1. family and parenting
2. children

1
Animal Abuse
and
Empathy
in Children
Research conducted by:
Michelle Hounslow, Tanis Johnson, Aimie Kathan and
Holly Pound
In collaboration with Mount Royal University
and the Calgary Humane Society
April 19, 2010
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Table of contents
Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 3
Research Question .......................................................................................................................... 4
Literature Review ............................................................................................................................ 4
The Link between Social and Emotional Literacy in Children and Animal/Domestic Violence ................ 5
Impacts of Violence................................................................................................................................... 5
Empathy and the Animal-Human Bond .................................................................................................... 7
Domestic Violence and Animal Abuse .................................................................................................... 10
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................... 15
Research Methods ........................................................................................................................ 16
Sample..................................................................................................................................................... 16
Procedures .............................................................................................................................................. 17
Measures................................................................................................................................................. 18
Data Collection Procedures..................................................................................................................... 18
Challenges ............................................................................................................................................... 19
Updated Study ........................................................................................................................................ 20
Data Analysis ..................................................................................................................................20
The need for two sample groups ............................................................................................................ 20
Age Relevance ......................................................................................................................................... 21
Boat’s Survey for the Adult Population .................................................................................................. 21
Lack of Correlations ................................................................................................................................ 23
Discussion.......................................................................................................................................24
Key Learning ............................................................................................................................................ 24
Recommendations .................................................................................................................................. 25
Appendices.....................................................................................................................................27
Appendix A - Index of Empathy for Children and Adolescent ................................................................ 27
Appendix B - Boat’s Inventory on Animal-Related Experiences ............................................................. 28
References .....................................................................................................................................34
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Introduction
The Calgary Humane Society (CHS) is an agency that does more than shelter homeless
animals; they protect, educate and transform the lives of humans and their animal companions.
CHS provides many programs including Humane Education outreach programs to educate the
public and professionals on the human-animal bond, humane treatment of animals and the
connection between interpersonal violence and animal abuse. Through meetings and
observations of programs, we saw firsthand how the programs help develop skills, knowledge
and pro-social behaviour when it comes to humane animal treatment.
CHS asked students in CHST 4403 (Community-Based Research) at Mount Royal
University to explore how children in Calgary are affected by perpetrating or witnessing animal
abuse from a parental figure and how this affects their ability to empathize with humans and
animals. Research of this type may be helpful to the Humane Education programs because it
relates to social and emotional literacy, helps to identify markers for improvement and helps to
provide information surrounding building resiliency in children who may have experienced
animal abuse.
The Calgary Humane Society hopes to conduct sufficient research to determine if there is
a need for a new program that will supplement their existing programs. The new program is one
that will teach social-emotional literacy to children who have either witnessed animal abuse or
who have perpetrated animal abuse themselves. The program aims to provide language and
skills that children can use to appropriately deal with aggression, anger and emotional expression
in general. It is important to educate children on the prevention of animal cruelty and violence
and teach constructive emotional release instead of destructive emotional release. This is
especially important when we examine the development and overall importance of a strong
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animal-human bond. We chose to look at what kind of an impact we could have on the
community if we gathered research to determine if there is a link between animal abuse,
perpetrated by both parental figures as well as by youth, and a lack of empathy development in
these youth.
We hoped to provide up-to-date education surrounding animal neglect and cruelty. Our
intention was to provide data and information that would advance the education tools that
already exist within the Humane Education programs.
Research Question
“How does exposure to animal abuse affect a child's ability to empathize with animals and
people?”
Literature Review
With this research question in mind, we created three themes for our literature review that
guided our research more efficiently. Our themes in this literature review are, The Link between
Social and Emotional Literacy in Children and Animal/Domestic Violence; Empathy and the
Animal-Human Bond; and Domestic Violence and Animal Abuse.
Our themes for this literature review were chosen to highlight the specific factors that
will directly influence the success of the creation of a program that targets the social-emotional
development of youth. These factors include exposure to domestic violence, exposure to animal
abuse, perpetrating animal abuse, lack of social and emotional development, lack of skills and
language to express emotions, the importance of the human-animal bond, and the affect that
living with violence and abuse has on children’s social-emotional development.
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The Link between Social and Emotional Literacy in Children and Animal/Domestic
Violence
First, it is important to define social and emotional literacy. Social and emotional literacy
is the ability to not only empathize with others but also to gain the skills that allow for personal
regulation and expression of emotional feelings (Connor et al, 2008). Conner et al (2008) state
that “emotional intelligence includes such components as self-awareness, social awareness, selfmanagement, responsible decision making, and relationship skills” (p. 52).
The purpose of this section is to explain the impact on children who are victims of
domestic violence. It will also establish an understanding of the importance of social and
emotional literacy in children who are victims of domestic violence. Social and emotional
literacy is important because it is the ability to self-regulate emotional triggers (Connor et al,
2008).
The main purpose of the link between abuse and social and emotional literacy is to help
the programs at the Calgary Humane Society incorporate the need for social and emotional
literacy. The creators of the program hope to be able to teach social and emotional literacy to
children who are victims of violence and provide them with the tools needed to regulate
emotions. Another hope is to teach constructive emotional release and decrease destructive
emotional and aggressive behaviour.
Impacts of Violence
Domestic violence has various impacts on those who witness it, but more specifically, it
can be detrimental to the development of a child’s ability to control emotion. A child witnessing
domestic violence may be put in the middle of a dispute with psychological implications and it
can damage the child both socially and emotionally. Kitzmann (2007) states that, “Children are
at physical risk when they intervene in their parents' fights or accidentally get caught in the
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"crossfire." (p. 1). Kitzmann further states that “these children may show inappropriate attitudes
about violence as a means of resolving conflict, greater willingness to use violence themselves
and stronger beliefs about being responsible for their parents' conflicts.” (p. 1).
It is important to note that if children who witness domestic violence are learning to
accept violence as a means for conflict resolution and that violence is acceptable when dealing
with aggressive feelings that it could be safe to say that there is a direct link between witnessing
domestic violence and social and emotional ineptitude. McIntosh (2004) explores how it seems
clear that “injury to animals is one way that a child signals that something is wrong” (p. 5).
Domestic violence is a reoccurring factor in the threat of animal cruelty either perpetrated by an
adult parental figure or perpetrated by a child. To further demonstrate the effects of animal
cruelty on a child’s social and emotional literacy, McIntosh, in conjunction with the YWCA
Family Violence Prevention Centre, the Sheriff King Home and the Brenda Strafford Centre for
the Prevention of Family Violence, conducted a study on the effects of animal cruelty in a
household with domestic violence. One of the research questions asked the mothers’ opinions of
how the harm to the family animal affected their child. One mother stated “(my son is) more
hurtful to others, withdraw(n), emotional” and another noted that her son, who when aged four
witnessed his father shoot his dog , is now showing similar traits and has “total disregard towards
life, even humans” (McIntosh et al, 2004). This demonstrates the damaging effects on a child
who not only witnesses domestic violence but also suffers the trauma of losing a pet or
witnessing a pet being harmed or killed.
Another participant of the study stated that her children are rough with animals because
of what they see on a normal basis (McIntosh, 2004). These statements are further evidence that
a child’s inability to cope emotionally with the loss of a pet due to violence creates a breeding
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ground for poor regulation of emotions. It also supports the eventual understanding that the
behaviour being modeled in the home is an acceptable choice for behaviour outside of the home.
The emotional and social competence of the child seems to be skewed due to the psychological
trauma experienced by the child.
Furthermore, Kitzmann (2007, p. 3) stated
....of 118 empirical studies examining the psychosocial adjustment of child witnesses to
domestic violence. Results showed that 63% of child witnesses were faring more poorly
than the average child who had not been exposed to inter-parental violence… and problems
included aggression, anxiety, difficulties with peers and academic problems, all to similar
degrees.
Though there is research that does connect family violence and animal cruelty to the
inability of the child to relate socially and emotionally, it is still fair to say that research is
lacking for this specific area of study. Our hope is that our research will create another
reliable source of information surrounding the topic and relation of social and emotional
literacy in children as related to domestic and animal violence. It should also be noted that
while reading the McIntosh et al (2004) study, it seems to be very similar to the kind of
research we will be conducting and we may be able to use it as a guiding tool.
Empathy and the Animal-Human Bond
Pets play a vital role in the lives of children. They provide unconditional love,
opportunities for caring and nurturing, healing and calming effects. Pets can also positively
influence the way children interact with society and how they view themselves. The relationship
or bond between children and pets is powerful and profound. This has been examined by experts
in a number of papers identifying the important role pets play in the healthy development of
children.
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The animal-human relationship is distinguished through the deep feelings of care and
love (Robin & Bensel, 1985, as cited in Beck, 2003). The animal-human bond allows children to
acquire nurturing skills by caring for pets. Animals motivate and shape how children see the
world while giving them unconditional love and acceptance. Companionship with pets allows for
healthy emotional development within children’s lives.
Beck (2003) identified how children learn to nurture by caring for pets. It explores the
importance for male children to have this opportunity to nurture, as there is a lack of games for
boys that introduce caring and nurturing within our society. It was noted that animals play a very
vital role in society around motivating and shaping how children see the world (Beck, Melson,
da Costa, & Liu, 2001; Katcher & Wilkins, 2000; Rud & Beck, 1999, 2000 as cited in Beck,
2003).
As noted by Robin & Bensel (1985), companion animals play an important role in the
healthy emotional development of children. Children develop the basic notion of trust and selfesteem as well as a sense of responsibility. Children gain competence and feelings of empathy
towards others through companionship with animals. It was also identified that by having a
consistency in animal companionship children may develop an inhibiting effect towards mental
disturbances.
Robin & Bensel (1985) noted that allowing children the experience to care and be
responsible for a pet developed responsible pet ownership. He also says that successfully caring
for the pet will enhance the child’s sense of importance and being needed. Robin & Bensel
(1985) also identifies the need children have for empathetic listening and the connection with
others and animals offer this naturally created empathy resulting in them being such great
companions.
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This research has shown that the key factor between the relationship of animal and child
is the acceptance and unconditional love the animal has for the child. The animal accepts the
child for who they are and does not suggest any criticism or feedback (Levinson, 1969, 1972;
Neck & Katcher, 1983, as cited in Robin & Bensel, 1985).
The bond between animals and humans alters between the ages of the individuals.
Adolescents develop a changing relationship with their pets as a result of viewing pets as
transitional objects. Within this stage, pets can become confidantes, protectors, or a status
symbol (Fogle, 1983, as cited in Robin & Bensel, 1985). When viewing the relationship between
children and their pets it is noted that their bond is enhanced through animate qualities. Bowlby
(1969) states that the “attachment behaviours of caring and proximity between children and their
pets create an alive reciprocating alliance” (p. 66).
When viewing the animal as a transitional object (Levinson, 1972, as cited in Robin &
Bensel, 1985) it is worthy to note that this describes bridging the gap between self and other. The
animal is able to provide non-judgmental interaction (Subman, 1981; Levinson, 1967, as cited in
Robin & Bensel, 1985), and support as the child explores new boundaries and peer interaction
(Feldman, 1978, as cited in Robin & Bensel, 1985).
Robin & Bensel (1985) observed that a wide range of people, including children, used the
animals to develop a sense of security and intimacy. It was suggested that the presence of
animals has a calming and relaxing effect on people. It was stated that animals influence the
effectiveness in reducing the response to stressors while decreasing ambient blood pressure in
mild hypertensives.
Crawford, et al. (2006) identifies that humans gain psychological benefits from their
companionship with their animals, though they do state that the findings have not been consistent
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(Watson & Weinstein, 1993, as cited in Crawford, et al., 2006). Research has identified the
reduction of stress and increase in relaxation (Kidd & Kidd, 1999, as cited in Crawford, et al.,
2006).
Burke (2001) identifies the need to use empathy development treatment when working
with adolescent sex offenders. The National Task Force on Juvenile Sexual Offending (1993)
stated that the treatment should include the development of empathy for the victim and their
family. It has been observed that adolescent sex offenders are lacking empathy and that this skill
is acquired through normal socialization within early adolescence (Coleman & Hendry, 1990, as
cited in Burke, 2001). Through developing this type of empathy, treatment allows the adolescent
sex offender to understand the impact that their actions had on others, and the pain that they
caused. It will also allow the adolescent sex offender to express any feelings of remorse for their
actions (Briggs, Doyle, Gooch, & Kennington, 1998, p. 199, as cited in Burke, 2001).
The research that was developed around the importance of empathy and the animalhuman bond explores the benefits and growth that children experience. Animals influence how
children see the world, and how they feel competent, important, and support a sense of
belonging. It is important not to underestimate the power of animals and the change that they can
bring forward to the healthy development of children’s emotions.
Because of the distinct link between an animal-human bond and the positive effects this
relationship has, it is important to address the need for Social-Emotional Literacy in youth. By
teaching these skills, prevention of future abuse and harm is created and can minimize the
damage done to and by youth in the cases of domestic violence and animal abuse.
Domestic Violence and Animal Abuse
Recent research has shown that there is a direct correlation between domestic violence
and animal abuse (Currie, 2006). Children who are exposed to domestic violence and animal
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abuse within their home are more likely to start abusing animals themselves. Studies have
shown that children exposed to violence are more likely to abuse, while other children who are
not exposed to violence have a significantly lower chance of abusing (Thompson & Gullone,
2006).
Domestic violence can be defined as “involving sexual assaults, verbal assaults such as
insults and swearing, every type of emotional abuse, and physical abuse. The violence can vary
in frequency, duration and intensity” (Raynor & Saint-Onge, 2007, pg 3). A survey by the
Canadian Women’s Foundation showed that spousal violence makes up the single largest group
of convictions involving violence in Canada. Every minute of every day, a Canadian woman or
child is being abused (Canadian Women’s Foundation, n.d.). In many cases, domestic abuse
includes animal abuse because it is also another way of tormenting and abusing your spouse or
family members. Pets are an important part of many families and in many cases are thought of as
another child or family member. Because pets are loved this much within many families, abusing
the pet is another way of having power and control over a situation in which one is trying to
prove that they are boss. Many families will not leave their homes unless they can bring their pet
as well because leaving their pet in harm’s way is not a desirable option (Davies, 2009).
Research has shown that animal abuse is a branch of the spectrum of domestic abuse
(Currie, 2006). Threatening to harm or actually harming an animal is, in many cases, a form of
control and seeking power over family members or animals within the home (Thompson &
Gullone, 2006). Animal abuse can be defined as, “crime in inflicting physical pain, suffering, or
death, on an animal, usually a tame one, beyond the necessity of normal discipline. It can include
neglect that is so monstrous (no food or water), that the animal has suffered, died, or been put in
immediate danger of death” (Legal Dictionary, 2009).
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Chances are that a child living in a home with domestic violence may have violence and
abuse directly aimed at them. A survey completed in 1988-1998 showed that children who live in
a home with domestic violence were also victims of physical abuse themselves (Raynor & SaintOnge, 2007, p 3). Abuse can be defined as “violence towards a child that includes physical,
sexual, and/or emotional aspects” (Clark, 2004, p 54). Abuse can cause both long-term and shortterm effects on the child. Children who are abused may react in different ways depending on
what type of abuse they are subjected to. Children who were subjected to physical abuse by their
parents or loved ones may have behaviours as follows: extreme mood swings, aggressive
behaviours, developmental delays, substance or alcohol abuse issues, exhibit extreme violent
behaviour, poor anger management and suicide attempts (Clark, 2004, p 56-58). Children who
are physically abused may or may not express these behavioural traits, but as listed above, one of
the traits is extreme violent behaviour. Having extreme violent behaviours because of abuse may
lead a child to abuse animals. Children who are emotionally or psychologically abused usually
have behavioural traits such as self-destructive behaviour, highly aggressive behaviour, cruelty
to others, and/or having a lag in mental and emotional development. These behavioural traits
may also appear in advance of that child abusing animals (Clark, 2004, p 56-58).
Research studies have shown that there is in fact a direct correlation between domestic
violence and abuse and children who abuse animals (Thompson & Gullone, 2006, p. 2). Children
who are in a household with violence suffer the consequences and many begin to model the
behaviour that they are seeing. Most children see their homes and parents as a safe place to be
where they can be themselves and always be protected. Because some children are exposed to
violent scenarios within their family life, this interrupts the parenting given from parents or
guardians and often increases risk of behavioural, emotional, and cognitive difficulties. One of
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the biggest consequences of domestic violence on the child is that often conduct disorder
becomes apparent within the child (Currie, 2006, p 427). Conduct disorder is one of the most
common psychiatric disorders among children and young adults. A common trait of this disorder
is that children will have great difficulty following rules and will act in socially inappropriate
ways (Association of Chief Psychologists, 2001). Many times, other children, peers, and family
members see them as “bad” or “troublesome” children. Children who have Conduct Disorder
may express anger; verbal and physical aggression with other children, adults and animals;
destruction of property; deceitfulness and theft; and serious breaking of rules (Association of
Chief Psychologists, 2001).
A study in 1998 interviewed 22 women who were staying in shelters because their
partners were abusing them. Of those 22 women, approximately 32% of them said that they had
a child who had abused or killed a family pet. The study showed that children who were exposed
to domestic violence were more likely to kill or abuse their family pet, or any other pet than a
child who had not been exposed to domestic violence (Currie, 2006). One of the earliest
indicators of Conduct Disorder is violence and aggression towards animals. It is one of the main
symptoms of Conduct Disorder that occurs at an average of about seven years old (Association
of Chief Psychologists, 2001). It has been noticed that younger children had a noticeably higher
rate of being cruel towards animals than youth or young adults. One of the main reasons that
children are aggressive towards animals is because they model what they see their parents do and
because they are able to have more control over an animal. Abusive parents teach their children
that they can achieve power and control over situations that may in other circumstances be
beyond their control (Currie, 2006). Children learn from watching their parents and guardians
role model and seeing a parent use violence to achieve power and control teaches them that when
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they feel they need control over a situation, they can use aggression and violence. Children who
live within homes that contain violence may feel like they have no control over the situation.
Because of this, they need an outlet where they can release their anger. Children will turn to
animals to exert their power and control because they are less likely to get caught and punished
than if they were to abuse other humans (Currie, 2006, pg 430-431).
Children who start abusing animals may end up committing more violent crimes against
other humans later. Famous cases of serial killers show that as children a lot of them had been
cruel to animals. Two very famous cases of serial killers are Jeffery Dahmer and Theodore
Bundy. Their stories show that their violent and abusive behaviour started out when they were
children and were subjected to abuse themselves and started being cruel towards animals
(Tallichet & Hensley, 2004). As mentioned above, children can suffer major consequences of
witnessing domestic abuse and also being abused themselves. Research shows that children
exposed to domestic and animal violence have a harder time being empathetic. Children who
have a low level of empathy have a hard time understanding the consequences of being cruel
towards an animal or another human being (Tallichet & Hensley, 2004, pg 301-307).
Having a program set up to help children who have been exposed to domestic violence
would help them learn empathy and better ways to control and express their emotions. Programs
to support children may stop the cycle of violence because they would learn that animal abuse
and abuse towards humans is wrong and there are other ways to express their emotions about
issues in their home life.
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Conclusion
We chose our themes based on their support of the need for a program that builds and
enhances children’s abilities to express their emotions in a positive, pro-social way. The
research completed on Social-Emotional Literacy and the effect that domestic violence has on
children’s abilities to express themselves shows that children do struggle with the effects of
domestic and animal abuse. There is evidence that children would in fact benefit from a program
that teaches social-emotional literacy. The benefits of a program like this would reach not only
the children themselves but also the other children, people and animals around them.
Social-Emotional Literacy Programs would strengthen the animal-human bond by
enforcing the vital relationship that humans, and more specifically children, have with their
animals. It would strengthen the knowledge that an animal is a creature to be cared for and loved
and would decrease the chance of a child causing an animal harm.
Often a child acts out in a violent manner because of what they have seen their adult role
models do. While a Social-Emotional Literacy program would not specifically target the adult
perpetrators, it would benefit the community by teaching appropriate treatment of animals and
expression of feelings. The strength of this program is in the preventative nature of this kind of
education. While children are unfortunately still exposed to domestic and animal abuse, in a
program that enhances Social-Emotional Literacy, these children are given the skills and
language to avoid perpetrating such behaviour.
This is a life-long learning piece that will hopefully prevent these children and youth
from increasing the amount of domestic and animal abuse that is rampant in our society. The
prevalence of damaging behaviour and the effects that witnessing this behaviour have on youth
are support for further research on this topic that can hopefully lead to the creation of a program
that will prevent this behaviour from being carried on to further generations.
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Research Methods
Sample
Our projected population was to be children aged nine to fifteen years, male and female,
living in a residential care program. This kind of setting was chosen because all children in
residential care will be accompanied by a child and youth counsellor. All children would require
parent/guardian consent and would be excluded from the study if it was not possible to acquire
this consent. Children would have been excluded from the study if there was concern from the
residential counsellors that it is not appropriate for them to participate. Our projected sample size
was between 15-20 children and was based on the number of children who may be present in a
single residential program. We had hoped to conduct the study with this projected population;
however, due to un-foreseen complications with acquiring this projected population the study
had to be changed. Time constraints were the biggest factor in the change of the study. The
study’s new population was 17 classmates in the Bachelors of Applied Child Studies Degree at
Mount Royal University. All of the students were age 18 and older.
There were no specific characteristics required of our participants. The only specific
commonality of our participants was that they would have all been in a residential care home
setting. We would have obtained consent from the parent/guardians first, then verbal assent from
the children themselves as to whether they want to participate in the research. We would either
have the children's social worker or their key worker (youth counsellor) present while conducting
the interviews and surveys to make sure the children are more comfortable and to be present in
case of emotional reactions. Interviews and surveys would have been conducted individually in a
safe comfortable area in the program. The children would have had the opportunity to express
interest in participating in the study.
In order to have protected the rights of the children participating:
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1) Children would have been provided with all the information about the study
2) Children would have been invited to discuss their participation with their key
workers
3) Consent forms would have been sent to parents/guardians or social workers
4) Researchers would have obtained verbal assent before beginning the interviews
By ensuring that the key worker was with the child in the room during the interviews, any
disclosures would be addressed by the key worker. However, if at any point during the interview
the child was uncomfortable or distressed the interview would have been terminated
immediately. The researchers would have taken great care when interviewing the children and
ensure signs of discomfort or distress are recognized and addressed appropriately (i.e. interview
is terminated).
Procedures
Research design
If the study had carried forward as anticipated we would have used two tools with each
participant. The two tools that would have been used were the Index of Empathy for Children
and Adolescents and Boat's Animal-Related Experiences.
One researcher would have presented the questions from the interviews and surveys
while the other three researchers would have recorded the individual’s answers and responses.
Each participant would have sat with one researcher who would have recorded their individual
answers on their questionnaires. The child would have been able to change their answers at any
time and the previous answer would have been destroyed. Again, due to un-foreseen
complications the study was changed as was the projected population. We stapled the Index of
Empathy together with the Boats Animal-Related Experiences and distributed them to the 17
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classmates, to be completed anonymously and placed in a drop box. We then collected the
surveys.
Measures
Empathy Assessment: (Taken From http://www.tru.ca/faculty/wlroberts/bryant.pdf)
Title: Index of Empathy for Children and Adolescents
Author: Barbara Bryant, University of California, Professor of Human Development
Boat's Inventory on Animal-Related Experiences: (Loar, L. Coleman, L. (2004). Boat’s
Inventory on Animal-Related Experiences. Teaching Empathy: Animal-Assisted Therapy
Programs for Children and Families Exposed to Violence. (pp.128-132). Latham
foundation Publication)
Title: Boat’s Inventory on Animal-Related Experiences
Author: Barbara Boat of the Child trauma Centre, University of Cincinnati
Data Collection Procedures
The first tool we used is an Index of Empathy for Children and Adolescents, an empathy
assessment (Bryant, 1982) created by Barbara Bryant, a Professor of Human Development at the
University of California. The assessment consisted of 22 basic yes or no questions. It was scored
with a numerical system, in which a score of one is given for a ‘yes’ answer and a score of zero
is given for a ‘no’ answer. The results are then calculated and a score is derived. It was designed
to give the researcher a base outlook on the child’s ability to empathize with a certain situation,
task or person. As researchers, we used this specific empathy test to obtain results to correlate
with data from the second assessment tool.
The empathy assessment was to be the first assessment we administered in order to
establish comfort and to ensure their answers would not be influenced by the questions from the
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second tool. The questions are closed and are not leading but simply require a ‘yes’ or ‘no’
answer to avoid confusion.
The second assessment tool was Boat's Inventory on Animal-Related Experiences
(Boat, 2004), created by Barbara Boat of the Child Trauma Centre at the University of
Cincinnati. This assessment consists of a series of questions relating to animal experiences. The
questions gave us the background information regarding the child’s (or in this case, adult’s)
personal and familial experiences with animals. It also helped us to establish if a connection
exists between the child (adult) and an animal and provide further insight into the child’s
(adult’s) ability to empathize and respond either negatively or positively to animals. This data
did not show if a specific correlation exists between the ability to empathize and the occurrence
of witnessing or perpetrating animal abuse.
Challenges
Due to time restrictions, the study had to change. There was not enough time to secure
the participation of a residential program. We received conditional approval from the Mount
Royal University Human Research Ethics Board (HREB); however, without a letter of support
from an agency with a suitable residential program, we were unable to receive full board
approval. Due to time restriction we were unable to proceed with a residential program’s ethics
approval process and therefore had to withdraw our HREB application and alter the study.
There was also a concern that since the children who would be asked to participate in the
study being under permanent or temporary guardianship orders, we would need to have allotted a
certain amount of time to receive consent back from the legal guardians of each child. Again,
time restrictions would not permit us to continue with the study.
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Updated Study
Since the time frame that we were working within was so limiting, we had to change the
direction of the study. We decided to test the validity of the tools in a full pilot program. The
study was conducted on a sample of 17 class members in the Community-Based Research class,
CHST 4403, from the Bachelor of Applied Child Studies Degree program. The students were all
over the age of 18 and therefore did not need parent/guardian consent. Due to the change in study
and the use of our classmates, we no longer needed HREB approval to conduct the study. The
piloting of the study on our classmates was considered a classroom learning activity rather than a
research study. We used Boat’s Inventory on Animal-Related Experiences (Boat, 2004) and An
Index of Empathy for Children and Adolescents (Bryant, 1982). The students were given the
two tests and asked to fill them out anonymously. We then took the two tools to Natalie O’Toole,
a statistician in the library at Mount Royal University for analysis, hoping to determine if there
was a correlation between the two surveys.
Data Analysis
The need for two sample groups
One important thing to note is that the Index of Empathy cannot be accurate unless, upon
analyzing the data, a factor analysis is conducted. A factor analysis is described as “a statistical
approach that can be used to analyze interrelationships among a large number of variables and to
explain these variables in terms of their common underlying dimensions” (Multivariate Statistics,
n.d.). In order to do a factor analysis we needed two sample populations to complete the
assessment in order to find the interrelationship between the two groups.
Since we only used one sample group, we could not do a factor analysis and the results of
the Index of Empathy were inconclusive and unusable. In retrospect, the need for two sample
populations to complete the Index of Empathy test in order to do a factor analysis, which is an
interrelationship, suggests that researchers should choose a different empathy test for further
21
research. The empathy tool measures empathy in an individual and is not meant to be used to
find interrelationships between empathy in two different population samples.
Age Relevance
Bryant’s Index of Empathy test was designed to be used on elementary and middle school
aged children; however, because this population was not available to conduct the research, the
tools being used on an adult population resulted in unusable data.
The sample size consisted of 17 female students all 18 and older. This was an issue due
to the fact that it is possible that school aged children may be more inclined to give an honest
answer to the questions pertaining to behaviour and animal abuse. Children are less likely to
produce answers based on societal views of appropriateness, and fear of what others may
interpret from their answers, whereas adults may be more inclined to change their answers based
on what they view as an appropriate response.
We could not correlate the Index of Empathy and the Boat’s Survey because they do not
have the same scoring system. This made it difficult to find any relatable data from the two tools.
Boat’s Survey for the Adult Population
Boat’s Survey gave data regarding animal related experiences, but did not provide the desired
correlation to the Index of Empathy. The survey consisted of a number of questions that related
specifically to the participants feelings and experiences with animals. These experiences
consisted of:
•
Animal abuse
•
Animal cruelty and neglect
•
Owning an animal
•
Feelings surrounding the death of an animal
•
Animal sexual abuse
22
•
Witnessing or perpetrating any of the above
The survey provides accurate data even though the age of the sample size changed because it is
based on animal related experiences of a person of any age. Boat’s Survey did produce some
compelling answers based on animal related experiences from the adult population and provided
insight into emotions surrounding animal experiences. An example of this is:
Q: Does seeing “roadkill” bother you?
If so how much? (please circle)
a. Just a little
b. Somewhat
c. A lot
What about the “roadkill” bothers you? (Loar, Coleman, 2004)
Answer #1: Road Kill bothers me very much because I think about the pain and suffering the
animal went through. It makes me very sad.
Answer #2: Roadkill doesn’t bother me. I grew up on a farm, as well as growing up hunting, so
dead animals are just a part of the way I grew up. It’s a part of life.
Based on the answers above, it was very interesting to note how different people feel
about animals based on their background, culture, and overall experience with animals. This
question alone could be a catalyst for discovering that animal abuse and empathy can be
connected but can also be skewed based on childhood experiences with animals. The person who
wrote answer one would obviously appear to have a great empathy towards animals, and it is
probably, great empathy in general. However, the person who wrote answer 2 found animals
dying to be a part of her culture, growing up on a farm and hunting, perhaps decreased her
sensitivity towards certain situations regarding animals (such as roadkill); however, it does not
indicate a direct correlation with decreased empathy.
23
However, like Bryant’s Index of Empathy, using an adult population may conflict the results
due to the likelihood that an adult may be inclined to skew their answers based on
appropriateness. We took care to collect data anonymously in order to limit the possibilities of
biased or false results.
Lack of Correlations
The Index of Empathy is scored with a numerical system, in which a score of one is given
for a ‘yes’ answer and a score of zero is given for a ‘no’ answer. Boat’s Survey did not have a
scoring scale and consisted of a series of yes and no questions, multiple choices, and the
opportunity for open ended responses. As mentioned previously, due to the difference in the
scoring mechanisms for each tool, it was impossible to statistically analyze the data and provide
a possible correlation between the responses of the two tools. The inability to conduct a factor
analysis for the Index of Empathy proved to be a significant problem when measuring empathy
for each participant. Without an accurate measure of empathy in each participant, we had no way
of correlating animal abuse and empathy.
If the Index of Empathy’s instructions had been more clear, we could have collected data
from two sample groups of school-aged children and done a factor analysis on the results and the
data would have been valid. However, due to the inability to correlate the Index of Empathy with
the Boat’s Survey the data still would have been inconclusive. The inaccuracies and lack of
possible correlations between the two tools used in the study made it impossible to either prove
or disprove the possibility of there being a relationship between levels of empathy and animal
abuse.
24
Discussion
Key Learning
As mentioned earlier in our report, we faced many challenges throughout our research
project. As we entered 2010, the Calgary Humane Society faced budget cuts and as a result, a
particularly important program, the Violence Prevention Program was cut. With the loss of the
program, the CHS lost a staff member who was also a key mentor for us in our research project.
With this change of staff and programming, our project headed a slightly different way, under
the guidance of our remaining mentor.
We experienced a particularly difficult Human Research Ethics Board (HREB)
application process with Mount Royal University. Because we were hoping to work with a
particularly vulnerable population on the subject of animal abuse and empathy in children, our
application was considered high risk and required multiple revisions. During this process, we
had the opportunity to learn about ethics; working with vulnerable populations; creating and
maintaining professional communications with community agencies; the creation of forms;
evaluation of tools; protection of psychological health in research participants; and
confidentiality. Above all else, we believe we learned the value of teamwork during the
professional creation of written and visual materials.
Another positive result of the process we went through was the evaluation of the tools we
planned to use. We learned that the empathy test and the questionnaire on animal-related
experiences were not the ideal tools to use with the youth we intended as our research
participants. Piloting the tools on our adult classmates may not have provided us with the results
we desired but it allowed us to determine that further investigation into appropriate and effective
tools is necessary before furthering this type of research.
25
We all felt passionately about the research topic we chose to pursue. The importance of
eliminating animal abuse or at very least minimizing instances stands out to us as a main reason
for our interest in this topic. With ample time, proper tools, an appropriate population sample
and the continued desire to provide research, perhaps the data needed to determine whether there
is a need for a social-emotional literacy program will emerge.
Recommendations
1. Have a substantial timeline to achieve all clearances needed and get consent forms
from legal guardians.
Since this research project is high-risk, there needs to be ample time to achieve
HREB clearance (which we were able to do), agency clearance, and consent from legal
guardians of children and youth participating in the study. Because we were able to
achieve HREB clearance, the next step would be to get clearance from the agency
involved in the study. It is a high-risk study and because of that, takes time to get
through ethics applications. After clearance of all ethics applications, time needs to be
allocated to receive consent forms from legal guardians of participants. If the study is to
go on, researchers need to be aware of how much the time is needed before the actual
study is to begin.
2. Use proper populations to get valid answers.
To use Bryant’s Index of Empathy for Children and Adolescents, the proper
populations need to be used for the information to be valid. The Index of Empathy was
intended for use on young children in two different age groups: school aged and grade
seven or older. In order to get proper findings, these populations must be used and a
factor analysis must be done to achieve valid answers.
26
3. Use two surveys that are on the same scoring model.
After conducting the research on our classmates, we found out that the two
surveys we had used, Bryant’s Index of Empathy for Children and Adolescents and
Boat’s Inventory of Animal Related Experiences, could not be correlated together because
they had different scoring models. Bryant’s survey used a scoring model that used
numbers and a factor analysis, while Boat’s survey did not have a scoring model; it was
purely yes and no answers for personal experiences with animals. To receive proper
results the two surveys used need to have scoring models that can correlate to one
another.
27
Appendices
Appendix A - Index of Empathy for Children and Adolescent
Bryant, B. (1982). An Index of Empathy for Children and Adolescents, Child
Development, 53, 413-425. Items in italics score negatively.
1. It makes me sad to see a girl who can't find anyone to play with.
2. People who kiss and hug in public are silly.
3. Boys who cry because they are happy are silly.
4. I really like to watch people open presents, even when I don't get a present myself.
5. Seeing a boy who is crying makes me feel like crying.
6. I get upset when I see a girl being hurt.
7. Even when I don't know why someone is laughing, I laugh too.
8. Sometimes I cry when I watch TV.
9. Girls who cry because they are happy are silly.
10. It's hard for me to see why someone else gets upset.
11. I get upset when I see an animal being hurt.
12. It makes me sad to see a boy who can't find anyone to play with.
13. Some songs make me so sad I feel like crying.
14. I get upset when I see a boy being hurt.
15. Grown-ups sometimes cry even when they have nothing to be sad about.
16. It's silly to treat dogs and cats as though they have feelings like people.
17. I get mad when I see a classmate pretending to need help from the teacher all the time.
18. Kids who have no friends probably don't want any.
19. Seeing a girl who is crying makes me feel like crying.
20. I think it is funny that some people cry during a sad movie or while reading a sad book.
21. I am able to eat all my cookies even when I see someone looking at me wanting one.
22. I don't feel upset when I see a classmate being punished by a teacher for not obeying school rules.
Scoring
For school-age children, Bryant scored items dichotomously (1 or 0 for yes or
no, true or false). For seventh grade or older, she used the same 9-point scoring
system as Merabian and Epstein (1972), namely -4 (not at all like me) to +4 (very
much like me). Negative items are reverse scored and items summed to obtain a scale
score.
I would suggest that scale scores be derived by averaging, as such scores can
be interpreted in terms of the response categories. In addition, averaged scores have
less (error) variance than summed scores.
Regardless of the response scale used for the items, or how scale scores are
calculated, it is very likely that Bryant’s scale is multi-dimensional (and therefore
uninterpretable). If you use it, you should do a factor analysis to confirm that all items
fall on a single factor.
28
Appendix B - Boat’s Inventory on Animal-Related Experiences
(NB – this is the long version of Boat’s Inventory. A shorter, modified version was to be
used with the youth in our study)
29
30
31
32
33
34
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