequences on the network functioning. In normal circumstances,
state promotions and demotions last for few milliseconds that
represent only a small fraction of the total lifetime of a
session. However, when the mobile network servers become
overloaded, as in during a signalling storm, the time needed to
establish and release connections also increases, which in turn
limits the maximum signalling load that a set of misbehaving
UEs can impose on the network. To better understand the
effect of a signalling storm, we develop a simple model for
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−1
the average time σxy
needed to perform the transition x → y
as follows:
rxy
X
−1
σxy (w) = rxy w +
(txy [n] + δxy [n])
(3)
n=1
which consists of three components:
• Communication delay txy [n] comprising propagation and
transmission parts that are subject to the physical characteristics of the links traversed by the n-th signalling
message exchanged during the transition. This delay depends only on the path followed by the message, and we
ignore queueing at the transmission links, since signalling
storms do not affect the data plane, and thus they do not
translate into congestion in the wireless or wired links.
• Average queueing delay w at the RNC signalling server,
which is a function of the number of normal UEs served
by the RNC M N , the number of misbehaving ones M A ,
and the RNC signalling load (1) of both normal γrN
and misbehaving γrA UEs. Note that we do not represent
congestion at the SGSN, since the CN is less susceptible
to signalling storms, especially when PCH is enabled.
• Processing time δxy [n] at the mobile network servers handling the message, which we assume
P to be constant per
message type1 such that δxy [n] = s∈servers δxy,s [n].
The aggregate load that the RNC signalling server needs to
handle is then:
Γr (w) = M N γrN + M A γrA .
(4)
Note that Γr is a function of w, which itself is determined
by Γr . Using a simple M/M/K system to model the RNC
signalling server, the average queueing delay can be obtained
by solving the non-linear expression [44]:
"K−1
#−1
X (Kρ)i
(Kρ)K
(Kρ)K
+
,
w=
K!(1 − ρ)(Kν − Γr ) i=0 i!
K!(1 − ρ)
(5)
Γr
where ρ(w) = Kν
, and ν is an “equivalent” average service
rate which depends on the composition of the signalling
messages processed by the RNC:
ν
−1
(w) =
Γ−1
r
X
C∈{N ,A}
M
C
rxy
XX
C
γr,xy
δxy,r [n],
(6)
x,y n=1
C
where γr,xy
is the signalling load on the RNC from a UE of
type C ∈ {N , A} due to a transition x → y, and δxy,r [n] ≥ 0
is the RNC’s processing time of the n-th signalling message
exchanged during the transition.
V. S IMULATION OF UMTS N ETWORKS AND S IGNALLING
A NOMALIES
The mathematical model we have developed and described
in Sec. IV provides a good approximation of the signalling
behavior of the UE, and enables us to quickly derive analytical
results in order to investigate the effect of signalling attacks
and the values of the various network parameters, such as the
1 Note that signalling message types are defined by the 3GPP standards and
known a priori.
5
Ti timers, on signalling load. In order to capture aspects of the
mobile network not explicitly represented in the mathematical
model, we have developed a discrete event simulation (DES)
model of the UMTS network, focusing on the signalling layer
in the RAN. We have developed models of the UE, Node
B, RNC, SGSN and GGSN, and also models of the “Internet
cloud” and Internet hosts (i.e. servers). While we do not model
the circuit-switched (CS) domain explicitly, the SGSN model
contains aspects of the MSC server necessary to establish and
tear-down CS calls, i.e. voice calls and SMS; our SGSN model
is therefore a hybrid of the SGSN and the MSC server.
The performance of the simulation was an important consideration in our model design, and in order to be able to simulate
large scale mobile networks, we have adopted two approaches.
First, we have developed our simulation model so that we
support distributed simulation. We can therefore distribute
elements of the simulated mobile network over multiple logical
processes in order to leverage multiple hosts in a simulation,
allowing us to simulate much larger mobile networks than
would be possible with a single process. Second, we combine
packet-level and call-level representation of communications
in our model. Communications that are natively message
based or bursty in nature are represented at the packet level.
These include communications for SMS, email, web browsing,
and instant messaging. Other types of communications are
represented at the call level; examples include voice calls, VoIP
calls, and multimedia streaming.
In the control plane, the UE model consists of the session
management (SM), GPRS mobility management (GMM) and
RRC layers. In the data plane, it contains the application layer,
which has CS and IP applications representing all user activity,
the transport layer (TCP and UDP) and a simplified IP layer
that is adapted for mobile networks. We have a simplified
model of the RLC layer, but we do not explicitly model the
MAC and PHY layers; effects of changes in radio conditions
are modeled as random variations in the data rate of the radio
channels. Uplink and downlink radio transmissions over a
radio bearer (RB) are modeled by two single server, single
FIFO queue pairs, one for each direction as shown in Fig. 4.
The service time at the transmission server is calculated based
on the length of the currently transmitted RLC packet and the
current data rate for the RB. Changes in the RB data rate are
reflected on the service time of the current packet. Each UE
has one signalling RB and one data RB. In addition to the
transmission delays for the RBs, propagation and processing
delays are also modeled. We also model the usual communication delays (i.e. transmission, propagation and processing
delays) over wired links connecting the different network
elements, e.g. between the RNC and the SGSN.
Our RNC model has the RRC, RANAP, NBAP and GTP
protocols. The RRC model in the RNC consists of a single
signalling server and a single FIFO queue, used to model
r
for RRC signalling messages. The
the processing time δxy
server handles two classes of signalling messages, where
one class consists of signalling messages that effect a state
transition x → y (e.g. the RB setup message), and the second
class includes all other signalling messages. The service time
assigned to the first class reflects the time taken to allocate
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EMERGING TOPICS IN COMPUTING, VOL. XX, NO. X, MONTH 2015
Uplink
Initial session
Activation delay
delay
Downlink
UE
6
Inter-session
interval
Activity period
Session
Node B
Activity period
Idle
period
Simulation
start
Radio bearer (RB)
Processing
delay
FIFO queue
(RLC buffer)
Transmission
server
Fig. 4. The simulation model of a radio bearer (RB), consisting of a single
server, single FIFO queue pair in each direction. The uplink and downlink
servers are located at the UE and the Node B, respectively.
Main page
request
Main page
response
Embedded object
requests
Inter-request
interval
Embedded object
responses
Last main
page request
in session
Fig. 5. Web traffic model representing interactive user browsing. Note that
time is not drawn to scale.
TABLE II
PARAMETERS OF THE WEB TRAFFIC MODEL
and deallocate radio resources by the RNC, whereas a default
and smaller service time is used for the second class. In the
analytical results presented in the next section, K = 1, and
r
ν is calculated based on the δxy
values as defined here. As
the handler of RRC state transitions, this server will be one
of the main points of interest in our simulations, and as we
discuss in Sec. VI it will become overloaded as the severity
of the signalling attacks increases.
VI. E XPERIMENTS
In order to understand the effect of RRC based signalling
attacks in UMTS networks, we implemented our simulation
model in the OMNeT++ simulation framework [45]. We
present results from our simulation experiments and analytical
results derived from our mathematical model. The UMTS
network topology used in the simulations closely resembles
the architecture shown in Fig. 1. In our simulations we have
1000 UEs in an area of 2x2 km2 , which is covered by 7 Node
Bs connected to a single RNC. The CN consists of the SGSN
and the GGSN, which is connected to 10 Internet hosts acting
as web servers. All UEs attach to the mobile network at the
start of the simulation, and remain attached. We simulate high
user activity in a 2.5 hour period, during which users are
actively browsing the web. Our web browsing model is based
on industry recommendations [46], and is described below.
A. Web Browsing Behaviour of the User
We model interactive web browsing behavior using a selfsimilar traffic model as shown in Fig. 5. The parameters of
the web traffic model are random variables from probability
distributions, and Table II gives the values used in our simulations, which are based on web metrics released by Google [47].
In addition to this random mode, the web application model
also supports a scripted mode in which given user traces are
replayed in order to inject browsing events at predetermined
times.
The activity period represents the time that the UE is active
during a 24 hour period, i.e. the hours during the day that it
is generating web traffic. The idle period between two activity
periods is the remaining hours within the 24 hours. The first
activity period starts after an activation delay da , and consists
of one or more browsing sessions. The first session within an
activity period starts after an initial session delay ds , and the
Name Description
Value
pa
da
ds
ns
constant, 24 hours
uniform(1, 10)
is /2
truncated normal µ = 10,
σ = 5, min = 2
truncated normal, µ = 20,
σ = 10, min = 2
truncated exponential,
λ−1 = 60, min = 10,
max = 600
truncated normal, µ = 600,
σ = 100, min = 300
histogram [47]
is
Activity period
Activation delay (min.)
Initial session delay
Number of main page requests
in session
Inter-session interval (min.)
ir
Inter-request interval (sec.)
lr
Request size (B)
lm
Main page size, excluding
embedded resources
Size of image resources (KB)
limg
ltxt
ne
Size of text resources
Number of embedded objects in
page
Rimg Ratio of image resources to all
embedded resources in page
dpc Processing delay, client (ms)
dps
Processing delay, server (ms)
truncated exponential,
λ−1 = 50, min = 1.2,
max = 400
histogram [47]
histogram [47]
uniform(0.1, 0.5)
truncated normal, µ = 50,
σ = 10, min = 0
truncated normal, µ = 4,
σ = 1, min = 1
time between the last and the first main request in one session
and the next respectively, is the inter-session interval is .
Within a session, the user generates requests for web pages,
which are called main page requests, and the first request is
scheduled at the start of the session. The request results in
a page response from the web server, which is subject to a
processing delay dpc at the client, representing the time it
takes for the web client at the UE to process the received
response. A web page contains zero or more embedded
objects, and the client generates an embedded object request
for each one. We assume that HTTP version 1.1 is used and
that each embedded object request is pipelined over a single
TCP connection. The length of a request is denoted by lr . The
inter-request interval ir is the time between the generation of
two consecutive main page requests, and it is independent of
the reception of the responses. The session length is controlled
by the number of main page requests ns in the session.
The web server generates a response for each request it
receives after a processing delay dps . The length of a main
page response is lm , and it excludes the sizes of any embedded
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EMERGING TOPICS IN COMPUTING, VOL. XX, NO. X, MONTH 2015
1%
2%
4%
8%
12%
16%
Load on RNC [msg/s]
160
140
120
100
80
0 1/10 1/4
1/2
1/τ [s−1]
1/1
+Inf
H
B. The Attack Model
We consider two different attack strategies in our evaluation:
FACH and DCH attacks. In FACH attacks, the attacker aims to
overload the control plane by causing superfluous promotions
to the FACH state, and therefore needs to know when a
demotion from FACH occurs in the UE. In DCH attacks, the
demotion of interest is from the DCH state. As introduced in
Sec. IV, the error between the actual transition time and the
estimated one is denoted by τL and τH in the FACH and DCH
attack scenarios respectively.
In FACH attacks, the attacker sends a small data packet to a
random Internet server in order to cause a promotion to FACH.
Higher rate data traffic is generated in DCH attacks in order to
cause the buffer threshold to be reached and therefore result
in a promotion to DCH. For simulation purposes, our RRC
model at the UE informs all registered malicious applications
when an RRC state transition occurs. Before launching the
next attack, the attacker waits for a period of τL or τH after
a suitable demotion is detected, e.g. from FACH to PCH in
the FACH attack case, where τL , τH are random variables.
In our experiments, we assume that τL , τH are exponentially
distributed with mean = {0, 1, 2, 4, 6, 10, 14, 20, 30}s to simulate varying degrees of error on behalf of the attacker. For
signalling storms, the τ ’s represent the “synchronization” between the RRC state machine of the UE and the misbehaving
application, while the attack scenario represents whether the
misbehaving application generates low-rate or high-rate traffic.
We present results from the DCH attack scenario only since
the FACH attack scenario produces similar behaviour in most
cases.
VII. M ODELING AND S IMULATION R ESULTS
We performed simulation experiments in order to investigate
the effect of signalling attacks and storms due to the RRC
protocol on the RAN and the CN. We vary the number of
compromised or misbehaving UEs from 1% to 20% of all
UEs. Both normal and misbehaving UEs generate normal
traffic based on the web browsing model described above. The
misbehaving applications are activated gradually between 20
and 30 minutes from the start of the simulation in order to
prevent artifacts such as a huge spike of signalling load due
to many malicious applications coming online at the same
time. We collect simulation data only from the period when all
misbehaving UEs are active. Each data point in the presented
results is an average of five simulation runs with different
random seeds. The relevant RRC protocol parameters are as
given in Table I. We also present analytical results derived
from our mathematical model together with the simulation
results. We observe that as a result of correctly adjusting
1%
190
20%
180
Load on RNC [msg/s]
objects and TCP/IP headers. The number of embedded objects
per page is ne and we model two types of objects: image and
text (e.g. CSS documents, scripts). The size of an embedded
object is limg and ltxt for image and text objects, respectively.
Rimg gives the ratio of image objects to all embedded objects
in a page. In the simulations, a client selects a web server
uniformly at random for each main page request.
7
2%
4%
8%
12%
16%
20%
1/1
+Inf
180
170
160
150
140
130
0 1/10 1/4
1/2
1/τH [s−1]
(a) PCH enabled (simulation)
(b) PCH disabled (simulation)
(c) PCH enabled (analytical)
(d) PCH disabled (analytical)
Fig. 6. Signalling load in the radio access network as a result of DCH
attacks, for different number of attackers. The 1/τH = 0 case corresponds
to a “no attack” scenario.
the parameters of the mathematical model based on initial
simulation results, and with the addition of the effect of
congestion into the model, the simulation and analytical results
show a high degree of agreement. We do not present analytical
results for Figs. 8b and 9 to prevent repetition of similar
results, and for Fig. 8a since the mathematical model does
not capture quality-of-experience.
Figure 6 shows the signalling load in the RAN under DCH
attacks, with PCH enabled and disabled. As τH decreases or
the number of attackers increase, the number of signalling
messages sent and received by the RNC towards the RAN
increases as expected. The rate of increase is dependent on
1/τH and higher when the number of attackers is high. We can
see that whether the PCH state is enabled does not affect the
behaviour of the signalling load in the RAN significantly, but
it still decreases the signalling load. An interesting observation
is that when PCH is disabled, there is a maximum load
when the percentage of attackers is ≥ 8% that is attained
with a high τH . This is worrying since it shows that a
maximum signalling load can be induced in the RAN by
signalling storms when a sufficient number of UEs misbehave
without requiring a high level of synchronization between the
misbehaving application and the RRC state machine. Enabling
the PCH state addresses this issue. Another useful observation
is that given a fixed number of attackers, RRC attacks are
self-limiting: as signalling load on the RNC increases, this
prevents attackers from being able to attack the network at
a high rate since they are themselves subject to longer waits
for channel allocations. We will re-visit this issue when we
discuss congestion at the RNC signalling server.
Figure 7 shows the signalling load in the CN under DCH
attacks, with PCH enabled and disabled, and demonstrates the
advantage of enabling the optional PCH state. We observe
that whether the PCH state is enabled has a significant effect
on the signalling load in the CN. This is because most RRC
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EMERGING TOPICS IN COMPUTING, VOL. XX, NO. X, MONTH 2015
4%
8%
12%
16%
1%
45
20%
Load on SGSN [msg/s]
Load on SGSN [msg/s]
2.05
2
1.95
1.9
1.85
1.8
1.75
2%
4%
8%
12%
16%
1%
20%
2%
4%
8%
12%
16%
20%
0s
40
35
30
25
4s
10s
20s
8
7
6
Queueing time [s]
2%
End−to−end delay [s]
1%
2.1
8
5
4
3
6
4
2
2
1.7
1.65
0 1/10 1/4
1/2
−1
1/τH [s ]
1/1
+Inf
(a) PCH enabled (simulation)
20
0 1/10 1/4
1/2
1/τH [s−1]
1/1
1
0 1/10
+Inf
(b) PCH disabled (simulation)
1/4
1/2
−1
1/τH [s ]
1/1
0
1 2
+Inf
(a) Application response time vs.
1/τH , for different number of attackers
4
8
12
Attackers [%]
16
20
(b) Average queueing time at the
RNC signalling server vs. number of
attackers, for different τH values
Fig. 8. Effect of DCH attacks on application response time and queueing
time at the RNC signalling server, PCH disabled
Idle 1% att.
Busy 1%
Idle 20%
Busy 20%
Idle 1% att.
0.45
Busy 1%
Idle 20%
Busy 20%
1
0.4
(d) PCH disabled (analytical)
Fig. 7. Signalling load in the core network as a result of DCH attacks,
for different number of attackers. The 1/τH = 0 case corresponds to a “no
attack” scenario.
induced signalling with the CN occurs when the UE enters and
exits the idle state. Enabling the PCH state, which normally
has a very long inactivity timer (T3 ), prevents the UE from
entering the idle state prematurely, significantly decreasing the
signalling load in the CN at the cost of slightly more energy
consumption at the UE. Therefore, our recommendation would
be to enable PCH as a first step in the mitigation of RRC
based signalling attacks and storms. Enabling the PCH state
also eliminates the problem of the maximum signalling load
observed in Fig. 7b for high values of τH , which is due to the
interaction between τH and the RRC inactivity timers T1 and
T2 . When τH > T1 +T2 , the UE enters the idle state as a result
of inactivity, and then the misbehaving application causes the
UE to go into FACH or DCH in order to send data, resulting
in excessive signalling with the CN. The long T3 timer of the
PCH state solves this issue.
Our results so far demonstrate how the mobile network
infrastructure is seriously affected by RRC based signalling
anomalies. These anomalies also have an appreciable impact
on the quality-of-experience (QoE) of the mobile user. Figure
8a shows the application response time at a normal UE, which
is defined as the time between when the user requests a web
page and when all of the web page is received. The response
time is not greatly affected when there are very few misbehaving UEs and when τH is high. But delay increases by up
to 400% as the severity of the attack increases with increasing
number of attackers and 1/τH . User normally tolerate a wait
of 2–10 seconds for a web page to download [48,49], and
therefore the observed response times are significant from
a QoE view. The affected mobile users are highly likely to
attribute the bad QoE to the MNO, so the MNO has one
more incentive to detect and mitigate signalling problems in
its network.
The main reason for the increase in application response
time is the time it takes for the UE to acquire a radio channel
P(user in DCH)
(c) PCH enabled (analytical)
P(user in FACH)
0.8
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
0.4
0.2
1/10
1/4
1/2
1/τH [s−1]
1
(a) Time spent in the FACH state
while idle and busy
Fig. 9.
0.6
0
0 1/10
1/4
1/2
1/τH [s−1]
1
(b) Time spent in the DCH state
while idle and busy
Radio channel utilization under DCH attacks, PCH disabled
in order to send and receive data, which includes, in addition
to communication delays between the UE and the RNC, the
service and queueing times experienced by the RRC signalling
messages effecting the channel acquisition. Figure 8b shows
that queueing time at the RRC signalling server component of
the RNC greatly increases as the number of attackers increase.
We observe that effects of congestion at the server become
significant when the percentage of attackers is > 4%, affecting
application response time for normal users, and also placing
a limit on the impact of signalling attacks on the network
since the attackers themselves are subject to longer delays for
channel acquisition.
Our final results relate to how the UE utilizes its allocated
radio resources, and provide a useful feature that we aim
to exploit in our future work on the detection of signalling
attacks. Figure 9 shows the ratio of time the UE is in the
FACH or DCH state while busy (i.e. sending or receiving data)
and idle. The most important observation is that a normal
UE, represented with 1/τH = 0, has a markedly different
behaviour than a misbehaving UE (1/τH > 0), and the
discrepancy increases with 1/τH . Normal UEs do not spend a
significant time in FACH or DCH as busy or idle, but attackers
spend a long time as idle while in FACH and DCH, i.e. their
session tails are comparatively longer than their session body.
This is because normal users only acquire the channel when
they have legitimate traffic, and they send larger chunks of
data and therefore use the channel for longer than attackers,
resulting in a low ratio of idle to busy time. Attackers, on
the other hand, frequently acquire the channel to send only a
small amount of “attack traffic” and therefore waste most of
the radio channel as reflected in their high ratio of idle to busy
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EMERGING TOPICS IN COMPUTING, VOL. XX, NO. X, MONTH 2015
time. The exception to this is the FACH state when there is
congestion in the control plane due to the signalling attack: we
observe that attackers spend significantly long times as busy
in the FACH state when there is congestion, e.g. with 20% of
attackers, which is due to the long delay it takes the UEs to
acquire the channel as discussed above.
VIII. C ONCLUSIONS AND F UTURE W ORK
In this paper, we have investigated the effect of signalling
attacks and storms in mobile networks, focusing on signalling
anomalies that exploit the radio resource control (RRC) protocol. We presented a Markov model of the signalling behaviour
of the UE and extended the model for effects of congestion in
the control plane. The analytical model provides an accurate
representation of the RRC signalling behaviour and allows us
to reach quick analytical results.
We have also developed a simulation of a UMTS mobile
network, and simulation experiments were used to validate
the mathematical model, resulting in its improvement by the
addition of concepts not previously captured and the realistic
setting of the model parameters. We presented simulation and
analytical results, looking at how different components in the
mobile network are affected by signalling attacks and storms.
Our results show that RRC based signalling anomalies can
cause significant problems in both the control plane and the
user plane in the network, and provide insight into how such
attacks and storms can be detected and mitigated. While we
have focused on UMTS networks in this work, the RRC
protocol is also employed in LTE networks, and any RRC
related anomalies would have a more severe impact in LTE
networks since they employ only two RRC states (connected
and idle), and the mitigating effect of the long T3 timer used
in the PCH state are non-existent in LTE networks.
Future work can exploit the insight gained in this paper for
the detection and mitigation of signalling attacks in mobile
networks. One aspect that requires attention is the identification of possible locations, such as specific cells, where attacks
may originate, and methods related to search and smart traffic
routing may prove valuable in this context [50,51]. Another
important aspect relates to identifying sets of representative
features for the detection of signalling attacks and storms,
and of the misbehaving UEs. An important consideration is to
prevent false positives as much as possible so as not to punish
normal “heavy” users. We will also develop system wide models based on queueing theory [52] that represent a single user
in a simple manner, to study mitigation methods that involve
randomisation and adaptively introducing artificial delays in
the state transitions of the UEs so that they may automatically
reduce the negative impact of attacks and signalling storms.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The work presented in this paper was partially supported
by the EU FP7 research project NEMESYS (Enhanced Network Security for Seamless Service Provisioning in the Smart
Mobile Ecosystem), under grant agreement no. 317888 within
the FP7-ICT-2011.1.4 Trustworthy ICT domain.
9
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