APPLICATION OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN KENYA’S SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT NATIONAL DEFENCE COLLEGE COURSE 15-2012/2013 Volume 1, 2012 DISCLAIMER The information contained in this paper is the result of academic research carried out by the participants concerned. The views and/or observations on the issues raised are their own and do not reflect and/or represent in any way the official position of the Department of Defense or that of the National Defense College. Thursday 30th August 2012 i LIST & REVIEW TEAM MEMBERS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. MR GEDION O AMALLA BRIG CHRISTOPHER JOSEPH O ARRUM MRS GRACE CERERE BRIG KENNETH O DINDI COL RASHID A ELMI COL PHUMZILE FONGOQA BRIG GEN JOHN GACINYA COL NGUGI GIKONYO MR MATHENGE GITONGA CAPT TAIYE ABDUL IMAM COL SOLOMON UMBA KALELI BRIG SAMUEL KAVUMA COL MARTIN AMOS KEMWAGA MR IBRAHIM KHAMIS MS GLADYS KINYUAH MRS SARGUTA LEBISHOY KITUR COL MOSES KAGISO LEKOKO COL AARON ROBERT LUKYAA MAJ (RTD) OMAR M MARSA COL AYUB GUANTAI MATIIRI COL G W MBITHI COL PATRICK LUMUMBA MIJONI COL EDMOND MITI MR MOHAMED BARRE MUHUMED COL EVERISTE MURENZI COL KASILI MUTAMBO MR CHARLES MUTHUSI COL JOSUA N NAMHINDO BRIG GEN CHOL BIAR NGANG MR ROBERT MUTEGI NJUE COL BENSON MUTHUI NZILU COL INNOCENT G OULA BRIG GEN GATWECH YIECH RUOM COL GABRIEL SABUSHIMIKE COL ALOYS SINDAYIHEBURA COL CHISICHENYU SINGIZI STAFF COL TAWFIK AHMED TAWFIK MR JAMES KIMUTAI TOO MR SAMUEL MNDAVIKI WACHENJE COL GEORGE ODHIAMBO WALWA MS CATHERINE WAMBANI WEKESA KENYA POLICE SERVICE KENYA ARMY MFA KENYA KENYA ARMY KENYA AIRFORCE SA NATIONAL DEFENCE FORCE RWANDA DEFENCE FORCES KENYA ARMY KENYA FOREST SERVICE NIGERIAN NAVY KENYA AIRFORCE UGANDA PEOPLE DEFENCE FORCES TANZANIA PEOPLE DEFENCE FORCE MFA KENYA MIN OF EAC KENYA NSIS KENYA BOTSWANA ARMY TANZANIA PEOPLE DEFENCE FORCE NSIS KENYA KENYA ARMY KENYA NAVY MALAWI ARMY ZAMBIA ARMY OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT RWANDA DEFENCE FORCES KENYA ARMY KENYA POLICE SERVICE NAMIBIA DEFENCE FORCE SOUTH SUDAN ARMY KENYA WILDLIFE SERVICE KENYA AIRFORCE UGANDA PEOPLE DEFENCE FORCES SOUTH SUDAN ARMY BURUNDI DEFENCE FORCE BURUNDI DEFENCE FORCE ZIMBABWE DEFENCE FORCES EGYPTIAN ARMY KENYA PRISON SERVICE NATIONAL YOUTH SERVICE KENYA KENYA ARMY KENYA WILDLIFE SERVICE ii TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTENT PAGE TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................ II LIST OF ACRONYMS ......................................................................................................... IV EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...................................................................................................... V INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 1 OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................................................................ 2 EFFECTS OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND INNOVATION ON SOCIO- DEVELOPMENT OF THE SOCIETY............................................................................................................................ 4 THE IMPACT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ON ECONOMIC SYSTEMS OF KENYA ............. 7 Aviation Industry ........................................................................................................................................... 7 Agriculture and Rural Development .............................................................................................................. 8 Trade and Industry ........................................................................................................................................ 9 Physical Infrastructure .................................................................................................................................. 9 Energy ............................................................................................................................................................ 9 Environment Sector...................................................................................................................................... 10 ACHIEVEMENTS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN KENYA .............................................. 11 Health ........................................................................................................................................................... 12 Human Resource Development .................................................................................................................... 12 Iinformation Communication Technology (ICT) ........................................................................................ 13 Energy Production ....................................................................................................................................... 14 EXISTING POLICIES ON SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN KENYA ......................................... 14 Policies .......................................................................................................................................................... 14 Ministry of Industrialisation ........................................................................................................................ 15 Ministry of Agriculture ................................................................................................................................ 16 Ministry of Energy Policies .......................................................................................................................... 16 ii Ministry of Livestock.................................................................................................................................... 17 CHALLENGES FACING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES LIKE KENYA .................................................................................................. 18 THE FUTURE TRENDS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT IN KENYA .............. 18 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................. 22 RECOMMENDATIONS ..................................................................................................... 23 ANNEX A. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IMPLEMENTATION MATRIX ................................ 24 BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................... 25 iii LIST OF ACRONYMS ADC BDS BLT BPO BRICS CCK CNC COMESA EAC EASSY ERC EU GDP GoK IAEA IPPD ISPs ITU KARI KDF KEBS KEMRI KEPHIS KIE KIFCON KIPI KIRDI LION MDG MEGS MTP MW NCPB NCS NCST NFNP NMC R&D SECOM ST &I TEAMS UAV UNDP USD Agricultural Development Co-operation Business Development Services Build Lease Transfer Business Processing Outsourcing Brazil, Russia, India, China Singapore Communications Commission of Kenya Computer Controlled Common Markets for East and Southern Africa East African Community East Africa Submarine Systems Energy Regulatory Commission European Union Gross Domestic Product Government of Kenya International Atomic Energy Agency Integrated Payroll and Personnel Database Internet Service Providers International Telecommunications Union Kenya Agricultural Research Institute Kenya Defense Forces Kenya Bureau of Standards Kenya Medical Research Institute Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Services Kenya Industrial Estates Kenya Indigenous Forests Conservation Project Kenya Industrial Properties Institute Kenya Industrial Research Development Institute Lower Indian Ocean network Millennium Development Goals Market Enhancing Governance Structure Medium Term Plan Megawatt National Cereals and Produce Board National Communication Secretariat National Council of Science and Technology National Food and Nutrition Policy Numerical Machining Institute Research and Development Sea Communication Science Technology and Innovation The East Africa Marine System Unmanned Aerial Vehicles United Nations Development Program United States Dollar iv EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Globally Science, Technology and Innovation (ST& I) are an indispensable tools the world over for rapid social and economic development of the society. The Industrial Revolution in early 19th Century and the consequent rapid socio economic development of Western Europe and America attest to this. In this regard, since the early part of the 20th Century, Kenya has also made efforts at integrating ST&I in its social and economic developmental programmes. However, the impact of this on the expected outcome has been relatively low as can be seen in the current state of affairs in the socio economic development of Kenya. Several factors could be responsible for this. Accordingly, the paper examined the level of integration of ST& I in Kenya’s socio-economic development and proffered recommendations. The paper highlighted the effect and impact of ST& I in Kenya and noted that inspite of some observed negative effects, it has positively impacted on the country’s socio economic development. The paper noted Kenya’s effort to boost national growth through ST&I and related activities. ST&I is coordinated and promoted by National Council of science and Technology (NCST) which was established under Cap 250 of the Laws of Kenya in 1977. This effort brought about diverse achievements in various sectors which include education, communications, agriculture, health and energy. The paper appraised existing policies on ST& I and observed that Kenya faces several challenges in the integration and implementation of ST& I in its developmental efforts. These include: i. Lack of emphasis in sciences in the education system, leading to shortage of the critical mass on ST& I. ii. Kenya spends less than 0.3% of its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in Research and Development (R&D), which is indicative of low priority that the sector is awarded. iii. Kenya’s R&D findings have no immediate impact on industrial development. iv. The link between ST&I policy and economic policies has not been fully integrated at the national level. v. Weak enforcement mechanism on monitoring and evaluation of implementation of ST &I policies and initiatives. v In recognition of the importance of ST& I to Kenya’s future socio economic development, the paper recommended that the government should consider i. Linking ST&I policy formulation and implementation to economic planning and budgeting. ii. Establishing a central data processing centre to disseminate and implement research findings, iii. Adopting Public Private Partnership approach, global best practice and incorporating the Ministry of State for Defence in R&D. iv. Allocating 10% of GDP in line with the global best practices. v. Strengthening Monitoring and Evaluation mechanism. Science, Technology and Innovation (ST&I) is a very important tool in leveraging economic, social and cultural transformation. The ability to achieve national sustainable development largely depends on the extent to which the integration of modern ST& I is achieved. vi INTRODUCTION 1. Since the Industrial Revolution in early 19th Century, the use of Science, Technology and Innovation (S T& I) has grown significantly from simple to cutting edge technology which has transformed the socio-economic development of societies. Indeed the well-being of human race rests on a foundation of three pillars; these are economic, socio-political and environmental conditions and processes. All these pillars have a strong linkage with ST& I. 2. The difference between the levels of socio-economic development of societies is reflected in the way each country embraces and applies technology as a road map for societal progress and advancement. The most industrialized countries of the West and the newly industralised countries in South East Asia effectively applied ST&I to develop their economies and transform the wellbeing of their societies. In this regard, Kenya upon gaining independence also made efforts at integrating ST&I in its social and economic developmental programmes. However, the expected outcome has been relatively low as evident by the current state of socio economic development of the country. The paper seeks to examine the factors responsible for this disparity. 3. The Vision 2030; which projects Kenya to be a middle income industrialized state is yet another strategic plan for the achievement of socio economic progress. In order to attain the planned strategic objectives, the effective development and application of appropriate ST&I systems as enshrined in the Vision will be critical. To this end, rapid development of innovative ideas, products, institutional arrangements and processes will enable the country to address more effectively the needs, aspirations and wellbeing of its citizens. This is particularly imperative within the context of the ever growing demands of stiff global economic competitiveness, sustainable development and equity considerations for the good of our citizenry. 1 AIM 4. The aim of this paper is to examine the application of ST& I in Kenya’s socio- economic development with a view of making recommendations. OBJECTIVES 5. The objectives of the paper are: i. To identify policy issues facing Kenya today and beyond. ii. To identify necessary advisory services for surveys and analysis of national levels needs and capacities that can assist in formulating technologies and integrating them into the economic and industrial development plans and policies. iii. To identify modalities of establishing and strengthening institutions for formulating of national policy on science and technology. iv. To recommend training services and facilities. v. To recommend areas of cooperating among policy makers on science and technology. vi. To recommend on the orientation of science and technology output toward benefiting the society in socio-economic development. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 6. The Technocratic Concept of Progress The American economy and way of life was transformed during the Industrial Revolution in early 19th Century following the development of radically improved machinery systems based on mechanized power for use in new factories. This new scientific knowledge and technological power brought about a comprehensive improvement in all the conditions of the society. 7. As the economic situation continued to improve during the early and late 19 th century, Massachusetts Senator Daniel Webster and Edward Everett developed and vigorously supported a concept known as ‘Technocratic Concept of Progresses’. The concept emphasised the sufficiency of scientific and technological innovation as the basis for general human progress. It was "technocratic" in that it valued improvements in power, efficiency, and rationality as ends in themselves. Webster and Everett supported industrialization of 2 America through technological improvement and innovation as the primary basis to universal progress.1 They regarded ST& I not as ends in themselves, but as instruments for carrying out a comprehensive transformation of society. 8. The concept says that if we can ensure the advance of science-based technologies, the rest will take care of itself. The ‘rest’ refers to nothing less than a corresponding degree of improvement in the social, political, and cultural conditions of life. The idea that technological improvements are the primary basis for/and an accurate gauge of progress has long been the fundamental belief of the US. This technocratic view of progress was enshrined in Fordism (President Gerald Ford) and an obsessive interest in economies of scale, standardization of process and product, and control of the workplace2. This shift to mass production was accompanied by the more or less official commitment of the US government to the growth of the nation's wealth, productivity, and global power, and to the most rapid possible rate of technological innovation as the essential criterion of social progress. The concept continues to remain relevant today in the US, Western Europe and other industrialized countries. As can be seen from the progress made by countries, it is those that adopt new scientific, technologies and innovations that have a higher chance of coping with the future challenges likely to emerge such as population increases, food security, and environmental and socio-economic factors. This technocratic concept is explained further in the diagram below. 1 2 Max Leo. Technology and the Future: Does Improved Technology Mean Progress?, Pp7-10 Ibid 3 9. The concept explains that Kenya needs to put up strong policy to integrate technology in all sectors of development. The policy should spell out a strong implementation and monitoring through all the national development in economic, political, social and environmental sectors. Kenya which is implementing Vision 2030 by which time it expects to be a middle income industrialized country, needs to consider using ‘technocratic concept of progresses’ to realize the strategic goals of the vision. This model explains that technology is not an option but must be integrated in the implementation of the plan as enshrined in the vision. The American government and Asian tigers have used this concept to propel their growth to the current position. This concept will therefore be the basis of analysis in subsequent discussions in this paper. EFFECTS OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND INNOVATION ON SOCIODEVELOPMENT OF THE SOCIETY 10. To assess the effects of ST & I on socio- development of the society, consideration is made to issues that contribute to the improvement of the welfare of society in conformity with Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)3. These issues are of national interest and 3 UNDP MDG Report 2010 4 should be considered in the country’s Grand Strategy. The vital issues are food security, education, health, employment, water, among others. The effects of ST & I have been noted to have both positive and negative effects on the socio development of a society as follows: Issue Food security (MDG1)4 Positive Effects Use of ST&I has improved productivity in agriculture and livestock through:  Growing of disease and drought resistant crops such sorghum and cassava.  Investment in high value crops such as flowers.  Use of fertilizer.  New variety of fast growing crops such as maize, and fruits.  Tissue Culture (TC) techniques ability of many plant species to regenerate a whole plant from a shoot tip5  Modern farming method “Green House Technology’ increase agricultural production through drip irrigation and reclamation of dry land through irrigation  Improved livestock breeds  Mechanized farming  The GMOs such as maize  Post harvesting techniques  Value addition (agro processing firms) Access to Education (MDG2, 3) Improved access to education through:  Long distance learning, e-library, e-Learning and video conferencing,  Education promotes gender equity. Increased efficiency and effectiveness in medical services has resulted into:  Early diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions has increased life expectancy in Kenya8..  Reduction of child and maternal mortality rates.  Decline in HIV/Aids prevalence.  Malaria control among other diseases.  Use of chemicals to purify water hence Access to Health services7 (MDG 4,5,6) Access to safe 4 Negative Effects  Toxic nature of pesticides  Water pollution example Lake Naivasha by flowers farmers.  Biotechnology threatens traditional crops e.g. pyrethrum, hence destroying farmers livelihood.  Loss of employment opportunities e.g. case of Kericho Tea Estates  GMOs can also cause genetic pollution where non-GM plants may be contaminated due to the aspect of cross pollination which is a threat to genetic diversity6.  Threatens the culture of reading  Job creation rate cannot match Life expectancy hence unemployment  Health risk due to long UNDP MDG Report 2009 Qaim, M. Assessing the impact of banana biotechnology in Kenya. ISAAA Briefs No. 10. Published by ISAAA, Bonn,1999, Pp.38. 6 Patricia Kameri-Mbote. .Regulation of GMO Crops and Foods- Kenya Case Study IELRC Working Paper 2005-10 7 Economic Survey 2012 8 Ezzatti et al. Comparison of Emissions and Residential Exposure from Traditional and Improved Cook stoves in Kenya, Environmental Science and Technology, 2000,Pp. 578-583. 5 5 Issue drinking water (MDG7) Negative Effects time use of water purification chemicals and risk of wrong application of chemicals Employment  Increased employment through Business  Loss of jobs due to (MDG1) Process Outsourcing and other online business increased mechanization and automation of  Application of STI accelerates productivity in: systems  Agriculture  Tourism  Increase of urban  Wholesale and retail trade opportunities triggers  Manufacturing industries which in turn rural urban migration create employment opportunities. which in turn lead to increased urban crimes.. Environment  Use of energy saving “jiko”, solar cookers,  New technology is (MDG7) gas cookers hence reducing destruction of expensive for the rural forests and resource use conflict. communities  Promotes clean environment through use of hydro power, solar, geothermal, bio gas and wind energy.  Promotes use of biomass energy. This energy will remain the main source of energy in developing countries for many years to come9. Industrialization  Increased industrial productivity  Water pollution from (MDG8) industrial waste as in  Improved quality of goods and services. Nairobi River,  Electricity generation from crop residue e.g. in  Air pollution due to sugar and rice milling factories. leakage of toxic gas to  Carbonization and packaging of coffee husks the atmosphere into commercial charcoal. Efficient  Modern technology has facilitated faster  Loss of life through air, Transport construction/improvement of infrastructure sea, road and rail (MDG7) countrywide e.g. Thika Super-Highway. accidents.  Ownership of private individual transport means fast movements of persons and goods reducing cost of doing business Access to IT facilitates global interconnectivity through the  Loss of Privacy, abuse of Information and use of Computers/Internet hence enabling: human rights by use of Communication  Access to information through TV and radio electronic sophisticated technology and online newspapers. equipments at the (MDG8) international airports,  Access to financial services through ATM, M-pesa and e-banking  Society moral decay through use social sites  Communication fast tracked through use of (pornography) mobile phones.  Students are distracted in  Created numerous online businesses and their studies as they employment and targets to create more when constantly chatting over Konza City- BPO will be operational. 9 Positive Effects reducing water born diseases  Increase water supply by use of rainwater harvesting technologies Mugo, F. and Gathui, T. Biomass energy use in Kenya 2010. 6 Issue Positive Effects  Politicians use IT as a modern campaign tool such as through twitter. Poverty Reduction (MDG1)  Use of space technology Use of satellites and research equipments has enabled scientists to interact nature for:  Weather forecast (important for planning of agricultural activities),  Forest management e.g. Deforestation assessment,  Assessing land cover and land use change for Greenhouse gas inventory,  Assessing pastoralist mobility and drought monitoring,  Mapping social facilities/amenities,  Monitoring disease and pest such as quela birds and locusts invasion, army worms hence saving crops  Improved communications. ST&I increase productivity in all the economic sectors and as result increases employment opportunities. Negative Effects the internet  Constant use of mobile phones reduces direct personnel social interaction.  Excess use of advanced technology may lead to loss of employment for the unskilled labor force.  Criminal using satellite connection to undermine states. The above analyses show that positive effects of STI to the socio development of the society outweigh the negative effects. This means Kenya has to embrace appropriate technology to fast track the achievement of the MDGs. THE IMPACT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ON ECONOMIC SYSTEMS OF KENYA 11. Technology is rapidly changing globally. The adoption of new technology as innovators, pragmatics, early majority, late majority or laggards will determine the speed of a country development. Technology will impact on areas of generic competition for Kenya namely cost reduction, niche focus and in different sectors of development. As observed in the proceeding paragraphs:10 Aviation Industry 12. The Kenya aviation industry has also leveraged on ST&I. Kenya Airways has used technology to market it services after bench marking with other airlines. It has computerized 10 Michael Porter. Competitive strategy,2004, pg 35. 7 baggage handling system, online booking, online checking-in system, reduction in training costs by use of flight simulators and modernizing the equipment including fuel efficient aircraft. The aviation sector supports 46,000 jobs in Kenya and contributes KES 24.8 billion (1.1%) to Kenyan GDP. In addition, the connections created between cities and markets represent an important infrastructure asset that generates benefits through enabling foreign direct investment, business clusters, specialization and other spill-over that impacts on economic productive capacity.11 Additionally, the aviation sector pays over KES 3.2 billion in taxes including income tax receipts from employees, social security contributions and corporation tax levied on profits, with a further KES 1.4 billion of revenue coming from passenger departure taxes, including VAT. It is estimated that an additional KES 1.5 billion of government revenue is raised via the aviation sector’s supply chain and another KES 1.4 billion through taxation of the activities supported by the spending of employees of both the aviation sector and its supply chain. The introduction of integrated radar air traffic control system has improved expeditious air traffic flow and safety in the Kenyan airspace. 13. The above shows that Kenya in line with the technocratic progress theory, has applied ST&I in several aspects of its aviation sector which has yielded significant growth and contribution to the Kenyan economy. Agriculture and Rural Development 14. Technology has transformed the agricultural sector by replacing the traditional farming methods with contemporary practices. For example, the floriculture industry in Kenya is an African example of what is possible with access to technologies, investment funds and enabling policies12. Another example is in banana farming which has also improved with the introduction of Tissue Culture (TC) techniques. The basis of the technology is the ability of many plant species to regenerate a whole plant from a shoot tip13. In economic terms this improves the productivity of every citizen which overall leads to growth in GDP. Defence and Security Sector 15. The Kenya Defence Forces (KDF) has leverage on science and technology in several aspects of its operational activities. Notably, the surveillance of the international boundary using Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) which is a force multiplier making surveillance 11 Oxford. Economics report on economic benefit of aviation industry in Kenya, 2009 12 Monty Jones. Key Challenges for Technology Development and Agricultural Research in Africa , Institute of Development Studies, 2009, Pp 46. 13 Qaim. M. ISAAA Briefs No. 10, Published by ISAAA, Bonn,1999, Pp38. 8 much easier and cost effective. The “Ngano Project” is another application of ST& I where bullets for small arms are being manufactured. 16. Kenya Defence Forces has also applied ST to its human resource development, logistics planning which has enhanced its operational and administrative effectiveness. It is to be noted that the Integrated Payroll and Personnel Database (IPPD) programme used as payroll management tool in civil service was an innovation of the Ministry of State for Defence. In order to develop into a regional force capable of coordinating national as well as sub regional security there is need to develop its capacity by way of developing its Defence industrial complex. Technology has enabled KDF to integrate it surveillance into one command and control centre. 17. The ongoing installation of Close Circuit Television (CCTV) cameras in strategic areas is enhancing security in Nairobi. This would drastically mitigate the lack of manpower to patrol every area of the country as it is a force multiplier. The government could collaborate with the private sector for effective and efficient utilization of available resource. Trade and Industry 18. Growth in trade has been improved using e-commerce in areas such as business transactions, M-PESA, on line shopping etc. Technology has also enhanced labour productivity, stimulation of research and development activities, and promotion of modern and appropriate technology in all sectors of Trade and Industry. 14Kenya has adopted on line clearance of goods at the border posts reducing delays and cost of doing business. Physical Infrastructure 19. Modern technology has facilitated faster construction/improvement of infrastructure countrywide. Some of the examples include Thika Super-highway and urban railway network. This has eased traffic congestion especially within Nairobi and the government needs to extend the same to other parts of the country. Traffic congestion is expensive to the country in economic terms. Energy 20. ST & I has enabled Kenya to exploit other sources of renewable energy such as solar energy, wind power, Biomass energy, electricity from crop residue ,biogas among others and at the same time providing low power consumption appliances such as energy saving bulbs, energy “jikos’ among others. 14 Ministry of Trade and Industry- Kenya. Private Sector Development Strategy 2006-2010. 9 Tourism sector 21. Technology has positively impacted on Tourism sector in Kenya as marketing has become a desk operation. Entry in the Game Parks is by use of safari cards and reduction of cycle times improving customer satisfaction services. Use of electronic tracking devices and use of helicopters has made management of parks easier and effective. Environment Sector 22. Modern technology has produced many benefits for the world, in industry and in everyday life. With more and more technological breakthroughs, there have been many positive ecological impacts. Technology is enabling the management of endangered species and the habitats. By use of collars the endangered species movement and spatial distribution is monitored for security and management decision from a desk. Forest ecosystems are monitored by use of satellite imagery. Technology is also used in habitat mapping for management decisions. Despite the great advantage of using technology, the impact on Kenya’s development level is relatively low. This can be attributed to several factors ranging from policy gaps to poor implementation. 23. There are considerable negative impacts as well. Technology produces wastes that finally finds its way to the environment. Each wave of technology creates a set of waste previously unknown to humans; toxic waste, radioactive waste, electronic waste. One of the main problems is the lack of effective ways to remove these pollutants on a large scale expediently. 24. One of the largest contributors to gases in the atmosphere are the gases produced by the combustion process used to produce energy.15 In the United States alone, 83% of this energy comes from a combustion process.16 The combustion process is an effective way to produce energy for a wide range sources. The negative aspect of the combustion process however, is the amount of harmful gases that it produces. These gases can have a devastating impact on the ozone layer and contribute to what is known as the "Greenhouse Effect". 25. In Kenya the effects of this climate change have been felt with severe droughts and floods estimated to cause an annualized reduction in GDP of 2.4 per cent (approximately Kshs. 16 billion).17 Between 1999 and 2010 Kenya spent an average of USD 173.2 million 15 Williams, Gerald . The Greenhouse-Gas Impact of Various Chiller Technologies,, 2010, Pp36-44. IBID 17 Ending Drought Emergencies in Kenya: A Commitment To Sustainable Solutions Country Programme Paper, 2011 16 10 each year on food and non-food emergency operations.18The 1999-2001 droughts led to a loss of livestock worth US$77 million.19 26. Water resources in Kenya are increasingly becoming polluted from both point and non-point sources due to technological advances in agriculture, urbanisation, and industry which contribute to organic, inorganic and aesthetic pollution of water. Ground-water is threatened by intrusion of saline water in the coastal region, leachates from solid waste dumps, and infiltration of fertilizer and pesticide residues. The five principal sources of water pollution in Kenya include: i. Agricultural activities which produce sediments and agro-chemical residues (biocides and fertilizers). ii. Industrial processing of agricultural and forestry products which produce liquid effluents, gaseous emissions and solid wastes. iii. Industrial manufacturing waste such as heavy metals, acids, dyes, oils. iv. Domestic/municipal effluents such as sewage and garbage. v. Sedimentation, soil erosion and mining which produces tailings and effluents. ACHIEVEMENTS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN KENYA 27. The enactment of the Science and Technology Act, Cap 250 of the Laws of Kenya in 1977.20 Lead to the establishment of Advisory Research Committees (ARCs) and the National Council for Science and Technology (NCST) to serve as advisory institutions to the Government on matters of science and technology. The following are some of the achievements: Agricultural Sector 28. Application of ST& I in Agriculture, has lead to increased productivity through use of modern farming technologies. The Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) maize is another achievement in agriculture. Kenya is the fourth country in Africa to have GMOready Laws. Other countries include South Africa, Burkina Faso and Egypt. GMO technology is one of the solutions to Kenya’s food in-security. 18 Republic of Kenya . Kenya National Drought Management Authority, Proposal, November 2010. Aklilu, Y. and Wekesa, M. Livestock and Livelihoods in Emergencies,,2001. 20 National Council for Science and Technology (www.ncst.go.ke). 19 11 Health 29. There has been good progress towards developing the Kenyan health system to international standards through Science and Technology in quality service and standards improvement. Others include research in multi-sectoral health issues including infectious diseases, HIV/Aids, TB, Malaria and emerging infections, traditional knowledge and resources, and commercial production of traditional plants for medical use. The country has adopted ST&I technology in the medical field including cancer, renal and heart ailments detection and treatment. Human Resource Development 30. An evaluation on the status of Technical, Industrial, Vocational and Entrepreneurship Training institutions (TIVET) was carried out in 2003. This provided baseline data for the ongoing reforms while the audit of equipment, infrastructure, staff, students’ enrolment and training programme at National polytechnics and Technical training institutions carried out in 2004/2005; provided data for upgrading of polytechnics as centres of excellence. On the other hand, skills inventory, training needs assessment and development of curriculum structures was undertaken in 2005 as part of developing National Training Strategy. The development of Sessional paper No. 1 of 2005 on policy framework for education, Training and Research resulted into reforms in this sector. Production Unit policy for public training institutions directorate was established in 2006 and this enabled the harmonisation and production activities. The measures combined with government sponsorship saw an increase of students from 26,259 in 1999 to 44,215 in 2004. 31. The High Education Science, Technology and Innovations (HESTI) continue to make progress toward achieving the millennium development goals (MDGs) and Vision 2030. The Ministry finalized drafting the ST&I Bill, University Education Bill and Technical Vocational and Entrepreneurial Training (TIVET) Bill21, enabling environment and institutional reforms necessary for achieving sector objectives. Specific key achievements include: i. 12 technical institutes are being upgraded to national polytechnic status. ii. 11 technical institutes are being developed gradually to become centers of excellence and construction of 13 new technical institutes is underway. 21 Ministry of Finance. Harnessing Science, Technology and Innovation for Regional and Global Competitiveness, 2008 – 2012. 12 iii. Enrolment in public TIVET institutions rose from 34,453 in 2000 to 59,835 in 2010. iv. The amount of money allocated to the National Research Fund rose from Ksh. 70 million in 2005/6 to Kshs 263 million in 2009/10. v. Introduction of computer lessons in secondary schools with government donated computers is ongoing. Further ICT, e-learning and Multimedia Training is being undertaken in Tertiary and Universities. All the above is aimed at the creation of a critical mass of a human resource to support S&T development and sustainability. Iinformation Communication Technology (ICT) 32. The government and other stakeholders have made efforts in strengthening and promoting the ICT sector in the country. This includes capacity building, facilitation/development and growth of a robust ICT and infrastructure to stimulate and support local ICT industry growth. Others include establishment of e-government, V-SAT communication, and Global System Mobile network (GSM), integration and popularization of the use of ICT in learning institutions, workplaces and rural communities. In Telecommunication, the laying of fibre optic cables across the country has been a revolutionary and innovations such as M-PESA have gone a long way to transform businesses. Major achievements in ICT: i. E-Government is a reality and has been for more than five years now. The website www.e-government.go.ke, for instance, reveals some of the services on offer and what the Government envisages to achieve by going digital. ii. The simulcast period when period of broadcasting in both analogue and digital formats is on-going. By 2012, the country plans to completely switch over to the digital platform ahead of the global deadline of June 2015 spearheaded by the ITU. The ITU’s Regional Radio Communications Conference (RRC 06) set 2015 as the global deadline. iii. The Government has spent Sh1 billion to purchase 5,000 acres of land where it intends to put up an ICT park to house BPOs and other ICT businesses. Kenya’s bandwidth capacity, regional economic and transportation hub to eastern and southern Africa also makes Kenya stand out as a preferred destination for many investors. 13 33. Kenya has developed national capacity in geological and geo-information systems coordination of the seismology. Two stations for detecting earth disturbances have been set up in Kenya, one at Karura forest and the other at Kilimambogo linking Kenya to Global verification Regime for early detection of nuclear tests and explosions in collaboration with the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO) and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). The development of Biotechnology Policy and the Bio safety Coordination Framework as well as the Bio safety Law. Energy Production 34. Kenya has made efforts in developing energy sources in a bid to become self-reliant. A reliable and uninterrupted power is essential for development. So far some good progress has been made to improve the power supply and connectivity across the country. Kenya has diversified from hydro and now uses Geothermal and other renewable energy sources. The output has risen from 960MW to 1600MW installed capacity in the last 10 year. EXISTING POLICIES ON SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN KENYA Policies 35. In 1977 the Government of Kenya (GoK) enacted Science and Technology Act 250 of the laws of Kenya. The Act established National Council for Science and Technology (NCST)22 as statutory institution of the GoK. NCST purpose is to provide machinery for making available to the Government advice upon all matters relating to the scientific and technological activities and for coordination of research and experimental development together with matters incidental and connected with ST&I 36. The Act also gave birth to Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI), Kenya Industrial Estates (KIE), Kenya Industrial Property Institute (KIPI), among many others. The ST&I linkages to economy are illustrated below: 37. The following diagram is adapted from Ministry of Science & Technology Presentation to the Global Forum on Building Science, Technology and Innovation Capacity for Sustainable Growth and Poverty Reduction Washington, D.C. 12-15 February 2007. From the diagram it is clear that there is lack of central institution for ST&I coordination, 22 Act 250 of the laws of Kenya 14 inadequate M&E, duplication of efforts, scattered sectoral policies, good practices are not shared/poor dissemination of R&D. 38. In 2008 May, a presidential circular provided for a comprehensive and all-inclusive Science, and Technology and Innovative policy to guide and promote the development, application, integration and innovation into the national development process. Sectoral Policies on ST&I include: Ministry of Industrialisation 39. National Industrialisation Policy 2011-2015 and beyond underpins national industrialisation process in Kenya over five years 2011-2015 and beyond. The policy is conceptualized as a revitalisation document that underscores building solid foundation of various efforts the GoK in past to craft policy interventions to propel the country forward in the ongoing quest for industrial growth and development. Key among these policy documents includes the Kenya Vision 2030, with its premium on average annual growth rate of 10 percent and objective to drive Kenya into newly industrialised nation with higher quality of life. Institutions to actualise ST&I include KIRDI , Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS) , Kenya Industrial Estates, Kenya Industrial Property Institute (KIPI), Numerical Machines Complex (NMC) among others. Ministry of Information and Communications 40. The Ministry’s policies are informed by International Telecommunications Union (ITU) guidelines, rules and regulations governing the use of electromagnetic spectrum. 15 Kenya has witnessed significant growth in the ICT sector as demonstrated by the number of telephone lines, Internet Service Providers (ISPs), the number of Internet users, broadcasting stations, and market share of each one of them. The Government liberalised the mobile cellular market and currently, there are four mobile cellular operators (Orange Telkom, Safaricom, Airtel, and YU). The Policy and Regulatory Framework, in 1997, the Government released the Telecommunications and Postal Sector Policy Guidelines that created an environment for competition in several market segments and paved way to the enactment of the Kenya Communications Act of 199823 , Act established: Communication Commission of Kenya, National Communications Secretariat, Communications Appeals Tribunal, Telkom Kenya Limited, Postal Corporation of Kenya. Ministry of Agriculture 41. Strategic Plan 2008-2012 sets the vision and mission and key objectives that are to be realized in the five years24. It is an undertaking by the Ministry to improve service delivery in line with national aspirations as articulated in the Vision 2030 strategy and First Medium Plan (MTP 2008-2012). The Strategic Plan aims to principally accelerate the transformation of agriculture into a competitive oriented enterprise. 42. This Strategic Plan stresses the importance of a formal Monitoring & Evaluation (M&E) Framework as a key platform to measure the implementation status. Key institutions on food security include the Kenya Seed Company, Agriculture Development Corporation (ADC), KEPHIS, and KARI. The ministry has managed production through research on tissue culture technology, development of livestock breeding (AI), recombinant vaccines and Diagnostic tests. Ministry of Energy Policies 43. The Ministry is a key enabler for development in terms of cheap and accessible power supply to actualize ST& I. The policies are: 23 24 25 i. National Energy Policy (Sessional Paper No. 4 of 2004) -Ministry of Energy, 2004. ii. Energy Act, 2006 - Government of Kenya, 200625. – (Establishes ERC). iii. Feed-in-Tariffs (FiTs) for REs (2008) – (wind, biomass & SHP) Kenya Communications Act of 1998 Ministry of Agriculture. Strategic Plan , 2008-2012 Government of Kenya. National Energy Policy (Sessional Paper No. 4 of 2004) -Ministry of Energy, 2004 Energy Act, 2006. 16 iv. Draft policy on strategy for the development of Bio-diesel industry in Kenya (2008-2012). v. Draft Bioethanol Strategy 2009-2012. vi. Energy Regulatory Commission (ERC) – Body under the Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) responsible for energy regulation, licensing, permits, protection of investors and customers. vii. Kenya Electricity Generating Company (KENGEN) – Responsible for electricity generation together with IPPs. viii. Geothermal Development Company (GDC) – Responsible for the development of the geothermal energy sector. ix. Kenya Electricity Transmission Company (KETRACO) – Responsible for the development of the grid electricity distribution system. x. Kenya Electricity and Lighting Company (KPLC) – Responsible for electricity connection to customers throughout the country. xi. Rural Electrification Authority (REA) – Responsible for the improvement of access to electricity in rural areas. Ministry of Livestock 44. The Ministry has linkages with research associations and by specialist institutions such as ILRI and KARI as well as the ministry of agriculture, areas of policy and legal reforms are: National Livestock Development Policy, Dairy Development Policy, Apiculture Rules and Regulations, Animal Breeding Policy, ASAL Land Use Policy, Animal Feeds Policy among others. 45. Other policies made to address ST&I initiatives in the country: i. Sessional Paper NO.5 of 1982 on Science and Technology for Development. ii. Sessional Paper NO.2 1992 on small enterprise and Jua Kali Development in Kenya. iii. Sessional Paper No: 1 of 2005 on a Policy Framework for Education Training and Research. 17 CHALLENGES FACING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES LIKE KENYA 46. Kenya faces the following challenges in the utilisation of ST& I: i. Lack of emphasis in sciences in the Education System: In Kenya most of the technical institutions were upgraded to universities in the last two decades resulting to a serious shortage of the critical mass on ST &I at the tactical level. ii. Inadequate funding towards Science, Technology and Innovation (ST&I): Kenya spends less than 0.3% of its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in R&D in comparison with the BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China and Singapore) countries where 10% of GDP is devoted to R&D. iii. Weak application of the R&D: Kenya has insufficient focus towards R & D that would enable sustainable industrial development. Kenya’s R&D findings are not tried in the industrial sector and have low impact on development. iv. Policy Level Commitment: In Kenya, ST&I has been divorced from the mainstream of national economic activities due to huge gap between policy formulation, implementation and consequently lack of good will and its support at the policy level. The link between ST&I policy and macro-economic policies has not been fully integrated and stakeholders at national level should be involved in the formulation and implementation of ST&I policies. v. Ineffective enforcement mechanism on monitoring and evaluation on implementation of ST & I policies and initiatives. THE FUTURE TRENDS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT IN KENYA 47. Globally, the future of scientific and technological growth trends is expansive. Expected contributions to the global economic progress cannot be gainsaid. While some scholars argue that economic progress in this day and age will not be possible without advances in the fields of science and technology; others ask whether improved technology means progress. A clear delineation of the expected end that defines “progress” is therefore necessary to guide development of innovations in science and technology in a country. At 18 the same time, researchers must be accorded the opportunity to continuously experiment without being punished for the unexpected and/or unwanted side. 48. Indeed, there is a growing recognition that development "is built not merely through the accumulation of physical, capital and human skill, but on a foundation of information, learning and adaptation”26. The increased pace of discovery will fuel innovations in the near future. Therefore, the future depends on the potential in ST & I. 49. Kenya Vision 2030 recognizes the role of science, technology and innovation (STI) in a modern economy, in which new knowledge plays a central role in boosting wealth creation, social welfare and international competitiveness.27 It is projected that the future ST&I will encompass many fields such as nanoscience and nanotechnology, telerobotics, biochemistry, biotechnology, space technology, geo-information technology, teledildonics and virtual reality. Life support systems, need for a more habitable planet, reduction of carbon emissions and conservation of biological diversity are fields of future concern. It is most likely that world regulations will deal more with matters of environmental security such as waste disposal (toxic), endangered species and species protection, carbon efficiencies, chlorofluorocarbon substitutes, replacement fertility levels and energy (green) technologies. 50. Kenya’s prosperity will hinge on integrating its socio-economic development with sustainable S T & I policy. This will be realized among others through good governance and capacity to formulate coherent development programs. Technologically and scientifically, skilled workforce trained to work with modern equipment and production processes will be the pillar on which Kenya’s aspiration will be anchored. Utilization of modern equipment to produce value added globally competitive goods and services, as well as the importation, and adoption of appropriate knowledge produced outside the country will be key in enabling Kenya achieve its set goals. These expectations however can only be achieved through aggressive applied scientific and technological development. Indeed to achieve these goals, investment in research and development must be directed and concentrated in areas where benefits will be optimized towards our greatest challenges and where paybacks will be largest.28 This will enhance Kenya's competitiveness in the regional and global market from 26 World Bank Report, 1999 Kenya Vision 2030, Pp19 28 Kenya National Academy of Science: Securing the future through science and technology, http://www.knascience.org/ 27 19 commodity based economy to knowledge based economy, thereby improving the quality of life and wellbeing of its citizenry. The choices Kenya makes for future advancement of science and technology may be guided by the following statements: 51. i. The involvement of stakeholder in defining the particular technology. ii. The need for political debates for interpretive skills is necessary to evaluate the context, arguments and consequences of the innovations. iii. No means without ends: the question to answer is, “why are we doing this? What are the ends we have chosen? How do they fit in the pattern of means available?1 In addition to what the Science and Technology Act Chapter 250 of the Laws of Kenya stipulates, the areas of future technological advancement may include: Agricultural Sector 52. Agriculture contributes nearly 30% of the Gross Domestic Product of which 10% is derived from the livestock industry. With science and technology, it will be possible to increase productivity in terms of quantity and quality and improve on varieties and breeds to mitigate against effects of the harsh unreliable weather patterns that are evident in the current era. This will adequately meet food security demands to feed the country’s increasing human population. The areas of likely advances include tissue culture, general acceptance of Genetically Modified crops which are able to withstand the severe droughts, pests and other plant diseases thus ensuring country’s food sustenance. Emerging livestock that includes ostrich, guinea fowls, quails and crocodile1will also play a key role owing to the awareness of the need for healthy foods and healthy lifestyles for Kenyans. Military and Security Sectors 53. The impact of S&T in the military and security environment will enhance training as the cost will be reduced by the use of computers and modern simulators. This will also improve planning, logistics, human resources management, ICT, and surveillance using unmanned aerial vehicles leading to improvement on constant security. Further advances in the use of GIS and GPS will facilitate efficient troop movement and deployment. The continued installations of advanced surveillance equipment such as CCTV in all public places will enhance security. Criminal investigations will be improved by the application and use of forensic science example DNA and ballistics. The likely hood of these sectors to have their own scientific institutions in both military and security organization for research and development purposes is high in the future. 20 E-electioneering 54. One of the thorny issues in developing countries is the electoral process which is often said to be marred by fraud and malpractices. The introduction of electronic voting system will be a better solution which Kenya has already piloted and its success may mean that all future elections will make use of the same if not modern voting technologies. Education in S & T 55. The education and training system is set to be more computerized with virtual classes to minimize the need for actual sitting room and congestion. The existing regulatory framework in terms of guiding policies is likely to hasten the change in S&T in the country. The education sector will also benefit through the e-learning programmes and the available materials in the internet will broaden the scope of students, lecturers, teachers, education planners and curriculum and syllabuses developers. Energy Sector 56. There is a growing emphasis to shift to the green revolution in the energy sector. Kenya is striving Steady, reliable power source is vital to industrialization to achieve low cost production In this regard, Kenya is seeking to develop a viable nuclear energy program within the next 15 years to meet its growing energy demands to become a middle-income country by 2030. A government commission is already conducting a feasibility studies while the University of Nairobi is setting up programs to develop human resources for the nuclear program. Nuclear energy will ensure reduced cost of electricity translating to low cost of production and will enhance the standard of living, hence a sustained economic growth and to minimize environmental impacts. Other major power generation projects include wind power and geo-thermal power production, solar and biogas power generation. Health and Medical Care 57. As a developing country with a good number of medical facilities, nurses, doctors and para-medical staff, Kenya is likely to benefit greatly from the impacts of science and technology through faster diagnosis and telemedicine. Advanced in nano-technology will continue to lead to new medical possibility hitherto unimagined. The use of laparoscopy is likely to get more advanced in the growing of organs, through stem cell technologies for transplant. The mapping of human genome will lead to new techniques in curing process or prevent ailments that so far are incurable. 21 Commerce and Industry 58. New trends in ICT are expected to improve trading, manufacturing, transportation and sourcing of raw materials in this very important industry. Economic industry such as tourist sector, mining, exploration for minerals like petroleum will be impacted by the evolving technology. The new technology will facilitate local, regional, continental and international trade and commerce through further advances in information technology. Media and Broadcasting 59. Kenya has an advanced media practitioners, adequate daily news papers and many modern broadcasting stations. All these services are depending on the advanced ICT and the broadcasting stations will surely meet the deadline of world’s immigrating from analogue to digitalization come June 2015 respectively. The numbers of Media houses are expected to increase with the technological up-swing. Service Industry 60. An articulated infrastructure and telecommunications network together with properly reticulated water, refuse and urban transport systems will facilitate smooth service industry. Communication Technologies 61. The emerging technologies are likely to accelerate the empowerment of individuals and reduce the urban-rural split. It will also reduce investments in expensive and costly communications infrastructure. CONCLUSION 62. This paper confirmed that there exists a direct relationship between science, technology and innovations and socio-economic development of Kenya. However the country has yet to reap maximum benefits from ST&I. This is attributed to inadequacies in coordination, policy implementation, funding, applied research, monitoring and evaluation amongst others. Kenya should therefore embrace long range ST&I planning to bridge the gap between policy formulation, implementation, enforcement, monitoring and evaluation mechanisms for sustainable economic and social growth. 22 RECOMMENDATIONS 63. To leverage on ST& I the government of Kenya has to: i. Audit, develop, formulate, implement and link practical ST&I policies to economic planning and budgeting. ii. Establish a ST&I Ministry of State at the Office of the President to spearhead ST&I coordination and implementation of technological innovations and applications, iii. Adopt Public Private Partnership approach, global best practice and incorporate the Ministry of State for Defence and other relevant ministries in R&D. iv. Provide adequate budget for R&D and implementation of the STI initiatives by allocating 10% of GDP. v. Establish a central data processing centre to disseminate and implement research findings and strengthen Monitoring and Evaluation mechanism at relevant sectoral ministries including those in charge of Agriculture, Industrialization, Information and Communication, Livestock, Defence and Internal Security, Immigration, Special programs, Tourism, Environment, Trade, Energy, Health and Education. 23 ANNEX A. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IMPLEMENTATION MATRIX Activity Implementation Timelines Resource Requirement Kshs. 15m Responsible Institution Establish an ST&I central data 2013-2030 processing centre to disseminate and implement research findings Adopt PPP approach in Research and 2013-2018 Development by collaborating global best practices 10m NSCT/OP 15m NSCT/Min. of Finance/ MOSD Provide adequate budget for R&D and 2013-2030 for implementation of the STI initiatives by allocating R & D 10% of GDP 150b Min. of Finance Strengthen Monitoring and Evaluation 2013-2030 mechanism 20m Min. Planning & Vision 2030 Audit of existing policies, formulation 2013-2018 and implement ST&I practical policies 24 Consultant/ Min. Information BIBLIOGRAPHY BOOKS Aklilu, Y. and Wekesa, M. (2001). Livestock and Livelihoods in Emergencies. Edeko S. E. (2011). Environmental Impact of the War for the Balkanisation of the Balkans. Sacha Journal of Policy and Strategic Studies Volume 1. No. p. 29-45. Ezzatti et al. 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