Download Report

Research of Academic Sciences Journal.
1(1): 15-22, 2015 http://www.rasjournal.com
ORGINAL ARTICLE
Effects of 3 weeks intensive training on the
salivary testosterone and the mood profile
of the adolescent wrestlers
Luis Dalente
Luis.dalen@yahoo.com
Faculty of Psychology and Education Science Porto
Abstract:Control of the hormones regulating the training intensity could be studied in different ways. The salivary
testosterone, cortisol and α-amylase are the hormones their level influenced due to the physical and mental
stress. Previous studies indicated different levels of increase or decrease in such hormones following various
levels of training. In psychological defining of these changes, there are contraindicating results indicating decline
of mental health following higher secretion of such hormones or lack of mental profile changes. Considering the
mentioned contraindications, the present study investigates the effect of 3-week intensive training on the salivary
hormone concentration and the mood profile of the adolescent wrestlers. Fifteen adolescent wrestlers invited to
the national team were selected by simple method (age range 151, 1). Saliva was collected from the study cases
in 4 phases (the day prior to the beginning of the training, end of the 1st week, end of the 2nd week, and the day
after completion 3-week intensive wrestling training). The cortisol concentration was measured using Immune
tech kit with accuracy of 0.2 Ng/ml, for testosterone level, using kit made by Radium Co. with accuracy of 0.17
Ng/ml and of α-amylase, using the Radium kit with accuracy of 0.02 Ng/ml.In assaying the mood profile of the
study subjects, thequestionnaire of mood profile (including 24 questions) which was introduced by Brahms was
used, (α-kronbach=0.78). The ANOVA with repeated measure and t-test at the level of α=0.05 were used. The
findings showed that participating in 3-week intensive training of wrestling has no insignificant effect on the
salivary Hormones and also on the mood profile of the adolescent wrestlers. Considering the above mentioned
data it could be concluded that the 3-week intensive training in the adolescent wrestlers has no effect on the
improvement or decline of mental profile of the athletes and has no permanent influence on the hormone system.
Keywords: frontier cooperatives, sustainable development of border areas
Introduction:
Physical activities and mental pressures in the life
of individuals cause changes in hormone secretion
and the enzymes regulating such activities,which
differ depending on the type and intensity of the
activities. Also control of these regulatory substances
takes place in different ways (detection in saliva,
blood or urine).
One of these methods is using of the saliva
biomarkers which draw the attention in the
psychological and physiologic studies in the recent
decades. Since measuring of free cortisol in saliva
has been known as an effective factor in evaluating
the structure and reaction of HypothalamusHypophysisAxis (1), but a proper brain
adrenosympathetic activity biomarker in the saliva
has not been identified yet. Recently the studies
related to salivary α-amylase has been focused on
studying the autonomic system activity of body
whichis secreted in response to stimulation of neural
transmitter from the salivary gland, and this secretion
takes place after
both
sympathetic and
parasympathetic activities (2). Testosterone is the
main hormone present in the saliva with the main role
in sympathetic and parasympathetic functions and its
concentration changes in competition and facing the
mental and physical stresses (2).
15
Research of Academic Sciences Journal.
1(1): 15-22, 2015 http://www.rasjournal.com
Elias et al. (1991) reported increase of
testosterone level following collegial wrestling
competition (3), but such finding was not reported in
the study of Salvador et al. (1987) in the Judo
competition. Hug et al. (2003) studiedthe differences
of testosterone concentration in 6-week continued
physical training. It increased in the first 3week,butthere was no significant difference in
remaining three weeks (4). In the high physical
stressactivities, it could be stated that, the study of
hormone level and changes in the regulatory
substances which are secreted in response to exercise
stress, are very important and could be effective in
studying the effect of training on the physical and
mental systems of the athletes exposed to such
stresses and present a guideline in regulation of
exercise stress and/or using the mental stress reducer
methods (5). In this relation, considering the features
of wrestling exercises and also the physiologic and
bodily features of the wrestling athletes,Study
ofsecretion of such hormones is very important from
the view pointof health, fitness, and the degree of the
athletes stability and could be effective in the
wrestlers’score in competition. The hormonal level in
the adolescent changes more than others therefore
alters the mental profile and mood of athletes in
response to training which the rate and direction of
such changes are less investigated in this age (27).
Therefore, there is suitable context in studying the
effect of intensive trainings on the salivary hormone
concentration and the adolescent behavior profile.
Numerous studies focused on the relation between
hormones and behavior, aggression, gender features,
and mood. Some of these studies stated that
aggressive behavior due to competition and intensive
training affects the hormone level (6, 7). On the other
hand, one of the main components of competition is
winning and losing. Misr et al. (1988) reported
increase of testosterone concentration following non
violent non competition activities for the winners and
the reduction in the losers after competition (8).
Also the previous studies have shown that,
increase of amylase concentration is known as an
index of autonomous activation. For example,
evidence indicating increase of α-amylase
concentration in response to stressors such as
exercise on treadmill (9), being in pressure room
(10), running (11), training on bicycle or being
exposed to cold temperature (12) and continued
intensive training football (13). Evidences indicate
the effects of mental pressures (14) and applying of
relaxation technique (15) on the salivary α-amylase.
While increase of α-amylase following the physical
activity is quite clear, but responses of this enzyme to
the mental pressures are contraindicating (16).
Studies indicate changes due to the effect of intensive
activity on the testosterone and cortisol levels (17,
18, 19). But the psychological interpretations have
shown the contraindicating results on the mental
health reduction following more secretion of
testosterone and cortisol and/or lack of hormonal
changes (20, 21).
Therefore, considering the fact that the applied
studies on this context are not much extensive and
not covering all aspects on the effect of intensive
training and its mental changes, and qualitative
studies on the adolescence ages in which role of
hormones are more clear have not been done.
Hence, this study have focused on the effect of 3week intensive training on
salivary hormones
concentration and the wrestler mood changes.
Methodology:
In this semi-experiment study, the subjects under
included the adolescent professional wrestlers
participating in national competitions. Fifteen of
them were selected randomly. First comprehensive
information about the stage of sampling such as,
saliva collection and mood test was given to the
subjects. Then after, a consent letter was obtained
from them. Saliva was collected in 4 stages: the day
before beginning of training, end of the 1st week, end
of the 2nd week and the day after completion of
training. The subjects were under intensive training 3
weeks; that included weight lifting to improve
strength 4 sessions/week, 3 sessions/week running
and training the wrestling techniques 10
sessions/week. Saliva was collected at the resting
time in the afternoon (four milliliters per session),
and 3 hours after the last session of training. The
salivary cortisol was measured with ELISA
instrument using kit made of Immuno tech Co.
France, with accuracy of 0.2 Ng/ml, the salivary
testosterone concentration with ELISA method using
kit made of Radium Co. Italy, with sensitivity of
0.017 Ng/ml and salivary α-amylase concentration
with ELISA using kit made of Radium Co. with
accuracy of 0.02 Ng/ml. The mood behavior was
evaluated by using the Brahms questionnaire
(including 24 questions). The main objective of this
test is conversion of the emotional and mood
qualities to the quantitative data. The durability of
this test was determined by α-kronbach in α=0.78.
Statistical analysis
The descriptive tests were used to study the
changes of physiological factors. In testing of the
hypotheses of the present study, firstly the analysis of
16
Research of Academic Sciences Journal.
1(1): 15-22, 2015 http://www.rasjournal.com
variance with repeated measurements was used to
prove the significance, and in determining the
difference in the mental profile test, the t-test was
used (α=0.05). Also the SPSS software was used to
assess all of the statistical tests.
concentration and also, on the mood of the wrestlers
(see table.4).
As is observed in the fig.1, the salivary cortisol
from the first day till the end of training did not show
significant change (F2, 20=0.04, P=0.67). The salivary
testosterone concentration during the intensive
training period did not show significant change (F2,
20=1.65, P=0.216). In the study of the salivary αamylase concentration during the training period as is
observed in the fig.1, there was not found significant
difference (F2, 20=3.415, P=0.53). Also study of
psychological indices did not reveal significant
difference during the intensive training period, in a
way that difference of none of the nervousness
factors including anger (t21=1.192, P=0.24), disorder
(t21=1.192, P=0.43), depression (t21=1.192, P=0.96),
fatigue (t21=1.192, P=0.18), depression (t21=1.192,
P=0.68) and feeling of strength (t21=1.192, P=0.54)
prior to and after training period were not significant.
These finding are given in the fig. 2 (also see table.3).
Findings:
As is given in the table.1 and table.2, the
physiological index of the participants at the
beginning of the training compared to the determined
level at the above mentioned age range in majority of
the cases was lower. After spending the training
courses, this indices in more cases reached near to the
standard levels. In case of the recorded 40-yard
running and 49 meters running, the changes were
significant. These findings indicate that 3-week
intensive training had significant effect in improving
the physical fitness in the athletes.
The results of the inferential tests showed that
participating in the intensive training sessions in the
adolescence age has no significant effect on the
salivary testosterone, cortisol and α-amylase
Table 1. Description of body composition prior to and after the training course inelite adolescent wrestlers
Mean
Before
After
Standard
criter
ia
Age
15
15
-
SD
±1.1
±1.1
-
BMI
23.2
22.9
-
SD
±2.05
±2.59
-
Fat%
9.1
8.7
8.5
SD
±2.32
±1.98
-
* is significant in α=0.05
Table 2. Description of Physiological indices prior to and after the training course inelite adolescent wrestlers
Mean
VO2
Max
SD
Before
After
Standard
criteria
47.96
49.12
52.00
±4.43
±3.59
-
Sit Up
1
mi
n
53.60
57.21
60.00
SD
40Yard
Running
SD
4 9
Meter
SD
Squat
SD
±6.13
±4.79
-
6.01
5.45*
5.00
±1.1
±0.9
-
9.48
8.7*
8.00
±1.5
±0.8
-
112.38
124.7
125
±15.48
±11.83
-
* is significant in α=0.05
Table 3. Average of Characters of mood profile prior to and after the training period in elite adolescent wrestlers
Mean
Anger
Disorder
Depression
fatige
Tension
Feeling of strength
Before
3.63
4.63
4.22
8.86
4.63
8.18
After
4.40
5.77
4.27
9.09
5.13
8.81
* is significant in α=0.05
17
Research of Academic Sciences Journal.
1(1): 15-22, 2015 http://www.rasjournal.com
Table 4. Salivary cortisol, testosterone and α-amylase changes during the intensive training period in elite
adolescent wrestlers
st
Hormone
Prior to
SD
1 week
SD
2nd week
SD
After training
SD
training
period
period
Cortisol
Testosterone
α-amylase
7.69
82.3
98.81
0.75
0.89
1.35
8.05
0.76
7.82
47.87
1.2
52.2
46.87
2.1
81.1
* is significant in α=0.05
0.9
1.8
1.7
8.1
64.7
84.2
0.93
1.7
1.5
Fig 1. Cortisol, testosterone and α-amylase changes during the intensive training period in elite adolescent wrestlers
Fig 2. Characters of mood profile prior to and after the training period in elite adolescent wrestlers
18
Research of Academic Sciences Journal.
1(1): 15-22, 2015 http://www.rasjournal.com
Discussion and conclusion:
In some previous studies it has been stated that,
the salivary hormones concentration changes
differently due to competition and physical stresses.
Considering the characteristics of the wrestling
exercise and the physical fitness of the wrestlers,
study on the changes of the above mentioned
hormones is very important and could be important in
ranking score among the wrestlers in their
competitions (6). Reviewing these changes could be
suitable mental makers for regulation of training
intensity, and give a good feedback in optimized
training activities to the coaches (5). The present
study investigates the hormonal and mental changes
following 3-week intensive exercise in adolescent
wrestlers who work in the national level.
In
investigating
the
salivary
cortisol
concentration, findings indicated insignificant
changes in the training period. It corresponds with the
data given by Gonzales et al. (1999), Mccal et al.
(1992) and O’connor et al. (1991), who indicated
cortisol changes following an intensive swimming
and basketball sessions (17, 18, 19). While it does not
agree with the data given by Martin et al. (2000) in 6week bicycling training (26), O’dagiro et al. (1996)
in long term strength running training (21) and the
study of Azarbayjani (2002) during 6-week super
league of basketball players (6). All of these studies
indicate the increase of cortisol level in training
period. Different factors such as changes of duration
and intensity of exercise in this studyare the reason of
disagreement. The type of exercises and the features
of different athletic fields may be the effective factors
of this disagreement. For example, endurance
running and cycling in contrast to the wrestling are
not the direct physical contact. Dawes (1996) stated
that more intensive activity with longer time (80%
maximal oxygen uptake) causes significant cortisol
changes compared to activity at intensity of 40%
maximal oxygen uptake (22). Hug et al. (2003) did
not observe significant difference in the cortisol
concentration in first 3-week of training, but it
declined from the 4th till 6thweek of training (4).
Sutton et al. (1975) showed that the cortisol
responses in the trained and untrained individual
were the same in the constant intensive training
condition (23).
In the trained athletes with the constant submaximal intensity training, increase of cortisol
concentration was not demonstrated, while in the
untrained athletes significant increase was observed.
Bateub et al. (2002) noticed significant increase of
cortisol level following the competition Rugby in the
females (20). The obtained results in the present
study may be due to high increase of cortisol
concentration in the beginning wrestlers that reach to
the constant level after some times and a type of
adaptation takes place in an intensive training. In the
study of salivary testosterone changes, the results did
not indicate significant difference in this period. This
result corresponds with the finding reported by
Gonzalez et al. (1999), Mccol et al. (1992) and
O’connor et al (1991) stating that the salivary
testosterone changes after an intensive swimming and
basketball training are not significant (17, 18, 19). It
also agrees with the findings given by Salvador et al.
(1987) who showed no significant difference of
testosterone concentration prior to and after one
professional Judo match (2). Hug et al. (2003)
reported some increases in the first week and
difference in the next three weeks following six
weeks intensive training (4). Also several research
studies reported different findings from the results of
this study. Elias et al. (1991) revealed increase of
testosterone concentration following collegial
wrestling match (3). Misr et al. (1998) noticed an
increase of salivary testosterone following nonaggressive competition activity in winners and its
reduction in losers after match (8). Also Crystyansen
et al. (1998) and Elias et al. (1991) stated the
aggressive behavior due to competition and the
intensive training are effective on the testosterone
concentration (3, 7). Bateub et al. (2003) reported
increase of testosterone concentration following
Rugby competition without having relation with the
loser and winner in the women (20).
In a study on the effect of 7-week continuous and
intermittent training on the salivary enzymes,
Azarbayjani (2002) reported increase of testosterone
concentration in the professional basketball players
(6). Variation of training period, the training
intensity, duration and training intermission in this
study could be the effective factors that cause the
disagreement of results mentioned in this study
compared with the other studies. Studies revealed no
significant changes of salivary α-amylase in this
period. The data disagree with the results obtained by
Nater (2004) while studying at different times, prior
to and after exercise (16), even disagree with the
results obtained by Chatterton et al. (1997) on
professional troopers, prior to and after free fall (12).
The reason of different findings could be attributed to
the type of short term exercise in the Chatterton’s
study compared with the long term training period in
this study. The main finding of this study is
insignificant difference of three mentioned hormone
concentration changes. This is in contrast with the
findings reported by Chatterton (1997) stating that
these three mentioned hormone concentrations do not
change during the training (12). The changes and the
19
Research of Academic Sciences Journal.
1(1): 15-22, 2015 http://www.rasjournal.com
quick stimulation in the chatterton’s study as
compared with the present study is the reason of
different obtained results. Finally, as shown in figure
4, the mood profile results showed that participants in
a training camping of the adolescents national
wrestling team do not have significant effect on any
of the 6 subfactors of mood profile in the athletes. In
the study of O’conor et al. (1991) on male and female
swimmers, the intensity and volume of training
during 3 days increased and the salivary cortisol, the
mood characters and the muscular exhaustion were
measured (19). Increase of training in 2 days was
directly associated with mood changes and increase
of mood disorder. The main effect of 3 days period
was noticed in feeling of strength, fatigue and in all
mood conditions, but anxiety, depression, anger and
confusion did not change significantly.
Findings showed that, the sudden increase of
training is associated with the negative mood
changes. This data did not agree with the present
study findings. The main reason might be attributed
to the type of exercise and/or the age difference
between the university swimmers and the adolescents
of the present study. In the study of Gonzalez et al.
(1999), insignificant difference was observed
between cortisol and testosterone response and the
results of the match (winning and losing). The
negative mood features significantly increased in the
losers. Testosterone response had insignificant
relation with mood changes (17).
Also a study on the swimmers by Morgan (1998)
showed that following the high volume training
periods, sum of the mood disorder increases and the
ice mountain profile (indicating the positive mood
profile of the athletes) reverses (24). This relation
was also observed between training volume and
changes in the runners, rowers, speed skaters and
wrestlers (25). Findings of this study are in consensus
with the results given by Chatterton (1997) and Nater
(2004) stating that salivary amylase concentration
changes result in increase of stress and mood
destruction in the athletes (12, 16). Because lack of
change in these hormones was associated with the
insignificancy of change of mood profile. Booth et al.
(1989) reported significant increase of testosterone in
relation withmood sub-factors of Judo player winners
as compared with the losers, till hours after
completion of the competition (26). Silva et al.
(2008) reported improvement of mood status in the
Brazilian football players following long term
training despite increase of hormones (13). These
findings correspond with findings of Morgan (ice
mountain profile) stating that T score lower than 50
has improper mood profile and higher than 50
indicate the proper condition. As stated in the
contraindicating findings, in some cases, changes
occurred in the salivary hormones are in agreement
with the mood changes of the athletes. Findings of
present study confirm this correspondence Which
state lack of salivary hormones changes confirm the
stability of mood in the athletes. In all, it could be
concluded that 3-week intensive athletic training has
no effect on the hormone concentration of the elite
adolescent wrestlers.
These insignificant changes correspond with
stability of the data obtained from mental profile
testing. Age of the athletes, their high level of
physical fitness and type of training used in this study
could be the main factors of these stability of
hormone concentrations and mood sub-factors.
As the final statement and considering to the
findings obtained from this study, it is suggested that
the similar study be performed at the different age
groups with the same training, and in case of finding
the same results it could be generalized better. Also it
is suggested that this study be conducted in the other
sport fields with same heart rate, training intensity
and training period to view the effect of various
natures of sport fields (like competitive or noncompetitive, cross or fine and so on).
20
Research of Academic Sciences Journal.
1(1): 15-22, 2015 http://www.rasjournal.com
References:
1. Kirschbaum, C., &Hellhammer, D. Salivary
Cortisol in psychoneuroendocrine Rese Arach :
Recent
developments
and
applications
.
Psychoneuroendocrinology, 1994; 19 (4): 313 – 333.
2. Salvador, A., Simon, V., Suay, F.,
&Liovens, L. Testosterone and cortisol exposes
responses to competitive fighting in human males.
Aggressive Behavior, 1987; 13: 9-13.
3. Elias, A., Wilson, N., Pandian, M.R.,
chuned- Utsumi, A., Kayaleh, R., Stone, S.C.
Corticorpin Releasing Hormone and Gonadotropin
secretion in physically Active Males After A cute
Exercise. Eur.J.Applphysiol, 1991; 62:171-174.
4. Hug, M., Mullis, P., Vogt, M., Ventura, N.,
&Hoppeler, H. Training modalities: over-reaching
and over-training in athletes, including a study of the
role of hormones. Best Pract& Res ClinEndocrino
and Metabolism, 2003; 17 (2): 191–209.
5. Alen, m., Pakavinen, A., Hakkinen, k.,
&komi, P.V. Responses of serum androgenic .
Anabolic and catabolic Hormones to prolonged
sterenghtraining .Int J sports med, 1988; 9: 229-233.
6. Azarbayjai, M. A. Effects of intensive
training on salivary hormones of elite basketball
players. Thesis for reciving PHD.Olum O’
Tahghighat university of Tehran, 2001.[ Article in
Persian]
7. Crystyansen, M,d,, Schroeder, J.P., &
Alexander, d.M. Expression if testosterone
conditioned Place preference is blocked by peripheral
or intra – accumbency injection of alpha
Flupenthixol. Hormones and Behavior, 1988; 34: 3947.
8. Misr, S., & Booth, A. Testosterone and
dominance in men.Behavioral and Brain sciences,
1988; 21: 353-397.
12. Chatterton, R.T., Vogelsong, K.M., Lu, Y.,
Ellman, A.B., Hudgens, G.A. Salivary a-amylase as a
measure of endogenous adrenergic activity.
ClinPhysiol, 1996; 16: 433- 48.
13. Silva, V., Santhiago, M., &Gobatto, C.A.
Psychological, biochemical and physiological
responses of Brazilian soccer players during a
training program.Science & Sports, 2008; 23: 66–72.
14. Skosnik, P.D., Chatterton, J., Swisher, R.T.,
Park, S. Modulation of attentional inhibition by norepinephrine and cortisol after psychological stress.Int
J Psychophysiol, 2000; 36 (1): 59– 68.
15. Morse, D.R., Schacterle, G.R., Zaydenberg,
M., Furst, M.L., Pollack, R.L., Moskow, A., &
Esposito, J.V. Salivary volume and amylase activity:
I. Relaxation versus relaxed chewing. J Am
SocPsychosom Dent Med, 1983b; 30(3): 85– 96.
16. Nater, U.M., Rohleder, N., Schlotz, W.,
Ehlert, U., &Kirschbaum, C. Determinants of the
diurnal
course
of
salivary
alphaamylase.Psychoneuro endocrinology, 2007; 32: 392–
401.
17. Gonzalez, B., Salvador, A., Serrrano, M.A.,
Ricarte, J. Testosterone , Cortisol and Mood in Sports
team . Competition HomBehav, 1999; 35(1): 55-62.
18. Mccal, K.D., Gladue, B.A., Joppa, M.
Winning, Losing , Mood and Testosterone .
Hormones and behavior, 1992; 26: 486-504.
19. O’Connor, P.J., Morgan, W.P., Raglin, J.S.
Psychobiologic effects of 30 of increased training in
female and male swimmers .Med Sci Sports Exerc,
1991; 23(9): 1055- 1061.
20. Bateub, H., Booth, A., Shirtcliff, E.A., &
Granger, D.A. Testosterone, cortisol, and women’s
competition.Evolution and Human Behav, 2002; 23:
181–192.
9. Gilman, S., Thornton, R., Miller, D.,
Biersner, R. Effects of exercise stress on parotid
gland secretion.HormMetab Res, 1979a; 11(7): 454.
21. Odagiro, Y., Shimomitsu, T., Iwane, H.,
Katsumure, T. Relationships between exhaustive
mood state and change in stress hormones flowing
and ultra endurance race.Int J Sports Med, 1996;
17(5): 325- 331.
10. Gilman, S.C., Fischer, G.J., Biersner, R.J.,
Thornton, R.D., Miller, D.A. Human parotid alphaamylase secretion as a function of chronic hyperbaric
exposure. Under sea Biomed. Res, 1979b; 6 (3): 303307.
22. Dawes, C. Factors influencing salivary flow
rate and composition. In: Edgar, W.M., O’Mullane,
D.M. (Eds.), Saliva and Oral Health. British Dental
Association, London, 1996; 27– 41.
11. Nexo, E., Hansen, M.R., Konradsen, L.
Human salivary epidermal growth factor, haptocorrin
and amylase before and after prolonged exercise.
Scand JClin Lab Invest, 1988; 48 (3): 269– 273.
23. Sutton, J.R., Casey, J.H., The adrenocortical
response to competitive athletics in veteran athletes. J
ClinEndocrinolMetab, 1975; 40: 135–138.
21
Research of Academic Sciences Journal.
1(1): 15-22, 2015 http://www.rasjournal.com
24. Morgan, W.P., Costill, D.L., Flynn, M.G.,
Raglin, J.S,,&O’connor, P.J. Mood distubance
following increased training in swimmers. Med Sci
Sport Exerc, 1998; 20: 408 – 414.
26. Booth, A., Shelly, G., Mazur, A., Tharp, G.,
&Kittok, R. Testosterone, and winning and losing in
human competition.Hormones and Behav, 1989; 23:
556–71.
25. Weinberg, R.S., Gould, D. Foundations of
sport and exercise psychology. Human Kinetics,
1995.
22