HomeLifeinCOLONIALDAYS Wr ittenby ALICEMORSEEARLE intheyear 1898 THEBERKSHIRETRAVELLERPRESS Stockbridge,Massachusetts THISBOOKISBEGUN ASITISENDED INMEMORYOFMYMOTHER Foreword Theillustrationsforthisbookareineverycasefromrealarticlesandscenes,usuallyfromthosestill inexistence—rarerelicsofpastdays.Thepicturesarethesymbolsofyearsofcarefulsearch,patient investigation,andconstantwatchfulness.Manyacuriousarticleasnamelessandincomprehensibleas the totem of an extinct Indian tribe has been studied, compared, inquired and written about, and finallytriumphantlynamedandplacedinthelistofobsoletedomesticappurtenances.Fromthelofts of woodsheds, under attic eaves, in dairy cellars, out of old trunks and sea-chests from mouldering warehouses,havestrangelyshapedbitsandcombinationsofwood,stuff,andmetalbeenrescuedand recognized.ThetreasurestoresofDeerfieldMemorialHall,oftheBostonianSociety,oftheAmerican AntiquarianSociety,andmanyStateHistoricalSocietieshavebeenfreelysearched;andtotheofficers ofthesesocietiesIgivecordialthanksfortheircoöperationandassistanceinmywork. TheartisticandcorrectphotographicrepresentationofmanyoftheseobjectsIowetoMr.WilliamF. HallidayofBoston,Massachusetts,Mr.GeorgeF.CookofRichmond,Virginia,andtheMissesAllenof Deerfield, Massachusetts. To many friends, and many strangers, who have secured for me single articlesorsinglephotographs,Ihererepeatthethanksalreadygivenfortheirkindness. Thereweretwoconstantobstaclesinthepath:Anarticlewouldbefoundandanamegivenbyold-time countryfolk,butnodictionarycontainedtheword,noprinteddescriptionofitsuseorpurposecould beobtained,thoughacenturyagoitwasineveryhousehold.Again,somecuriouslyshapedutensilor tool might be displayed and its use indicated; but it was nameless, and it took long inquiry and deduction,—the faculty of "taking a hint,"—to christen it. It is plain that different vocations and occupations had not only implements but a vocabulary of their own, and all have become almost obsolete;tothevariousterms,phrases,andnames,onceingeneralapplicationanduseinspinning, weaving, and kindred occupations, and now half forgotten, might be given the descriptive title, a "homespun vocabulary." By definite explanation of these terms many a good old English word and phrasehasbeenrescuedfromdisuse. ALICEMORSEEARLE. Contents I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. HomesoftheColonists TheLightofOtherDays TheKitchenFireside TheServingofMeals FoodfromForestandSea IndianCorn MeatandDrink FlaxCultureandSpinning WoolCultureandSpinning,withaPostscriptonCotton Hand-Weaving Girls'Occupations DressoftheColonists Jack-knifeIndustries Travel,Transportation,andTaverns SundayintheColonies ColonialNeighborliness Old-timeFlowerGardens Index HomeLifeinColonialDays CHAPTERI HOMESOFTHECOLONISTS WhenthefirstsettlerslandedonAmericanshores,thedifficultiesinfindingormakingsheltermust haveseemedironicalaswellasalmostunbearable.Thecolonistsfoundalandmagnificentwithforest treesofeverysizeandvariety,buttheyhadnosawmills,andfewsawstocutboards;therewasplenty of clay and ample limestone on every side, yet they could have no brick and no mortar; grand bouldersofgraniteandrockwereeverywhere,yettherewasnotasinglefacilityforcutting,drawing, orusingstone.Thesehomelessmen,sosorelyinneedofimmediateshelter,werebaffledbypioneer conditions, and had to turn to many poor expedients, and be satisfied with rude covering. In Pennsylvania,NewYork,Massachusetts,and,possibly,otherstates,somerevertedtoanancientform ofshelter:theybecamecave-dwellers;caveswereduginthesideofahill,andlivedintillthesettlers couldhavetimetochopdownandcutuptreesforloghouses.CornelisVanTienhoven,Secretaryof the Province of New Netherland, gives a description of these cave-dwellings, and says that "the wealthyandprincipalmeninNewEnglandlivedinthisfashionfortworeasons:first,nottowaste timebuilding;second,nottodiscouragepoorerlaboringpeople."Itistobedoubtedwhetherwealthy meneverlivedintheminNewEngland,butJohnson,inhisWonder-workingProvidence, written in 1645, tells of the occasional use of these "smoaky homes." They were speedily abandoned, and no records remain of permanent cave-homes in New England. In Pennsylvania caves were used by newcomers as homes for a long time, certainly half a century. They generally were formed by diggingintothegroundaboutfourfeetindepthonthebanksorlowcliffsneartheriverfront.The wallswerethenbuiltupofsodsorearthlaidonpolesorbrush;thushalfonlyofthechamberwas reallyunderground.Ifdugintoasidehill,theearthformedatleasttwowalls.Theroofswerelayers of tree limbs covered over with sod, or bark, or rushes and bark. The chimneys were laid of cobblestoneorsticksofwoodmortaredwithclayandgrass.Thesettlerswerethankfulevenforthese poorshelters,anddeclaredthattheyfoundthemcomfortable.By1685manyfamilieswerestillliving incavesinPennsylvania,fortheGovernor'sCouncilthenorderedthecavestobedestroyedandfilled in.Sometimesthesettlerusedthecaveforacellarforthewoodenhousewhichhebuiltoverit. Thesecave-dwellingswereperhapsthepooresthouseseverknownbyanyAmericans,yetpioneers, orpoor,ordegradedfolkhaveusedthemforhomesinAmericauntilfarmorerecentdays.Inoneof thesemiserablehabitationsofearthandsodinthetownofRutland,Massachusetts,werepassedsome oftheearlyyearsofthegirlhoodofMadameJumel,whosebeautifulhouseonWashingtonHeights, NewYork,stillstandstoshowthecontraststhatcancomeinasinglelife. ThehomesoftheIndianswerecopiedbytheEnglish,beingreadyadaptationsofnaturalandplentiful resources.WigwamsintheSouthwereofplaitedrushorgrassmats;ofdeerskinspinnedonaframe; oftreeboughsrudelypiledintoacover,andinthefarSouth,oflayersofpalmettoleaves.Inthemild climateoftheMiddleandSouthernstatesa"half-facedcamp,"oftheIndianform,withoneopenside, whichservedforwindowsanddoor,andwherethefirewasbuilt,madeagoodtemporaryhome.In suchforatime,inhisyouth,livedAbrahamLincoln.Barkwigwamswerethemosteasilymadeof all;theycouldbequicklypinnedtogetheronalightframe.In1626therewerethirtyhome-buildings ofEuropeansontheislandofManhattan,nowNewYork,andallbutoneofthemwereofbark. Though the settler had no sawmills, brick kilns, or stone-cutters, he had one noble friend,—a firm rocktostandupon,—hisbroad-axe.Withhisaxe,andhisownstrongandwillingarms,hecouldtake a long step in advance in architecture; he could build a log cabin. These good, comfortable, and substantialhouseshaveeverbeenbuiltbyAmericanpioneers,notonlyincolonialdays,butinour WesternandSouthernstatestothepresenttime.Atypicalonelikemanynowstandingandoccupiedin themountainsofNorthCarolinaishereshown.Roundlogswerehalvedtogetheratthecorners,and roofedwithlogs,orwithbarkandthatchonpoles;thismadeacomfortableshelter,especiallywhen the cracks between the logs were "chinked" with wedges of wood, and "daubed" with clay. Many cabinshadatfirstnochinkingordaubing;onesettlerwhilesleepingwasscratchedontheheadbythe sharpteethofahungrywolf,whothrusthisnoseintothespacebetweenthelogsofthecabin.Doors werehungonwoodenhingesorstrapsofhide. Afavoriteformofaloghouseforasettlertobuildinhisfirst"cutdown"inthevirginforest,wasto digasquaretrenchabouttwofeetdeep,ofdimensionsaslargeashewishedthegroundfloorofhis house,thentosetuprightallaroundthistrench(leavingaspaceforafireplace,window,anddoor),a closelyplacedrowoflogsallthesamelength,usuallyfourteenfeetlongforasinglestory;ifthere wasaloft,eighteenfeetlong.Theearthwasfilledinsolidlyaroundtheselogs,andkeptthemfirmly upright;ahorizontalbandofpuncheons,whichweresplitlogssmoothedoffonthefacewiththeaxe, wassometimespinnedaroundwithinthelogwalls,tokeepthemfromcavingin.Overthiswasplaced abarkroof,madeofsquaresofchestnutbark,orshinglesofoverlappingbirch-bark.Abarkorlog shutter was hung at the window, and a bark door hung on withe hinges, or, if very luxurious, on leatherstraps,completedthequicklymadehome.Thiswascalledrolling-upahouse,andthehouse wascalledapuncheonandbarkhouse.Aroughpuncheonfloor,hewedflatwithanaxeoradze,was truly a luxury. One settler's wife pleaded that the house might be rolled up around a splendid flat stump; thus she had a good, firm table. A small platform placed about two feet high alongside one wall, and supported at the outer edge with strong posts, formed a bedstead. Sometimes hemlock boughsweretheonlybed.Thefrontiersayingwas,"Ahardday'sworkmakesasoftbed."Thetired pioneerssleptwellevenonhemlockboughs.Thechinksofthelogswerefilledwithmossandmud, andintheautumnbankedupoutsidewithearthforwarmth. TheseloghousesdidnotsatisfyEnglishmenandwomen.TheylongedtohavewhatRogerWilliams calledEnglishhouses,whichwere,however,scarcelydifferentinground-plan.Asingleroomonthe ground,calledinmanyoldwillsthefire-room,hadavastchimneyatoneend.Aso-calledstaircase, usually but a narrow ladder, led to a sleeping-loft above. Some of those houses were still made of whole logs, but with clapboards nailed over the chinks and cracks. Others were of a lighter frame coveredwithclapboards,orinDelawarewithboardspinnedonperpendicularly.Soonthishousewas doubledinsizeandcomfortbyhavingaroomoneithersideofthechimney. Eachsettlementoftenfollowedingeneraloutlineaswellasdetailthehousestowhichtheownershad become accustomed in Europe, with, of course, such variations as were necessary from the new surroundings, new climate, and new limitations. New York was settled by the Dutch, and therefore naturallythefirstpermanenthouseswereDutchinshape,suchasmaybeseeninHollandto-day.In the large towns in New Netherland the houses were certainly very pretty, as all visitors stated who wroteaccountsatthatday.MadamKnightsvisitedNewYorkin1704,andwroteofthehouses,—Iwill giveherownwords,inherownspellingandgrammar,whichwerenotverygood,thoughshewas theteacherofBenjaminFranklin,andthefriendofCottonMather:— "The Buildings are Brick Generaly very stately and high: the Bricks in some of the houses are of diversCoullers,andlaidinCheckers,beingglazed,lookveryagreable.Theinsideofthehousesis neat to admiration, the wooden work; for only the walls are plaster'd; and the Sumers and Gist are planedandkeptverywhitescour'dassoisallthepartitionsifmadeofBords." The "sumers and gist" were the heavy timbers of the frame, the summer-pieces and joists. The summer-piecewasthelargemiddlebeaminthemiddlefromendtoendoftheceiling;thejoistswere cross-beams.Thesewerenotcoveredwithplasterasnowadays,butshowedineveryceiling; and in old houses are sometimes set so curiously and fitted so ingeniously, that they are always an entertainingstudy.AnothertravellersaysthatNewYorkhouseshadpatternsofcoloredbricksetin thefront,andalsoborethedateofbuilding.TheGovernor'shouseatAlbanyhadtwoblackbrickhearts.Dutchhousesweresetclosetothesidewalkwiththegable-endtothestreet;andhadtheroof notchedlikesteps,—corbel-roofwasthename;andtheseendswereoftenofbrick,whiletherestof thewallswereofwood.Theroofswerehighinproportiontothesidewalls,andhencesteep;they weresurmountedusuallyinHollandfashionwithweather-vanesintheshapeofhorses,lions,geese, sloops, or fish; a rooster was a favorite Dutch weather-vane. There were metal gutters sticking out from every roof almost to the middle of the street; this was most annoying to passers-by in rainy weather,whoweredelugedwithwaterfromtheroofs.Thecellarwindowshadsmallloop-holeswith shutters.Thewindowswerealwayssmall;somehadonlyslidingshutters,othershadbuttwopanesor quarels of glass, as they were called, which were only six or eight inches square. The front doors were cut across horizontally in the middle into two parts, and in early days were hung on leather hingesinsteadofiron. Intheupperhalfofthedoorweretworoundbull's-eyesofheavygreenishglass,whichletfaintrays oflightenterthehall.Thedooropenedwithalatch,andoftenhadalsoaknocker.Everyhousehada porch or "stoep" flanked with benches, which were constantly occupied in the summer time; and every evening, in city and village alike, an incessant visiting was kept up from stoop to stoop. The Dutch farmhouses were a single straight story, with two more stories in the high, in-curving roof. Theyhaddoorsandstoopslikethetownhouses,andallthewindowshadheavyboardshutters.The cellarandthegarretwerethemostusefulroomsinthehouse;theywerestore-roomsforallkindsof substantialfood.Inthecellarweregreatbinsofapples,potatoes,turnips,beets,andparsnips.There werehogsheadsofcornedbeef,barrelsofsaltpork,tubsofhamsbeingsaltedinbrine,tonnekensof saltshadandmackerel,firkinsofbutter,kegsofpigs'feet,tubsofsouse,kilderkinsoflard.Onalong swing-shelfweretumblersofspicedfruits,and"rolliches,"head-cheese,andstringsofsausages—all Dutchdelicacies. Instrongrackswerebarrelsofciderandvinegar,andoftenofbeer.Manycontainedbarrelsofrum andapipeofMadeira.Whatastorehouseofplentyandthrift!WhatanemblemofDutchcharacter!In theatticbythechimneywasthesmoke-house,filledwithhams,bacon,smokedbeef,andsausages. InVirginiaandMaryland,wherepeopledidnotgatherintotowns,butbuilttheirhousesfartherapart, therewereatfirstfewsawmills,andthehouseswereuniversallybuiltofundressedlogs.Nailswere costly,aswereallarticlesmanufacturedofiron,hencemanyhouseswerebuiltwithoutiron;wooden pinsandpegsweredriveninholescuttoreceivethem;hingeswereofleather;theshinglesonthe roofweresometimespinned,orwereheldinplaceby"weight-timbers."Thedoorshadlatcheswith strings hanging outside; by pulling in the string within-doors the house was securely locked. This form of latch was used in all the colonies. When persons were leaving houses, they sometimes set themonfireinordertogatherupthenailsfromtheashes.Topreventthisdestructionofbuildings, the government of Virginia gave to each planter who was leaving his house as many nails as the housewasestimatedtohaveinitsframe,providedtheownerwouldnotburnthehousedown. Someyearslater,whenboardscouldbereadilyobtained,thefavoritedwelling-placeintheSouthwas aframedbuildingwithagreatstoneorlog-and-claychimneyateitherend.Thehousewasusuallyset on sills resting on the ground. The partitions were sometimes covered with a thick layer of mud which dried into a sort of plaster and was whitewashed. The roofs were covered with cypress shingles. Hammond wrote of these houses in 1656, in his Leah and Rachel, "Pleasant in their building, and contriveddelightfull;theroomslarge,daubedandwhitelimed,glazedandflowered;andifnotglazed windows,shuttersmadeprettyandconvenient." When prosperity and wealth came through the speedily profitable crops of tobacco, the houses improved. The home-lot or yard of the Southern planters showed a pleasant group of buildings, which would seem the most cheerful home of the colonies, only that all dearly earned homes are cheerful to their owners. There was not only the spacious mansion house for the planter with its pleasantporch,butseparatebuildingsinwhichwereakitchen,cabinsforthenegroservantsandthe overseer,astable,barn,coach-house,hen-house,smoke-house,dove-cote,andmilk-room.Inmany yardsatallpolewithatoyhouseattopwaserected;inthisbird-housebee-martinsbuilttheirnests, and by bravely disconcerting the attacks of hawks and crows, and noisily notifying the family and servants of the approach of the enemy, thus served as a guardian for the domestic poultry, whose home stood close under this protection. There was seldom an ice-house. The only means for the preservationofmeatsinhotweatherwasbywaterconstantlypouringintoandthroughaboxhouse erected over the spring that flowed near the house. Sometimes a brew-house was also found in the yard,formakinghome-brewedbeer,andatool-houseforstoringtoolsandfarmimplements.Some farms had a cider-mill, but this was not in the house yard. Often there was a spinning-house where servants could spin flax and wool. This usually had one room containing a hand-loom on which coarsebaggingcouldbewoven,andhomespunfortheuseofthenegroes.Averybeautifulexample ofasplendidandcomfortableSouthernmansionsuchaswasbuiltbywealthyplantersinthemiddle of the eighteenth century has been preserved for us at Mount Vernon, the home of George Washington. MountVernonwasnotsofinenorsocostlyahouseasmanyothersbuiltearlierinthecentury,such asLowerBrandon—twocenturiesandahalfold—andUpperBrandon,thehomesoftheHarrisons; Westover,thehomeoftheByrds;Shirley,builtin1650,thehomeoftheCarters;SabinHall,another Carter home, is still standing on the Rappahannock with its various and many quarters and outbuildings,andisasplendidexampleofcolonialarchitecture. As the traveller came north from Virginia through Pennsylvania, "the Jerseys," and Delaware, the negrocabinsanddetachedkitchendisappeared,andmanyofthehouseswereofstoneandmortar.A clayovenstoodbyeachhouse.Inthecitiesstoneandbrickweremuchused,andby1700nearlyall Philadelphiahouseshadbalconiesrunningtheentirelengthofthesecondstory.Thestoopbeforethe doorwasuniversal. For half a century nearly all New England houses were cottages. Many had thatched roofs. Seaside townssetasideforpublicusecertainreedylotsbetweensalt-marshandlow-watermark,wherethatch couldbefreelycut.Thecattedchimneyswereoflogsplasteredwithclay,orplatted,thatis,madeof reedsandmortar;andaswoodandhaywerestackedinthestreets,alltheearlytownssufferedmuch fromfires,andsoonlawswerepassedforbiddingthebuildingoftheseunsafechimneys;asbrickwas imported and made, and stone was quarried, there was certainly no need to use such danger-filled materials.Fire-wardenswereappointedwhopeeredaroundinallthekitchens,huntingforwhatthey called foul chimney hearts, and they ordered flag-roofs and wooden chimneys to be removed, and replacedwithstoneorbrickones.InBostoneveryhousekeeperhadtoownafire-ladder;andladders andbucketswerekeptinthechurch.Salemkeptits"fire-bucketsandhook'dpoles"inthetown-house. Sooninalltownseachfamilyownedfire-bucketsmadeofheavyleatherandmarkedwiththeowner's name or initials. The entire town constituted the fire company, and the method of using the firebucketswasthis.Assoonasanalarmoffirewasgivenbyshoutsorbell-ringing,everyoneranat once towards the scene of the fire. All who owned buckets carried them, and if any person was delayedevenforafewminutes,heflunghisfire-bucketsfromthewindowintothestreet,wheresome oneintherunningcrowdseizedthemandcarriedthemon.Onreachingthefire,adoublelinecalled lanesofpersonswasmadefromthefiretotheriverorpond,orawell.Averygoodrepresentationof theselanesisgiveninthisfireman'scertificateoftheyear1800. The buckets, filled with water, were passed from hand to hand, up one line of persons to the fire, whiletheemptyoneswentdowntheotherline.Boyswerestationedonthedrylane.Thusaconstant supplyofwaterwascarriedtothefire.Ifanypersonattemptedtopassthroughtheline,orhinderthe work,hepromptlygotabucketfulortwoofwaterpouredoverhim.Whenthefirewasover,thefirewardentookchargeofthebuckets;somehourslatertheownersappeared,eachpickedouthisown buckets from the pile, carried them home, and hung them up by the front door, ready to be seized againforuseatthenextalarmoffire. Manyoftheseoldfire-bucketsarestillpreserved,anddeservedlyarecherishedheirlooms,forthey representthedignityandimportancedueahouse-holdingancestor.Theywereavaluedpossessionat thetimeoftheiruse,andacostlyone,being,madeofthebestleather.Theywereoftenpaintednot only with the name of the owner, but with family mottoes, crests, or appropriate inscriptions, sometimesinLatin.Theleatherhand-bucketsoftheDonnisonfamilyofBostonarehereshown;those oftheQuincyfamilybearthelegendImpavadiFlammarium;thoseoftheOliverfamily,Friend and Public. In these fire-buckets were often kept, tightly rolled, strong canvas bags, in which valuables couldbethrustandcarriedfromtheburningbuilding. Thefirstfire-enginemadeinthiscountrywasforthetownofBoston,andwasmadeabout1650by JosephJencks,thefamousoldiron-workerinLynn.Itwasdoubtlessverysimpleinshape,aswereits successors until well into this century. The first fire-engine used in Brooklyn, New York, is here shown.Itwasmadein1785byJacobBoome.Relaysofmenatbothhandlesworkedtheclumsypump. Thewatersupplyforthisenginewasstillonlythroughthelanesoffire-buckets,exceptinrarecases. Bytheyear1670woodenchimneysandloghousesofthePlymouthandBaycolonieswerereplaced bymoresightlyhousesoftwostories,whichwerefrequentlybuiltwiththesecondstoryjuttingouta footortwooverthefirst,andsometimeswiththeatticstorystillfurtherextendingoverthesecond story. A few of these are still standing: The White-Ellery House, at Gloucester, Massachusetts, in 1707, is here shown. This "overhang" is popularly supposed to have been built for the purpose of affordingaconvenientshooting-placefromwhichtorepeltheIndians.Thisis,however,anhistoric fable. The overhanging second story was a common form of building in England in the time of Queen Elizabeth, and the Massachusetts and Rhode Island settlers simply and naturally copied their oldhomes. Theroofsofmanyofthesenewhousesweresteep,andwereshingledwithhand-rivenshingles.The wallsbetweentheroomswereofclaymixedwithchoppedstraw.Sometimesthewallswerewhitened with a wash made of powdered clam-shells. The ground floors were occasionally of earth, but puncheon floors were common in the better houses. The well-smoothed timbers were sanded in carefuldesignswithcleanlybeachsand. By 1676 the Royal Commissioners wrote of Boston that the streets were crooked, and the houses usually wooden, with a few of brick and stone. It is a favorite tradition of brick houses in all the colonies that the brick for them was brought from England. As excellent brick was made here, I cannot believe all these tales that are told. Occasionally a house, such as the splendid Warner Mansion,stillstandinginPortsmouth,NewHampshire,isprovedtobeofimportedbrickbythebills whicharestillexistingforthepurchaseandtransportationofthebrick.Alaterformofmanyhouses wastwostoriesortwostoriesandahalfinfront,withapeakedroofthatslopeddownnearlytothe groundinthebackoveranellcoveringthekitchen,addedintheshapeknownasalean-to,or,asit was called by country folk, the linter. This sloping roof gave the one element of unconscious picturesqueness which redeemed the prosaic ugliness of these bare-walled houses. Many lean-to houses are still standing in New England. The Boardman Hill House, built at North Saugus, Massachusetts, two centuries and a half ago, and the two houses of lean-to form, the birthplaces of PresidentJohnAdamsandofPresidentJohnQuincyAdams,aretypicalexamples. Thenextroof-form,builtfromearlycolonialdays,andpopularacenturyago,waswhatwasknown as the gambrel roof. This resembled, on two sides, the mansard roof of France in the seventeenth century,butwasalsogabledattwoends.Thegambrelroofhadacertaingraceofoutline,especially when joined with lean-tos and other additions. The house partly built in 1636 in Dedham, Massachusetts,bymyfar-awaygrandfather,andknownastheFairbanksHouse,istheoldestgambrelroofedhousenowstanding.Itisstilloccupiedbyoneofhisdescendantsintheeighthgeneration.The rear view of it, here given, shows the picturesqueness of roof outlines and the quaintness which comes simply from variety. The front of the main building, with its eight windows, all of different sizesandsetatdifferentheights,showsequaldiversity.Within,theboardsinthewall-panellingvary fromtwototwenty-fiveinchesinwidth. Thewindowsofthefirsthouseshadoiledpapertoadmitlight.AcolonistwrotebacktoEnglandtoa friendwhowassoontofollow,"Bringoiledpaperforyourwindows."Theminister,Higginson,sent promptlyin1629forglassforwindows.Thisglasswassetinthewindowswithnails;thesasheswere oftennarrowandoblong,ofdiamond-shapedpanessetinlead,andopeningupanddownthemiddle on hinges. Long after the large towns and cities had glass windows, frontier settlements still had heavywoodenshutters.TheywereasaferprotectionagainstIndianassault,aswellascheaper.Itis assertedthatintheprovinceofKennebec,whichisnowthestateofMaine,therewasnot,evenaslate as1745,ahousethathadasquareofglassinit.Oiledpaperwasuseduntilthiscenturyinpioneer housesforwindowswhereveritwasdifficulttotransportglass. FewoftheearlyhousesinNewEnglandwerepainted,orcolored,asitwascalled,eitherwithoutor within.Paintersdonotappearinanyoftheearlylistsofworkmen.ASalemcitizen,justpreviousto the Revolution, had the woodwork of one of the rooms of his house painted. One of a group of friends,discussingthisextravaganceafewdayslater,said:"Well!Archerhassetusafineexampleof expense,—hehaslaidoneofhisroomsinoil."Thissentenceshowsboththewordingandideasofthe times. There was one external and suggestive adjunct of the earliest pioneer's home which was found in nearly all the settlements which were built in the midst of threatening Indians. Some strong houses werealwayssurroundedbyastockade,or"palisado,"ofheavy,well-fittedlogs,whichthusformeda garrison, or neighborhood resort, in time of danger. In the valley of Virginia each settlement was formedofhousessetinasquare,connectedfromendtoendoftheoutsidewallsbystockadeswith gates; thus forming a close front. On the James River, on Manhattan Island, were stockades. The wholetownplotofMilford,Connecticut,wasenclosedin1645,andtheIndianstauntedthesettlersby shoutingout,"Whitemenallsamelikepigs."AtonetimeinMassachusetts,twentytownsproposedan all-surroundingpalisade.Theprogressandconditionofoursettlementscanbetracedinourfences. AsIndiansdisappearedorsuccumbed,thesolidrowofpalesgaveplacetoalog-fence,whichserved well to keep out depredatory animals. When dangers from Indians or wild animals entirely disappeared,boardswerestillnotover-plenty,andthestrengthoftheownercouldnotbeover-spent onunnecessaryfencing.Thencamethedouble-railfence;tworails,heldinplaceoneabovetheother, at each joining, by four crossed sticks. It was a boundary, and would keep in cattle. It was said that every fence should be horse-high, bull-proof, and pig-tight. Then came stone walls, showing a thoroughclearingandtamingoftheland.Thesucceeding"half-high"stonewall—afootortwohigh, withasinglerailontop—showedthatstoneswerenotasplentifulinthefieldsasinearlydays.The "snake-fence,"or"Virginiafence,"socommonintheSouthernstates,utilizedthesecondgrowthof foresttrees.Thesplit-railfence,fourorfiverailsinheight,wassetatintervalswithposts,pierced withholestoholdtheendsoftherails.ThesewereusedtosomeextentintheEast;butourWestern states were fenced throughout with rails split by sturdy pioneer rail-splitters, among them young Abraham Lincoln. Board fences showed the day of the sawmill and its plentiful supply; the wire fences of to-day equally prove the decrease of our forests and our wood, and the growth of our mineral supplies and manufactures of metals. Thus even our fences might be called historical monuments. Afewoftheoldblock-houses,orgarrisonhouses,the"defensiblehouses,"whichweresurrounded by these stockades, are still standing. The most interesting are the old Garrison at East Haverhill, Massachusetts,builtin1670;ithaswallsofsolidoak,andbrickafootandahalfthick;theSaltonstall HouseatIpswich,builtin1633;CradockOldFortinMedford,Massachusetts,builtin1634ofbrick made on the spot; an old fort at York, Maine; and the Whitefield Garrison House, built in 1639 at Guilford,Connecticut.TheoneatNewburyportisthemostpicturesqueandbeautifulofthemall. As social life in Boston took on a little aspect of court life in the circle gathered around the royal governors, the pride of the wealthy found expression in handsome and stately houses. These were copiedandaddedtobymenofwealthandsocialstandinginothertowns.TheProvinceHouse,built in 1679, the Frankland House in 1735, and the Hancock House, all in Boston; the Shirley House in Roxbury, the Wentworth Mansion in New Hampshire, are good examples. They were dignified and simple in form, and have borne the test of centuries,—they wear well. They never erred in overornamentation,beingscantofinteriordecoration,saveintwoorthreeprincipalroomsandthehall and staircase. The panelled step ends and soffits, the graceful newels and balusters, of those old staircasesholdswayasmodelstothisday. Thesametastewhichmadethestaircasethecentreofdecorationwithin,madethefrontdoorthesole pointofornamentationwithout;andequalbeautyistherefocused.Worthyofstudyandreproduction, manyoftheold-timefrontdoorsarewiththeirfinepanels,graceful,leadedsidewindows,elaborate andprettyfan-lights,andslightbutappropriatecarving.TheprettiestleadedwindowsIeversawinan Americanhomewereinatherebyglorifiedhen-house.Theyhadbeentakenfromthediscardedfront doorofaremodelledoldFalmouthhouse.Thehensandtheirownerwerenotofantiquariantastes, and relinquished the windows for a machine-made sash more suited to their plebeian tastes and occupations.Manycolonialdoorshaddoor-latchesorknobsofheavybrass;nearlyallhadaknocker ofwroughtironorpolishedbrass,acheerfulornamentthateverseemstoresoundawelcometothe visitoraswellasanotificationtothevisited. The knocker from the John Hancock House in Boston and that from the Winslow House in Marshfieldarehereshown;botharenowinthecustodyoftheBostonianSociety,andmaybeseenat theOldStateHouseinBoston.ThelatterwasgiventothesocietybyDr.OliverWendellHolmes. The"King-Hooper"House,stillstandinginDanvers,Massachusetts,closelyresembledtheHancock House.Thishouse,builtbyRobertHooperin1754,wasforatimetherefugeoftheroyalgovernor of Massachusetts—Governor Gage; and hence is sometimes called General Gage's Headquarters. Whentheminute-menmarchedpastthehousetoLexingtononApril18,1775,theystrippedthelead from the gate-posts. "King Hooper" angrily denounced them, and a minute-man fired at him as he entered the house. The bullet passed through the panel of the door, and the rent may still be seen. HencethehousehasbeenoftencalledTheHouseoftheFrontDoorwiththeBullet-Hole.Thepresent owner and occupier of the house, Francis Peabody, Esq., has appropriately named it The Lindens, fromthestatelylindentreesthatgraceitsgardensandlawns. Inridingthroughthoseportionsofourstatesthatweretheearlysettledcolonies,itispleasanttonote where any old houses are still standing, or where the sites of early colonial houses are known, the good taste usually shown by the colonists in the places chosen to build their houses. They dearly loved a "sightly location." An old writer said: "My consayte is such; I had rather not to builde a mansyonorahousethantobuildeonewithoutagoodprospectinit,toit,andfromit."InVirginiathe houses were set on the river slope, where every passing boat might see them. The New England colonistspainfullyclimbedlong,tedioushills,thattheymighthavehomesfromwhencecouldbehad abeautifulview,andthiswasforthedoublereason,astheoldwritersaid,thatintheirnewhomes theymightbothseeandbeseen. CHAPTERII THELIGHTOFOTHERDAYS ThefirstandmostnaturalwayoflightingthehousesoftheAmericancolonists,bothintheNorthand South, was by the pine-knots of the fat pitch-pine, which, of course, were found everywhere in the greatest plenty in the forests. Governor John Winthrop the younger, in his communication to the English Royal Society in 1662, said this candle-wood was much used for domestic illumination in Virginia,NewYork,andNewEngland.Itwasdoubtlessgatheredeverywhereinnewsettlements,asit hasbeeninpioneerhomestillourownday.InMaine,NewHampshire,andVermontitwasusedtill thiscentury.IntheSouthernstatesthepine-knotsarestillburnedinhumblehouseholdsforlighting purposes,andaverygoodlighttheyfurnish. ThehistorianWoodwrotein1642,inhisNewEngland'sProspect:— "OutofthesePinesisgottentheCandlewoodthatismuchspokeof,whichmayserveasashiftamong poore folks, but I cannot commend it for singular good, because it droppeth a pitchy kind of substancewhereitstands." That pitchy kind of substance was tar, which was one of the most valuable trade products of the colonists.SomuchtarwasmadebyburningthepinesonthebanksoftheConnecticut,thatasearlyas 1650thetownshadtoprohibittheusingofcandle-woodfortar-makingifgatheredwithinsixmiles oftheConnecticutRiver,thoughitcouldbegatheredbyfamiliesforilluminationandfuel. Rev.Mr.Higginson,writingin1633,saidofthesepine-knots:— "TheyaresuchcandlesastheIndianscommonlyuse,havingnoother,andtheyarenothingelsebut thewoodofthepinetree,clovenintwolittleslices,somethingthin,whicharesofullofthemoysture ofturpentineandpitchthattheyburneascleereasatorch." Toavoidhavingsmokeintheroom,andonaccountofthepitchydroppings,thecandle-woodwas usually burned in a corner of the fireplace, on a flat stone. The knots were sometimes called pinetorches. One old Massachusetts minister boasted at the end of his life that every sermon of the hundreds he had written, had been copied by the light of these torches. Rev. Mr. Newman, of Rehoboth,issaidtohavecompiledhisvastconcordanceoftheBiblewhollybythedancinglightof thiscandle-wood.Lightingwasanimportantitemofexpenseinanyhouseholdofsosmallanincome as that of a Puritan minister; and the single candle was often frugally extinguished during the long familyprayerseachevening.Everyfamilylaidinagoodsupplyofthislightwoodforwinteruse, anditwassaidthataprudentNewEnglandfarmerwouldassoonstartthewinterwithouthayinhis barnaswithoutcandle-woodinhiswoodshed. Mr. Higginson wrote in 1630: "Though New England has no tallow to make candles of, yet by abundance of fish thereof it can afford oil for lamps." This oil was apparently wholly neglected, though there were few, or no domestic animals to furnish tallow; but when cattle increased, every ounceoftallowwassavedasapreciousandusefultreasure;andastheybecameplentifulitwasone of the household riches of New England, which was of value to our own day. When Governor WinthroparrivedinMassachusetts,hepromptlywroteovertohiswifetobringcandleswithherfrom Englandwhenshecame.Andin1634hesentoverforalargequantityofwicksandtallow.Candles costfourpenceapiece,whichmadethemcostlyluxuriesforthethriftycolonists. Wicks were made of loosely spun hemp or tow, or of cotton; from the milkweed which grows so plentifullyinourfieldsandroadsto-daythechildrengatheredinlatesummerthesilver"silk-down" whichwas"spungrosslyintocandlewicke."Sometimesthewicksweredippedintosaltpetre. ThomasTusserwroteinEnglandinthesixteenthcenturyinhisDirectionstoHousewifes:— "Wife,makethineowncandle, Sparepennytohandle. Provideforthytallowerefrostcomethin, Andmakethineowncandleerewinterbegin." EverythriftyhousewifeinAmericasavedherpennyasinEngland.Themakingofthewinter'sstock of candles was the special autumnal household duty, and a hard one too, for the great kettles were tiresomeandheavytohandle.Anearlyhourfoundtheworkwellunderway.Agoodfirewasstarted inthekitchenfireplaceundertwovastkettles,eachtwofeet,perhaps,indiameter,whichwerehung ontrammelsfromthelug-poleorcrane,andhalffilledwithboilingwaterandmeltedtallow,which hadhadtwoscaldingsandskimmings.Attheendofthekitchenorinanadjoiningandcoolerroom, sometimesinthelean-to,twolongpoleswerelaidfromchairtochairorstooltostool.Acrossthese poles were placed at regular intervals, like the rounds of a ladder, smaller sticks about fifteen or eighteenincheslong,calledcandle-rods.Thesepolesandrodswerekeptfromyeartoyear,eitherin thegarretoruponthekitchenbeams. Toeachcandle-rodwasattachedaboutsixoreightcarefullystraightenedcandle-wicks.Thewicking wastwistedstronglyoneway;thendoubled;thentheloopwasslippedoverthecandle-rod,whenthe twoends,ofcourse,twistedtheotherwayaroundeachother,makingafirmwick.Arod,withitsrow ofwicks,wasdippedinthemeltedtallowinthepot,andreturnedtoitsplaceacrossthepoles.Each rowwasthusdippedinregularturn;eachhadtimetocoolandhardenbetweenthedips,andthusgrew steadily in size. If allowed to cool fast, they of course grew quickly, but were brittle, and often cracked. Hence a good worker dipped slowly, but if the room was fairly cool, could make two hundred candles for a day's work. Some could dip two rods at a time. The tallow was constantly replenished,astheheavykettleswereusedalternatelytokeepthetallowconstantlymelted,andwere swungoffandonthefire.Boardsorsheetsofpaperwereplacedundertherodstoprotectthesnowy, scouredfloors. Candles were also run in moulds which were groups of metal cylinders, usually made of tin or pewter. Itinerant candle-makers went from house to house, taking charge of candle-making in the household, and carrying large candle-moulds with them. One of the larger size, making two dozen candles, is here shown; but its companion, the smaller mould, making six candles, is such as were morecommonlyseen.Eachwickwasattachedtoawireoranailplacedacrosstheopentopofthe cylinder, and hung down in the centre of each individual mould. The melted tallow was poured in carefullyaroundthewicks. Waxcandlesalsoweremade.Theywereoftenshapedbyhand,bypressingbitsofheatedwaxaround awick.Farmerskepthivesofbeesasmuchforthewaxasforthehoney,whichwasofmuchdemand forsweetening,when"loaves"ofsugarweresohigh-priced.Deersuet,moosefat,bear'sgrease,all weresavedinfrontiersettlements,andcarefullytriedintotallowforcandles.Everyparticleofgrease rescuedfrompotliquor,orfatfrommeat,wasutilizedforcandle-making.Rushlightsweremadeby strippingpartoftheouterbarkfromcommonrushes,thusleavingthepithbare,thendippingthemin talloworgrease,andlettingthemharden. The precious candles thus tediously made were taken good care of. They were carefully packed in candle-boxeswithcompartments;werecoveredover,andsetinadarkcloset,wheretheywouldnot discolorandturnyellow.Ametalcandle-box,hungontheedgeofthekitchenmantel-shelf,always heldtwoorthreecandlestoreplenishthosewhichburntoutinthecandlesticks. Anatural,andapparentlyinexhaustible,materialforcandleswasfoundinallthecoloniesinthewaxy berriesofthebayberrybush,whichstillgrowsinlargequantitiesonourcoasts.Intheyear1748a Swedishnaturalist,ProfessorKalm,cametoAmerica,andhewroteanaccountofthebayberrywax whichIwillquoteinfull:— "There is a plant here from the berries of which they make a kind of wax or tallow, and for that reason the Swedes call it the tallow-shrub. The English call the same tree the candle-berry tree or bayberry bush; it grows abundantly in a wet soil, and seems to thrive particularly well in the neighborhoodofthesea.Theberrieslookasifflourhadbeenstrewedonthem.Theyaregathered lateinAutumn,beingripeaboutthattime,andarethrownintoakettleorpotfullofboilingwater;by thismeanstheirfatmeltsout,floatsatthetopofthewater,andmaybeskimmedoffintoavessel;with theskimmingtheygoontillthereisnotallowleft.Thetallow,assoonasitiscongealed,lookslike commontalloworwax,buthasadirtygreencolor.Bybeingmeltedoverandrefineditacquiresa fine and transparent green color. This tallow is dearer than common tallow, but cheaper than wax. Candlesofthisdonoteasilybend,normeltinsummerascommoncandlesdo;theyburnbetterand slower,nordotheycauseanysmoke,butyieldratheranagreeablesmellwhentheyareextinguished. InCarolinatheynotonlymakecandlesoutofthewaxoftheberries,butlikewisesealing-wax." Beverley,thehistorianofVirginia,wroteofthesmellofburningbayberrytallow:— "Ifanaccidentputsacandleout,ityieldsapleasantfragrancytoallthatareintheroom;insomuch thatnicepeopleoftenputthemoutonpurposetohavetheincenseoftheexpiringsnuff." Bayberrywaxwasnotonlyausefulhome-product,butanarticleoftraffictillthiscentury,andwas constantlyadvertisedinthenewspapers.In1712,inaletterwrittentoJohnWinthrop,F.R.S.,Ifind:— "Iamnowtobegonefavourofyou,—thatyousecureformeallthebayberrywaxyoucanpossibly putyourhandson.Youmusttakeacaretheydonotputtoomuchtallowamongit,beingacustomand cheattheyhavegot." Bayberries were of enough importance to have some laws made about them. Everywhere on Long Islandgrewthestuntedbushes,andeverywheretheywerevalued.ThetownofBrookhaven,in1687, forbadethegatheringoftheberriesbeforeSeptember15,underpenaltyoffifteenshillings'fine. Thepungentanduniquescentofthebayberry,equallystronginleafandberry,istomeoneofthe elementsofthepurityandsweetnessoftheairofourNewEnglandcoastfieldsinautumn.Itgrows everywhere,greenandcheerful,insun-witheredshorepastures,inpoorbitsofearthonourrocky coast,whereithasfewfellowfield-tenantstocrowdtheground.Itissaidthatthehighesteffortsof memoryarestimulatedthroughoursenseofsmell,bytheassociationofideaswithscents.Thatof bayberry, whenever I pass it, seems to awaken in me an hereditary memory, to recall a life of two centuriesago.Irecalltheautumnsoftrialandofpromiseinourearlyhistory,andthebayberryfields arepeopledwithchildreninPuritangarb,industriouslygatheringthetinywaxenfruit.Equallyfullof sentimentisthescentofmyburningbayberrycandles,whichweremadelastautumninanoldcolony town. The history of whale-fishing in New England is the history of one of the most fascinating commercialindustriestheworldhaseverknown.Itisastorywitheveryelementofintenseinterest, showing infinite romance, adventure, skill, courage, and fortitude. It brought vast wealth to the communities that carried on the fishing, and great independence and comfort to the families of the whalers.Tothewhalementhemselvesitbroughtincrediblehardshipsanddangers,yettheylovedthe life with a love which is strange to view and hard to understand. In the oil made from these "royal fish"thecolonistsfoundavastandcheapsupplyfortheirmetalandglasslamps;whilethetoothed whaleshadstoredintheirbluntheadsavaluablematerialwhichwasatonceusedformakingcandles; itistermed,inthemostancientreferenceIhavefoundtoitinNewEnglandrecords,Sperma-Coeti. Itwasassertedthatoneofthesespermaceticandlesgaveoutmorelightthanthreetallowcandles,and had four times as big a flame. Soon their manufacture and sale amounted to large numbers, and materiallyimproveddomesticillumination. Allcandles,whatevertheirmaterial,werecarefullyusedbytheeconomicalcoloniststothelastbitby alittlewireframeofpinsandringscalledasave-all.Candle-sticksofvariousmetalsandshapeswere found in every house; and often sconces, which were also called candle-arms, or prongs. Candlebeams were rude chandeliers, a metal or wooden hoop with candle-holders. Snuffers were always seen, with which to trim the candles, and snuffers trays. These were sometimes exceedingly richly ornamented,andwereoftenofsilver:extinguishersoftenaccompaniedthesnuffers. Thoughlampsoccasionallyappearonearlyinventoriesandlistsofsales,andthoughtherewasplenty of whale and fish oil to burn, lamps were not extensively used in America for many years. "Bettylamps," shaped much like antique Roman lamps, were the earliest form. They were small, shallow receptacles, two or three inches in diameter and about an inch in depth; either rectangular, oval, round,ortriangularinshape,withaprojectingnoseorspoutaninchortwolong.Theyusuallyhada hookandchainbywhichtheycouldbehungonanailinthewall,orontheroundinthebackofa chair; sometimes there was also a smaller hook for cleaning out the nose of the lamp. They were filledwithtallow,grease,oroil,whileapieceofcottonragorcoarsewickwassoplacedthat,when lighted,theendhungoutonthenose.Fromthiswick,drippingdirtygrease,roseadull,smoky,illsmellingflame. Phœbe-lamps were similar in shape; though some had double wicks, that is, a nose at either side. Threebetty-lampsareshownintheillustration:allcamefromoldcolonialhouses.Theironlamp, solidwiththeaccumulatedgreaseofcenturies,wasfoundinaVirginiacabin;therectangularbrass lamp came from a Dutch farmhouse; and the graceful oval brass lamp from a New England homestead. Pewterwasafavoritematerialforlamps,asitwasforallotherdomesticutensils.Itwasspeciallyin favor for the lamps for whale oil and the "Porter's fluid," that preceded our present illuminating medium, petroleum. A rare form is the pewter lamp here shown. It is in the collection of ancient lamps,lanterns,candlesticks,etc.,ownedbyMrs.SamuelBowneDuryea,ofBrooklyn.Itcamefroma Salemhome,whereitwasusedasahouse-lantern.Withitsclearbull's-eyesofunusuallypureglass,it gavewhatwastrulyabrilliantlightforthecenturyofitsuse.Agroupofoldpewterlamps,ofthe shapescommonlyusedinthehomesofourancestorsacenturyorsoago,isalsogiven;chosen,not becausetheywereunusualorbeautiful,butbecausetheywereuniversalintheiruse. ThelampsofCountRumford'sinventionweredoubtlessagreatluxury,withtheirclearsteadylight; buttheyweretoocostlytobecommonlyseeninourgrandfathers'homes.NorwereArgandburners everuniversal.Glasslampsofmanysimpleshapessharedpopularityforalongtimewiththepewter lamps;andaspewtergraduallydisappearedfromhouseholduse,theseglasslampsmonopolizedthe field. They were rarely of cut or colored glass, but were pressed glass of commonplace form and quality.AgroupofthemisheregivenwhichwereallusedinoldNewEnglandhousesintheearly partofthiscentury. Formanyyearsthemethodsofstrikingalightwereveryprimitive,justastheywereinEurope;many families possessed no adequate means, or very imperfect ones. If by ill fortune the fire in the fireplacebecamewhollyextinguishedthroughcarelessnessatnight,someone,usuallyasmallboy, wassenttothehouseofthenearestneighbor,bearingashovelorcoveredpan,orperhapsabroad stripofgreenbark,onwhichtobringbackcoalsforrelightingthefire.Nearlyallfamilieshadsome formofaflintandsteel,—amethodofobtainingfirewhichhasbeenusedfromtimeimmemorialby both civilized and uncivilized nations. This always required a flint, a steel, and a tinder of some vegetable matter to catch the spark struck by the concussion of flint and steel. This spark was then blown into a flame. Among the colonists scorched linen was a favorite tinder to catch the spark of fire; and till this century all the old cambric handkerchiefs, linen underwear, and worn sheets of a householdwerecarefullysavedforthispurpose.Theflint,steel,andtinderwereusuallykepttogether inacirculartinder-box,suchasisshownintheaccompanyingillustration;itwasashapeuniversalin EnglandandAmerica.Thishadaninnerflatcoverwitharing,aflint,ahorseshoe-shapedsteel,and anupperlidwithaplacetosetacandle-endin,tocarrythenewlyacquiredlight.ThoughIhavetried hundredsoftimeswiththistinder-box,Ihaveneveryetsucceededinstrikingalight.Thesparksfly, butthentheoperationceasesinmodernhands.CharlesDickenssaidifyouhadgoodluck,youcould getalightinhalfanhour.Soontherewasanimprovementonthistinder-box,bywhichsparkswere obtainedbyspinningasteelwheelwithapieceofcord,somewhatlikespinningahummingtop,and makingthewheelstrikeaflintfixedinthesideofalittletroughfulloftinder.Thiswasaninfinite advance in convenience on tinder-box No. 1. This box was called in the South a mill; one is here shown. Then some person invented strips of wood dipped in sulphur and called "spunks." These readilycaughtfire,andretainedit,andwerehandytocarrylighttoacandleorpileofchips. Another way of starting a fire was by flashing a little powder in the pan of an old-fashioned gun; sometimesthisfiredatwistoftow,whichinturnstartedaheapofshavings. Downtothetimeofourgrandfathers,andinsomecountryhomesofourfathers,lightswerestarted withthesecrudeelements,—flint,steel,tinder,—andtransferredbythesulphursplint;forfiftyyears agomatcheswereneithercheapnorcommon. Though various processes for lighting in which sulphur was used in a match shape, were brought beforethepublicatthebeginningofthiscentury,theywerecomplicated,expensive,andrarelyseen. Thefirstpracticalfrictionmatcheswere"Congreves,"madeinEnglandin1827.Theywerethinstrips ofwoodorcardboardcoatedwithsulphurandtippedwithamixtureofmucilage,chlorateofpotash, andsulphideofantimony.Eighty-fourofthemweresoldinaboxfortwenty-fivecents,withapiece of"glass-paper"throughwhichthematchcouldbedrawn.Therehasbeenalongstepthislastfifty years between the tinder-box used so patiently for two centuries, and the John Jex Long matchmakingmachineofourtimes,whichturnsoutseventeenmillionmatchesaday. CHAPTERIII THEKITCHENFIRESIDE Thekitcheninallthefarmhousesofallthecolonieswasthemostcheerful,homelike,andpicturesque roominthehouse;indeed,itwasintownhousesaswell.Thewallswereoftenbare,theraftersdingy; thewindowsweresmall,thefurnituremeagre;butthekitchenhadawarm,glowingheartthatspread lightandwelcome,andmadethepoorroomahome.Inthehousesofthefirstsettlersthechimneys andfireplaceswerevastinsize,sometimessobigthatthefore-logsandback-logsforthefirehadto bedraggedinbyahorseandalongchain;orahand-sledwaskeptforthepurpose.Oftentherewere seatswithinthechimneyoneitherside.Atnightchildrencouldsitontheseseatsandtherewatchthe sparksflyupwardandjointhestarswhichcouldplainlybeseenupthegreatchimney-throat. But as the forests disappeared under the waste of burning for tar, for potash, and through wanton clearing, the fireplaces shrank in size; and Benjamin Franklin, even in his day, could write of "the fireplacesofourfathers." Theinflammablecattedchimneyoflogsandclay,hurriedlyandreadilybuiltbythefirstsettlers,soon gaveplaceinallhousestovastchimneysofstone,builtwithprojectinginnerledges,onwhichrested abaraboutsixorsevenoreveneightfeetfromthefloor,calledalug-pole(lugmeaningtocarry)or a back-bar; this was made of green wood, and thus charred slowly—but it charred surely in the generousflamesofthegreatchimneyheart.Manyannoying,andsomefatalaccidentscamefromthe collapsingofthesewoodenback-bars.Thedestructionofadinnersometimeswasattendedwiththe lossofalife.Latertheback-barsweremadeofiron.Onthemwerehungironhooksorchainswith hooks of various lengths called pothooks, trammels, hakes, pot-hangers, pot-claws, pot-clips, potbrakes,pot-crooks.Mr.ArnoldTalbot,ofProvidence,RhodeIsland,hasfoldingtrammels,ninefeet long,whichwerefoundinanoldNarragansettchimneyheart.Gibcrokesandreconswerelocaland lessfrequentnames,andthefolkswhointheirdialectcalledthelug-poleagallows-balkecalledthe pothooksgallows-crooks.Onthesehookspotsandkettlescouldbehungatvaryingheightsoverthe fire. The iron swinging-crane was a Yankee invention of a century after the first settlement, and it provedaconvenientandgracefulsubstitutefortheback-bar. SomeDutchhouseshadanadaptationofaSouthernmethodofhousekeepingintheuseofadetached housecalledaslave-kitchen,wherethemealsofthenegrohouseandfarmservantswerecookedand served. The slave-kitchen of the old Bergen homestead stood unaltered till within a few years on ThirdAvenueinBrooklyn.Itstillexistsinadismantledcondition.Itspictureplainlyshowsthestone ledges within the fireplace, the curved iron lug-pole, and hanging pothooks and trammels. With ample fire of hickory logs burning on the hearthstone, and the varied array of primitive cookingvesselssteamingwithsavoryfare,acircleoflaughing,blackfacesshiningwiththeglowingfirelight andhungryanticipation,wouldmakea"Dutchinterior"ofAmericanformandshapingaspicturesque andartisticasanyofHolland.ThefireplaceitselfsometimeswentbytheoldEnglishname,clavellpiece,asshownbythelettersofJohnWynter,writtenfromMainein1634tohisEnglishhome."The Chimneyislarge,withanovenateachendofhim:heissolargethatweecanplaceourCyttlewithin theClavell-piece.WeecanbrewandbakeandboylourCyttleallatonceinhim."Oftenalargeplate ofiron,calledthefire-backorfire-plate,wassetatthebackofthechimney,wheretheconstantand fiercefirecrumbledbrickandsplitstone.Theseironbackswereoftencastinahandsomedesign. In New York the chimneys and fireplaces were Dutch in shape; the description given by a woman travellerattheendoftheseventeenthcenturyranthus:— "Thechimney-placesareverydroll-like:theyhavenojambsnorlintellaswehave,butaflatgrate, and there projects over it a lum in the form of the cat-and-clay lum, and commonly a muslin or ruffledpawnaroundit." The"ruffledpawn"wasacalicoorlinenvalancewhichwashungontheedgeofthemantel-shelf,a prettyandcheerfulfashionseeninsomeEnglishaswellasDutchhomes. AnotherDutchfurnishing,thealcovebedstead,muchlikeacloset,seeninmanyNewYorkkitchens, wasreplacedinNewEnglandfarm-kitchensbythe"turn-up"bedstead.Thiswasastrongframefilled withanetworkofropewhichwasfastenedatthebed-headbyhingestothewall.Bynightthefootof thebedrestedontwoheavylegs;bydaytheframewithitsbedfurnishingswashookeduptothewall, andcoveredwithhomespuncurtainsordoors.Thiswasthesleeping-placeofthemasterandmistress ofthehouse,chosenbecausethekitchenwasthewarmestroominthehouse.Oneofthese"turn-up" bedsteads which was used in the Sheldon homestead until this century may be seen in Deerfield MemorialHall. Overthefireplaceandacrossthetopoftheroomwerelongpolesonwhichhungstringsofpeppers, driedapples,andringsofdriedpumpkin.Andthefavoriteresting-placefortheoldqueen's-armor fowling-piecewasonhooksoverthekitchenfireplace. Onthepothooksandtrammelshungwhatformedinsomehouseholdsthecostliesthouse-furnishing, —the pots and kettles. The Indians wished their brass kettles buried with them as a precious possession,andthesettlersequallyvaluedthem;oftenthesekettleswereworththreepoundsapiece.In manyinventoriesoftheestatesofthesettlersthebrass-wareformedanimportantitem.Rev.Thomas HookerofHartfordhadbrass-warewhich,intheequalizingofvaluesto-day,wouldbeworththreeor fourhundreddollars.Thegreatbrassandcopperkettlesoftenheldfifteengallons.Thevastironpot —desiredandbelovedofeverycolonist—sometimesweighedfortypounds,andlastedindailyuse for many years. All the vegetables were boiled together in these great pots, unless some very particular housewife had a wrought-iron potato-boiler to hold potatoes or any single vegetable in placewithinthevastgeneralpot. Chafing-dishes and skimmers of brass and copper were also cheerful discs to reflect the kitchen firelight. Verylittletinwasseen,eitherforkitchenortableutensils.GovernorWinthrophadafewtinplates, and some Southern planters had tin pans, others "tynnen covers." Tin pails were unknown; and the pails they did own, either of wood, brass, or other sheet metal, had no bails, but were carried by thrustingastickthroughlittleearsoneithersideofthepail.Lattenwarewasusedinsteadoftin;itwas a kind of brass. A very good collection of century-old tinware is shown in the illustration. By a curious chance this tinware lay unpacked for over ninety years in the attic loft of a country warehouse, in the packing-box, just as it was delivered from an English ship at the close of the Revolution. The pulling down of the warehouse disclosed the box, with its dated labels. The tin utensilsaremoregaylylacqueredthanmodernones,otherwisetheydifferlittlefromthetinwareof to-day. Therewasonedistinctcharacteristicinthehouse-furnishingofoldentimeswhichislackingto-day.It wasatendencyforthemainbodyofeverythingtosetwellup,onlegswhichwerestrongenoughfor adequatesupportoftheweight,yetwereslenderinappearance.To-daybureaus,bedsteads,cabinets, desks, sideboards, come close to the floor; formerly chests of drawers, Chippendale sideboards, four-postbedsteads,dressing-cases,wereset,oftenafoothigh,inatidy,cleanlyfashion;thusthey couldallbethoroughlysweptunder.Thissamepeculiarityofformextendedtocooking-utensils.Pots and kettles had legs, as shown in those hanging in the slave-kitchen fireplace; gridirons had legs, skilletshadlegs;andfurtherappliancesintheshapeoftrivets,whichweremovableframes,tookthe place of legs. The necessity for the stilting up of cooking-utensils was a very evident one; it was necessarytoraisethebodyoftheutensilabovetheashesandcoalsoftheopenfireplace.Ifthebedof coalsandburninglogsweretoodeepfortheskilletorpot-legs,thentheutensilmustbehungfrom abovebytheever-readytrammel. Ofteninthecornerofthefireplacetherestoodagroupoftrivets,orthree-leggedstands,ofvarying heights,throughwhichtheexactlydesiredproximitytothecoalscouldbeobtained. Eventoasting-forks,andsimilarfrailutensilsofwireorwroughtiron,stoodontall,spindlinglegs, or were carefully shaped to be set up on trivets. They usually had, also, long, adjustable handles, whichhelpedtomakeendurabletheblazingheatofthegreatlogs.Allsuchironsaswaffle-ironshad farlongerhandlesthanareseenonanycooking-utensilsinthesedaysofstovesandranges,wherethe flamesarecoveredandthehousewifeshielded.Gridironshadlonghandlesofwoodoriron,which could be fastened to the shorter stationary handles. The two gridirons in the accompanying illustrationareacenturyold.Thecircularonewastheoldestform.Theoblongones,withgrooveto collect the gravy, did not vary in shape till our own day. Both have indications of fittings for long handles,butthehandleshavevanished.Along-handledfrying-panisseenhangingbythesideofthe slave-kitchenfireplace. An accompaniment of the kitchen fireplace, found, not in farmhouses, but among luxury-loving town-folk, was the plate-warmer. They are seldom named in inventories, and I know of but one of Revolutionarydays,anditishereshown.Similaronesaremanufacturedto-day;thelegs,perhaps,are shorter,butthegeneraloutlineisthesame. Animportantfurnishingofeveryfireplacewastheandirons.Inkitchenfireplacesthesewereusually ofiron,andtheshapeknownasgoose-neckwerecommon.Cobironswerethesimplestform,and merelysupportedthespit;sometimestheyhadhookstoholdadripping-pan.Acommonnameforthe kitchenandironswasfire-dogs;andcreeperswerelow,smallandirons,usuallyusedwiththetallfiredogs.Thekitchenandironsweresimplyforusetohelpholdthelogsandcooking-utensils.Butother fireplaces had handsome fire-dogs of copper, brass, or cut steel, cast or wrought in handsome devices.Thesewereaprideanddelighttothehousewife. Aprimitivemethodofroastingajointofmeatorafowlwasbysuspendingitinfrontofthefirebya strong hempen string tied to a peg in the ceiling, while some one—usually an unwilling child— occasionallyturnedtheroastaround.Sometimesthesoleturnspitwasthehousewife,who,everytime shebastedtheroast,gavethestringagoodtwist,andthereafteritwoulduntwist,andthentwistalittle again, and so on until the vibration ceased, when she again basted and started it. As the juices sometimes ran down in the roast and left the upper part too dry, a "double string-roaster" was invented, by which the equilibrium of the joint could be shifted. A jack was a convenient and magnified edition of the primitive string, being a metal suspensory machine. A still further glorificationwastheadditionofarevolvingpowerwhichranbyclockworkandturnedtheroastwith regularity;thiswasknownasaclock-jack.TheonehereshownhangsinthefireplaceinDeerfield MemorialHall.Asmoke-jackwasrunsomewhatirregularlybythepressureofsmokeandthecurrent of hot air in the chimney. These were noisy and creaking and not regarded with favor by oldfashionedcooks. We are apt to think of the turnspit dog as a creature of European life, but we had them here in America—little low, bow-legged, patient souls, trained to run in a revolving cylinder and keep the roastingjointa-turnbeforethefire.MinehostClarkoftheStateHouseInninPhiladelphiainthefirst halfoftheeighteenthcenturyadvertisedinBenjaminFranklin'sPennsylvaniaGazettethathehadfor sale"severaldogsandwheels,muchpreferabletoanyjacksforroastinganyjointsofmeat."Ihope neitherhenoranyoneelsehadmanyoftheselittlecanineslaves. Afrequentaccompanimentofthekitchenfireplaceintheeighteenthcentury,andadomesticluxury seen in well-to-do homes, was the various forms of the "roasting-kitchen," or Dutch oven. These succeeded the jacks; they were a box-like arrangement open on one side which when in use was turnedtothefire.Likeotherutensilsoftheday,theyoftenstooduponlegs,tobringtheopenside beforetheblaze.Alittledooratthebackcouldbeopenedforconvenienceinbastingtheroast.These kitchenscameinvarioussizesforroastingbirdsorjoints,andinthembreadwasoccasionallybaked. Thebake-kettle,whichinsomecommunitieswasalsocalledaDutchoven,waspreferredforbaking bread.Itwasastrongkettle,standing,ofcourse,onstout,stumpylegs,andwheninusewasplaced amongthehotcoalsandcloselycoveredwithastrongmetal,convexcover,onwhichcoalswerealso closelyheaped.Suchperfectrolls,suchbiscuit,suchshortcake,asissuedfromtheheaped-upbakekettlecanneverbeequalledbyothermethodsofcooking. Whenthegreatstonechimneywasbuilt,therewasusuallyplacedononesideofthekitchenfireplace abrickovenwhichhadasmokeuptakeintothechimney—and-anash-pitbelow.Thegreatdoorwas ofiron.Thisovenwasusuallyheatedonceaweek.Agreatfireofdrywood,calledovenwood,was kindledwithinitandkeptburningfiercelyforsomehours.Thisthoroughlyheatedallthebricks.The coals and ashes were then swept out, the chimney draught closed, and the oven filled with brown bread,pies,potsofbeans,etc.Sometimesthebreadwasbakedinpans,sometimesitwasbakedina greatmasssetoncabbageleavesoroakleaves.Insometownsanautumnharvestofoakleaveswas gatheredbychildrentousethroughoutthewinter.Theleaveswerestrungonsticks.Thisgathering wascalledgoinga-leafing. Bytheovensidewasalwaysalong-handledshovelknownasapeelorslice,whichsometimeshada rack or rest to hold it; this implement was a necessity in order to place the food well within the glowingoven.Thepeelwassprinkledwithmeal,greatheapsofdoughwereplacedthereon,andbya dexteroustwisttheywerethrownonthecabbageoroakleaves.Abreadpeelwasauniversalgifttoa bride; it was significant of domestic utility and plenty, and was held to be luck-bearing. On Thanksgivingweekthegreatovenhadafirebuiltiniteverymorning,andeverynightitwaswell filledandclosedtillmorning. Ononesideofthekitchenoftenstoodadresser,onwhichwasplacedinorderlyrowsthecheerful pewterandscantearthenwareofthehousehold:— "——theroomwasbright Withglimpsesofreflectedlight, Fromplatesthatonthedressershone." InDutchhouseholdsplate-racks,spoon-racks,knife-racks,—allhangingonthewall,—tooktheplace oftheNewEnglanddresser. In the old Phillips farmhouse at Wickford, Rhode Island, is a splendid chimney over twenty feet square.Somuchroomdoesitoccupythatthereisnocentralstaircase,butlittlewindingstairsascend at three corners of the house. In the vast fireplace an ox could literally have been roasted. On each chimney-piecearehookstohangfirearms,andatonesidecuriouslittledrawersaresetforpipesand tobacco. In some Dutch houses in New York these tobacco shelves are in the entry, over the front door, and a narrow flight of three or four steps leads up to them. Hanging on a nail alongside the tobaccodrawer,orshelf,wouldusuallybeseenapipe-tongs,orsmoking-tongs.Theywere slender littletongs,usuallyofironorsteel;withthemthesmokerliftedacoalfromthefireplacetolighthis pipe.ThetongsownedandusedbyCaptainJoshuaWingate,ofHampton,NewHampshire,wholived from 1679 to 1769, are here shown. The handle is unlike any other I have seen, having one end elongated,knobbed,andingeniouslybentS-shapedintoconvenientformtopressdownthetobacco intothebowlofthepipe.Otherold-timepipe-tongswereintheformoflazy-tongs.Acompanionof thepipe-tongsonthekitchenmantelwaswhatwasknownasacomfortier—alittlebrazierofmetalin which small coals could be handed about for pipe-lighting. An unusual luxury was a comfortier of silver.ThesewerefoundamongtheDutchsettlers. ThePennsylvaniaGermanswerethefirsttousestoves.Thesewereofvariousshapes.Acuriousone, seeninhousesandchurches,wasofsheet-metal,box-shaped;threesideswerewithinthehouse,and thefourth,withthestovedoor,outsidethehouse.Thuswhatwasreallythebackofthestoveprojected into the room, and when the fire was fed it was necessary for the tender to go out of doors. These German stoves and hot-air drums, which heated the second story of the house, were ever a fresh wondertotravellersofEnglishbirthanddescentinPennsylvania.Thereisnodoubtthattheirevident economyandcomfortsuggestedtoBenjaminFranklinthe"NewPennsylvaniaFireplace,"whichhe invented in 1742, in which both wood and coal could be used, and which was somewhat like the heatingapparatuswhichwenowcallaFranklinstove,orheater. Thus German settlers had, in respect to heating, the most comfortable homes of all the colonies. Among the English settlers the kitchen was, too often, the only comfortable room in the house in winter weather. Indeed, the discomforts and inconveniences of a colonial home could scarcely be enduredto-day;ofcoursetheseculminatedinthewintertime,whenicyblastsblewfiercelydownthe great chimneys, and rattled the loosely fitting windows. Children suffered bitterly in these cold houses. The rooms were not warm three feet away from the blaze of the fire. Cotton Mather and JudgeSamuelSewallbothtell,intheirdiaries,oftheinkfreezingintheirpensastheywrotewithin thechimney-side.Onenotedthat,whenagreatfirewasbuiltonthehearth,thesapforcedoutofthe woodbytheflamesfrozeintoiceattheendofthelogs.Thebedroomswereseldomwarmed,andhad itnotbeenforthedeepfeatherbedsandheavybed-curtains,wouldhavebeenunendurable.InDutch andsomeGermanhouses,withalcovebedsteads,andsleepingononefeatherbed,withanotherfor cover,theDutchsettlerscouldbefarwarmerthananyEnglishsettlers,eveninfour-postbedsteads curtainedwithwoollen. Water froze immediately if left standing in bedrooms. One diary, written in Marshfield, Massachusetts,tellsofabasinofwaterstandingonthebedroomhearth,infrontofablazingfire,in whichthewaterfrozesolid.PresidentJohnAdamssodreadedthebleakNewEnglandwinterandthe ill-warmedhousesthathelongedtosleeplikeadormouseeveryyear,fromautumntospring.Inthe Southerncolonies,duringthefewercolddaysofthewintermonths,thetemperaturewasnotsolow, butthehousesweremoreopenandlightlybuiltthanintheNorth,andwerewithoutcellars,andhad fewerfireplaces;hencethediscomfortfromthecoldwasasgreat,ifnotthepositivesuffering. The first chilling entrance into the ice-cold bed of a winter bedroom was sometimes mitigated by heatingtheinnersheetswithawarming-pan.Thisusuallyhungbythesideofthekitchenfireplace, andwhenusedwasfilledwithhotcoals,andthrustwithinthebed,andconstantlyandrapidlymoved back and forth to keep from scorching the bed-linen. The warming-pan was a circular metal pan aboutafootindiameter,fourorfiveinchesdeep,withalongwoodenhandleandaperforatedmetal cover,usuallyofcopperorbrass,whichwaskepthighlypolished,andformed,asithungonthewall, oneofthecheerfulkitchendiscstoreflectthelightoftheglowingfire.Thewarming-panhasbeen deemed of sufficient decorative capacity to make it eagerly sought after by collectors, and a great roomofoneofthesecollectorsishungentirelyaroundthefourwallswithafriezeofwarming-pans. ManyofourNewEnglandpoetshavegivenusglimpsesinrhymeoftheold-timekitchen.Lowell's well-knownlinesarevividenoughtobearnever-dyingquotation:— "Afireplacefilledtheroomsoneside Withhalfacordofwoodin— Therewarn'tnostoves(tellcomfortdied) Tobakeyetoapuddin'. "Thewa'nutlogshotsparklesout Towardsthepootiest—blessher! An'littleflamesdancedallabout Thechinyonthedresser. "Aginthecrumblycrookneckshung, An'inamongst'emrusted Theoldqueen's-armthatgrantherYoung FetchedbackfromConcordbusted." Tomethetrueessenceoftheold-timefiresideisfoundinWhittier'sSnow-Bound.Theverychimney, fireplace, and hearthstone of which his beautiful lines were written, the kitchen of Whittier's boyhood'shome,atEastHaverhill,Massachusetts,isshownintheaccompanyingillustration.Itshows aswingingcrane.Hisdescriptionofthe"layingthefire"canneverbeequalledbyanyprose:— "Wepiledwithcareournightlystack Ofwoodagainstthechimneyback— Theoakenlog,green,huge,andthick, Andonitstopthestoutback-stick; Theknottyfore-sticklaidapart, Andfilledbetweenwithcuriousart Theraggedbrush;thenhoveringnear, Wewatchedthefirstredblazeappear, Heardthesharpcrackle,caughtthegleam Onwhitewashedwallandsaggingbeam, Untiltheold,rude-furnishedroom Burst,flower-like,intorosybloom." Nogreaterpictureofhomelycontentmentcouldbeshownthanthefollowinglines:— "Shutinfromalltheworldwithout, Wesattheclean-wingedhearthabout, Contenttoletthenorthwindroar Inbaffledrageatpaneanddoor, Whiletheredlogsbeforeusbeat Thefrost-linebackwithtropicheat; Andever,whenalouderblast Shookbeamandrafterasitpassed, Themerrierupitsroaringdraught Thegreatthroatofthechimneylaughed. Thehousedogonhispawsoutspread Laidtothefirehisdrowsyhead, Thecat'sdarksilhouetteonthewall Acouchanttiger'sseemedtofall; And,forthewinterfiresidemeet, Betweentheandirons'straddlingfeet Themugofcidersimmeredslow, Andapplessputteredinarow. And,closeathand,thebasketstood WithnutsfrombrownOctober'swoods. Whatmatterhowthenightbehaved! Whatmatterhowthenorthwindraved! Blowhigh,blowlow,notallitssnow Couldquenchourhearth-fire'sruddyglow." Norcanthepassingofyearsdimtheruddyglowofthathearth-fire,northecharmofthepoem.The simplicity of metre, the purity of wording, the gentle sadness of some of its expressions, make us readbetweenthelinesthedeepandaffectionatereminiscencewithwhichitwaswritten. CHAPTERIV THESERVINGOFMEALS Perhapsnogreaterdifferenceexistsbetweenanymodeoftheoldentimesandthatofto-day,thancan beseeninthemannerofservingthemealsofthefamily.Inthefirstplace,theverydining-tableofthe colonists was not like our present ones; it was a long and narrow board, sometimes but three feet wide,withnolegsattachedtoit.Itwaslaidonsupportsortrestles,shapedusuallysomethinglikea saw-horse. Thus it was literally a board, and was called a table-board, and the linen cover used at mealswasnotcalledatablecloth,butaboard-clothorboard-clothes. Assmoothlysawedandfinishedboardswerenotsoplentifulatfirstinthecoloniesasmightnaturally bethoughtwhenwerememberthevastencirclingforests,allsuchboardswerecarefullytreasured, and used many times to avoid sawing others by the tedious and wearying process of pit-sawing. Henceportionsofpacking-boxes,orchestswhichhadcarriedstoresfromEnglandtothecolonies, weremadeintotable-boards.Onesuchoakentable-board,stillinexistence,hasontheundersidein quaintletteringthenameandaddressoftheBostonsettlertowhomtheoriginalpacking-boxwassent in1638. The old-time board-cloth was in no way inferior in quality or whiteness to our present table-linen; for we know how proud colonial wives and daughters were of the linen of their own spinning, weaving,andbleaching.Thelinentableclothwaseitherofholland,huckaback,dowlas,osnaburg,or lockram—allheavyandcomparativelycoarsematerials—oroffinedamask,justasto-day;someof thehandsomeboard-clothswereeventrimmedwithlace. The colonists had plenty of napkins; more, as a rule, than families of corresponding means and station own to-day. They had need of them, for when America was first settled forks were almost unknowntoEnglishpeople—beingusedforeatinginluxuriousItalyalone,wheretravellershaving seenandfoundthemusefulandcleanly,afterwardsintroducedthemintoEngland.Sohandshadtobe constantlyemployedforholdingfood,insteadoftheforkswenowuse,andnapkinswerethereforeas constantlynecessary.ThefirstforkbroughttoAmericawasforGovernorJohnWinthrop,inBoston, in1633,anditwasinaleathercasewithaknifeandabodkin.Ifthegovernoratewithaforkatthe table, he was doubtless the only person in the colony who did so. Thirty or forty years later a few two-tinedironandsilverforkswerebroughtacrossthewater,andusedinNewYorkandVirginia,as well as Massachusetts; and by the end of the century they had come into scant use at the tables of personsofwealthandfashion.ThefirstmentionofaforkinVirginiaisinaninventorydated1677; thiswasofasinglefork.Thesalt-cellar,orsaler,asitwasfirstcalled,wasthecentrepieceofthetable —"Sett in the myddys of the tabull," says an old treatise on laying the table. It was often large and high, of curious device in silver, and was then called a standing salt. Guests of honor were seated "above the salt," that is, near the end of the table where sat the host and hostess side by side; while childrenandpersonswhowerenotofmuchdignityoraccountasguestswereplaced"belowthesalt," thatis,belowthemiddleofthetable. ThereisownedbyHarvardUniversity,andhereshowninanillustration,"agreatsilversalt"givento the college in 1644, when the new seat of learning was but eight years old. At the table it divided graduates,thefaculty,andsuch,fromtheundergraduates.Itwasvaluedat£51s.3d.,atfiveshillings anounce,whichwasequaltoahundreddollarsto-day;arichgift,whichshowstometheprofound affection of the settlers for the new college. It is inscribed with the name of the giver, Mr. Richard Harris. It is of simple English design well known during that century, and made in various sizes. Thereisnodoubtthatmanyofsimilarpattern,thoughnotsoheavyorsorich,wereseenonthetables ofsubstantialcolonists.Theyarenamedinmanywills.Oftenasmallprojectingarmwasattachedto oneside,overwhichafoldednapkincouldbethrowntobeusedasacover;forthesalt-cellarwas usually kept covered, not only to preserve cleanliness, but in earlier days to prevent the ready introductionofpoison. TherearesomeveryentertainingandcuriousoldEnglishbookswhichwerewritteninthesixteenth centurytoteachchildrenandyoungrusticscorrectandelegantmannersatthetable,andalsohelpful ways in which to serve others. These books are called The Babees Boke, The Boke of Nurture, The BokeofCurteseye,etc.,andwiththeexceptionofvariationsinthewayofservingadinner,andafew obsoletecustoms,andinthenamesandshapesandmaterialsofthedifferentdishes,plates,etc.,used atthetable,thesebooksarejustasinstructiveandsensibleto-dayasthen.Fromthemwelearnthatthe onlykindoftablefurnishingsusedatthattimewerecupstodrinkoutof;spoonsandknivestoeat with;chafing-dishestoservehotfood;chargersfordisplayandforservinglargequantitiesoffood; salt-cellars,andtrenchersforuseasplates.Therewereveryfewothertableappointmentsusedonany Englishtable,eitherhumbleorgreat,whenthePilgrimslandedatPlymouth. Oneofthemostimportantarticlesforsettingthetablewasthetrencher.Theseweremadeofwood, and often were only a block of wood, about ten or twelve inches square and three or four deep, hollowed down into a sort of bowl in the middle. In this the food was placed,—porridge, meat, vegetables,etc.Eachpersondidnothaveevenoneofthesesimpledishes;usuallytwochildren,ora manandhiswife,ateoutofonetrencher.ThiswasacustominEnglandformanyyears;andsome verygreatpeople,adukeandhiswife,notmorethanacenturyandahalfago,satsidebysideatthe tableandateoutofoneplatetoshowtheirunityandaffection.ItistoldofanoldConnecticutsettler,a deacon, that as he had a wood-turning mill, he thought he would have a trencher apiece for his children. So he turned a sufficient number of round trenchers in his mill. For this his neighbors deemed him deeply extravagant and putting on too many airs, both as to quantity and quality, since squaretrenchers,oneforusebytwopersons,weregoodenoughforanyone,evenadeacon.Sogreat awarriorandsoprominentamaninthecolonyasMilesStandishusedwoodentrenchersatthetable, as also did all the early governors. Nor did they disdain to name them in their wills, as valued householdpossessions.FormanyyearscollegeboysatHarvardateoutofwoodentrenchersatthe collegemess-table. Ihaveseenacuriousoldtabletop,ortable-board,whichpermitteddinersseatedatittodispensewith trenchers or plates. It was of heavy oak about six inches thick, and at intervals of about eighteen inches around its edge were scooped out deep, bowl-shaped holes about ten inches in diameter, in which each individual's share of the dinner was placed. After each meal the top was lifted off the trestles,thoroughlywashedanddried,andwasreadyforthenextmeal. Poplar-wood is an even, white, and shining wood. Until the middle of this century poplar-wood trenchers and plates were used on the table in Vermont, and were really attractive dishes. From earliestdaystheIndiansmadeandsoldmanybowlsandtrenchersofmaple-woodknots.Oneofthese bowls,ownedbyKingPhilip,isattheroomsoftheMassachusettsHistoricalSocietyinBoston.Old wooden trenchers and "Indian bowls" can be seen at the Memorial Hall in Deerfield. Bottles were madealsoofwood,anddrinking-cupsand"noggins,"whichwereasortofmugwithahandle.Wood furnished many articles for the table to the colonist, just as it did in later days on our Western frontiers,wheretrenchersofwoodandplatesofbirch-barkwereseenineverylog-cabin. Thewordtankardwasoriginallyappliedtoaheavyandlargevesselofwoodbandedwithmetal,in which to carry water. Smaller wooden drinking tankards were subsequently made and used throughoutEurope,andwereoccasionallybroughtherebythecolonists.Theplainlyshapedwooden tankard,madeofstavesandhoopsandhereshown,isfromthecollectionatDeerfieldMemorialHall. ItwasfoundinthehouseofRev.EliMoody.Thesecommonplacetankardsofstaveswerenotsorare asthebeautifulcarvedandhoopedtankardwhichisherepictured,andwhichisinthecollectionof Mrs.SamuelBowneDuryea,ofBrooklyn.Ihaveseenafewotherquaintlycarvedones,blackwith age,inAmericanfamiliesofHuguenotdescent;thesewereapparentlySwisscarvings. Thechargers,orlargeroundplattersfoundoneverydining-table,wereofpewter.Someweresobig andheavythattheyweighedfiveorsixpoundsapiece.Pewterisametalneverseenformoderntable furnishing, or domestic use in any form to-day; but in colonial times what was called a garnish of pewter, that is, a full set of pewter platters, plates, and dishes, was the pride of every good housekeeper,andalsoafavoriteweddinggift.Itwaskeptasbrightandshiningassilver.Oneofthe dutiesofchildrenwastogatherakindofhorse-tailrushwhichgrewinthemarshes,andbecauseit wasusedtoscourpewter,wascalledscouring-rush. Pewter bottles of various sizes were sent to the Massachusetts Bay Colony, in 1629. Governor Endicotthadone,buttheywerecertainlyfarfromcommon.Dramcups,winemugs,andfunnelsof pewterwerealsooccasionallyseen,butscarcelyformedpartofordinarytablefurnishings.Metheglin cans and drinking-mugs of pewter were found on nearly every table. Pewter was used until this centuryinthewealthiesthomes,bothintheNorthandSouth,andwaspreferredbymanywhoowned rich china. Among the pewter-lovers was the Revolutionary patriot, John Hancock, who hated the clatteroftheporcelainplates. Porringersofpewter,andoccasionallyofsilver,weremuchusedatthetable,chieflyforchildrento eatfrom.Thesewereaprettylittleshallowcirculardishwithaflat-piercedhandle.Somehada"fishtail"handle;thesearesaidtobeDutch.Theseporringerswereinmanysizes,fromtinylittleonestwo inchesindiametertothoseeightornineinchesacross.Whennotinusemanyhousekeeperskeptthem hanging on hooks on the edge of a shelf, where they formed a pretty and cheerful decoration. The poetSwiftsays:— "Theporringersthatinarow Hunghighandmadeaglitteringshow." Itshouldbestatedthatthewordporringer,asusedbyEnglishcollectors,usuallyreferstoadeepcup with a cover and two handles, while what we call porringers are known to these collectors as bleeding-basinsortasters.Hereweapplythetermtaster,orwine-taster,toasmall,shallowsilvercup withbossesinthebottomtoreflectthelightandshowthecolorandqualityofwine.Ihaveoftenseen the item wine-taster in colonial inventories and wills, but never bleeding-basin; while porringers werealmostuniversalonsuchlists.Somefamilieshadadozen.IhavefoundfifteeninoneoldNew Englandfarmhouse.Thesmallporringersaresometimescalledposnets,whichisanold-timeword thatmayoriginallyhavereferredtoaposset-cup. "Spoons,"saysthelearnedarchæologist,Laborde,"ifnotasoldastheworld,areasoldassoup."All thecolonistshadspoons,andcertainlyallneededthem,foratthattimemuchoftheirfoodwasinthe formofsoupand"spoon-meat,"suchashadtobeeatenwithspoonswhentherewerenoforks.Meat wasusuallymadeintohashesorragouts;thickstewsandsoupswithchoppedvegetablesandmeats werecommon,aswerehotch-pots.Thecerealfoods,whichformedsolargeapartofEnglishfarein theNewWorld,weremorefrequentlyboiledinporridgethanbakedinloaves.Manyofthespoons were of pewter. Worn-out pewter plates and dishes could be recast into new pewter spoons. The moulds were of wood or iron. The spoon mould of one of the first settlers of Greenfield, Massachusetts,namedMartindale,ishereshownwithapewterspoon.Inthismouldallhisspoonsand thoseofhisneighborswerecast.ItisnowintheDeerfieldMemorialHall. Astillmoreuniversalspoonmaterialwasalchymy,alsocalledoccamy,alcamy,arkamy,etc.,ametal neverusednow,whichwasmadeofamixtureofpan-brassandarsenicum.Woodenspoons,too,were alwaysseen.InPennsylvaniaandNewYorklaurelwascalledspoonwood,becausetheIndiansmade pretty white spoons from that wood to sell to the colonists. Horn was an appropriate and available materialforspoons.ManyIndiantribesexcelledastheydoto-dayinthemakingofhornspoons.The vulgaraffirmation,"Bythegreathornspoon,"hasperpetuatedtheirfamiliaruse. Every family of any considerable possessions or owning good household furnishings had a few silverspoons;nearlyeverypersonownedatleastone.AtthetimeAmericawassettledthecommon formofsilverspooninEnglandhadwhatwasknownasabalusterstemandasealhead;theassay markwasintheinnerpartofthebowl.Butthefashionwasjustchanging,andanewandmuchaltered form was introduced which was made in large numbers until the opening reign of George I. This shapewastheveryonewithoutdoubtinwhichmanyofthespoonsofthefirstcolonistsweremade; andwhereversuchspoonsarefound,iftheyaregenuineantiques,theymaysafelybeassignedadate earlierthan1714.Thehandlewasflatandbroadattheend,whereitwascleftinthreepointswhich wereturnedup,thatis,nottowardthebackofthespoon.Thiswasknownasthe"hind's-foothandle." Thebowlwasaperfectlyregularellipseandwasstrengthenedbycontinuingthehandleinanarrow tongueorrat-tail,whichrandownthebackofthebowl.Thesucceedingfashion,intheearlypartof theeighteenthcentury,hadalongerellipticalbowl.Theendofthehandlewasroundedandturnedup attheend,andithadahighsharpridgedownthemiddle.ThiswasknownastheoldEnglishshape, andwasincommonuseforhalfacentury.AbouttheperiodofourRevolutionaryWarashapenearly liketheoneinordinarypresentusebecamethemode;thebowlbecameegg-shaped,andtheendof thehandlewasturneddowninsteadofup.Therat-tail,whichextendeddownthebackofthebowl,was shortenedintoadrop.Apostlespoons,andmonkeyspoonsforextraordinaryusewereoccasionally made,andafewarestillpreserved;examplesoffivetypesofspoonsareshownfromthecollection ofEdwardHolbrook,Esq.,ofNewYork. Families of consequence had usually a few pieces of silver besides their spoons and the silver salt. Somekindofadrinking-cupwastheusualform.Personsofmoderatemeansoftenownedasilver cup.Ihaveseeninearlyinventoriesandliststhenamesofalargevarietyofsilvervessels:tankards, beer-bowls, beakers, flagons, wine cups, wine bowls, wine cans, tasters, caudle-cups, posset-cups, dram-cups, punch-bowls, tumblers, mugs, dram bottles, two-eared cups, and flasks. Virginians and Marylanders in the seventeenth century had much more silver than New Englanders. Some Dutch merchants had ample amounts. It was deemed a good and safe investment for spare money. Breadbaskets,salvers,muffineers,chafing-dishes,casters,milkpitchers,sugarboxes,candlesticks,appear ininventoriesattheendofthecentury.Atankardorflagon,evenifheavyandhandsome,wouldbe placed on the table for every-day use; the other pieces were usually set on the cupboard's head for ornament. ThehandsomesilvertankardownedbySarahJansendeRapeljeishereshown.Shewasthefirstchild ofEuropeanparentsborninNewNetherland.Thetankardwasaweddinggiftfromherhusband,and aDutchweddingsceneisgravenonthelid. Therewasagreatdesireforglass,ararenoveltytomanypersonsatthedateofcolonization.The English were less familiar with its use than settlers who came from Continental Europe. The establishmentofglassfactorieswasattemptedinearlydaysinseveralplaces,chieflytomanufacture sheet-glass,butwithslightsuccess.Littleglasswasownedintheshapeofdrinking-vessels,noneused generallyonthetable,Ithink,duringthefirstfewyears.Glassbottleswerecertainlyagreatrarity, andwerebequeathedwithspecialmentioninwills,andtheyaretheonlyformofglassvesselnamed. The earliest glass for table use was greenish in color, like coarse bottle glass, and poor in quality, sometimesdecoratedincrudedesignsinafewcolors.Bristolglass,intheshapeofmugsandplates, wasnextseen.Itwasopaque,amilkywhitecolor,andwascoarselydecoratedwithvitrifiablecolors in a few lines of red, green, yellow, or black, occasionally with initials, dates, or Scriptural references. Though shapes were varied, and the number was generally plentiful, there was no attempt made to give separate drinking-cups of any kind to each individual at the table. Blissfully ignorant of the existenceorpresenceofmicrobes,germs,andbacteria,oursturdyandunsqueamishforbearsdrank contentedlyinsuccessionfromasinglevessel,whichwaspassedfromhandtohand,andliptolip, aroundtheboard.Evenwhentumbler-shapedglasseswereseeninmanyhouses,—flip-glasses,they were called,—they were of communal size,—some held a gallon,—and all drank from the same glass.Thegreatpunch-bowl,notaveryhandyvesseltohandlewhenfilledwithpunch,waspassedup anddownasfreelyasthoughitwerealoving-cup,andalldrankfromitsbrim.Atcollegetables,and even at tavern boards, where table neighbors might be strangers, the flowing bowl and foaming tankardwaspassedserenelyfromonetoanother,andreplenishedtopassagain. Leatherwasperhapsthemostcuriousmaterialused.Pitchers,bottles,anddrinking-cupsweremade ofit.Greatjugsofheavyblackleather,waxedandbound,andtippedwithsilver,wereusedtohold metheglin,ale,andbeer,andwereaverysubstantial,andattimesaveryhandsomevessel.Thefinest examplesIhaveeverseenarehererepresented.Thestitchesandwaxedthreadatthebaseandonthe handles can plainly be perceived. They are bound with a rich silver band, and have a silver shield bearingadateofgifttoSamuelBrentonin1778;buttheyareprobablyacenturyolderthanthatdate. They are the property by inheritance of Miss Rebecca Shaw, aged ninety-six years, of Wickford, RhodeIsland. Theuseofthesegreatleatherjacks,inaclumsierformthanhereshown,ledtotheamusingmistake of a French traveller, that the English drank their ale out of their boots. These leather jugs were commonlycalledblackjacks,andthelargeroneswerebombards.Giskinwasstillanotherandrarer name. Drinking-cupsweresometimesmadeofhorn.Ahandsomeonehasbeenusedsincecolonialdayson Long Island for "quince drink," a potent mixture of hot rum, sugar, and quince marmalade, or preserves.Ithasabaseofsilver,arimofsilver,andacoverofhorntippedwithsilver.Astirrup-cup ofhorn,tippedwithsilver,wasusedto"speedthepartingguest."Occasionallythewholehorn,intrue mediævalfashion,wasusedasadrinking-cup.Oftentheywerecarvedwithconsiderableskill,asthe beautifulonesinthecollectionofMr.A.G.Richmond,ofCanajoharie,NewYork. Gourdswereplentifulonthefarm,andgatheredwithcare,thatthehard-shelledfruitmightbeshaped intosimpledrinking-cups.InElizabeth'stimesilvercupsweremadeintheshapeofthesegourds.The shipsthatbrought"lemmonsandraysinsofthesun"fromthetropicstothecolonists,alsobrought cocoanuts.Sincethethirteenthcenturytheshellsofcocoanutshavebeenmountedwithsilverfeetand "covercles" in a goblet shape, and been much sought after by Englishmen. Mounted in pewter, and sometimesinsilver,orsimplyshapedwithawoodenhandleattached,theshellofthecocoanutwasa favorite among the English settlers. To this day one of the cocoanut-shell cups, or dippers, is a favoritedrinking-cupofmany.Ahandsomecocoanutgoblet,richlymountedinsilver,isshowninthe accompanyingillustration.ItwasoncethepropertyoftheRevolutionarypatriot,JohnHancock,and isnowinthecustodyoftheBostonianSociety,attheOldStateHouse,inBoston,Massachusetts. Populardrinking-mugsoftheEnglish,fromwhichspeciallytheydranktheirmead,metheglin,and ale, were the stoneware jugs which were made in Germany and England, in the sixteenth and seventeenthcenturies,ingreatnumbers.AnEnglishwriterin1579,spokeoftheEnglishcustomof drinkingfrom"potsofearth,ofsundrycolorsandmoulds,whereofmanyaregarnishedwithsilver, or leastwise with pewter." Such a piece of stoneware is the oldest authenticated drinking-jug in this country,whichwasbroughthereandusedbyEnglishcolonists.ItwasthepropertyofGovernorJohn Winthrop, who came to Boston in 1630, and now belongs to the American Antiquarian Society, in Worcester,Massachusetts.Itstandseightinchesinheight,isapparentlyofGermanGresware,andis heavilymountedinsilver.ThelidisengravedwithaquaintdesignofAdamandEveandthetempting serpent in the apple-tree. It was a gift to John Winthrop's father from his sister, Lady Mildmay, in 1607, and was then, and is still now, labelled, "a stone Pot tipped and covered with a Silver Lydd." Many other Boston colonists had similar "stone juggs," "fflanders juggs," "tipt juggs." What were known as "Fulham juggs" were also much prized. The most interesting ones are the Georgius Rex jugs, those marked with a crown, the initials G. R., or a medallion head of the first of the English Georges.IknowoneofthesejugswhichhasaRevolutionarybulletimbeddedinitstougholdside, andisnotevencracked.Manyofthemhadpewterorsilverlids,whicharenowmissing.Somehave thecurioushoundhandlewhichwassopopularwithEnglishpotters. There was no china in common use on the table, and little owned even by persons of wealth throughout the seventeenth century, either in England or America. Delft ware was made in several factories in Holland at the time the Dutch settled in New Netherland; but even in the towns of its manufactureitwasnotusedfortableware.Thepieceswereusuallyoflargesize,whatwerecalled statepieces,forcabinetanddecorativepurposes.TheDutchsettlers,however,had"purslincupps"and earthendishesinconsiderablequantitiestowardtheendofthecentury.TheearthenwaspossiblyDelft ware, and the "Purslin" India china, which by that time was largely imported to Holland. Some Portuguese and Spanish pottery was imported, but was not much desired, as it was ill fired and perishable. It was not until Revolutionary times that china was a common table furnishing; then it begantocrowdoutpewter.ThesuddenandenormousgrowthofEastIndiacommerce,andthevast cargoesofChinesepotteryandporcelainwaresbroughttoAmericanportssoongaveamplechinato everyhousewife.IntheSoutherncoloniesbeautifulisolatedpiecesofporcelain,suchasvastpunchbowls,oftenwerefoundinthehomesofopulentplanters;butthere,asintheNorth,thefirstchinafor general table use was the handleless tea-cups, usually of some Canton ware, which crept with the fragrantherbintoeverywoman'sheart—bothwelcomeOrientalwaifs. Itmaywellbeimaginedthatthislongnarrowtable—withahighsalt-cellarinthemiddle,withclumsy wooden trenchers for plates, with round pewter platters heaped high with the stew of meat and vegetables,withagreatnogginortwoofwood,acanofpewter,orasilvertankardtodrinkfrom, withleatherjackstoholdbeerormilk,withmanywoodenorpewterandsomesilverspoons,butno forks,noglass,nochina,nocovereddishes,nosaucers—didnotlookmuchlikeourdinnertablestoday. Even the seats were different; there were seldom chairs or stools for each person. A long narrow bench without a back, called a form, was placed on each side of the table. Children in many households were not allowed to sit, even on these uncomfortable forms, while eating. Many times they had to stand by the side of the table during the entire meal; in old-fashioned families that uncomfortableandungraciouscustomlastedtillthiscentury.Iknowofchildrennotfiftyyearsago standingthusatallmealsatthetableofoneoftheJudgesoftheSupremeCourt.Hehadabountiful table, was a hospitable entertainer and well-known epicure; but children sat not at his board. Each stood at his own place and had to behave with decorum and eat in entire silence. In some families childrenstoodbehindtheirparentsandothergrownpersons,andfoodwashandedbacktothemfrom thetable—sowearetold.Thisseemscloselyakintothrowingfoodtoananimal,andmusthavebeen amongpeopleofverylowstationandsocialmanners. In other houses they stood at a side-table; and, trencher in hand, ran over to the great table to be helpedtomorefoodwhentheirfirstsupplywaseaten. The chief thought on the behavior of children at the table, which must be inferred from all the accountswehaveofthosetimesisthattheyweretoeatinsilence,asfastaspossible(regardlessof indigestion),andleavethetableasspeedilyasmightbe.InalittlebookcalledAPrettyLittlePocket Book,printedinAmericaaboutthetimeoftheRevolution,Ifoundalistofrulesforthebehaviorof childrenatthetableatthatdate.Theywereorderednevertoseatthemselvesatthetableuntilafterthe blessinghadbeenasked,andtheirparentstoldthemtobeseated.Theywerenevertoaskforanything onthetable;nevertospeakunlessspokento;alwaystobreakthebread,nottobiteintoawholeslice; nevertotakesaltexceptwithacleanknife;nottothrowbonesunderthetable.Oneruleread:"Hold not thy knife upright, but sloping; lay it down at right hand of the plate, with end of blade on the plate."Another,"Looknotearnestlyatanyotherpersonthatiseating."Whenchildrenhadeatenall thathadbeengiventhem,iftheywere"moderatelysatisfied,"theyweretoldtoleaveatoncethetable androom. Whenthetable-boarddescribedhereinwassetwithsnowylinenclothandnapkins,andamplefare,it had some compensations for what modern luxuries it lacked, some qualifications for inducing contentmentsuperioreventoourbeautifultable-settings.Therewasnothingperishableinitsentire furnishing: no frail and costly china or glass, whose injury and destruction by clumsy or heedless servants would make the heart of the housekeeper ache, and her anger nourish the germs of ptomaineswithinher.Therewaslittleofintrinsicvaluetowatchandguardandworryabout.There waslittletomakeextraanddifficultwork,—noglasstowashwithanxiouscare,noelaboratesilverto clean,—only a few pieces of pewter to polish occasionally. It was all so easy and so simple when compared with the complex and varied paraphernalia and accompaniments of serving of meals today,thatitwaslikeArcadiansimplicity. In Virginia the table furnishings were similar to those in New England; but there were greater contrastsintableappointments.Therewasmoresilver,andricherfood;butthenegroservantswere so squalid, clumsy, and uncouth that the incongruity made the meals very surprising and, at times, repellent. Whendinnersofsomestateweregiveninthelargertowns,thetablewasnotsetorservedlikethe formal dinner of to-day, for all the sweets, pastry, vegetables, and meats were placed on the table together,withagrand"conceit"fortheornamentinthecentre.Atoneperiod,whenpuddingwaspart ofthedinner,itwasservedfirst.Thusanold-timesayingisexplained,whichalwaysseemedrather meaningless, "I came early—in pudding-time." There was considerable formality in portioning out thefood,especiallyincarving,whichwasregardedasmuchmorethanapoliteaccomplishment,even asanart.Ihaveseenalistofsixtyorseventydifferenttermsincarvingtobeappliedwithexactness todifferentfish,fowl,andmeats.Anoldauthorsays:— "HowallmustregrettohearsomePersons,evenofqualitysay,'praycutupthatChickenorHen,'or 'HalvethatPlover';notconsideringhowindiscreetlytheytalk,whentheproperTermsare,'breakthat Goose,''thrustthatChicken,''spoilthatHen,''piercethatPlover.'Iftheyaresomuchoutincommon Things,howmuchmorewouldtheybewithHerons,Cranes,andPeacocks." Itmusthaverequiredgoodjudgmentandconstantwatchfulnessnevertosay"spoilthatHen,"whenit wasachicken;orelsebethoughthopelesslyill-bred. There were few state dinners, however, served in the American colonies, even in the large cities; therewerefewdinners,even,ofmanycourses;notalwaysweretheremanydishes.Therewerestill seeninmanyhomesmoreprimitiveformsofservingandeatingmeals,thanwereindicatedbythe lackofindividualdrinking-cups,themutualuseofatrencher,oreventheutilizationofthetabletop as a plate. In some homes an abundant dish, such as a vast bowl of suppawn and milk, a pumpkin stewedwholeinitsshell,orasavoryandmammothhotchpotwasset,oftensmokinghot,onthetableboard; and from this well-filled receptacle each hungry soul, armed with a long-handled pewter or wooden spoon, helped himself, sometimes ladling his great spoonfuls into a trencher or bowl, for moremoderateandreservedafter-consumption,—justasfrequentlyeatingdirectlyfromthebountiful dishwithaspoonthatcameandwentfromdishtomouthwithoutreproach,orthoughtofill-manners. Theaccountsoftravellersinallthecoloniesfrequentlytellofsuchrepasts;sometermediteatingin the fashion of the Dutch. The reports of old settlers often recall the general dish; and some very distinguished persons joined in the circle around it, and were glad to get it. Variety was of little account,comparedtoquantityandquality.Acheerfulhospitalityandgratefulheartsfilledthehollow placeofformalityandelegance. Bythetimethatnewspapersbegantohaveadvertisementsinthem—about1750—wefindmanymore articles for use at the table; but often the names were different from those used to-day. Our sugar bowlswerecalledsugarboxesandsugarpots;milkpitchersweremilkjugs,milkewers,andmilk pots.Vegetabledisheswerecalledbasins,puddingdishestwifflers,smallcupswerecalledsneakcups. Wehavestillto-dayacustommuchlikeoneofoldentimes,whenwehavethecrumbsremovedfrom ourtablesafteracourseatdinner.Thenavoiderwaspassedaroundthetablenearthecloseof the dinner, and into it the persons at the table placed their trenchers, napkins, and the crumbs from the table.Thevoiderwasadeepwicker,wooden,ormetalbasket.IntheBokeofNurture,writtenin1577, aretheselines:— "Whenmeateistakenquyteawaye AndVoydersinpresence, Putyouyourtrenchourinthesame andallyourresydence. Takeyouwithyournapkin&knyfe thecromsthatareforethe, IntheVoyderyourNapkinleave foritisacurtesye." CHAPTERV FOODFROMFORESTANDSEA Though all the early explorers and travellers came to America eager to find precious and useful metals,theydidnotdiscoverwealthandprosperityundergroundinmines,butonthetopoftheearth, inthewoodsandfields.Totheforeststheyturnedforfood,andtheydidnotturninvain.Deerwere plentifuleverywhere,andvenisonwasofferedbytheIndianstothefirstwholandedfromtheships. Somefamilieslivedwhollyonvenisonforninemonthsoftheyear.InVirginiawerevastnumbersof redandfallowdeer,thelatterlikethoseofEngland,exceptinthesmallernumberofbranchesofthe antlers.Theyweresodevoidoffearastoremainundisturbedbytheapproachofmen;awriterofthat day says: "Hard by the Fort two hundred in one herd have been usually observed." They were destroyed ruthlessly by a system of fire-hunting, in which tracts of forests were burned over, by startingacontinuouscircleoffiremilesaround,whichburntintowardthecentreofthecircle;thus thedeerweredrivenintothemiddle,andhundredswerekilled.Thismiserable,wholesaleslaughter wasnotforvenison,butforthesakeofthehides,whichwereveryvaluable.Theywereusedtomake thedurableandsuitablebuckskinbreechesandjacketssomuchwornbythesettlers;andtheywere alsoexportedtoEuropeinlargenumbers.Ataxwasplacedonhidesforthesupportofthebeloved WilliamandMaryCollege. In Georgia, in 1735, the Indians sold a deer for sixpence. Deer were just as abundant in the more Northern colonies. At Albany a stag was sold readily by the Indians for a jack-knife or a few iron nails.Thedeerinwintercameandfedfromthehog-pensofAlbanyswine.Evenin1695,aquarterof venisoncouldbeboughtinNewYorkCityforninepence.AtthefirstMassachusettsThanksgiving,in 1621,theIndiansbroughtinfivedeertothecolonistsfortheirfeast.Thatyeartherewasalso"great store of wild turkies." These beautiful birds of gold and purple bronze were at first plentiful everywhere, and were of great weight, far larger than our domestic turkeys to-day. They came in flocksofahundred,EvelynsaysofthreehundredontheChesapeake,andtheyweighedthirtyorforty pounds each: Josselyn says he saw one weighing sixty pounds. William Penn wrote that turkeys weighingthirtypoundsapiecesoldinhisdayandcolonyforashillingonly.Theywereshycreatures and fled inland from the white man, and by 1690 were rarely shot near the coast of New England, though in Georgia, in 1733, they were plentiful enough and cheap enough to sell for fourpence apiece.Flightsofpigeonsdarkenedthesky,andbrokedownthelimbsoftreesonwhichtheylighted. FromMainetoVirginiathesevastflockswereseen.Someyearspigeonsweresoplentifulthatthey weresoldforapennyadozeninBoston.Pheasant,partridge,woodcock,andquailabounded,plover, snipe,andcurlewwereinthemarsh-woods;infact,inVirginiaeverybirdfamiliartoEnglishmenat homewasfoundsavepeacockanddomesticfowl. Wildhareandsquirrelsweresomanythattheybecamepests,andsomuchgrainwaseatenbythem thatbountieswerepaidinmanytownsfortheheadsofsquirrels.Countytreasurieswereexhaustedby thesepremiums.TheSwedishtraveller,Kalm,saidthatinPennsylvaniainoneyear,1749,£8000was paidoutforheadsofblackandgraysquirrels,atthreepenceahead,whichwouldshowthatoversix hundredthousandwerekilled. From the woods came a sweet food-store, one specially grateful when sugar was so scarce and so high-priced,—wildhoney,whichthecolonistseagerlygatheredeverywherefromhollowtree-trunks. Curiouslyenough,thetraveller,Kalm,insistedthatbeeswerenotnativeinAmerica,butwerebrought overbytheEnglish;thattheIndianshadnonameforthemandcalledthemEnglishflies. GovernorBerkeleyofVirginia,writingin1706,calledthemaplethesugar-tree;hesaid:— "The Sugar-Tree yields a kind of Sap or Juice which by boiling is made into Sugar. This Juice is drawnout,bywoundingtheTrunkoftheTree,andplacingaReceiverundertheWound.Itissaidthat theIndiansmakeonePoundofSugaroutofeightPoundsoftheLiquor.Itisbrightandmoistwitha fulllargeGrain,theSweetnessofitbeinglikethatofgoodMuscovada." Thesugar-makingseasonwaseverhailedwithdelightbytheboysofthehouseholdincolonialdays, whofoundinthisworkinthewoodsawonderfuloutletfortheloveofwildlifewhichwasstrongin them. It had in truth a touch of going a-gypsying, if any work as hard as sugaring-off could have anythingcommonwithgypsylife.Themaple-treesweretappedassoonasthesapbegantoruninthe trunkandshowedattheendofthetwigs;thiswasinlatewinterifmild,orintheearliest spring. A notchwascutinthetrunkofthetreeataconvenientheightfromtheground,usuallyfourorfivefeet, andtherunningsapwasguidedbysettinginthenotchasemicircularbasswoodspoutcutandsetwith aspecialtoolcalledatapping-gauge.Inearlierdaysthetreeswere"boxed,"thatis,agreatgashcut acrossthesideandscoopedoutanddowntogatherthesap.Thisoftenprovedfataltothetrees,and wasabandoned.Atrough,usuallymadeofabutternutlogaboutthreefeetlong,wasdugout,Indian fashion,andplacedundertheendofthespout.Thesetroughsweremadedeepenoughtoholdabout tenquarts.Inlateryearsaholewasboredinthetreewithanaugur;andsap-bucketswereusedinstead oftroughs. Sometimesthesetroughswereleftindistantsugar-campsfromyeartoyear,turnedbottomsideup, throughthesummerandwinter.Itwasmorethriftyandtidy,however,tocarrythemhomeandstore them. When this was done, the men and boys began work by drawing the troughs and spouts and provisionstothewoodsonhand-sleds.Sometimesamightymantookinaloadonhisback.Itistold ofJohnAlexanderofBrattleboro,Vermont,thatheoncewentintocampuponsnowshoescarryingfor three miles one five-pail iron kettle, two sap-buckets, an axe and trappings, a knapsack, four days' provisions,andagunandammunition. Themasterofceremonies—theownerofthecamp—selectedthetreesanddrovethespouts,whilethe boysplacedthetroughs.Thenthesnowhadtobeshovelledawayonalevelspotabouteighteenor twentyfeetsquare,inwhichstrongforkedsticksweresettwelvefeetapart.Orthegroundwaschosen sothattwosmalllow-spreadingandstrongtreescouldbetrimmedandusedasforks.Aheavygreen stick was placed across from fork to fork, and the sugaring-off kettles, sometimes five in number, hungonit.Thendrywoodhadtobegatheredforthefires;hardworkitwastokeepthemconstantly supplied.Itwasoftencutayearinadvance.Asthesapcollectedinthetroughsitwasgatheredinpails orbucketswhich,hungonasap-yokeacrosstheneck,werebroughttothekettlesandthesapsetaboilingdown.Whentherewasa"goodrunofsap,"itwasusuallynecessarytostayinthecampover night.Manytimesthecampersstayedseveralnights.Asthe"goodrun"meantmilderweather,anight ortwowasnotabitterexperience;indeed,Ihaveneverheardanyonespeaknorseenanyaccountof anightspentinasugar-campexceptwithkeenexpressionsofdelight.Ifpossible,thetimewaschosen duringatermofmoonlight;thesnowstillcoveredthefieldsanditspureshiningwhitelightcouldbe seenthroughthetrees. "Godmakessechnights,sowhiteandstill Fer'syoucanlookandlisten. Moonlightan'snow,onfieldandhill, Allsilenceandallglisten." Thegreatsilence,brokenonlybysteadydroppingofthesap,thecrackleofblazingbrush,andthe occasionalhootingofstartledowls;thestarsseensinglyoverheadthroughtheopeningsofthetrees, shiningdownthedarktunnelasbrightasthoughtherewerenomoon;aboveall,theclearnessand sweetness of the first atmosphere of spring,—gave an exaltation of the senses and spirit which the countryboyfeltwithoutunderstanding,andindeedwithoutanyformulatedconsciousness. If the camp were near enough to any group of farmhouses to have visitors, the last afternoon and eveningincampwasmadeacountryfrolic.Greatsled-loadsofgirlscameouttotastethenewsugar, todropitintothesnowtocandy,andtohaveaneveningoffun. Longerethefullrichesoftheforestsweretestedthecoloniststurnedtoanotherfood-supply,—the treasuresofthesea. TheearlyvoyagersandcolonistscametothecoastsoftheNewWorldtofindgoldandfurs.Thegold was not found by them nor their children's children in the land which is now the United States, till overtwocenturieshadpassedfromthetimeofthesettlement,andthegold-minesofCaliforniawere opened.Thefurswereatfirstfoundandprofitablygathered,butthetimidfur-bearinganimalswere soonexterminatednearthesettlements.Therewas,however,avastwealthreadyforthecolonistson thecoastoftheNewWorldwhichwasgreaterthangold,greaterthanfurs;awealthever-obtainable, ever-replenished,ever-useful,ever-salable;itwasfish.Thesea,therivers,thelakes,teemedwithfish. Notonlywastherefoodforthesettlers,butforthewholeworld,andallEuropedesiredfishtoeat. Theshipsoftheearlydiscoverer,Gosnold,in1602,were"pesteredwithcod."CaptainJohnSmith, theacuteexplorer,famousinhistoryasbefriendedbyPocahontas,wenttoNewEngland,in1614,to seekforwhale,andinsteadhefishedforcod.Hesecuredsixtythousandinonemonth;andhewrote tohiscountrymen,"Letnotthemeannessofthewordfishdistasteyou,foritwillaffordasgoodgold astheminesofGuianaorPotosi,withlesshazardandcharge,andmorecertaintyandfacility."This promiseofwealthhasprovedtrueathousandfold.SmithwrotehometoEnglandfullaccountsofthe fisheries,oftheproperequipmentofafishing-vessel,ofthemethodsoffishing,theprofits,allina mostenticingandfamiliarstyle.HesaidinhisDescriptionofNewEngland:— "What pleasure can be more than to recreate themselves before their owne doores in their owne boates,upontheSea,whereman,woman,andchilde,withasmallhookeandlinebyangling,may takediversesortsofexcellentfish,attheirpleasure?Andisitnotprettysporttopulluptwopence, sixpence,ortwelvepence,asfastasyoucanhaleandvearealine?Ifamanworkebutthreedaysin seavenheemaygetmorethanheecanspendunlessheewillbeexcessive. "Young boyes and girles, salvages, or any other, be they never such idlers may turne, carry, and returnefishwithoutshameoreithergreatpain:heeisveryidlethatispasttwelveyearsofageand cannotdoesomuch:andsheeisveryoldthatcannotspinathreadtocatchthem." HisaccountsandsimilaronesweresomuchreadinEnglandthatwhenthePuritansaskedKingJames of England for permission to come to America, and the king asked what profit would be found by their emigration, he was at once answered, "Fishing." Whereupon he said in turn, "In truth 'tis an honesttrade;'twastheapostles'owncalling."Yetinspiteoftheirintenttofish,thefirstEnglishships camebutpoorlyprovidedforfishing,andthesettlershadlittlesuccessatfirsteveningettingfishfor theirownfood.ElderBrewsterofPlymouth,whohadbeenacourtierinQueenElizabeth'stime,and hadseenandeatenmanyrichfeasts,hadnothingtoeatatonetimebutclams.Yethecouldgivethanks toGodthathewas"permittedtosuckoftheabundanceoftheseasandthetreasureshidinthesand." The Indian Squanto showed the Pilgrims many practical methods of fishing, among them one of treading out eels from the brook with his feet and catching them with his hands. And every ship broughtineithercod-hooksandlines,mackerel-hooksandlines,herring-nets,seines,shark-hooks, bass-nets, squid-lines, eel-pots, coils of rope and cable, "drails, barbels, pens, gaffs," or musselhooks. Josselyn,inhisNewEngland'sRarities,writtenin1672,enumeratedovertwohundredkindsoffish thatwerecaughtinNewEnglandwaters. Lobsters certainly were plentiful enough to prevent starvation. The minister Higginson, writing of lobstersatSalem,saidthatmanyofthemweighedtwenty-fivepoundsapiece,andthat"theleastboyin the plantation may catch and eat what he will of them." In 1623, when the ship Anne arrived from England,bringingmanyofthewivesandchildrenofthePilgrimswhohadcomeinthefirstships,the onlyfeastofwelcomethatthepoorhusbandshadtoofferthenewcomerswas"alobsterorapieceof fishwithoutbreadoranythingelsebutacupofspringwater." Patriarchal lobsters five and six feet long were caught in New York Bay. The traveller, Van der Donck, says "those a foot long are better for serving at table." Truly a lobster six feet long would seemalittleawkwardtoserveonadinnertable.Eddis,inhisLettersfromAmerica,writtenin1792, says these vast lobsters were caught in New York waters until Revolutionary days, when "since the incessantcannonading,theyhaveentirelyforsakenthecoast;notonehavingbeentakenorseensince thecommencementofhostilities."Besidethesegreatshell-fishthegiantlobsterconfinedinourNew YorkAquariumin1897seemsbutadwarf.InVirginiawaterslobsterswerecaught,andvastcrabs, often a foot in length and six inches broad, with a long tail and many legs. One of these crabs furnishedasufficientmealforfourmen. FromthegossipingpagesoftheLabadistmissionarieswhocametoAmericain1697wefindhintsof goodfareinoystersinBrooklyn. "Thenwasthrownuponthefire,toberoasted,apailfullofGowanesoysterswhicharethebestinthe country.TheyarefullyasgoodasthoseofEngland,betterthanthoseweeatatFalmouth.Ihadtotry someofthemraw.Theyarelargeandfull,someofthemnotlessthanafootlong.Othersareyoung andsmall.Inconsequenceofthegreatquantitiesofthemeverybodykeepstheshellsfortheburning oflime.TheypickletheoystersinsmallcasksandsendthemtoBarbados." VanderDonckcorroboratesthefoot-longoystersseenbytheLabadisttravellers.Hesaysthe"large oystersroastedorstewedmakeagoodbite,"—averygoodbite,itwouldseemtous. Strachey,inhisHistorieofTravaileintoVirginia,sayshesawoystersinVirginiathatwerethirteen incheslong.FortunatelyforthestarvingVirginians,oysterbanksroseabovethesurfaceatebb-tideat the mouth of the Elizabeth River, and in 1609 a large number of these famished Virginia colonists foundintheseoysterbanksameansofpreservationoflife. As might be expected of any country so intersected with arms of the sea and fresh-water streams, Virginiaatthetimeofsettlementteemedwithfish.TheIndianskilledtheminthebrooksbystriking themwithsticks,anditissaidthecolonistsscoopedthemupinfrying-pans.Horsesriddenintothe rivers stepped on the fish and killed them. In one cast of a seine the governor, Sir Thomas Dale, caughtfivethousandsturgeonaslargeascod.Somesturgeonweretwelvefeetlong.Theworksof Captain John Smith, Rolfe's Relation, and other books of early travellers, all tell of the enormous amountoffishinVirginia. TheNewYorkriverswerealsofulloffish,andthebays;theirplentyinNewNetherlandinspiredthe first poet of that colony to rhyming enumeration of the various kinds of fish found there; among themweresturgeon—belovedoftheIndiansanddespisedofChristians;andterrapin—notdespised byanyone."Somepersons,"wrotetheDutchtraveller,VanderDonck,in1656,"preparedelicious dishesfromthewaterterrapin,whichislusciousfood."TheMiddleandSouthernstatespaidequally warmbutmoretardytributetotheterrapin'sreputationaslusciousfood. Whileotherfishwereusedeverywhereforfood,codwasthegreatstapleofthefishingindustry.By theyear1633DorchesterandMarbleheadhadstartedinthefisheriesfortradingpurposes.Sturgeon alsowascaughtatalittlelaterdate,andbassandalewives. Morton,inhisNewEnglandCanaan,writtenin1636,says,"Imyselfattheturningofthetydehave seensuchmultitudesofseabassthatitseemedtomethatonemightgoeovertheirbacksdri-shod." Theregulationoffish-weirssoonbecameanimportantmatterinalltownswherestreamsletalewives upfromthesea.TheNewEnglandministerstookahandinpromotingandencouragingthefisheries, astheydidallpositivesocialmovementsandcommercialbenefits.Rev.HughPeterinSalemgavethe fisheriesaspeciallygoodturn.Fishermenwereexcusedfrommilitarytraining,andportionsofthe commonstockofcornwereassignedtothem.TheGeneralCourtofMassachusettsexempted"vessels andstock"from"countrycharges"(whichweretaxes)forsevenyears.Seashoretownsassignedfree landstoeachboattobeusedforstaysandflakesfordrying.Asearlyas1640threehundredthousand driedcodfishweresenttomarketfromNewEngland. Codfish consisted of three sorts, "marchantable, middling, and refuse." The first grade was sold chieflytoRomanCatholicEurope,tosupplytheconstantdemandsofthefast-daysofthatreligion, and also those of the Church of England; the second was consumed at home or in the merchant vesselsofNewEngland;thethirdwenttothenegroesoftheWestIndies,andwasoftencalledJamaica fish.Thedun-fishordumb-fish,asthewordwassometimeswritten,werethebest;socalledfromthe dun-color. Fish was always eaten in New England for a Saturday dinner; and Mr. Palfrey, the historian,saysthatuntilthiscenturynoNewEnglanddinneronSaturday,evenaformaldinnerparty, wascompletewithoutdun-fishbeingserved. Of course the first fishing-vessels had to be built and sent from England. Some carried fifty men. Theyarrivedonthecoastinearlyspring,andbymidsummersailedhome.Thecrewhadforwages one-thirdshareofthefishandoil;anotherthirdpaidforthemen'sfood,thesalt,nets,hooks,lines, etc.;theotherthirdwenttotheship'sownersforprofit. ThissystemwasnotcarriedoutinNewEngland.There,eachfishermanworkedon"hisownhook"— anditwasliterallyhisownhook;foratallywaskeptofthefishcaughtbyeachman,andtheproceeds ofthetripweredividedinproportiontothenumberoffisheachcaught.Whentherewasabigrunof fish,themenneverstoppedtoeatorsleep,butwhenfoodwasheldtothemgnaweditoffwhiletheir hands were employed with the fish-lines. With every fishing-vessel that left Gloucester and Marblehead,thechiefcentresofthefishingindustries,wentaboyoftenortwelvetolearntobe a skilledfisherman.Hewascalleda"cut-tail,"forhecutawedge-shapedbitfromthetailofeveryfish hecaught,andwhenthefishweresortedoutthecut-tailsshowedtheboy'sshareoftheprofit. Forcenturies,fishwasplentifulandcheapinNewEngland.ThetravellerBennetwroteofBoston,in 1740:— "Fishisexceedinglycheap.Theysellafinecod,willweighadozenpoundsormore,justtakenoutof the sea for about twopence sterling. They have smelts, too, which they sell as cheap as sprats in London.Salmon,too,theyhaveingreatplenty,andthesetheysellforaboutashillingapiecewhich willweighfourteenorfifteenpounds." Twokindsofdeliciousfish,beloved,perhaps,aboveallothersto-day,—salmonandshad,—seemto havebeenlightlyregardedincolonialdays.Thepriceofsalmon—lessthanapennyapound—shows thelowestimationinwhichitwasheldintheearlyyearsoftheeighteenthcentury.Itistoldthatfarmlaborers in the vicinity of the Connecticut River when engaged to work stipulated that they should havesalmonfordinnerbutonceaweek. Shad were profoundly despised; it was even held to be somewhat disreputable to eat them; and the story is told of a family in Hadley, Massachusetts, who were about to dine on shad, that, hearing a knockatthedoor,theywouldnotopenittilltheplatterholdingtheobnoxiousshadhadbeenhidden. Atfirsttheywerefedchieflytohogs.Twoshadforapennywastheignoblepricein1733,anditwas nevermuchhigheruntilaftertheRevolution.Aftershadandsalmonacquiredabetterreputationas food,thefallsofvariousriversbecamegreatresortsforAmericanfishermenastheyhadbeenfor theIndians.Bothkindsoffishwerecaughtinscoop-netsandseinesbelowthefalls.Mencamefroma distance and loaded horses and carts with the fish to carry home. Every farmhouse near was filled withvisitors.ItwasestimatedthatatthefallsatSouthHadleytherewerefifteenhundredhorsesinone day. SaltedfishwasascarefullypreparedandamiablyregardedforhomeuseinNewEnglandandNew YorkasinEnglandandHollandatthesamedate.ThelingandherringoftheoldcountriesofEurope gaveplaceinAmericatocod,shad,andmackerel.Thegreatestpainswastakeninpreparing,drying, andsaltingtheplentifulfish.ItissaidthatinNewYorktowns,suchasNewYorkandBrooklyn,after shadbecameapopularfish,greatheapswereleftwhenpurchasedateachdoor,andthatthenecessary cleaning and preparation of the shad was done on the street. As all housewives purchased shad and saltedandpackedataboutthesametime,thosepublicscavengers,thedomestichogswhoroamedthe townstreetsunchecked(andeverwelcomed),musthavebeenspeciallyusefulatshad-time. Not in the waters, but of it, were the magnificent tribes of marine fowl that, undiminished by the feeble weapons and few numbers of the Indians, had peopled for centuries the waters of the New World.TheChesapeakeanditstributariesfurnishedeachautumnvastfeeding-groundsofwildcelery andotheraquaticplantstomillionsofthosecreatures.ThefirearmsofCaptainJohnSmithandhis two companions were poor things compared with the fowling-pieces of to-day, but with their three shotstheykilledahundredandforty-eightducksatonefiring.Thesplendidwildswanwheeledand trumpetedintheclearautumnair;thewildgeeseflewthereintheirbeautifulV-shapedflight;duckin all the varieties known to modern sportsmen—canvas-back, mallard, widgeon, redhead, oxeye, dottrel—restedontheChesapeakewatersinvastflocksamilewideandsevenmileslong.Governor Berkeleynamedalsobrant,shelldrake,teal,andblewings.Thesoundoftheirwingswassaidtobe "likeagreatstormcomingoverthewater."Forcenturiestheseduckshavebeenkilledbythewhite man,andstilltheyreturneachautumntotheiroldfeeding-places. CHAPTERVI INDIANCORN A great field of tall Indian corn waving its stately and luxuriant green blades, its graceful spindles, andglossysilkunderthehotAugustsun,shouldbenotonlyabeautifulsighttoeveryAmerican,buta suggestiveone;onetosetusthinkingofallthatIndiancornmeanstousinourhistory.Itwasanative ofAmericansoilatthesettlementofthiscountry,andunderfullandthoroughlyintelligentcultivation by the Indians, who were also native sons of the New World. Its abundance, adaptability, and nourishingqualitiesnotonlysavedthecolonists'lives,butalteredmanyoftheirmethodsofliving, especiallytheirmannerofcookingandtheirtastesinfood. One of the first things that every settler in a new land has to learn is that he must find food in that land;thathecannottrustlongtoanysuppliesoffoodwhichhehasbroughtwithhim,ortoanyfresh supplieswhichhehasorderedtobesentafterhim.Hemustturnatoncetohunting,fishing,planting, tofurnishhimwithfoodgrownandfoundintheveryplacewhereheis. ThiswasquicklylearnedbythecolonistsinAmerica,exceptinVirginia,wheretheyhadsadstarvingtimesbeforeallwereconvincedthatcornwasabettercropforsettlersthansilkoranyofthemany hoped-forproductionswhichmightbevaluableinonesensebutwhichcouldnotbeeaten.Powhatan, thefatheroftheIndianprincessPocahontas,wasoneofthefirstto"sendsomeofhisPeoplethatthey mayteachtheEnglishhowtosowtheGrainofhisCountry."CaptainJohnSmith,everquicktolearn ofeveryoneandeverpractical,gottwoIndians,intheyear1608,toshowhimhowtobreakupand plant forty acres of corn, which yielded him a good crop. A succeeding governor of Virginia, Sir Thomas Dale, equally practical, intelligent, and determined, assigned small farms to each colonist, andencouragedandenforcedthegrowingofcorn.Soonmanythousandbushelswereraised.There wasaterribleIndianmassacrein1622,forthecarelesscolonists,inordertobefreetogivetheirtime to the raising of that new and exceedingly alluring and high-priced crop, tobacco, had given the Indiansfirearmstogohuntinggameforthem;andthelessonofeasykillingwithpowderandshot, when once learned, was turned with havoc upon the white men. The following year comparatively littlecornwasplanted,astheluxuriantfoliagemadeaperfectambushforthecloseapproachofthe savages to the settlements. There was, of course, scarcity and famine as the result; and a bushel of corn-meal became worth twenty to thirty shillings, which sum had a value equal to twenty to thirty dollars to-day. The planters were each compelled by the magistrates the following year to raise an ampleamountofcorntosupplyallthefamilies;andtosaveacertainamountforseedaswell.There hasbeennolackofcornsincethattimeinVirginia. TheFrenchcolonistsinLouisiana,perhapsbecausetheywereaccustomedtomoredaintyfoodthan theEnglish,fiercelyhatedcorn,ashavetheIrishinourownday.AbandofFrenchwomensettlers fairly raised a "petticoat rebellion" in revolt against its daily use. A despatch of the governor of Louisianasaysoftheserebels:— "Themeninthecolonybeginthroughhabittousecornasanarticleoffood;butthewomen,whoare mostly Parisians, have for this food a dogged aversion, which has not been subdued. They inveigh bitterlyagainstHisGrace,theBishopofQuebec,who,theysay,hasenticedthemawayfromhome underpretextofsendingthemtoenjoythemilkandhoneyofthelandofpromise." Thishatredofcornwassharedbyotherraces.Anoldwritersays:— "PeterMartyrcouldmagnifietheSpaniards,ofwhomhereportstheyledamiserablelifeforthree daystogether,withparchedgrainofmaizeonlie"— which, when compared with the diet of New England settlers for weeks at a time, seems such a bagatelle as to be scarce worth the mention of Peter Martyr. By tradition, still commemorated at Forefathers'Dinners,therationofIndiancornsuppliedtoeachpersoninthecolonyintimeoffamine wasbutfivekernels. ThestoresbroughtoverbythePilgrimswerepoorandinadequateenough;thebeefandporkwere tainted,thefishrotten,thebutterandcheesecorrupted.Europeanwheatandseedsdidnotmaturewell. Soon, as Bradford says in his now famous Log-Book, in his picturesque and forcible English, "the grimandgrizzledfaceofstarvationstared"atthem.Thereadiestsupplytoreplenishthescantylarder wasfish,buttheEnglishmadesurprisinglybunglingworkoverfishing,andsoonthemostunfailing andvaluablesupplywasthenativeIndiancorn,or"Guinnywheat,"or"Turkiewheat,"asitwascalled bythecolonists. FamineandpestilencehadlefteasternMassachusettscomparativelybareofinhabitantsatthetimeof the settlement of Plymouth; and the vacant cornfields of the dead Indian cultivators were taken and plantedbytheweakandemaciatedPlymouthmen,whonevercouldhaveclearednewfields.Fromthe teemingsea,intheAprilrunoffish,wasfoundtheneededfertilizer.SaysGovernorBradford:— "In April of the first year they began to plant their corne, in which service Squanto stood them in greatstead,showingthembothyemannerhowtosetit,andafter,howtodressandtendit." Fromthisplantingsprangnotonlythemostusefulfood,butthefirstandmostpregnantindustryof thecolonists. Thefirstfieldsandcropswerecommunal,andtheresultwasdisastrous.Thethirdyear,atthesightof theparalyzedsettlement,GovernorBradfordwiselydecided,asdidGovernorDaleofVirginia,that "they should set corne every man for his owne particuler, furnishing a portion for public officers, fishermen, etc., who could not work, and in that regard trust to themselves." Thus personal energy succeeded to communal inertia; Bradford wrote that women and children cheerfully worked in the fieldstoraisecornwhichshouldbetheirveryown. AfieldofcornonthecoastofMassachusettsorNarragansettorbytheriversofVirginia,growing long before any white man had ever been seen on these shores, was precisely like the same field plantedthreehundredyearslaterbyourAmericanfarmers.Therewasthesameplantinginhills,the samenumberofstalksinthehill,withpumpkin-vinesrunningamongthehills,andbeansclimbing thestalks.ThehillsoftheIndianswereatriflenearertogetherthanthoseofourowndayareusually set,forthenativesoilwasmorefertile. TheIndianstaughtthecolonistsmuchmorethantheplantingandraisingofcorn;theyshowedalso how to grind the corn and cook it in many palatable ways. The various foods which we use to-day madefromIndiancornareallcookedjustastheIndianscookedthematthetimeofthesettlementof the country; and they are still called with Indian names, such as hominy, pone, suppawn, samp, succotash. The Indian method of preparing maize or corn was to steep or parboil it in hot water for twelve hours,thentopoundthegraininamortarorahollowedstoneinthefield,tillitwasacoarsemeal.It wasthensiftedinarathercloselywovenbasket,andthelargegrainswhichdidnotpassthroughthe sievewereagainpoundedandsifted. Samp was often pounded in olden times in a primitive and picturesque Indian mortar made of a hollowed block of wood or a stump of a tree, which had been cut off about three feet from the ground.Thepestlewasaheavyblockofwoodshapedliketheinsideofthemortar,andfittedwitha handleattachedtooneside.Thisblockwasfastenedtothetopofayoungandslendertree,agrowing sapling, which was bent over and thus gave a sort of spring which pulled the pestle up after being poundeddownonthecorn.Thiswascalledasweepandmortarmill. Theycouldbeheardatalongdistance.TwoNewHampshirepioneersmadeclearingsaboutaquarter ofamileapartandbuilthouses.Therewasanimpenetrablegullyandthickwoodsbetweenthecabins; andtheblazedpathwasalongdistancearound,sothewivesofthesettlersseldomsaweachotheror anyotherwoman.Itwasasourceofgreatcomfortandcompanionshiptothemboththattheycould signaltoeachothereverydaybypoundingontheirmortars.Andtheyhadaningenioussystemof communication which one spring morning summoned one to the home of the other, where she arrivedintimetobethefirsttowelcomefinetwinbabies. After these simple stump and sapling mortars were abandoned elsewhere they were used on Long Island,anditwasjestinglytoldthatsailorsinafogcouldalwaysknowonwhatshoretheywere,when theycouldhearthepoundingofthesamp-mortarsonLongIsland. Rudehand-millsnextwereused,whichwerecalledquernes,orquarnes.Somearestillinexistence and known as samp-mills. Windmills followed, of which the Indians were much afraid, dreading "their long arms and great teeth biting the corn in pieces"; and thinking some evil spirit turned the arms.Assoonasmaizewasplentiful,Englishmillsforgrindingmealwerestartedinmanytowns. There was a windmill at Watertown, Massachusetts, in 1631. In 1633 the first water-mill, at Dorchester,wasbuilt,andinIpswichagrist-millwasbuiltin1635.ThemillbuiltbyGovernorJohn WinthropinNewLondonisstillstanding. ThefirstwindmillerectedinAmericawasonebuiltandsetupbyGovernorYeardleyinVirginiain 1621. By 1649 there were five water-mills, four windmills, and a great number of horse and hand millsinVirginia.Millershadone-sixthofthemealtheygroundfortoll. Suppawnwasanotherfavoriteofthesettlers,andwasanIndiandishmadefromIndiancorn;itwasa thickcorn-mealandmilkporridge.ItwassoonseenoneveryDutchtable,fortheDutchwerevery fond of all foods made from all kinds of grain; and it is spoken of by all travellers in early New York,andintheSoutherncolonies. Samp and samp porridge were soon abundant dishes. Samp is Indian corn pounded to a coarsely groundpowder.RogerWilliamswroteofit:— "Nawsampisakindofmealpottageunparched.FromthistheEnglishcalltheirsamp,whichisthe Indian corn beaten and boiled and eaten hot or cold with milk and butter, and is a diet exceedingly wholesomeforEnglishbodies." TheSwedishscientist,ProfessorKalm,toldthattheIndiansgavehim"freshmaize-bread,bakedinan oblongshape,mixedwithdriedhuckleberries,whichlayascloseinitasraisinsinaplumpudding." RogerWilliamssaidthatsukquttahhashwas"cornseethedlikebeans."Ourword"succotash"wenow applytocorncookedwithbeans.Ponesweretheredmen'sappones. TheloveoftheIndiansfor"roastingears"wasquicklysharedbythewhiteman.InVirginiaaseries ofplantingsofcornweremadefromthefirstofApriltothelastofJune,toaffordathreemonths' successionofroastingears. Thetraveller,Strachey,writingoftheIndiansin1618,said:"Theylaptheircorninrowleswithinthe leavesofthecomeandsoboyleytforadayntie."Thismethodofcookingwehavealsoretainedto thepresentday. ItseemedtomeverycurioustoreadinGovernorWinthrop'sjournal,writteninBostonabout1630, thatwhencornwas"parched,"ashecalledit,itturnedinsideoutandwas"whiteandflourywithin"; andtothinkthatthenlittleEnglishchildrenwereatthattimelearningwhatpop-cornwas,andhowit lookedwhenitwasparched,orpopped. Hasty pudding had been made in England of wheat-flour or oatmeal and milk, and the name was given to boiled puddings of corn-meal and water. It was not a very suitable name, for corn-meal shouldneverbecookedhastily,butrequireslongboilingorbaking.ThehardIndianpuddingslightly sweetenedandboiledinabagwaseverywheremade.ItwastoldthatmanyNewEnglandfamilieshad threehundredandsixty-fivesuchpuddingsinayear. Thevirtuesof"jonny-cake"havebeenloudlysungintheinterestingpagesofShepherdTom.Theway thecornshouldbecarriedtothemill,themannerinwhichitshouldbeground,thewayinwhichthe stonesshouldrevolve,andthekindofstones,receiveminutedescription,asdoesthemixingandthe baking, to the latter of which the middle board of red oak from the head of a flour-barrel is indispensableasabakeboard,whilethefiretobakewithmustbeofwalnutlogs.Hastypudding,corn dumplings,andcorn-mealporridge,soeminentlygoodthatitwasevermentionedwithrespectinthe plural,as"themporridge,"allaredescribedwiththeexuberantjoyousnessofahappy,healthfulold ageinremembranceofahappy,high-spirited,andhealthfulyouth. Theharvestingofthecornaffordedoneofthefewscenesofgayetyinthelivesofthecolonists.A diaryofoneAmes,ofDedham,Massachusetts,intheyear1767,thusdescribesacorn-husking,and mostungallantlysaysnaughtoftheredearandattendantosculation:— "MadeahuskingEntertainm't.PossiblythisleafemaylastaCenturyandfallintothehandsofsome inquisitivePersonforwhoseEntertainm'tIwillinformhimthatnowthereisaCustomamongstusof makinganEntertainm'tathuskingofIndianCornwheretoalltheneighboringSwainsareinvitedand aftertheCornisfinishedtheyliketheHottentotsgivethreeCheersorhuzza'sbutcannotcarryinthe huskswithoutaRhumbottle;theyfeigngreatExertionbutdonothingtillRhumenlivensthem,when allisdoneinatrice,thenafteraheartyMealabout10atNighttheygototheirpastimes." Therewasonewayofeatingcornwhichwasspokenofbyalltheearlywritersandtravellerswhich weshouldnotbeverywellsatisfiedwithnow,butitshowsushowusefulandnecessarycornwasat thattime,andhowmuchalldependedonit.Thispreparationofcornwascallednocakeornookick. AnoldwriternamedWoodthusdefinedit:— "It is Indian corn parched in the hot ashes, the ashes being sifted from it; it is afterwards beaten to powderandputintoalongleathernebagtrussedattheIndian'sbackelikeaknapsacke,outofwhich theytakethreespoonsfuladay." Itwasheldtobethemostnourishingfoodknown,andinthesmallestandmostcondensedform.Both Indiansandwhitemenusuallycarrieditinapouchwhentheywentonlongjourneys,andmixedit withsnowinthewinterandwaterinsummer.Gookinsaysitwassweet,toothsome,andhearty.With onlythisnourishmenttheIndianscouldcarryloads"fitterforelephantsthanmen."RogerWilliams saysaspoonfulofthismealandwatermadehimmanyagoodmeal.Whenwereadthiswearenot surprisedthatthePilgrimscouldkeepaliveonwhatissaidwasatonetimeoffaminetheirfoodfora day,—five kernels of corn apiece. The apostle Eliot, in his Indian Bible, always used the word nookickfortheEnglishwordsflourormeal. We ought to think of the value of food in those days; and we may be sure the governor and his councilthoughtcornofvaluewhentheytookitfortaxesandmadeitalegalcurrencyjustlikegold andsilver,andforbadeanyonetofeedittopigs.Ifyouhappentoseethepriceofcornduringthose yearsdowntoRevolutionarytimes,youwill,perhaps,besurprisedtoseehowmuchthepricevaried. Fromtenshillingsabushelin1631,totwoshillingsin1672,totwentyin1747,totwoin1751,and onehundredshillingsattheopeningoftheRevolution.Inthesepricesofcorn,asinthepriceofall otherarticlesatthistime,thedifferencewasinthemoney,whichhadaconstantlychangingvalue,not in the article itself or its usefulness. The corn had a steady value, it always furnished just so much food; and really was a standard itself rather than measured and valued by the poor and shifting money. Therearemanyotherinterestingfactsconnectedwiththeearlycultureofcorn:ofthefindinghidden incavesor"caches"inthegroundtheIndian'scornwhichhehadstoredforseed;ofthesacred"corndances"oftheIndians;thatthefirstpatentgrantedinEnglandtoanAmericanwastoaPhiladelphia womanforamilltogrindakindofhominy;ofthegreatprofittothecolonistsincorn-raising,for thecarelessandgreedyIndiansalwaysateupalltheircornassoonaspossible,thenhadtogooutand trapbeaversinthewoodstoselltheskinstothecolonistsforcorntokeepthemfromstarving.One colonist planted about eight bushels of seed-corn. He raised from this eight hundred and sixty-four bushelsofcorn,whichhesoldtotheIndiansforbeaverskinswhichgavehimaprofitof£327. Many games were played with the aid of kernels of corn: fox and geese, checkers, "hull gull, how many,"andgamesinwhichthecornservedascounters. The ears of corn were often piled into the attic until the floor was a foot deep with them. I once enteredanellbedroominaMassachusettsfarmhousewherethewalls,rafters,andfour-postbedstead werehungsolidwithearsofyellowcorn,whichtruly"madeasunshineinashadyplace." Someofthepreparationofcornfellupontheboys;itwastheirregularworkallwinterintheevening firelighttoshellcornfromtheearsbyscrapingthemontheironedgeofthewoodenshoveloronthe fire-peel. My father told me that even in his childhood in the first quarter of this century many familiesofmoderatemeansfastenedthelong-handledfrying-panacrossatubanddrewthecornears acrossthesharpedgeofthehandleofthepan.InoteinPeterParley'sreminiscencesofhischildhood a similar use of a frying-pan handle in his home. Other farmers set the edge of a knife blade in a pieceofwoodandscrapedonthebackoftheblade.Insomehouseholdsthecornwaspounded into hominyinwoodenmortars.Anoldcorn-shellerusedinwesternMassachusettsishereshown. Whenthecornwasshelled,thecobswerenotcarelesslydiscardedordisregarded.Theywerestored ofteninalean-toorloftinthekitchenell;fromthencetheywerebroughtdowninskepesorboxes about a bushel at a time; and after being used by the children as playthings to build "cob-houses," wereemployedaslightwoodforthefire.Theyhadaspecialuseinmanyhouseholdsforsmoking hams;andtheirsmokewasdeemedtoimpartaspeciallydelightfulflavortohamsandbacon. Onespecialuseofcornshouldbenoted.ByorderofthegovernmentofMassachusettsBayin1623,it wasusedasballotsinpublicvoting.Atannualelectionsofthegovernors'assistantsineachtown,a kernelofcornwasdepositedtosignifyafavorablevoteuponthenominee,whileabeansignifieda negativevote;"andifanyfree-manshallputinmorethanoneIndiancornorbeanheshallforfeitfor everysuchoffenceTenPounds." Thechoiceofanationalflowerorplantismuchtalkedaboutto-day.Asidefromthebeautyofmaize when growing and its wonderful adaptability in every part for decoration, would not the noble and usefulpartplayedbyIndiancorninourearlyhistoryentitleittobeourfirstchoice? CHAPTERVII MEATANDDRINK The food brought in ships from Europe to the colonists was naturally limited by the imperfect methodsoftransportationwhichthenexisted.Nothinglikerefrigeratorswereknown;notinnedfoods were even thought of; ways of packing were very crude and careless; so the kinds of provisions which would stand the long voyage on a slow sailing-vessel were very few. The settlers turned at once, as all settlers in a new land should, to the food-supplies found in the new home; of these the threemostimportantoneswerecorn,fish,andgame.Ihavetoldoftheirplenty,theirvalue,andtheir use.Thereweremanyotherbountifulandgoodfoods,amongthempumpkinsorpompions,asthey wereatfirstcalled. ThepumpkinhassturdilykeptitsownplaceontheNewEnglandfarm,varyinginpopularityanduse, but always of value as easy of growth, easy of cooking, and easy to keep in a dried form. Yet the colonistsdidnotwelcomethepumpkinwitheagerness,evenintimesofgreatwant.Theywerejustly rebukedfortheirindifferenceanddislikebyJohnsoninhisWonder-workingProvidence,whocalled thepumpkin"afruitwhichtheLordfedhispeoplewithtillcornandcattleincreased";andanother pumpkin-loverreferredto"thetimeswhereinoldPompionwasasaint."Onecolonialpoetgivesthe goldenvegetablethistribute:— "Wehavepumpkinsatmorningandpumpkinsatnoon, Ifitwerenotforpumpkinsweshouldbeundone." IamverysurewereIlivingondriedcornandscantshell-fish,asthePilgrimswereforcedtodo,I should have turned with delight to "pompion-sause" as a change of diet. Stewed pumpkins and pumpkin bread were coarse ways of using the fruit for food. Pumpkin bread—made of half Indian meal—was not very pleasing in appearance. A traveller in 1704 called it an "awkward food." It is eateninConnecticuttothisday.TheIndiansdriedpumpkinsandstrungthemforwinteruse,andthe colonistsfollowedtheIndiancustom. InVirginiapumpkinswereequallyplentifulanduseful.RalphHamor,inhisTrueDiscourse,saysthey grewinsuchabundancethatahundredwereoftenobservedtospringfromoneseed.TheVirginia Indiansboiledbeans,peas,corn,andpumpkinstogether,andthecolonistslikedthedish.Inthetrying timesat"James-Citty,"theplentifulpumpkinsplayedagreatpartinprovidingfood-suppliesforthe starvingVirginians. Squasheswerealsonativevegetables.ThenameisIndian.Toshowthewonderfulandvariedwayin whichtheEnglishspeltIndiannamesletmetellyouthatRogerWilliamscalledthemaskutasquashes; the Puritan minister Higginson, squantersquashes; the traveller Josselyn, squontorsquashes, and the historianWood,isquoukersquashes. Potatoes were known to New Englanders, but were rare and when referred to were probably sweet potatoes.Itwasalongtimebeforetheyweremuchliked.AfarmeratHadley,Massachusetts,hadwhat hethoughtaverylargecropin1763—itwaseightbushels.Itwasbelievedbymanypersonsthatifa manatethemeveryday,hecouldnotlivesevenyears.Inthespringallthatwereleftonhandwere carefully burned, for many believed that if cattle or horses ate these potatoes they would die. They werefirstcalled,whencarriedtoEngland,Virginiapotatoes;thentheybecamemuchlikedandgrown inIreland;thentheIrishsettlersinNewHampshirebroughtthembacktothiscontinent,andnowthey arecalled,verysenselessly,Irishpotatoes.Manypersonsfanciedtheballswerewhatshouldbeeaten, andsaidthey"didnotmuchdesirethem."Afashionablewayofcookingthemwaswithbutter,sugar, andgrape-juice;thiswasmixedwithdates,lemons,andmace;seasonedwithcinnamon,nutmeg,and pepper;thencoveredwithafrostingofsugar—andyouhadtohuntwelltofindthepotatoamongall theseotherthings. IntheCarolinasthechangeinEnglishdietwaseffectedbythesweetpotato.Thisrootwascookedin variousways:itwasroastedintheashes,boiled,madeintopuddings,usedasasubstituteforbread, madeintopancakeswhichaforeignersaidtastedasthoughcomposedofsweetalmonds;andinevery wayitwaslikedandwassoplentifulthateventheslavesfeduponit. Beanswereabundant,andwerebakedbytheIndiansinearthenpotsjustaswebakethemto-day.The settlers planted peas, parsnips, turnips, and carrots, which grew and thrived. Huckleberries, blackberries,strawberries,andgrapesgrewwild.Apple-treeswereplantedatonce,andgrewwellin NewEnglandandtheMiddlestates.TwentyyearsaftertheRomanCatholicsettlementofMarylandthe fruitfulorchardswereconspicuouslyflourishing. Johnson,writingin1634,saidthatalltheninNewEnglandcouldhaveapple,pear,andquince tarts insteadofpumpkin-pies.Theymadeapple-slump,apple-mose,apple-crowdy,apple-tarts,messapplepies,andpuffapple-pies.TheSwedishparson,Dr.Acrelius,writinghomein1758anaccountofthe settlementofDelaware,said:— "Apple-pieisusedthroughthewholeyear,andwhenfreshapplesarenolongertobehad,driedones areused.Itistheeveningmealofchildren.House-pie,incountryplaces,ismadeofapplesneither peelednorfreedfromtheircores,anditscrustisnotbrokenifawagonwheelgoesoverit." The making of a portion of the autumn's crop of apples into dried apples, apple-sauce, and applebutterforwinterwasprecededinmanycountryhomesbyanapple-paring.Thecheerfulkitchenofa farmhouse was set with an array of empty pans, tubs, and baskets; of sharp knives and heaped-up barrels of apples. A circle of laughing faces completed the scene, and the barrels of apples were quickly emptied by the many skilful hands. The apples intended for drying were strung on linen thread and hung on the kitchen and attic rafters. The following day the stout crane in the open fireplace was hung with brass kettles which were filled with the pared apples, sweet and sour in properproportions,thesouratthebottomsincetheyrequiredmoretimetocook.Ifquincescouldbe had, they were added to give flavor, and molasses, or boiled-down pungent "apple-molasses," was added for sweetening. As there was danger that the sauce would burn over the roaring logs, many housewives placed clean straw at the bottom of the kettle to keep the apples from the fiercest heat. Dayswerespentinpreparingthewinter'sstockofapple-sauce,butwhendoneandplacedinbarrelsin thecellar,itwasalwaysreadyforuse,andwhenslightlyfrozenwasakeenrelish.Apple-butterwas madeoftheparedapplesboileddownwithcider. Wheatdidnotatfirstripenwell,sowhitebreadwasforatimerarelyeaten.Ryegrewbetter,sobread madeof"rye-an'-injun,"whichwashalfrye-meal,halfcorn-meal,wasusedinstead.Bake-shopswere so many in number in all the towns that it is evident that housewives in towns and villages did not makebreadineveryhomeasto-day,butboughtitatthebaker's. At the time when America was settled, no European peoples drank water as we do to-day, for a constant beverage. The English drank ale, the Dutch beer, the French and Spanish light wines, for every-dayuse.Henceitseemedtothecolonistsagreattrialandevenaverydangerousexperimentto drink water in the New World. They were forced to do it, however, in many cases; and to their surprisefoundthatitagreedwiththemverywell,andthattheirhealthimproved.GovernorWinthrop of Massachusetts, who was a most sensible and thoughtful man, soon had water used as a constant drinkbyallinhishousehold. As cows increased in number and were cared for, milk of course was added to the every-day fare. Rev.Mr.Higginsonwrotein1630thatmilkcostinSalembutapennyaquart;whileanotherminister, John Cotton, said that milk and ministers were the only things cheap in New England. At that time milkcostbutapennyandaquarteraquartinoldEngland. Milk became a very important part of the food of families in the eighteenth century. In 1728 a discussiontookplaceintheBostonnewspapersastotheexpenseofkeepingafamily"ofmiddling figure." These writers all named only bread and milk for breakfast and supper. Ten years later a minister, calculating the expenses of his family, set down bread and milk for both breakfast and supper.Milkandhastypudding,milkandstewedpumpkin,milkandbakedapples,milkandberries, werevariations.Inwinter,whenmilkwasscarce,sweetenedciderdilutedwithwaterwasusedinstead. Sometimesbreadwassoakedwiththismixture.Itissaidthatchildrenwereusuallyveryfondofit. AscomparativelyfewNewEnglandfamiliesintheseventeenthcenturyownedchurns,Icannotthink that many made butter; of course families of wealth ate it, but it was not common as to-day. In the inventories of the property of the early settlers of Maine there is but one churn named. Butter was worthfromthreepencetosixpenceapound.Ascattleincreasedthedutiesofthedairygrew,andsoon were never-ceasing and ever-tiring. The care of cream and making of butter was in the eighteenth centurythedutyofeverygoodwifeanddameinthecountry,andusuallyinthetown. Thoughtheshapeandeaseofactionofchurnsvaried,stillbutter-makingitselfvariedlittlefromthe sameworkto-day.Severalold-timechurnsareshown,therevolvingonebeingthemostunusual. Cheese was plentiful and good in all the Northern colonies. It was also an unending care from the timethemilkwassetoverthefiretowarmandthentocurdle;throughthebreakingofthecurdsin thecheese-basket;throughshapingintocheesesandpressinginthecheese-press,placingthemonthe cheese-ladders, and constantly turning and rubbing them. An old cheese-press, cheese-ladder, and cheese-basketfromDeerfieldMemorialHallareshownintheillustration. In all households, even in those of great wealth and many servants, assistance was given in all housewifery by the daughters of the household. In the South it was chiefly by superintendence and teachingthroughactualexpositionthenegroslaves;intheNorthitwasbythecarefulperformanceof thework. The manuscript cooking receipt-book of many an ancient dame shows the great care they took in familycooking.Englishmethodsofcookingatthetimeofthesettlementofthiscountrywerevery complicatedandverylaborious. Itwasadayofhashes,ragouts,soups,hotch-pots,etc.Therewerenogreatjointsserveduntilthetime of Charles the First. In almost every sixteenth-century receipt for cooking meat, appear some such directionsasthese:"Y-mynceit,smytethemongobbets,hewthemongobbets,chopongobbets,hew small,dycethem,skernthemtodyce,kerfittodyce,grindalltodust,smyteonpeces,parcel-hem; hewsmallonmorselyen,hackthemsmall,cutthemonculpons."Greatamountsofspiceswereused, even perfumes; and as there was no preservation of meat by ice, perhaps the spices and perfumes werenecessary. Ofcoursethecolonistswereforcedtoadoptsimplerwaysofcooking,butastownsandcommerce increasedthereweremanykitchendutieswhichmademuchtediouswork.Manypickles,spicedfruits, preserves,candiedfruitsandflowers,andmarmaladesweremade. Preservingwasaverydifferentartfromcanningfruitto-day.Therewerenohermeticallysealedjars, nochemicalmethods,noquickworkaboutit.Vastjarswerefilledwithpreservessorichthatthere wasnoneedofkeepingtheairfromthem;theycouldbeopened,thatis,thepapercovertakenoff, andusedasdesired;therewasnofearoffermentation,souring,ormoulding. The housewives pickled samphire, fennel, purple cabbage, nasturtium-buds, green walnuts, lemons, radish-pods,barberries,elder-buds,parsley,mushrooms,asparagus,andmanykindsoffishandfruit. They candied fruits and nuts, made many marmalades and quiddonies, and a vast number of fruit wines and cordials. Even their cakes, pies, and puddings were most complicated, and humble householdswerelavishinthevariouskindstheymanufacturedandate. Theycollaredandpottedmanykindsoffishandgame,andtheysaltedandsoused.Saltedmeatwas eaten,andverylittlefreshmeat;fortherewerenomeansofkeepingmeatafteritwaskilled.Every well-to-dofamilyhada"powdering-tub,"inwhichmeatwas"powdered,"thatis,saltedandpickled. Manyfamilieshadasmoke-house,inwhichbeef,ham,andbaconweresmoked. Perhaps the busiest month of the year was November,—called "killing time." When the chosen day arrived,oxen,cows,andswinewhichhadbeenfattenedforthewinter'sstockwereslaughteredearly in the morning, that the meat might be hard and cold before being put in the pickle. Sausages, rolliches,andhead-cheeseweremade,lardtriedout,andtallowsaved. Acuriousandquaintdomesticimplementorutensilfoundhangingonthewallsofsomekitchenswas whatwasknownasasausage-gun.Onehereisshownwiththepistondetached,andalsoreadyforuse. The sausage-meat was forced out through the nozzle into the sausage-cases. A simpler form of sausage-stufferhasalsobeenseen,muchlikeatube-and-pistongarden-syringe;thoughImustadda suspicionwhichhasalwayslingeredinmymindthatthelatterutensilwasreallyasyringe-gun,such asoncewasusedtodisablehumming-birdsbysquirtingwateruponthem. Sausage-meatwasthuspreparedinNewYorkfarmhouses.Themeatwascutcoarselyintohalf-inch pieces and thrown into wooden boxes about three feet long and ten inches deep. Then its first choppingwasbymenusingspadeswhichhadbeengroundtoasharpedge. There were many families that found all their supply of sweetening in maple sugar and honey; but housewivesofdignityandelegancedesiredtohavesomesupplyofsugar,certainlytooffervisitors fortheirdishoftea.Thissugarwasalwaysloaf-sugar,andtrulyloaf-sugar;foritwaspurchasedever ingreatloavesorconeswhichaveragedinweightaboutninetotenpoundsapiece.Oneconewould last thrifty folk for a year. This pure clear sugar-cone always came wrapped in a deep blue-purple paper, of such unusual and beautiful tint and so color-laden that in country homes it was carefully savedandsoaked,tosupplyadyeforasmallamountofthefinestwool,whichwasusedwhenspun and dyed for some specially choice purpose. The cutting of this cone of sugar into lumps of equal sizeandregularshapewasdistinctlytheworkofthemistressanddaughtersofthehouse.Itwastoo exactandtoodaintyapieceofworktobeintrustedtoclumsyorwastefulservants.Varioussimply shapedsugar-shearsorsugar-cutterswereused.Anordinaryformisshownintheillustration.Iwell recall the only family in which I ever saw this solemn function of sugar-cutting take place—it was aboutthirtyyearsago.AnoldBostonEastIndiamerchant,oneofthelasttoclingtoaresidencein whatisknownnowasthe"BurntDistrict,"alwaysdesired(andhisdesirewaslaw)tousetheseloaves ofsugarinhishousehold.Idon'tknowwherehegotthemsolongaftereveryoneelsehadapparently ceasedbuyingthem—hemayhavespeciallyimportedthem;atanyratehehadthem,andtotheendof herlifeitwasthemorningdutyofhiswife"tocutthesugar."Icanseemyoldcousinstillinwhatshe termed her breakfast room, dressed very handsomely, standing before a bare mahogany table on whichamaidplacedtheconsiderablearrayofasilversalverwithoutlegs,whichwassetonafolded cloth and held the sugar-loaf and the sugar-cutter; and another salver with legs that bore various bowls and one beautiful silver sugar-box which was kept filled high for her husband's toddy. It seemed an interminably tedious work to me and a senseless one, as I chafingly waited for the delightfulmorningdriveindelightfulBoston.ItwasinthishouseholdthatIencounteredthesweetest thingofmywholelife;Ihavewrittenelsewhereitspraisesinfull;abarrel,asmallone,tobesure, butstillawholeteak-woodbarrelfulloflongstringsofglisteningrock-candy.Ihadmyfillofitat will, though it was not kept as a sweetmeat, but was a kitchen store having a special use in the manufactureofrichbrandysaucesforplumpuddings,andofakindofmarchepaneornamentation fordesserts. All the spices used in the household were also ground at home, in spice-mortars and spice-mills. These were of various sizes, including the pepper-mills, which were set on the table at meal-times, andthetinyornamentalgraterswhichwerecarriedinthepocket. The entire food of a household was the possible production of a farm. In a paper published in the AmericanMuseumin1787anoldfarmersays:— "Atthistimemyfarmgavemeandmywholefamilyagoodlivingontheproduceofit,andleftme oneyearwithanotheronehundredandfiftysilverdollars,forIneverspentmorethantendollarsa year which was for salt, nails, and the like. Nothing to eat, drink or wear was bought, as my farm providedall." Thefarmfoodwasnotvaried,itistrue,asto-day;forarticlesofluxurycamebyimportation.The productsoftropicalcountries,suchassugar,molasses,tea,coffee,spices,foundpoorsubstitutesin home food-products. Dried pumpkin was a poor sweetening instead of molasses; maple sugar and honey were not esteemed as was sugar; tea was ill-replaced by raspberry leaves, loosestrife, hardhack,goldenrod,dittany,blackberryleaves,yeopon,sage,andascoreofotherherbs;coffeewas betterthanparchedryeandchestnuts;spicescouldnotbecompensatedfororremotelyimitatedby anysubstitutes. So though there was ample quantity of food, the quality, save in the town, was not such as English housewiveshadbeenaccustomedto;thereweremanydeprivationsintheirkitchenswhichtriedthem sorely.Thebettercookstheywere,themoretryingwerethelimitations.Everywomanwithalovefor herfellow-womanmustfeelathrillofkeensympathyforthegoodwifeofNewport,NewHampshire, who had to make her Thanksgiving mince-pies with a filling of bear's meat and dried pumpkins, sweetenedwithmaplesugar,andhercrustofcorn-meal.Herhusbandloyallyrecordedthattheywere thebestmince-piesheeverate. Asyearspassedonandgreatwealthcametoindividuals,thetablesoftheopulent,especiallyinthe Middlecolonies,rivalledtheluxuryofEnglishandFrenchhousesofwealth.Itissurprisingtoreadin Dr.Cutler'sdiarythatwhenhedinedwithColonelDuerinNewYorkin1787,therewerefifteenkinds ofwineservedbesidescider,beer,andporter. JohnAdamsprobablylivedaswellasanyNewEnglanderofsimilarpositionandmeans.ASunday dinner at his house was thus described by a visitor: the first course was a pudding of Indian meal, molasses,andbutter;thencameacourseofvealandbacon,neckofmutton,andvegetables.Whenthe NewEnglanderwenttoPhiladelphia,hiseyesopenedwideattheluxuryandextravaganceoffare.He hasgiveninhisdiarysomeaccountsofthelavishnessofthePhiladelphialarder.Suchentriesasthese arefound:— (OfthehomeofMiersFisher,ayoungQuakerlawyer.)"ThisplainFriend,withhisplainbutpretty wifewithherTheesandThous,hadprovidedusacostlyentertainment;ducks,hams,chickens,beef, pig,tarts,creams,custards,jellies,fools,trifles,floatingislands,beer,porter,punch,wineandalong, etc." (AtthehomeofChiefJusticeChew.)"Aboutfouro'clockwewerecalledtodinner.Turtleandevery otherthing,flummery,jellies,sweetmeatsoftwentysorts,trifles,whippedsillabubs,floatingislands, fools,etc.,withadessertoffruits,raisins,almonds,pears,peaches." "A most sinful feast again! everything which could delight the eye or allure the taste; curds and creams, jellies, sweetmeats of various sorts, twenty kinds of tarts, fools, trifles, floating islands, whippedsillabubs,etc.Parmesancheese,punch,wine,porter,beer." BywhichlistsmayplainlybeseenthatoursecondPresidenthadsomewhatofasweettooth. TheDutchweregreatbeer-drinkersandquicklyestablishedbreweriesatAlbanyandNewYork.But beforethecenturyhadendedNewEnglandershadabandonedtheconstantdrinkingofaleandbeer for cider. Cider was very cheap; but a few shillings a barrel. It was supplied in large amounts to students at college, and even very little children drank it. President John Adams was an early and earnestwisherfortemperancereform;buttotheendofhislifehedrankalargetankardofhardcider everymorningwhenhefirstgotup.Itwasfreeineveryfarmhousetoalltravellersandtramps. Acider-millwasusuallybuiltonahillsidesothebuildingcouldbeonestoryhighinfrontandtwoin the back. Thus carts could easily unload the apples on the upper level and take away the barrels of cideronthelower.Standingbelowonthelowerflooryoucouldseetwouprightwoodencylinders, setalittlewayapart,withknobs,ornutsastheywerecalled,ononecylinderwhichfittedlooselyinto holesontheother.Thecylindersworkedinoppositedirectionsanddrewinandcrushedtheapples poured down between them. The nuts and holes frequently clogged with the pomace. Then the mill wasstoppedandaboyscrapedoutwithastickorhookthecrushedapples.Ahorsewalkinginasmall circlemovedaleverwhichturnedthemotorwheel.Itwasslowwork;ittookthreehourstogrinda cart-loadofapples;butthemachinerywasefficientandsimple.Thepomacefellintoalargeshallow vatortank,andifitcouldlieinthevatovernightitwasabenefit.Thenthepomacewasputinapress. Thiswassimpleinconstruction.Atthebottomwasaplatformgroovedinchannels;asheafofclean strawwasspreadontheplatform,andwithwoodenshovelsthepomacewasspreadthickoverit.Then alayerofstrawwaslaidatrightangleswiththefirst,andmorepomace,andsoontilltheformwas aboutthreefeethigh;thetopboardwasputonasacover;thescrewturnedandblockspresseddown, usuallywithalongwoodenhand-lever,veryslowlyatfirst,thenharder,untilthemasswassolidand everydropofjuicehadtrickledintothechannelsoftheplatformandthencetothepanbelow.Within thelasttwoorthreeyearsIhaveseenthosecider-millsatworkinthecountrybackofoldPlymouth andinNarragansett,sendingafartheirsourlyfruityodors.Andthoughappleorchardsarerunning out, and few new trees are planted, and the apple crop in those districts is growing smaller and smaller,yetisthesweetciderofcountrycider-millsasfreeandplentifulagifttoanypasser-byasthe waterfromthewellortheairwebreathe.Perrywasmadefrompears,asciderisfromapples,and peachy from peaches. Metheglin and mead, drinks of the old Druids in England, were made from honey, yeast, and water, and were popular everywhere. In Virginia whole plantations of the honeylocustfurnishedlocustbeansformakingmetheglin.Frompersimmons,elderberries,juniperberries, pumpkins, corn-stalks, hickory nuts, sassafras bark, birch bark, and many other leaves, roots, and barks,variouslightdrinksweremade.Anoldsongboasted:— "Oh,wecanmakeliquortosweetenourlips Ofpumpkins,ofparsnips,ofwalnut-treechips." Many other stronger and more intoxicating liquors were made in large quantities, among them enormousamountsofrum,whichwascalledoften"kill-devil."Themakingofrumaidedandalmost supported the slave-trade in this country. The poor negroes were bought on the coast of Africa by NewEnglandsea-captainsandmerchantsandpaidforwithbarrelsofNewEnglandrum.Theseslaves werethencarriedonslave-shipstotheWestIndies,andsoldatalargeprofittoplantersandslavedealersforacargoofmolasses.ThiswasbroughttoNewEngland,distilledintorum,andsentoffto Africa.Thusthecircleofmolasses,rum,andslaveswascompleted.Manyslaveswerealsolandedin New England, but there was no crop there that needed negroes to raise it. So slavery never was as common in New England as in the South, where the tropical tobacco and rice fields needed negro labor. But New England's share in promoting negro slavery in America was just as great as was Virginia's. Besides all the rum that was sent to Africa, much was drunk by Americans at home. At weddings, funerals,christenings,atallpublicmeetingsandprivatefeasts,NewEnglandrumwaseverpresent.In nothing is more contrast shown between our present day and colonial times than in the habits of liquor-drinking.Wecannotbegratefulenoughforthetemperancereform,whichbeganattheearly partofthiscentury,andwassosadlyneeded. Formanyyearsthecolonistshadnotea,chocolate,orcoffeetodrink;forthosewerenotinusein England when America was settled. In 1690 two dealers were licensed to sell tea "in publique" in Boston.GreenandboheateasweresoldattheBostonapothecaries'in1712.Formanyyearsteawas alsosoldlikemedicineinEnglandattheapothecaries'andnotatthegrocers'. Manyqueermistakesweremadethroughignoranceofitsproperuse.Manycolonistsputtheteainto water,boileditforatime,threwtheliquidaway,andatethetea-leaves.InSalemtheydidnotfindthe leavesveryattractive,sotheyputbutterandsaltonthem. In 1670 a Boston woman was licensed to sell coffee and chocolate, and soon coffee-houses were established there. Some did not know how to cook coffee any more than tea, but boiled the whole coffee-beansinwater,atethem,anddranktheliquid;andnaturallythiswasnotverygoodeithertoeat ordrink. AtthetimeoftheStampAct,whenpatrioticAmericansthrewtheteaintoBostonharbor,Americans werejustasgreattea-drinkersastheEnglish.Nowitisnotso.TheEnglishdrinkmuchmoreteathan we do; and the habit of coffee-drinking, first acquired in the Revolution, has descended from generationtogeneration,andwenowdrinkmorecoffeethantea.Thisisoneofthedifferencesinour dailylifecausedbytheRevolution. Manyhome-grownsubstituteswereusedinRevolutionarytimesfortea:ribwortwasafavoriteone; strawberry and currant leaves, sage, thorough-wort, and "Liberty Tea," made from the four-leaved loosestrife."Hyperiontea"wasraspberryleaves,andwassaidbygoodpatriotstobe"verydelicate andmostexcellent." CHAPTERVIII FLAXCULTUREANDSPINNING In recounting the various influences which assisted the Americans to success in the War for Independence, such as the courage and integrity of the American generals, the generosity of the American people, the skill of Americans in marksmanship, their powers of endurance, their acclimatization, their confidence and faith, etc., we must never forget to add their independence in theirownhomesofanyoutsidehelptogivethemeverynecessityoflife.Nofarmerorhiswifeneed fear any king when on every home farm was found food, drink, medicine, fuel, lighting, clothing, shelter.Home-madewasanadjectivethatmightbeappliedtonearlyeveryarticleinthehouse.Such wouldnotbethecaseundersimilarstressto-day.Inthematterofclothingalonewecouldnotnowbe independent.Fewfarmersraiseflaxtomakelinen;fewwomencanspineitherwoolorflax,orweave cloth;manycannotknit.Inearlydayseveryfarmerandhissonsraisedwoolandflax;hiswife and daughters spun them into thread and yarn, knit these into stockings and mittens, or wove them into linenandcloth,andthenmadethemintoclothing.Eveninlargecitiesnearlyallwomenspunyarn andthread,allcouldknit,andmanyhadhand-loomstoweaveclothathome.Thesehomeoccupations intheproductionofclothinghavebeenveryhappilytermedthe"homespunindustries." Nearlyeveryonehasseenoneoftheprettyfoot-wheelsforspinningflaxthreadforlinen,whichmay yetbefoundintheatticsofmanyofourfarmhouses,aswellasinsomeofourparlors,where,witha bunchofflaxwoundaroundandtiedtothespindle,theyhavewithinafewyearsbeenplacedasarelic oftheoldentimes. Ifoneoftheseflax-wheelscouldspeakto-day,itwouldsingataleofthepatientindustry,ofthetiring workofourgrandmothers,evenwhentheywerelittlechildren,whichoughtnevertobeforgotten. As soon as the colonists had cleared their farms from stones and stumps, they planted a field, or "patch"offlax,andusuallyoneofhemp.Theseedwassownbroadcastlikegrass-seedinMay.Flaxis agracefulplantwithprettydroopingblueflowers;hemphasbutasad-coloredblossom. ThomasTussersaysinhisBookofHousewifery:— "Goodflaxandgoodhemptohaveofherown, InMayagoodhuswifewillseeitbesown. Andafterwardstrimittoserveinaneed; Thefimbletospin,thecardforherseed." Whentheflaxplantswerethreeorfourincheshigh,theywereweededbyyoungwomenorchildren who had to work barefoot, as the stalks were very tender. If the land had a growth of thistles, the weeders could wear three or four pairs of woollen stockings. The children had to step facing the wind,soifanyplantsweretroddendownthewindwouldhelptoblowthembackintoplace.Whenthe flaxwasripe,inthelastofJuneorinJuly,itwaspulledupbytherootsandlaidoutcarefullytodry foradayortwo,andturnedseveraltimesinthesun;thisworkwascalledpullingandspreading,and wasusuallydonebymenandboys.Itthenwas"rippled."Acoarsewoodenorheavyironwirecomb withgreatteeth,namedaripple-comb,wasfastenedonaplank;thestalksofflaxweredrawnthrough it with a quick stroke to break off the seed-bolles or "bobs," which fell on a sheet spread to catch them;theseweresavedforseedforthenextcrop,orforsale. Ripplingwasdoneinthefield.Thestalkswerethentiedinbundlescalledbeatsorbatesandstacked. Theyweretiedonlyattheseedend,andthebaseofthestalkswasspreadoutformingatent-shaped stack,calledastook.Whendry,thestalkswerewateredtorottheleavesandsofterfibres.Hempwas wateredwithoutrippling.Thiswasdonepreferablyinrunningwater,astherottingflaxpoisonedfish. Stakesweresetinthewaterintheformofasquare,calledasteep-pool,andthebatesofflaxorhemp werepiledinsolidly,eachalternatelayeratrightangleswiththeonebeneathit.Acoverofboards andheavystoneswaspiledontop.Infourorfivedaysthebatesweretakenupandtherottedleaves removed.Aslowerprocesswastermeddew-retting;anoldauthorcallsit"avileandnaughtyway," butitwasthewaychieflyemployedinAmerica. Whentheflaxwascleaned,itwasoncemoredriedandtiedinbundles.Thencameworkforstrong men, to break it on the ponderous flax-brake, to separate the fibres and get out from the centre the hardwoody"hexe"or"bun."Hempwasalsobroken. A flax-brake is an implement which is almost impossible to describe. It was a heavy log of wood aboutfivefeetlong,eitherlargeenoughsotheflattopwasaboutthreefeetfromtheground,orset onheavylogstobringittothatheight.Aportionofthetopwascutdownleavingablockateachend, andseverallongslatsweresetinlengthwiseandheldfirmateachendwithedgesup,bybeingsetinto theendblocks.Thenasimilarsetofslats,putinaheavyframe,wasmadewiththeslatssetfarenough aparttogointothespacesofthelowerslats.Theflaxwaslaidonthelowerslats,theframeandupper slats placed on it, and then pounded down with a heavy wooden mallet weighing many pounds. Sometimestheupperframeofslats,orknivesastheywerecalled,werehingedtothebigunderlogat oneend,andheavilyweightedattheother,andthustheblowwasgivenbythefalloftheweight,not by the force of the farmer's muscle. The tenacity of the flax can be seen when it would stand this violentbeating;andthecruelblowcanbeimagined,whichthefarmer'sfingerssometimesgotwhen he carelessly thrust his hand with the flax too far under the descending jaw—a shark's maw was equallygentle. Flaxwasusuallybrokentwice,oncewithan"open-toothbrake,"oncewitha"closeorstraitbrake," thatis,onewherethelong,sharp-edgestripsofwoodweresetcloselytogether.Thenitwasscutched or swingled with a swingling block and knife, to take out any small particles of bark that might adhere.Amancouldswinglefortypoundsofflaxaday,butitwashardwork.Allthishadtobedone inclearsunnyweatherwhentheflaxwasasdryastinder. The clean fibres were then made into bundles called strikes. The strikes were swingled again, and from the refuse called swingle-tree hurds, coarse bagging could be spun and woven. After being thoroughlycleanedtherollsorstrikesweresometimesbeetled,thatis,poundedinawoodentrough withagreatpestle-shapedbeetleoverandoveragainuntilsoft. Then came the hackling or hetcheling, and the fineness of the flax depended upon the number of hacklings,thefinenessofthevarioushacklesorhetchelsorcombs,andthedexterityoftheoperator. In the hands of a poor hackler the best of flax would be converted into tow. The flax was slightly wetted, taken hold of at one end of the bunch, and drawn through the hackle-teeth towards the hetcheller, and thus fibres were pulled and laid into continuous threads, while the short fibres were combedout.Itwasdusty,dirtywork.Thethreefoldprocesshadtobealldoneatonce;thefibreshad tobedividedtotheirfinefilaments,thelongthreadslaidinuntangledline,andthetowseparatedand removed.Afterthefirsthackle,calledaruffler,sixotherfinerhackleswereoftenused.Itwasoneof thesurprisesofflaxpreparationtoseehowlittlegoodfibrewouldbeleftafterallthishackling,even fromalargemassofrawmaterial,butitwasequallysurprisingtoseehowmuchlinenthreadcould bemadefromthissmallamountoffineflax.Thefibresweresortedaccordingtofineness;thiswas calledspreadinganddrawing.Sothenafterovertwentydexterousmanipulationstheflaxwasready forthewheel,forspinning,—themostdexterousprocessofall,—andwaswrappedroundthespindle. Seated at the small flax-wheel, the spinner placed her foot on the treadle, and spun the fibre into a long,eventhread.Hungonthewheelwasasmallbone,wood,orearthenwarecup,oragourd-shell, filledwithwater,inwhichthespinnermoistenedherfingersassheheldthetwistingflax,whichbythe movement of the wheel was wound on bobbins. When all were filled, the thread was wound off in knots and skeins on a reel. A machine called a clock-reel counted the exact number of strands in a knot, usually forty, and ticked when the requisite number had been wound. Then the spinner would stopandtietheknot.Aquaintoldballadhastherefrain:— "AndhekissedMistressPollywhentheclock-reelticked." Thatis,theloverseizedtherareandpropitiousmomentsofMistressPolly'scomparativeleisureto kissher. Usuallytheknotsorlayswereoffortythreads,andtwentylaysmadeaskeinorslipping.Thenumber varied, however, with locality. To spin two skeins of linen thread was a good day's work; for it a spinnerwaspaideightcentsadayand"herkeep." These skeins of thread had to be bleached. They were laid in warm water for four days, the water beingfrequentlychanged,andtheskeinsconstantlywrungout.Thentheywerewashedinthebrook tillthewatercamefromthemclearandpure.Thentheywere"bucked,"thatis,bleachedwithashes and hot water, in a bucking-tub, over and over again, then laid in clear water for a week, and afterwardscameagrandseething,rinsing,beating,washing,drying,andwindingonbobbinsforthe loom.Sometimesthebleachingwasdonewithslakedlimeorwithbuttermilk. These were not the only bleaching operations the flax went through; others will be detailed in the chapteronhand-weaving. Onelucrativeproductofflaxshouldbementioned—flaxseed.Flaxwaspulledforspinningwhenthe baseofthestalkbegantoturnyellow,whichwasusuallythefirstofJuly.Anoldsayingwas,"June bringstheflax."Forseeditstoodtillitwasallyellow.Theflaxseedwasusedformakingoil.Usually theupperchambersofcountrystoreswerefilledafootdeepwithflaxseedintheautumn,waitingfor goodsleighingtoconveytheseedtotown. InNewHampshireinearlydays,awheelwrightwasnotamanwhomadewagon-wheels(assuchhe wouldhavehadscantoccupation),butonewhomadespinning-wheels.Oftenhecarriedthemaround the country on horseback selling them, thus adding another to the many interesting itineracies of colonialdays.Spinning-wheelswouldseemclumsyforhorse-carriage,buttheywerenotsetup,and severalcouldbecompactlycarriedwhentakenapart;farmoreticklisharticleswentonpack-horses, —large barrels, glazed window-sashes, etc. Nor would it seem very difficult for a man to carry spinning-wheels on horseback, when frequently a woman would jump on horseback in the early morning, and with a baby on one arm and a flax-wheel tied behind, would ride several miles to a neighbor's to spend the day spinning in cheerful companionship. A century ago one of these wheelwrightssoldafinespinning-wheelforadollar,aclock-reelfortwodollars,andawool-wheel fortwodollars. Few persons are now living who have ever seen carried on in a country home in America any of theseold-timeprocesseswhichhavebeenrecounted.Asanoldantiquarywrote:— "Few have ever seen a woman hatchel flax or card tow, or heard the buzzing of the foot-wheel, or seenbunchesofflaxenyarnhanginginthekitchen,orlinenclothwhiteningonthegrass.Theflaxdresser with the shives, fibres, and dirt of flax covering his garments, and his face begrimed with flax-dirt has disappeared; the noise of his brake and swingling knife has ended, and the boys no longermakebonfiresofhisswinglingtow.Thesoundofthespinning-wheel,thesongofthespinster, andthesnappingoftheclock-reelallhaveceased;thewarpingbarsandquillwheelaregone,andthe thwack of the loom is heard only in the factory. The spinning woman of King Lemuel cannot be found." FrequentreferencesaremadetoflaxintheBible,notablyintheBookofProverbs;andthemethods of growing and preparing flax by the ancient Egyptians were precisely the same as those of the Americancolonistahundredyearsago,oftheFinn,Lapp,Norwegian,andBelgianflax-growerstoday.Thisancientskillwasnotconfinedtoflax-working.Rosselini,theeminenthierologist,saysthat everymoderncraftsmanmayseeonEgyptianmonumentsfourthousandyearsold,representationsof theprocessofhiscraftjustasitiscarriedonto-day.ThepaintingsintheGrottoofElKab,shownin Hamilton's Ægyptica, show the pulling, stocking, tying, and rippling of flax going on just as it is done in Egypt now. The four-tooth ripple of the Egyptian is improved upon, but it is the same implement.Plinygivesanaccountofthemodeofpreparingflax:pluckingitupbytheroots,tyingit inbundles,drying,watering,beating,andhacklingit,or,ashesays,"combingitwithironhooks." Until the Christian era linen was almost the only kind of clothing used in Egypt, and the teeming banks of the Nile furnished flax in abundance. The quality of the linen can be seen in the bands preservedonmummies.Itwasnot,however,spunonawheel,butonahand-distaff,calledsometimes arock,onwhichthewomeninIndiastillspintheveryfinethreadwhichisemployedinmakingIndia muslins.Thedistaffwasusedinourcolonies;itwasorderedthatchildrenandotherstendingsheepor cattle in the fields should also "be set to some other employment withal, such as spinning upon the rock,knitting,weavingtape,etc."Iheardrecentlyadistinguishedhistorianreferinalecturetothis colonial statute, and he spoke of the children sitting upon a rock while knitting or spinning, etc., evidentlyknowingnaughtofthepropersignificationoftheword. Thehomespunindustrieshaveeverbeenheldtohaveabeneficentandpeace-bringinginfluenceon women.Wordsworthvoicedthissentimentwhenhewrotehisseriesofsonnetsbeginning:— "Grief!thouhastlostanever-readyfriend Nowthatthecottagespinning-wheelismute." Chaucermorecynicallysays,throughtheWifeofBath:— "Deceite,weepynge,spynnyngeGodhathgive Towymmenkyndelythattheymaylive." Spinningdoubtlesswasanever-readyrefugeinthemonotonouslifeoftheearlycolonist.Shesoon had plenty of material to work with. Everywhere, even in the earliest days, the culture of flax was encouraged. By 1640 the Court of Massachusetts passed two orders directing the growth of flax, ascertainingwhatcolonistswereskilfulinbreaking,spinning,weaving,orderingthatboysandgirls betaughttospin,andofferingabountyforlinengrown,spun,andwoveninthecolony.Connecticut passed similar measures. Soon spinning-classes were formed, and every family ordered to spin so many pounds of flax a year, or to pay a fine. The industry received a fresh impulse through the immigrationofaboutonehundredIrishfamiliesfromLondonderry.TheysettledinNewHampshire on the Merrimac about 1719, and spun and wove with far more skill than prevailed among those English settlers who had already become Americans. They established a manufactory according to Irishmethods,andattemptsatasimilarestablishmentweremadeinBoston. There was much public excitement over spinning, and prizes were offered for quantity and quality. Women,richaswellaspoor,appearedonBostonCommonwiththeirwheels,thusmakingspinninga popularholidayrecreation.Abrickbuildingwaserectedasaspinning-schoolcosting£15,000,anda taxwasplacedoncarriagesandcoachesin1757tosupportit.Atthefourthanniversaryin1749ofthe "BostonSocietyforpromotingIndustryandFrugality,"threehundred"youngspinsters"spunontheir wheelsonBostonCommon.Andaprettysightitmusthavebeen:thefairyounggirlsinthequaintand prettydressofthetimes,showntousinHogarth'sprints,spinningonthegreengrassunderthegreat trees.In1754,onalikeoccasion,aministerpreachedtothe"spinsters,"andacollectionof£453was taken up. This was in currency of depreciated value. At the same time premiums were offered in Pennsylvaniaforweavinglinenandspinningthread.BenjaminFranklinwroteinhisPoor Richard's Almanac:— "Manyestatesarespentinthegetting, Sincewomenforteaforsookspinningandknitting." ButtheGermancolonistslongbeforethishadbeenfamousflax-raisers.APennsylvaniapoetin1692 descantedontheflax-workersofGermantown:— "WhereliveHighGermanpeopleandLowDutch Whosetradeinweavinglinenclothismuch, Theregrowstheflaxasalsoyoumayknow, Thatfromthesametheydodividethetow." FatherPastorius,theirleader,forevercommemoratedhisinterestinhiscolonyandinthetextilearts byhischoiceforadeviceforaseal.WhittierthusdescribesitinhisPennsylvaniaPilgrim:— "Stillonthetown-sealhisdeviceisfound, Grapes,flax,andthread-spoolonathree-foilground WithVinum,Linum,etTextrinumwound." Virginia was earlier even in awakening interest in manufacturing flax than Massachusetts, for wild flaxgrewthereinprofusion,readyforgathering.In1646twohouseswereorderedtobeerectedat Jamestownasspinning-schools.Theseweretobewellbuiltandwellheated.Eachcountywastosend to these schools two poor children, seven or eight years old, to be taught carding, spinning, and knitting.Eachchildwastobesuppliedbythecountyauthoritiesonadmissiontotheschoolwithsix barrelsofIndiancorn,apig,twohens,clothing,shoes,abed,rug,blanket,twocoverlets,awooden tray,andtwopewterdishesorcups.Thisplanwasnotwhollycarriedout.Prizesintobacco(which was the current money of Virginia in which everything was paid) were given, however, for every poundofflax,everyskeinofyarn,everyyardoflinenofVirginiaproduction,andsoonflax-wheels andspinnerswereplentiful. Intelligent attempts were made to start these industries in the South. Governor Lucas wrote to his daughter,Mrs.Pinckney,inCharleston,SouthCarolina,in1745:— "IsendbythisSlooptwoIrishservants,viz.:aWeaverandaSpinner.IaminformedMr.Cattlehath producedbothFlaxandHemp.Iprayyouwillpurchasesome,andorderaloomandspinning-wheel tobemadeforthem,andsetthemtowork.IshallorderFlaxsentfromPhiladelphiawithseed,that theymaynotbeidle.IprayyouwillalsopurchaseWoolandsettthemtomakingNegroesclothing whichmaybesufficientformyownPeople. "As I am afraid one Spinner can't keep a Loom at work, I pray you will order a Sensible Negroe woman or two to learn to spin, and wheels to be made for them; the man Servant will direct the CarpenterinmakingtheloomandthewomanwilldirecttheWheel." ThefollowingyearMadamPinckneywrotetoherfatherthatthewomanhadspunallthematerialthey could get, so was idle; that the loom had been made, but had no tackling; that she would make the harness for it, if two pounds of shoemaker's thread were sent her. The sensible negro woman and hundredsofotherslearnedwelltospin,andexcellentclothhasbeenalwayswoveninthelowcountry ofCarolina,aswellasintheupperdistricts,tillourowntime. IntherevoltoffeelingcausedbytheStampAct,therewasaconstantsocialpressuretoencouragethe manufactureandwearingofgoodsofAmericanmanufacture.Asoneevidenceofthismovementthe presidentandfirstgraduatingclassofRhodeIslandCollege—nowBrownUniversity—wereclothed infabricsmadeinNewEngland.FromMassachusettstoSouthCarolinathewomenofthecolonies bandedtogetherinpatrioticsocietiescalledDaughtersofLiberty,agreeingtowearonlygarmentsof homespun manufacture, and to drink no tea. In many New England towns they gathered together to spin,eachbringingherownwheel.Atonemeetingseventylinen-wheelswereemployed.InRowley, Massachusetts,themeetingoftheDaughtersisthusdescribed:— "Anumberofthirty-threerespectableladiesofthetownmetatsunrisewiththeirwheelstospendthe dayatthehouseoftheRev'dJedediahJewell,inthelaudabledesignofaspinningmatch.Atanhour before sunset, the ladies there appearing neatly dressed, principally in homespun, a polite and generous repast of American production was set for their entertainment. After which being present manyspectatorsofbothsexes,Mr.JewelldeliveredaprofitablediscoursefromRomansxii.2:"Not slothfulinbusiness,ferventinspirit,servingtheLord." Matters of church and patriotism were never far apart in New England; so whenever the spinners gatheredatNewLondon,Newbury,Ipswich,orBeverly,theyalwayshadanappropriatesermon.A favorite text was Exodus xxxv. 25: "And all the women that were wise-hearted did spin with their hands." When the Northboro women met, they presented the results of their day's work to their minister. There were forty-four women and they spun 2223 knots of linen and tow, and wove one linensheetandtwotowels. By Revolutionary times General Howe thought "Linen and Woollen Goods much wanted by the Rebels"; hence when he prepared to evacuate Boston he ordered all such goods carried away with him. But he little knew the domestic industrial resources of the Americans. Women were then most proficientinspinning.In1777MissEleanorFryofEastGreenwich,RhodeIsland,spunsevenskeins one knot linen yarn in one day, an extraordinary amount. This was enough to weave twelve linen handkerchiefs.Atthistimewhentherewereaboutfiveorsixskeinstoapoundofflax,thepayfor spinningwassixpenceaskein.TheAbbéRobinwonderedatthedeftnessofNewEnglandspinners. In 1789 an outcry was raised against the luxury said to be eating away the substance of the new country. The poor financial administration of the government seemed deranging everything; and again a social movement was instituted in New England to promote "Oeconomy and Household Industries." "The Rich and Great strive by example to convince the Populace of their error by Growing their own Flax and Wool, having some one in the Family to dress it, and all the Females spin, several weave and bleach the linen." The old spinning-matches were revived. Again the ministers preached to the faithful women "Oeconomists," who thus combined religion, patriotism, and industry. Truly it was, as a contemporary writer said, "a pleasing Sight: some spinning, some reeling,somecardingcotton,somecombingflax,"astheywerepreachedto. Within a few years attempts have been made in England and Ireland to encourage flax-growing, as before it is spun it gives employment to twenty different classes of laborers, many parts of which workcanbedonebyyoungandunskilledchildren.InCourtrai,wherehandspinningandweavingof flax still flourish, the average earnings of a family are three pounds a week. In Finland homespun linenstillismadeineveryhousehold.TheBritishSpinningandWeavingSchoolinNewBondStreet isanattempttorevivethevanishedindustryinEngland.Inourowncountryitispleasanttorecord thattheNationalAssociationofCottonManufacturersisplanningtostartonalargescaletheculture andmanufactureofflaxinourEasternstates;thisisnot,however,withanythoughtofrevivingeither thepreparation,spinning,orweavingofflaxbyold-timehandprocesses. CHAPTERIX WOOLCULTUREANDSPINNING WithaPostscriptonCotton Theartofspinningwasanhonorableoccupationforwomenasearlyastheninthcentury;anditwas souniversalthatitfurnishedalegaltitlebywhichanunmarriedwomanisknowntothisday.Spinster istheonlyoneofallhervariouswomanlytitlesthatsurvives;webster,shepster,litster,brewster,and baxterareobsolete.Theoccupationsarealsoobsoletesavethoseindicatedbyshepsterandbaxter— thatis,thecuttingoutofclothandbakingofbread;thesearetheonlydutiesamongthemallthatshe stillperforms. The wool industry dates back to prehistoric man. The patience, care, and skill involved in its manufacture have ever exercised a potent influence on civilization. It is, therefore, interesting and gratifyingtonotetheintelligenteagernessofourfirstcolonistsforwoolculture.Itwasquicklyand proudlynotedoftownsandofindividualsasaproofoftheirrapidandsubstantialprogressthatthey could carry on any of the steps of the cloth industry. Good Judge Sewall piously exulted when Brother Moody started a successful fulling-mill in Boston. Johnson in his Wonder-working Providencetellswithpridethatby1654NewEnglanders"haveafulling-millandcausedtheirlittle onestobeverydilligentinspinningcotton-woole,manyofthemhavingbeenclothiersinEngland." Thishaseverseemedtomeoneofthefortunateconditionsthattendedtothemarkedsuccessofthe Massachusetts Bay Colony, that so many had been "clothiers" or cloth-workers in England; or had comefromshiresinEnglandwherewoolwasraisedandclothmade,andhenceknewtheimportance oftheindustryaswellasitspracticalworkings. Asearlyas1643theauthorofNewEngland'sFirstFruitswrote:"Theyaremakinglinens,fustians, dimities,andlookimmediatelytowoollensfromtheirownsheep."Johnsonestimatedthenumberof sheep in the colony of Massachusetts, about 1644, as three thousand. Soon the great wheel was whirringineveryNewEnglandhouse.Theraisingofsheepwasencouragedineveryway.Theywere permittedtograzeonthecommons;itwasforbiddentosendthemfromthecolony;nosheepunder twoyearsoldcouldbekilledtosell;ifadogkilledasheep,thedog'sownermusthanghimandpay double the cost of the sheep. All persons who were not employed in other ways, as single women, girls, and boys, were required to spin. Each family must contain one spinner. These spinners were formed into divisions or "squadrons" of ten persons; each division had a director. There were no drones in this hive; neither the wealth nor high station of parents excused children from this work. Thus all were levelled to one kind of labor, and by this levelling all were also elevated to independence.Whentheopenexpressionofrevoltcame,thehomespunindustriesseemedafirmrock forthefoundationofliberty.Peoplejoinedinagreementstoeatnolambormutton,thatthussheep might be preserved, and to wear no imported woollen cloth. They gave prizes for spinning and weaving. GreatencouragementwasgiveninVirginiainearlydaystotheraisingandmanufactureofwool.The Assemblyestimatedthatfivechildrennotoverthirteenyearsofagecouldbytheirworkreadilyspin andweaveenoughtokeepthirtypersonsclothed.Sixpoundsoftobaccowaspaidtoanyonebringing to the county court-house where he resided a yard of homespun woollen cloth, made wholly in his family;twelvepoundsoftobaccowereofferedforrewardforadozenpairofwoollenhoseknittedat home. Slaves were taught to spin; and wool-wheels and wool-cards are found by the eighteenth centuryoneveryinventoryofplanters'housefurnishings. ThePennsylvaniasettlerswereearlyintheencouragementofwoolmanufacture.Thepresentindustry ofhosieryandknitgoodslongknownasGermantowngoodsbeganwiththeearliestsettlersofthat Pennsylvania town. Stocking-weavers were there certainly as early as 1723; and it is asserted there were knitting-machines. At any rate, one Mack, the son of the founder of the Dunkers, made "leg stockings" and gloves. Rev. Andrew Burnaby, who was in Germantown in 1759, told of a great manufacture of stockings at that date. In 1777 it was said that a hundred Germantown stockingweaverswereoutofemploymentthroughthewar.Stillitwasnottill1850thatpatentsforknittingmachinesweretakenoutthere. Among the manufactures of the province of Pennsylvania in 1698 were druggets, serges, and coverlets; and among the registered tradesmen were dyers, fullers, comb-makers, card-makers, weavers,andspinners.TheSwedishcolonyasearlyas1673hadthewivesanddaughters"employing themselvesinspinningwoolandflaxandmanyinweaving."ThefairsinstitutedbyWilliamPennfor theencouragementofdomesticmanufacturesandtradeingeneral,whichwerefosteredbyFranklin andcontinuedtill1775,brisklystimulatedwoolandflaxmanufacture. In1765andin1775rebelliousPhiladelphiansbandedtogetherwithpromisesnottoeatorsuffertobe eaten in their families any lamb or "meat of the mutton kind"; in this the Philadelphia butchers, patrioticandself-sacrificing,alljoined.Awool-factorywasbuiltandfittedupandanappealmadeto thewomentosavethestate.Inamonthfourhundredwool-spinnerswereatwork.Butthewarcutoff thesupplyofrawmaterial,andthemanufacturelanguished.In1790,afterthewar,fifteenhundredsets of irons for spinning-wheels were sold from one shop, and mechanics everywhere were making looms. NewYorkerswerenotbehindhandinindustry.LordCornburywrotehometoEngland,in1705,that he"hadseensergemadeuponLongIslandthatanymanmightwear;theymakeverygoodlinenfor commonuse;asforWoollenIthinktheyhavebroughtthattotoogreatperfection." In Cornbury's phrase, "too great perfection," may be found the key for all the extraordinary and apparently stupid prohibitions and restrictions placed by the mother-country on colonial wool manufacture.ThegrowthofthewoollenindustryinanycolonywasregardedatoncebyEnglandwith jealouseyes.WoolwasthepetindustryandprincipalstapleofGreatBritain;andwellitmightbe,for until the reign of Henry VIII. English garments from head to foot were wholly of wool, even the shoes.WoolwasalsoreceivedinEnglandascurrency.ThomasFullersaid,"Thewealthofournation isfoldedupinbroadcloth."Therefore,theCrown,aidedbythegovernorsoftheprovinces,soughtto maintain England's monopoly by regulating and reducing the culture of wool in America through prohibiting the exportation to England of any American wool or woollen materials. In 1699 all vesselssailingtoEnglandfromthecolonieswereprohibitedtakingonboardany"Wool,Woolfells, Shortlings, Moslings, Wool Flocks, Worsteds, Bays, Bay or Woollen Yarn, Cloath, Serge, Kersey, Says, Frizes, Druggets, Shalloons, etc."; and an arbitrary law was passed prohibiting the transportation of home-made woollens from one American province to another. These laws were neverfullyobservedandnevercheckedthecultureandmanufactureofwoolinthiscountry.Hence ourcoloniesweresparedthecruelfatebywhichEngland'ssamepolicyparalyzedandobliteratedina fewyearsthegloriouswoolindustryofIreland.Luckilyforus,itisfurtheracrosstheAtlanticOcean thanacrossSt.George'sChannel. The"all-woolgoodsayardwide,"whichwesoeasilypurchaseto-day,meanttothecolonialdameor daughtertheworkofmanyweeksandmonths,fromthetimewhenthefleeceswerefirstgiventoher defthands.Fleeceshadtobeopenedwithcare,andhaveallpitchedortarredlocks,dag-locks,brands, andfeltingscutout.Thesecuttingswerenotwasted,butwerespunintocoarseyarn.Thewhitelocks were carefully tossed and separated and tied into net bags with tallies to be dyed. Another homely saying,"dyedinthewool,"showedaprocessofmuchskill.Blue,inallshades,wasthefavoritecolor, and was dyed with indigo. So great was the demand for this dye-stuff that indigo-pedlers travelled overthecountrysellingit. Madder, cochineal, and logwood dyed beautiful reds. The bark of red oak or hickory made very prettyshadesofbrownandyellow.Variousflowersgrowingonthefarmcouldbeusedfordyes.The flower of the goldenrod, when pressed of its juice, mixed with indigo, and added to alum, made a beautiful green. The juice of the pokeberry boiled with alum made crimson dye, and a violet juice fromthepetalsoftheiris,or"flower-de-luce,"thatblossomedinJunemeadows,gaveadelicatelight purpletingetowhitewool. Thebarkofthesassafraswasusedfordyeingyellowororangecolor,andtheflowersandleavesof thebalsamalso.Fusticandcopperasgaveyellowdyes.Agoodblackwasobtainedbyboilingwoollen clothwithaquantityoftheleavesofthecommonfield-sorrel,thenboilingagainwithlogwoodand copperas. In the South there were scores of flowers and leaves that could be used for dyes. During the RevolutionaryWaroneenterprisingSouthCaroliniangotaguineaapoundforayellowdyehemade from the sweet-leaf or horse-laurel. The leaves and berries of gall-berry bush made a good black muchusedbyhattersandweavers.Therootofthebarberrygavewoolabeautifulyellow,asdidthe leaves of the devil's-bit. The petals of Jerusalem artichoke and St.-John's-wort dyed yellow. Yellow root is a significant name and reveals its use: oak, walnut, or maple bark dyed brown. Often the wovenclothwasdyed,notthewool. Thenextprocesswascarding;thewoolwasfirstgreasedwithrapeoilor"meltedswine'sgrease," which had to be thoroughly worked in; about three pounds of grease were put into ten pounds of wool.Wool-cardswererectangularpiecesofthinboard,withasimplehandleonthebackoratthe side;tothisboardwasfastenedasmallerrectangleofstrongleather,setthickwithslightlybentwire teeth, like a coarse brush. The carder took one card with her left hand, and resting it on her knee, drewatuftofwoolacrossitseveraltimes,untilasufficientquantityoffibrehadbeencaughtuponthe wire teeth. She then drew the second wool-card, which had to be warmed, across the first several times, until the fibres were brushed parallel by all these "tummings." Then by a deft and catchy motionthewoolwasrolledorcardedintosmallfleecyrollswhichwerethenreadyforspinning. Wool-combs were shaped like the letter T, with about thirty long steel teeth from ten to eighteen incheslongsetatrightangleswiththetopoftheT.Thewoolwascarefullyplacedononecomb,and with careful strokes the other comb laid the long staple smooth for hard-twisted spinning. It was tedious and slow work, and a more skilful operation than carding; and the combs had to be kept constantlyheated;butnomachine-combingeverequalledhand-combing.Therewasagooddealof wasteinthiscombing,thatis,largeclumpsoftangledwoolcallednoilwerecombedout.Theywere notreallywasted,wemaybesure,byourfrugalancestors,butwerespunintocoarseyarn. Anoldauthorsays:"Theactionofspinningmustbelearnedbypractice,notbyrelation."Sungbythe poets,thegraceandbeautyoftheoccupationhaseversharedpraisewithitsutility. Wool-spinningwastrulyoneofthemostflexibleandalertseriesofmovementsintheworld,andto itsvariedandgracefulpoisesourgrandmothersmayowepartofthedignityofcarriagethatwasso characteristic of them. The spinner stood slightly leaning forward, lightly poised on the ball of the leftfoot;withherlefthandshepickedupfromtheplatformofthewheelalongslenderrollofthe softcardedwoolaboutaslargeroundasthelittlefinger,anddeftlywoundtheendofthefibresonthe pointofthespindle.Shethengaveagentlemotiontothewheelwithawoodenpegheldinherright hand,andseizedwiththelefttherollatexactlytherightdistancefromthespindletoallowforone "drawing."Thenthehumofthewheelrosetoasoundliketheechoofwind;shesteppedbackward quickly, one, two, three steps, holding high the long yarn as it twisted and quivered. Suddenly she glidedforwardwitheven,gracefulstrideandlettheyarnwindontheswiftspindle.Anotherpinchof thewool-roll,anewturnofthewheel,anddacapo. The wooden peg held by the spinner deserves a short description; it served the purpose of an elongatedfinger,andwascalledadriver,wheel-peg,etc.Itwasaboutnineincheslong,aninchorso indiameter;andataboutaninchfromtheendwasslightlygroovedinorderthatitmightsurelycatch thespokeandthuspropelthewheel. Itwasagoodday'sworkforaquick,activespinnertospinsixskeinsofyarnaday.Itwasestimated thattodothatwithherquickbackwardandforwardstepsshewalkedovertwentymiles. Theyarnmightbewounddirectlyuponthewoodenspindleasitwasspun,orattheendofthespindle mightbeplacedaspoolorbroachwhichtwistedwiththerevolvingspindle,andheldthenew-spun yarn.Thisbroachwasusuallysimplyastiffrollofpaper,acorn-cob,orarollofcorn-husk.When the ball of yarn was as large as the broach would hold, the spinner placed wooden pegs in certain holesinthespokesofherspinning-wheelandtiedtheendoftheyarntoonepeg.Thenshetookoff thebeltofherwheelandwhirredthebigwheelswiftlyround,thuswindingtheyarnonthepegsinto hanksorclewstwoyardsincircumference,whichwereafterwardstiedwithaloopofyarnintoknots offortythreads;whilesevenoftheseknotsmadeaskein.Theclock-reelwasusedforwindingyarn, alsoatriplereel. The yarn might be wound from the spindle into skeins in another way,—by using a hand-reel, an implement which really did exist in every farmhouse, though the dictionaries are ignorant of it, as they are of its universal folk-name, niddy-noddy. This is fortunately preserved in an every-day domesticriddle:— "Niddy-noddy,niddy-noddy, Twoheadsandonebody." Thethreepiecesoftheseniddy-noddysweresettogetheratcuriousangles,andarehereshownrather than described in words. Holding the reel in the left hand by seizing the central "body" or rod, the yarn was wound from end to end of the reel, by an odd, waving, wobbling motion, into knots and skeinsofthesamesizeasbythefirstprocessdescribed.Oneoftheseniddy-noddyswasownedby NabbyMarshallofDeerfield,wholivedtobeonehundredandfouryearsold.Theotherwasbrought fromIrelandin1733byHughMaxwell,fatheroftheRevolutionarypatriotColonelMaxwell.Asit wasatatimeofEnglishprohibitionsandrestrictionsofAmericanmanufactures,thisniddy-noddy,as anaccessoryandpromoterofcolonialwoolmanufacture,wassmuggledintothecountry. Sometimesthewoollenyarnwasspuntwice;especiallyifaclose,hard-twistedthreadwasdesired,to be woven into a stiff, wiry cloth. When there were two, the first spinning was called a roving. The singlespinningwasusuallydeemedsufficienttofurnishyarnforknitting,wheresoftnessandwarmth werethedesiredrequisites. Itwastheprideofagoodspinstertospinthefinestyarn,andoneMistressMaryPriggespunapound ofwoolintofiftyhanksofeighty-fourthousandyards;inall,nearlyforty-eightmiles.Iftheyarnwas tobeknitted,ithadtobewashedandcleansed.ThewifeofColonelJohnMay,aprominentmanin Boston,wroteinherdiaryforoneday:— "A large kettle of yarn to attend upon. Lucretia and self rinse, scour through many waters, get out, dry,attendto,bringin,doupandsort110scoreofyarn;thiswithbakingandironing.Thenwentto hacklingflax." Itshouldberememberedthatallthosebleachingprocesses,thewringingoutandrinsinginvarious waters, were far more wearisome then than they would be to-day, for the water had to be carried laboriously in pails and buckets, and drawn with pumps and well-sweeps; there were no pipes and conduits.Happythehouseholdthathadarunningbrooknearthekitchendoor. Ofcoursealltheseoperationsandmanipulationsusuallyoccupiedmanyweeksandmonths,butthey could be accomplished in a much shorter time. When President Nott of Union College, and his brotherSamuel,thefamouspreacher,wereboysonastonyfarminConnecticut,oneofthebrothers needed a new suit of clothes, and as the father was sick there was neither money nor wool in the house.Themothershearedsomehalf-grownfleecefromhersheep,andinlessthanaweektheboy woreitasclothing.Theshiveringandgeneroussheepwereprotectedbywrappingsofbraidedstraw. DuringtheRevolution,itissaidthatinadayandanightamotherandherdaughtersinTownsend, Massachusetts,shearedablackandawhitesheep,cardedfromthefleeceagraywool,spun,wove,cut andmadeasuitofclothesforaboytowearofftofightforliberty. Thewoolindustryeasilyfurnishedhomeoccupationtoanentirefamily.Oftenbythebrightfirelight intheearlyeveningeverymemberofthehouseholdmightbeseenatworkonthevariousstagesof woolmanufactureorsomeofitsnecessaryadjuncts,andvariedandcheerfulindustrialsoundsfillthe room.Theoldgrandmother,atlightandeasywork,iscardingthewoolintofleecyrolls,seatednext thefire;for,astheballadsays,"shewasoldandsawrightdimly."Themother,steppingaslightlyas oneofhergirls,spinstherollsintowoollenyarnonthegreatwheel.Theoldestdaughtersitsatthe clock-reel,whosecontinuousbuzzandoccasionalclickmingleswiththehummingriseandfallofthe wool-wheel, and the irritating scratch, scratch, of the cards. A little girl at a small wheel is filling quillswithwoollenyarnfortheloom,notaskilledwork;theirregularsoundshowsherintermittent industry.Thefatherissettingfreshteethinawool-card,whiletheboysarewhittlinghand-reelsand loom-spools. Oneofthehouseholdimplementsusedinwoolmanufacture,thewool-card,deservesashortspecial historyaswellasadescription.Inearlydaystheleatherbackofthewool-cardwaspiercedwithan awlbyhand;thewireteethwerecutofffromalengthofwire,wereslightlybent,andsetandclinched onebyone.Thesecardswerelaboriouslymadebymanypersonsathome,fortheirhouseholduse. As early as 1667 wire was made in Massachusetts; and its chief use was for wool-cards. By Revolutionarytimesitwasrealizedthattheuseofwool-cardswasalmostthemainspringofthewool industry, and £100 bounty was offered by Massachusetts for card-wire made in the state from iron minedinwhattheycalledthenthe"UnitedAmericanStates."In1784amachinewasinventedbyan Americanwhichwouldcutandbendthirty-sixthousandwireteethanhour.Anothermachinepierced theleatherbacks.Thisgaveanewemploymenttowomenandchildrenathomeandsomespending- money. They would get boxes of the bent wire teeth and bundles of the leather backs from the factoriesandwouldsettheteethinthebackswhilesittingaroundtheopenfireintheevening.They did this work, too, while visiting—spending an afternoon; and it was an unconscious and diverting worklikeknitting;scholarssetwool-cardswhilestudying,andschoolmistresseswhileteaching.This method of manufacture was superseded fifteen years later by a machine invented by Amos Whittemore,whichheld,cut,andpiercedtheleather,drewthewirefromareel,cutandbentalooped tooth,setit,bentit,fastenedtheleatherontheback,andspeedilyturnedoutafullymadecard.John Randolphsaidthismachinehadeverythingbutanimmortalsoul.Bythistimespinningandweaving machinerybegantocrowdouthomework,andthemachine-madecardswereneededtokeepupwith the increased demand. At last machines crowded into every department of cloth manufacture; and aftercarding-machineswereinventedinEngland—greatrollerssetwithcard-teeth—theyweresetup inmanymillsthroughouttheUnitedStates. Families soon sent all their wool to these mills to be carded even when it was spun and woven at home.Itwassentrolledupinahomespunsheetorblanketpinnedwiththorns;andthecardedrolls ready for spinning were brought home in the same way, and made a still bigger bundle which was lightinweightforitssize.Sometimesared-cheekedfarmer'slasswouldbeseenridinghomefrom thecarding-mill,throughNewEnglandwoodsoralongNewEnglandlanes,withabundleofcarded wooltoweringupbehindherbiggerthanherhorse. Of the use and manufacture of cotton I will speak very shortly. Our greatest, cheapest, most indispensable fibre is also our latest one. It never formed one of the homespun industries of the colonies;infact,itwasneveranarticleofextendeddomesticmanufacture. Alittlecottonwasalwaysusedinearlydaysforstuffingbedquilts,petticoats,warriors'armor,and similar purposes. It was bought by the pound, East India cotton, in small quantities; the seeds were pickedoutonebyone,byhand;itwascardedonwool-cards,andspunintoaratherintractableyarn whichwasusedaswarpforlinsey-woolseyandragcarpets.EveninEnglandnocottonweft,noallcottonfabrics,weremadetillafter1760,tillHargreave'stime.Sometimesatwistedyarnwasmadeof one thread of cotton and one of wool which was knit into durable stockings. Cotton sewing-thread was unknown in England. Pawtucket women named Wilkinson made the first cotton thread on their homespinning-wheelsin1792. Cotton was planted in America, Bancroft says, in 1621, but MacMaster asserts it was never seen growingheretillaftertheRevolutionsaveasagardenornamentwithgardenflowers.Thisassertion seemsoversweepingwhenJeffersoncouldwriteinaletterin1786:— "ThefoursouthermostStatesmakeagreatdealofcotton.Theirpoorarealmostentirelyclothedwith itinwinterandsummer.Inwintertheywearshirtsofitandouterclothingofcottonandwoolmixed. In summer their shirts are linen, but the outer clothing cotton. The dress of the women is almost entirelyofcotton,manufacturedbythemselves,exceptthericherclass,andevenmanyoftheseweara greatdealofhomespuncotton.ItisaswellmanufacturedasthecalicoesofEurope." Still cotton was certainly not a staple of consequence. We were the last to enter the list of cottonproducingcountriesandwehavesurpassedthemall. Thedifficultyofremovingtheseedsfromthestaplepracticallythrustcottonoutofcommonuse.In India a primitive and cumbersome set of rollers called a churka partially cleaned India cotton. A Yankeeschoolmaster,EliWhitney,setKingCottononathronebyhisinventionofthecotton-ginin 1792. This comparatively simple but inestimable invention completely revolutionized cloth manufactureinEnglandandAmerica.Italsochangedgeneralcommerce,industrialdevelopment,and thesocialandeconomicorderofthings,foritgavenewoccupationsandofferednewmodesoflife tohundredsofthousandsofpersons.Itentirelychangedandcheapenedourdress,andalteredrural lifebothintheNorthandSouth. Amancould,byhand-picking,cleanonlyaboutapoundofcottonaday.Thecotton-gincleanedas muchinadayashadtakenthehand-pickerayeartoaccomplish.Cottonwasatonceplantedinvast amounts; but it certainly was not plentiful till then. Whitney had never seen cotton nor cotton seed when he began to plan his invention; nor did he, even in Savannah, find cotton to experiment with untilafterconsiderablesearch. After the universal manufacture and use of the cotton-gin, negro women wove cotton in Southern houses,sometimesspinningtheirowncottonthread;morefrequentlybuyingitmill-spun.But,after all, this was in too small amounts to be of importance; it needed the spinning-jennies and powerloomsofvastmillstouseuptheprofusesupplyaffordedbythegin. AveryinterestingaccountofthedomesticmanufactureofcottoninTennesseeabouttheyear1850 was written for me by Mrs. James Stuart Pilcher, State Regent of the Daughters of the American RevolutioninTennessee.Aportionofherpleasantstoryreads:— "There were two looms in the loom-room, and two negro women were kept busy all the time weaving;therewereeightortenotherswhodidnothingbutspincottonandwoollenthread;others spooledandreeleditintohanks.Thespinningwasalldoneonthelargewheel,fromtherawcotton;a corn-shuck was wrapped tightly around the steel spindle, then the thread was run and spun on this shuckuntilitwasfull;thenthesewerereeledoffintohanksofthread,thenspooledontocorn-cobs with holes burned through them. These were placed in an upright frame, with long slender rods of hickorywoodsomethinglikearamrodrunthroughthem.Theframeheldaboutonehundredofthese cob-spools;theendofthecottonthreadfromeachspoolwasgatheredupbyanexperiencedwarper whocarriedallthethreadsbackandforthonthelargewarping-bars;thiswasadifficulttask;onlythe brightestnegrowomenwerewarpers.Thethreadhadbeendyedbeforespoolingandthevari-colored cob-spools could be arranged to make stripes lengthwise of the cloth; and the hanks had also been dippedinaboiling-hotsizingmadeofmealandwater.Thewarp-threadswerecarefullytakenfrom thebarsandrolleduponthewoodenbeamoftheloom,theendspassedthroughthesleyandtied.The weaverthenbeganherwork.Thethreadforthefilling(calledthewoofbythenegroes)wasreeled fromthehankonthewinding-blades,uponsmallcanesaboutfourincheslongwhich,whenfull,were placedinthewoodenshuttles.Thesewomenspunandwovealltheclothingwornbythenegroeson theplantation;cottonclothforwomenandmeninthesummertime;andjeansforthemen;linseywoolseyforthewomenandchildrenforwinter.Allwerewellclothed.Thewomentaughtustospin, buttheweaverswerecrossandwouldnotletustouchtheloom,fortheysaidwebrokethethreadsin the warp. My grandmother never interfered with them when they were careful in their work. We wouldsay,'PleasemakeAuntRhodyletmeweave!'Sheanswered,'No,sheismanagingtheloom;if sheiswilling,verywell;ifnot,youmustnotworryher.'Wethoughtitgreatfuntotrytoweave,but generallyhadtopayAuntRhodyforourmeddlingbygivinghercake,ribbons,orcandy." The colonists were constantly trying to find new materials for spinning, and also used many makeshifts.Parkman,inhisOldRégime,tellsthatintheyear1704,whenashipwaslostthatwasto bring cloth and wool to Quebec, a Madame de Rèpentigny, one of the aristocrats of the FrenchCanadiancolony,spunandwovecoarseblanketsofnettleandlindenbark.Similarexperimentswere madebytheEnglishcolonists.Coarsethreadwasspunoutofnettle-fibrebypioneersinwesternNew York.LeviBeardsley,inhisReminiscences,tellsofhismotheratthecloseofthelastcentury,inher frontierhomeatRichfieldSprings,weavingbagsandcoarsegarmentsfromthenettleswhichgrew soranklyeverywhereinthatvicinity.Deerhairandevencow'shairwascollectedfromthetanners, spunwithsomewool,andwovenintoasortoffeltedblanket. Silk-grass,amuch-vauntedproduct,wassentbacktoEnglandonthefirstshipsandwaseverywhere beingexperimentedwith.Coarsewickingwasspunfromthedownofthemilkweed—anairy,feathery materialthatalwayslooksasifitoughttobeputtomanyuses,yetneverhasseemedofmuchaccount inanytrialthathasbeenmadeofit. CHAPTERX HAND-WEAVING AnyonewhopassedthroughaNewEnglandvillageonaweekdayacenturyago,orrodeuptothe door of a Pennsylvania or Virginia house, would probably be greeted with a heavy thwack-thwack fromwithindoors,aregularsoundwhichwouldreadilyberecognizedbyeveryoneatthattimeas proceeding from weaving on a hand-loom. The presence of these looms was, perhaps, not so universalineveryhouseasthatoftheirhomespuncompanions,thegreatandlittlewheels,forthey requiredmoreroom;buttheywerefoundineveryhouseofanyconsiderablesize,andinmanyalso wheretheyseemedtofillhalfthebuilding.Manyhouseholdshadaloom-room,usuallyinanellpart of the house; others used an attic or a shed-loft as a weaving-room. Every farmer's daughter knew howtoweaveaswellastospin,yetitwasnotrecognizedaswhollywoman'sworkaswasspinning; for there was a trade of hand-weaving for men, to which they were apprenticed. Every town had professionalweavers.Theywereauniversallyrespectedclass,andbecametheancestorsofmanyof the wealthiest and most influential citizens to-day. They took in yarn and thread to weave on their loomsattheirownhomesatsomuchayard;wovetheirownyarnintostuffstosell;hadapprentices totheirtrade;andalsowentoutworkingbythedayattheirneighbors'houses,sometimescarrying theirloomsmanymileswiththem. Weavers were a universally popular element of the community. The travelling weaver was, like all otheritineranttradesmenoftheday,awelcomenewsmonger;andtheweaverwhotookinweaving wasoftenastationarygossip,andgatheredinquiringgroupsinhisloom-room;evenchildrenloved togotohisdoortobegforbitsofcoloredyarn—thrums—whichtheyusedintheirplay,andalso tightlybraidedtowearasshoestrings,hair-laces,etc. Thehand-loomusedinthecolonies,andoccasionallystillrunincountrytownsto-day,isanhistoric machine,oneofgreatantiquityanddignity.Itis,perhaps,themostabsolutebequestofpastcenturies which we have had, unchanged, in domestic use till the present time. You may see a loom like the YankeeoneshownhereinGiotto'sfamousfrescointheCampanile,paintedin1335;another,stillthe same,inHogarth'sIdleApprentice,paintedjustfourhundredyearslater.Manytribesandnationshave hand-looms resembling our own; but these are exactly like it. Hundreds of thousands of men and womenofthegenerationsofthesesevencenturiessinceGiotto'sdayhavewovenonjustsuchlooms asourgrandparentshadintheirhomes. This loom consists of a frame of four square timber posts, about seven feet high, set about as far apartasthepostsofatallfour-postbedstead,andconnectedattopandbottombyportionsofaframe. Fromposttopostacrossoneend,whichmaybecalledthebackpartoftheloom,istheyarn-beam, about six inches in diameter. Upon it are wound the warp-threads, which stretch in close parallels fromittothecloth-beamatthefrontoftheloom.Thecloth-beamisaboutteninchesindiameter,and theclothiswoundastheweavingproceeds. Theyarn-beamoryarn-rollorwarp-beamwaseveraveryimportantpartoftheloom.Itshouldbe made of close-grained, well-seasoned wood. The iron axle should be driven in before the beam is turned.Ifthebeamisill-turnedandirregularinshape,noeven,perfectwoofcancomefromit.The slightestvariationinitsdimensionsmakesthewarprunoffunevenly,andthewebnever"sets"well, buthassomeloosethreads. We have seen the homespun yarn, whether linen or woollen, left in carefully knotted skeins after beingspunandcleaned,bleached,ordyed.Toprepareitforuseontheloomaskeinisplacedonthe swift,aningeniousmachine,arevolvingcylindricalframemadeofstripsofwoodarrangedonthe principleofthelazy-tongssothesizecanbeincreasedordiminishedatpleasure,andthustakeonand hold firmly any sized skein of yarn. This cylinder is supported on a centre shaft that revolves in a socket,andmaybesetinaheavyblockonthefloororfastenedtoatableorchair.Alightlymade, carvedswiftwasafrequentlover'sgift.Ihaveabeautifuloneofwhale-ivory,mother-of-pearl,and finewhitebonewhichwasmadeonathreeyears'whalingvoyagebyaNantucketsea-captainasagift tohiswaitingbride;ithasovertwohundredstripsoffinewhitecarvedbone.Bothquillsfortheweft andspoolsforthewarpmaybewoundfromtheswiftbyaquilling-wheel,smallwheelsofvarious shapes,somebeinglikeaflax-wheel,butmoresimpleinconstruction.Thequillorbobbinisasmall reedorquill,piercedfromendtoend,andwhenwoundissetintherecessoftheshuttle. When the piece is to be set, a large number of shuttles and spools are filled in advance. The full spoolsarethenplacedinarowoneabovetheotherinaspool-holder,sometimescalledaskarneor scarne. As I have not found this word in any dictionary, ancient or modern, its correct spelling is unknown. Sylvester Judd, in his Margaret, spells it skan. Skean and skayn have also been seen. Thoughignoredbylexicographers,itwasanarticleandwordinestablishedanduniversaluseinthe colonies. I have seen it in newspaper advertisements of weavers' materials, and in inventories of weavers' estates, spelled ad libitum; and elderly country folk, both in the North and South, who rememberold-timeweaving,knowitto-day. Itseemstomeimpossibletoexplainclearlyinwords,thoughitissimpleenoughinexecution,the laying of the piece, the orderly placing the warp on the warp-beam. The warping-bars are entirely detachedfromtheloom,areanaccessory,notapartofit.Theyaretwouprightbarsofwood,each holdinganumberofwoodenpinssetatrightanglestothebars,andheldtogetherbycrosspieces.Let forty full spools be placed in the skarne, one above the other. The free ends of threads from the spools are gathered in the hand, and fastened to a pin at the top of the warping-bars. The group of threadsthenarecarriedfromsidetosideofthebars,passingaroundapinononebar,thenarounda pinontheoppositebar,totheextremeend;thenbackagaininthesameway,thespoolsrevolvingon wiresandfreelyplayingoutthewarp-threads,tillasufficientlengthofthreadsarestretchedonthe bars.Weaversofoldendayscouldcalculateexactlyandskilfullythelengthofthethreadsthuswound. Youtakeofftwentyyardsofthreadsifyouwanttoweavetwentyyardsofcloth.Fortywarp-threads makewhatwascalledaboutorsection.Awarpoftwohundredthreadswasdesignatedasawarpof fivebouts,andthebarshadtobefilledfivetimestosetitunlessalargerskarnewithmorespoolswas used.Fromthewarping-barstheseboutsarecarefullywoundonthewarp-beam. Without attempting to explain farther, let us consider the yarn-beam neatly wound with these warpthreads and set in the loom—that the "warping" and "beaming" are finished. The "drawing" or "entering"comesnext;theendofeachwarp-threadinregularorderis"thumbed"ordrawninwitha warping-needlethroughtheeyeor"mail"oftheharness,orheddle. Theheddleisarowoftwines,cords,orwirescalledleashes,whicharestretchedverticallybetween twohorizontalbarsorrods,placedaboutafootapart.Onerodissuspendedbyapulleyatthetopof the loom; and to the lower rod is hitched the foot-treadle. In the middle of each length of twine or wire is the loop or eye, through which a warp-thread is passed. In ordinary weaving there are two heddles,eachfastenedtoafoot-treadle. There is a removable loom attachment which when first shown to me was called a raddle. It is not necessaryinweaving,butaconvenienceandhelpinpreparingtoweave.Itisawoodenbarwitharow ofcloselyset,fine,woodenpegs.Thisisplacedintheloom,andusedonlyduringthesettingofthe warptokeepthewarpofproperwidth;thepegskeeptheboutsorsectionsofthewarpdisentangled duringthe"thumbingin"ofthethreadsthroughtheheddle-eyes.Thisattachmentisalsocalledaravel orraivel;andfolk-namesforit(notinthedictionary)werewratheandrake;thelatteraverygood descriptivetitle. Thewarp-threadsnextaredrawnthroughtheinterspacesbetweentwodentsorstripsofthesleyor reed.Thisisdonewithawirehookcalledasley-hookorreed-hook.Twowarp-threadsaredrawnin eachspace. The sley or reed is composed of a row of short and very thin parallel strips of cane or metal, somewhatlikecomb-teeth,calleddents,fixedatbothendscloselyintwolong,strong,parallelbarsof woodsettwoorthreeorevenfourinchesapart.Theremaybefiftyorsixtyofthesedentstooneinch, forweavingveryfinelinen;usuallythereareabouttwenty,whichgivesa"bier"—acountingoutof fortywarp-threadstoeachinch.Sleyswerenumberedaccordingtothenumberofbierstheyheld.The number of dents to an inch determined the "set of the web," the fineness of the piece. This reed is placed in a groove on the lower edge of a heavy batten (or lay or lathe). This batten hangs by two swordsorsidebarsandswingsfromanaxleor"rockingtree"atthetopoftheloom.Astheheavy battenswingsonitsaxle,thereedforceswithasharpbloweverynewlyplacedthreadoftheweftinto itsproperplaceclosetothepreviouslywovenpartofthetexture.Thisistheheavythwackingsound heardinhand-weaving. On the accurate poise of the batten depends largely the evenness of the completed woof. If the materialisheavy,thebattenshouldbeswunghigh,thushavingagoodsweepandmuchforceinits blow.Thebattenshouldbesopoisedastoswingbackitselfintoplaceaftereachblow. Theweaver,withfootontreadle,sitsonanarrow,highbench,whichisfastenedfromposttopostof the loom. James Maxwell, the weaver-poet, wrote under his portrait in his Weaver's Meditations, printedin1756:— "Lo!here'twixtHeavenandEarthIswing, AndwhilsttheShuttleswiftlyflies, WithcheerfulheartIworkandsing Andenvynonebeneaththeskies." There are three motions in hand-weaving. First: by the action of one foot-treadle one harness or heddle, holding every alternate warp-thread, is depressed from the level of the entire expanse of warp-threads. Theseparationofthewarp-threadsbythisdepressionofoneharnessiscalledashed.Someelaborate patternshavesixharnesses.Insuchapiecetherearetendifferentsheds,orcombinationsofopenings ofthewarp-threads.Inafour-harnesspiecetherearesixdifferentsheds. Roomismadebythisshedfortheshuttle,which,bythesecondmotion,isthrownfromonesideof theloomtotheotherbytheweaver'shand,andthusgoesovereveryalternatethread.Therevolving quillwithintheshuttleletstheweft-threadplayoutduringthisside-to-sidemotionoftheshuttle.The shuttlemustnotbethrowntoosharplyelseitwillreboundandmakeaslackthreadintheweft.Bythe thirdmotionthebattencrowdsthisweft-threadintoplace.Thenthemotionoftheotherfoot-treadle forces down the other warp-threads which pass through the second set of harnesses, the shuttle is thrownbackthroughthisshed,andsoon. Inordertoshowtheamountofwork,thenumberofseparatemotionsinaday'sworkinweavingof closewoollenclothlikebroadcloth(whichwasonlyaboutthreeyards),wemustrememberthatthe shuttle was thrown over three thousand times, and the treadles pressed down and batten swung the samenumberoftimes. A simple but clear description of the process of weaving is given in Ovid's Metamorphoses, thus Englishedin1724:— "Thepieceprepare Andordereveryslenderthreadwithcare; Thewebenwrapsthebeam,thereeddivides Whilethroughthewideningspacetheshuttleglides, Whichtheirswifthandsreceive,thenpoisedwithlead Theswingingweightstrikesclosetheinsertedthread." AloomattachmentwhichIpuzzledoverwasatombleortumble,thewordbeingseenineighteenthcenturylists,etc.,yetabsolutelyuntraceable.Iatlastinferred,andaweaverconfirmedmyinference, thatitwasacorruptionoftemple,anattachmentmadeofflat,narrowstripsofwoodaslongasthe webiswide,withhooksorpinsattheendtocatchintotheselvageofthecloth,andkeepthecloth stretchedfirmlyanevenwidthwhilethereedbeatstheweft-threadintoplace. Thereweremanyothersimpleyeteffectiveattachmentstotheloom.Theirnameshavebeenuponthe lips of scores of thousands of English-speaking people, and the words are used in all treatises on weaving;yetourdictionariesaredumbandignorant of their existence. There was the pace-weight, whichkeptthewarpeven;andthebore-staff,whichtightenedthewarp.Whenasufficientlengthof woof had been woven (it was usually a few inches), the weaver proceeded to do what was called drawingaboreorasink.Heshiftedthetempleforward;rolleduptheclothontheclothbar,which hadacrank-handleandratchets;unwoundthewarpafewinches,shiftedbacktherodsandheddles, andstartedafresh. Loomsandtheirappurtenanceswereusuallymadebylocalcarpenters;anditcanplainlybeseenthat thusconstantworkwasfurnishedtomanyclassesofworkmenineverycommunity,—wood-turners, beam-makers,timber-sawyers,andothers.Thevariouspartsoftheloomswereinunceasingdemand, thoughapparentlytheyneverworeout.Thesleywasthemostdelicatepartofthemechanism.Good sley-makers could always command high prices for their sleys. I have seen one whole and good, whichhasbeeningeneraluseforweavingragcarpetseversincetheWarof1812,forwhichasilver dollar was paid. Spools were turned and marked with the maker's initials. There were choice and inexplicablelinesintheshapeofashuttleasthereareinaboat'shull.Whenashuttlewascarefully shaped, scraped, hollowed out, tipped with steel, and had the maker's initials burnt in it, it was a properpieceofwork,ofwhichanycraftsmanmightbeproud.Apple-woodandboxwoodwerethe choiceforshuttles. Smallerlooms,calledtape-looms,braid-looms,belt-looms,garter-looms,or"gallus-frames,"were seen in many American homes, and useful they were in days when linen, cotton, woollen, or silk tapes,bobbins,andwebbingsorribbonswerenotcommonandcheapasto-day.Narrowbandssuch as tapes, none-so-pretty's, ribbons, caddises, ferretings, inkles, were woven on these looms for use for garters, points, glove-ties, hair-laces, shoestrings, belts, hat-bands, stay-laces, breechessuspenders,etc. These tape-looms are a truly ancient form of appliance for the hand-weaving of narrow bands,—a heddle-frame. They are rudely primitive in shape, but besides serving well the colonists in all our original states, are still in use among the Indian tribes in New Mexico and in Lapland, Italy, and northernGermany.Theyarescarcelymorethanaslightlyshapedboardsocutinslitsthatthecentre oftheboardisarowofnarrowslats.Theseslatsarepiercedinarowbymeansofaheatedwireand thewarp-threadsarepassedthroughtheholes. A common form of braid-loom was one that was laid upon a table. A still simpler form was held uprightonthelap,thekneesbeingfirmlypressedintosemicircularindentationscutforthepurpose oneithersideoftheboardwhichformedthelowerpartoftheloom.Thetopoftheloomwassteadied bybeingtiedwithabandtothetopofachair,orahookinthewall.Itwassuchlightandprettywork that it seemed merely an industrial amusement, and girls carried their tape-looms to a neighbor's houseforanafternoon'swork,justastheydidtheirknitting-needlesandballofyarn.Afringe-loom mightalsobeoccasionallyfound,forweavingdecorativefringes;theseweremorecommoninthe HudsonRivervalleythanelsewhere. Ihavepurposelygivenminute,butItrustnottiresome,detailsoftheoperationofweavingonahandloom,becauseafewyearsmorewillseethelastofthosewhoknowtheoperationandthetermsused. Thefactthatsomanytermsarenowobsoleteproveshowquicklydisusebringsoblivion.Whenina country crowded full of weavers, as was England until about 1845, the knowledge has so suddenly disappeared,needwehopeformuchgreatermemoryorlongerlifehere?Whenwhatistermedthe WestmorelandRevivalofdomesticindustrieswasbeguneightortenyearsago,thegreatestdifficulty wasfoundinobtainingahand-loom.Nooneknewhowtosetitup,anditwasalongtimebeforea weavercouldbefoundtorunitandteachothersitsuse. The first half of this century witnessed a vital struggle in England, and to an extent in America, between hand and power machinery, and an interesting race between spinning and weaving. Under old-time conditions it was calculated that it took the work of four spinners, who spun swiftly and constantly,tosupplyoneweaver.Asspinningwaseverwhatwasknownasaby-industry,—thatis,one thatchieflywasdonebybeingcaughtupatoddmoments,—thesupplybothinEnglandandAmerica did not equal the weavers' demands, and ten spinners had to be calculated to supply yarn for one weaver. Hence weavers never had to work very hard; as a rule, they could have one holiday in the week.WhatwithSundays,wakes,andfairs,Irishweaversworkedonlytwohundreddaysintheyear. InEnglandtheweaveroftenhadtospendonedayoutofthesixhuntingaroundthecountryforyarn for weft. So inventive wits were set at work to enlarge the supply of yarn, and spinning machinery wastheresult.Thereaftertheloomsandweaverswerepushedhardandhadtoturntoinvention.The shuttlehadalwayssimplybeenpassedfromonehandtotheotheroftheweaveroneithersideofthe web.Thefly-shuttlewasnowinvented,whichbyasimplepieceofmachinery,workedbyonehand, threwtheshuttleswiftlybackwardandforward,andtheloomwasaheadintherace.Thencamethe spinning-jenny, which spun yarn with a hundred spindles on each machine. But this was for weft yarns,anddidnotmakestrongwarps.FinallyArkwrightsuppliedthislackinwater-twistor"throstlespun" yarn. All these inventions again overcrowded the weavers; all attempts at hand-spinning of cotton had become quickly extinct. Wool-spinning lingered longer. Five Tomlinson sisters,—the youngestfortyyearsold,—withtwopairofwool-cardsandfivehand-wheels,paidtherentoftheir farm,keptthreecows,onehorse,hadaploughedfield,andmadeprimebutterandeggs.Onesister clungtoherspinningtill1822.Power-loomswereinventedtotrytouseupthejenny'ssupplyofyarn, butthesedidnotcrowdouthand-looms.Weaversneverhadsogoodwages.ItwastheGoldenAgeof Cotton.Somefamiliesearnedsixpoundsaweek;goodclothes,eventotheextentofruffledshirts, good furniture, even to silver spoons, good food, plentiful ale and beer, entered every English cottagewiththeweavingofcottonandwool.Afarmorerevolutionaryandmorehatedmachinethan thepower-loomwasthecombing-machinecalledBigBen. "ComeallyeMasterCombers,andhearofourBigBen. He'llcombmorewoolthanfiftyofyourmen Withtheirhand-combs,andcomb-pots,andsuchold-fashionedway." Flax-spinningandlinen-weavingbypowermachinerywereslowerinbeingestablished.Englishmen were halting in perfecting these machines. Napoleon offered in 1810 a million francs for a flaxspinningmachine.AcleverFrenchmanclaimedtohaveinventedoneinresponseinasingleday,but similarclumsymachineshadthenbeenrunninginEnglandfortwentyyears.By1850men,women, and children—combers, spinners, and weavers—were no longer individual workers; they had becomepartofthatgreatmonster,themill-machinery.Riotsandmiserywerethefirstresultofthe passingofhandweavingandspinning. IntheVisionofPiersPloughman(1360)aretheselines:— "Cloththatcomethfrothewevyng Isnoughtcomlytowere Tillitbefulledunderfoot Orinfullyngstokkes Wasshenwelwithwater Andwithtaselescracched, Y-toukedandy-tented Andundertaillourshande." Justsointhecoloniesfourcenturieslater,cloththatcamefromtheweavingwasnotcomelytowear till it was fulled under foot or in fulling-stocks, washed well in water, scratched and dressed with teazels,dyedandtented,andputinthetailor'shands.Nordidtherollofcenturiesbringachangein the manner of proceeding. If grease had been put on the wool when it was carded, or sizing in the warp for the weaving, it was washed out by good rinsing from the woven cloth. This became now somewhat uneven and irregular in appearance, and full of knots and fuzzes which were picked out withhand-tweezersbyburlersbeforeitwasfulledormilled,asitwassometimescalled.Thefullingstockswereatroughinwhichanenormousoakenhammerwasmadetopoundupanddown,while theclothwaskeptthoroughlywetwithwarmsoapandwater,orfullers'earthandwater.Naturallythis thickenedthewebmuchandreduceditinlength.Itwasthenteazelled;thatis,anaporroughsurface wasraisedalloveritbyscratchingitwithweavers'teazelsorthistles.Manywirebrushesandmetal substituteshavebeentriedtotaketheplaceofnature'sgifttothecloth-worker,theteazel,butnothing hasbeeninventedtoreplacewithfullsatisfactionthatwonderfulscratcher.Fortheslenderrecurved bractsoftheteazelheadsarestiffandpricklyenoughtoroughenthoroughlythenapofthecloth,yet theyyieldatpreciselytherightpointtokeepfrominjuringthefabric. Iftheclothweretobe"y-touked,"thatis,dyed,itwasdoneatthisperiod,anditwasthen"y-tented," spreadonthetenter-fieldandcaughtontenter-hooks,toshrinkanddry. Nowadays,wesometimescutorcropthenapwithlongshears,andboilthewebtogiveitalustre,and inkittocoloranyill-dyedfibres,andpressitbetweenhotplatesbeforeitgoestothetailor'shands; but these injurious processes were omitted in olden times. Worsted stuffs were not fulled, but were wovenofhand-combedwool. Linenwebsaftertheywerewovenhadevenmoremanipulationstocometothemthanwoollenstuffs. In spite of all the bleaching of the linen thread, it still was light brown in color, and it had to go throughatleasttwoscoreotherprocesses,ofbucking,possing,rinsing,drying,andbleachingonthe grass.Sometimesitwasstretchedoutonpegswithloopssewedontheselvageedge.Thisbleaching was called crofting in England, and grassing in America. Often it was thus spread on the grass for weeks,andwasslightlywettedseveraltimesaday;butnottoowet,elseitwouldmildew.Inall,over forty bleaching operations were employed upon "light linens." Sometimes they were "soured" in buttermilktomakethempurelywhite.Thusatleastsixteenmonthshadpassedsincetheflaxseedhad beensown,inwhich,truly,thespinsterhadnoteatenthebreadofidleness.Inthewintermonthsthe fine, white, strong linen was made into "board cloths" or tablecloths, sheets, pillow-biers, aprons, shifts,shirts,petticoats,shortgowns,gloves,cutfromthespinner'sownglovepattern,andascoreof articles for household use. These were carefully marked, and sometimes embroidered with homedyed crewels, as were also splendid sets of bed-hangings, valances, and testers for four-post bedsteads. The homespun linens that were thus spun and woven and bleached were one of the most beautiful expressions and types of old-time home life. Firm, close-woven, and pure, their designs were not greatlyvaried,norwastheirwoofassymmetricalandperfectasmodernlinens—butthuswerethe livesofthosewhomadethem;firm,close-woveninneighborlykindness,withthesimplicitybothof innocenceandignorance;theirdayshadlittlevariety,andlifewasnotaltogethereasy,and,likethe webtheywove,itwassometimesnarrow.Iamalwaystouchedwhenhandlingthesehomespunlinens with a consciousness of nearness to the makers; with a sense of the energy and strength of those enduringwomenwhoweresofullofvitality,ofunceasingaction,thatitdoesnotseemtometheycan bedead. The strong, firm linen woven in many struggling country homes was too valuable and too readily exchangeableandsalabletobekeptwhollyforfarmuse,especiallywhenthereweresofewsalable articlesproducedonthefarm.Itwassoldormorefrequentlyexchangedatthevillagestoreforany desiredcommodity,suchascalico,salt,sugar,spices,ortea.Itreadilysoldforforty-twocentsayard. Thereforetheboysandeventhefathersdidnotalwayshavelinenshirtstowear.Fromthetowwhich had been hatchelled out from harl a coarse thread was spun and cloth was woven which was made chiefly into shirts and smocks and tow "tongs" or "skilts," which were loose flapping summer trouserswhichendedalmosthalf-wayfromthekneetotheankle.Thistowstuffwasneverfreefrom prickling spines, and it proved, so tradition states, an absolute instrument of torture to the wearer, untilfrequentwashingshadwornitoutandthussubdueditsknotsandspines. AuniversalstuffwoveninNewHampshirebytheScotch-Irishlinen-weaverswhosettledthere,and who influenced husbandry and domestic manufactures and customs all around them, was what was known as striped frocking. It was worn also to a considerable extent in Connecticut and Massachusetts. The warp was strong white cotton or tow thread, the weft of blue and white stripes made by weaving alternately a shuttleful of indigo-dyed homespun yarn and one of white wool or tow.Manyboysgrewtomanhoodneverwearing,exceptonSundays,anykindofcoatsavealong, loose, shapeless jacket or smock of this striped frocking, known everywhere as a long-short. The historyoftheoldtownofCharmingfaretellsofthefarmersinthatvicinitytyingtightthetwocorners ofthislong-shortatthewaistandthusmakingasortofloosebaginwhichvariousarticlescouldbe carried.SylvesterJudd,inhisMargaret,theclassicofoldNewEnglandlife,hashiscountrywomen dressedalsoinlong-shorts,andtellsofthesamefabric. Anothermaterialwhichwasuniversalincountrydistrictshadaflaxortowwarp,andacoarserslacktwistedcottonortowfilling.Thisclothwasdyedandpressedandwascalledfustian.Itwaswortha shilling a yard in 1640. It was named in the earliest colonial accounts, and was in truth the ancient fustian, worn throughout Europe in the Middle Ages for monks' robes and laborers' dress, not the stuffto-daycalledfustian.WereadinTheSquierofLowDegree,"Yourblankettsshallbeoffustayne." Another coarse cloth made in New England, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the Carolinas was crocus. Thestuffisobsoleteandthenameisforgottensaveinafolk-sayingwhichlingersinVirginia—"as coarseascrocus."Homespunstuffforthewearofnegroeswasknownandsoldas"Virginiacloth." VastquantitiesofhomespunclothwasmadeonVirginianplantations,thousandsofyardsannuallyat MountVernonforslave-wear,andforthehouse-mistressaswell. ItistoldofMarthaWashingtonthatshealwayscarefullydyedallherwornsilkgownsandsilkscraps toadesiredshade,ravelledthemwithcare,woundthemonbobbins,andhadthemwovenintochair and cushion covers. Sometimes she changed the order of things. To a group of visitors she at one timedisplayedadressofredandwhitestripedmaterialofwhichthewhitestripeswerecotton,andthe red,ravelledchaircoversandsilkfromtheGeneral'sworn-outstockings. Checkedlinen,withbarsofredorblue,wasmuchusedforbedticks,pillow-cases,towelling,aprons, andevenshirtsandsummertrousers.InalltheDutchcommunitiesinNewYorkitwaswoventillthis century. When Benjamin Tappan first attended meeting in Northampton, Massachusetts, in 1769, he wassurprisedtofindthatallthemeninthechurchbutfourorfiveworecheckedshirts.Worcester Countymenalwaysworewhiteshirts,anddeemedacheckedshirtthemarkofaConnecticutRiver man. It is impossible to overestimate the durability of homespun materials. I have "flannel sheets" a hundred years old, the lightest, most healthful, and agreeable summer covering for children's beds thateveranyonewasblessedwith.Cradlesheetsofthisthin,closelywoven,whiteworstedstuffare notslimsylikethinflannel,yetaresofterthanflannel.Yearsofusewithmanygenerationsofchildren haveleftthemfirmandwhite. Grain-bagshavebeenseenthathavebeeninconstantandharduseforseventyyears,homespunfrom coarseflaxandhemp.Ihaveseveraldelightfulbagsaboutfourfeetlongandtwofeetwide,ofrather closely woven pure white homespun linen, not as heavy, however, as crash. They have the date of their manufacture, 1789, and the initials of the weaver, and have linen tapes woven in at each side. Theyareusedeveryspring—packedwithfursandblanketsandplacedincedarchests,andwithsuch usagewilleasilyroundoutanothercentury. The product of these hand-looms which has lingered longest in country use, especially in the Northernstates,andwhichisthesoleproductofallthehand-loomsthatIknowtobesetupandinuse inNewEngland(exceptonenotableexampletowhichIwillreferhereafter),istheragcarpet.Itis stillinconstantdemandandesteemonfarmsandinsmallvillagesandtowns,andisaneconomical andthrifty,andmaybeacomelyfloor-covering.Theaccompanyingillustrationofawomanweaving rag carpet on an old hand-loom is from a fine photograph taken by Mrs. Arthur Sewall of Bath, Maine,andgivesanexcellentpresentmentofthemachineandtheprocess. The warp of these carpets was, in olden times, a strong, heavy flaxen thread. To-day it is a heavy cotton twine bought machine-spun in balls or hanks. The weft or rilling is narrow strips of all the cleanandvari-coloredragsthataccumulateinahousehold. Thepreparingofthisfillingrequiresconsiderablejudgment.Heavywoollenclothshouldbecutin stripsabouthalfaninchwide.Ifthereweresewnwiththesestripsoflightcottonstuffofequalwidth, thecarpetwouldproveapoorthing,heavyinspotsandslimsyinothers.Hencelighterstuffsshould becutinwiderstrips,astheycanthenbecrowdeddownbythebattenoftheloomtothesamewidth andsubstanceastheheavywools.Calicoes,cottons,all-wooldelaines,andliningcambricsshouldbe cutinstripsatleastaninchwide.Thesestrips,ofwhateverlengththeychancetobe,aresewnintoone continuousstrip,whichisrolledintoahardballweighingaboutapoundandaquarter.Itiscalculated thatoneoftheseballswillweaveaboutayardofcarpeting.Thejoiningmustbestronglyandneatly doneandshouldnotbebunchy.Anagedweaverwhohadwovenmanythousandyardsofcarpeting assured me the prettiest carpets were always those in which every alternate strip was white or very lightincolor.Anotherthriftywayofusingoldmaterialisthecuttingintoinch-widestripsofwoven ingrainorthree-plycarpet.This,throughthecottonwarp,makesareallyartisticmonochromefloorcovering. In one of the most romantic and beautiful spots in old Narragansett lives the last of the old-time weavers; not a weaver who desultorily weaves a run of rag carpeting to earn a little money in the intervalsofotherwork,ortopleasesomeimportunatewoman-neighborwhohassavedupherrags; but a weaver whose lifelong occupation, whose only means of livelihood, has always been, and is still,hand-weaving.Ihavetoldhisstoryatsomelengthinmybook,OldNarragansett,—of his kin, hislife,hiswork.Hishomeisatthecross-roadswherethreetownshipsmeet,across-roadswherehas often taken place that curious and senseless survival of old-time tradition and superstition—shift marriages.Awidow,acousinoftheWeaverRose'sfather,wasthelasttoundergothisordeal;clad onlyinhershift,shethricecrossedtheKing'sHighwayandwasthusmarriedtoavoidpaymentofher firsthusband'sdebts.ItisnotfarfromtheoldChurchFoundationofSt.Paul'sofNarragansett,and the tumble-down house of Sexton Martin Read, the prince of Narragansett weavers in anteRevolutionarydays.WeaverRoselearnedtoweavefromhisgrandfather,whowasanapprenticeof WeaverRead. In the loom-room of Weaver Rose a veritable atmosphere of the past still lingers. Everything appertainingtothemanufactureofhomespunmaterialsmaytherebefound.Wheels,skarnes,sleys, warping-bars,clock-reels,swifts,quilling-wheels,vastbalesofyarnsandthread—forhenolonger spins his thread and yarn. There are piles of old and new bed coverlets woven in those fanciful geometric designs, which are just as the ancient Gauls wove them in the Bronze Age, and which formed a favorite bed-covering of our ancestors, and of country folk to-day. These coverlets the weavercallsbythegoodoldEnglishnameofhap-harlot,anamenowobsoleteinEngland,whichI haveneverseenusedintextoflaterdatethanHolinshead'sSurvey of London, written four hundred yearsago.Hismanuscriptpattern-bookisoverahundredyearsold,andhastherulesforsettingthe harnesses.Theybearmanyprettyandoddnames,suchas"RosyWalk,""BaltimoreBeauty," "Girl's Love," "Queen's Fancy," "Devil's Fancy," "Everybody's Beauty," "Four Snow Balls," "Five Snow Balls,""BricksandBlocks,""Gardener'sNote,""GreenVails,""RoseinBloom,""PansiesandRoses in the Wilderness," "Flag-Work," "Royal Beauty," "Indian March," "Troy's Beauty," "Primrose and Diamonds," "Crown and Diamonds," "Jay's Fancy," "In Summer and Winter," "Boston Beauty," and "IndianWar."Onenamed"BonyPart'sMarch"wasverypretty,aswas"OrangePeel,"and"Orange Trees"; "Dog Tracks" was even checkerwork, "Blazing Star," a herring-bone design. "Perry's Victory" and "Lady Washington's Delight" show probably the date of their invention, and were handsomedesigns,whilethe"WhigRosefromGeorgia,"whichhadbeengiventotheweaverbyan oldladyahundredyearsold,hadprovedapooranduglything."Kapa'sDiaper"wasacomplicated design which took "five harnesses" to make. "Rattlesnake's Trail," "Wheels of Fancy," "Chariot WheelsandChurchWindows,"and"Bachelor'sFancy"wereallexceptionallyfinedesigns. Sometimesextremelyelaboratepatternswerewoveninearlierdays.Anexquisitelywovencoverletas fine as linen sheeting, a corner of which is here shown, has an elaborate border of patriotic and Masonic emblems, patriotic inscriptions, and the name of the maker, a Red Hook, Hudson valley, dame of a century ago, who wove this beautiful bedspread as the crowning treasure of her bridal outfit.The"setting-up"ofsuchadesignasthisisentirelybeyondmyskillasaweavertoexplainor evencomprehend.Butitisevidentthatthebordermusthavebeenwovenbytakingupasinglewarpthreadatatime,withawireneedle,notbypassingashuttle,asitisfartoocomplicatedandvariedfor anytreadle-harnesstobeabletomakeashedforashuttle. Hand-weaving in Weaver Rose's loom-room to-day is much simplified in many of its preparatory details by the employment of machine-made materials. The shuttles and spools are made by machinery; and more important still, both warp and weft is purchased ready-spun from mills. The warp is simply a stout cotton twine or coarse thread bought in balls or hanks; while various cheap mill-yarnsorwhatisknownasworstedsorcoarsecrewelsareusedasfilling.These,ofcourse,are cheap,butalas!aredyedwithfleetingorgarishanilinedyes.Nonewblueyarncanequaleitherin color or durability the old indigo-dyed, homespun, hard-twisted yarn made on a spinning-wheel. Germantown,earlyinthefieldinAmericanwoolmanufacture,stillsuppliesnearlyalltheyarnfor hishand-looms. ThetransitionhalfacenturyormoreagofromwhatHoraceBushnellcalled"motheranddaughter powertowaterandsteampower,"wasacompleterevolutionindomesticlife,andindeedofsocial mannersaswell.Whenapeoplespinandweaveandmaketheirowndress,youhaveinthisveryfact theassurancethattheyarehome-bred,home-living,home-lovingpeople.Youaresure,also,thatthe lives of the women are home-centred. The chief cause for women's intercourse with any of the outside world except neighborly acquaintance, her chief knowledge of trade and exchange, is in shopping,dressmaking,etc.Thesecausesscarcelyexistedincountrycommunitiesacenturyago.The daughterswhoinourdaysoffactoriesleavethefarmforthecotton-mill,wheretheyperformbutone ofthemanyoperationsinclothmanufacture,canneverbeasgoodhome-makersorashelpfulmates as the homespun girls of our grandmothers' days; nor can they be such co-workers in great public movements. In the summer of 1775, when all the preparations for the War of the Revolution were in a most unsettled and depressing condition, especially the supplies for the Continental army, the Provincial Congressmadeademandonthepeopleforthirteenthousandwarmcoatstobereadyforthesoldiers by cold weather. There were no great contractors then as now to supply the cloth and make the garments,butbyhundredsofhearthstonesthroughoutthecountrywool-wheelsandhand-loomswere startedeagerlyatwork,andtheorderwasfilledbythehandiworkofpatrioticAmericanwomen.In therecordbookofsomeNewEnglandtownsmaystillbefoundthelistsofthecoat-makers.Inthe inside of each coat was sewed the name of the town and the maker. Every soldier volunteering for eightmonths'servicewasgivenoneofthesehomespun,home-made,all-woolcoatsasabounty.So highly were these "Bounty Coats" prized, that the heirs of soldiers who were killed at Bunker Hill beforereceivingtheircoatsweregivenasumofmoneyinstead.Thelistofnamesofsoldierswho thenenlistedisknowntothisdayasthe"CoatRoll,"andthenamesofthewomenwhomadethecoats might form another roll of honor. The English sneeringly called Washington's army the "Homespuns." It was a truthful nickname, but there was deeper power in the title than the English scoffersknew. Thestartingupofpower-loomsandthewonderfulgrowthofwoollenmanufacturedidnotcrowdout homespun as speedily in America as in England. When the poet Whittier set out from the Quaker farmhousetogotoBostontoseekhisfortune,heworeahomespunsuiteverypartofwhich,eventhe hornbuttons,wasofdomesticmanufacture.ManyamanbornsinceWhittierhasgrowntomanhood clothedforevery-daywearwhollywithhomespun;andmanyaboyislivingwhowassenttocollege dressedwhollyina"full-cloth"suit,withhornbuttonsorbuttonsmadeofdiscsofheavyleather. DuringtheCivilWarspinningandweavingwererevivedartsintheConfederatecities;and,aseverin earlierdays,provedamostvaluableeconomicresourceunderrestrictedconditions.Inthehomeofa friend in Charleston, South Carolina, an old, worm-eaten loom was found in a garret where it had lainsincetheembargoin1812.Itwassetupin1863,andplantationcarpentersmademanylikeitfor neighbors and fellow-citizens. All women in the mountain districts knew how to use the loom, and taughtweavingtomanyothers,bothwhiteandblack.Aportionofthewarp,whichwascotton,was spun at home; more was bought from a cotton-factory. My friend sacrificed a great number of excellent wool-mattresses; this wool was spun into yarn and used for weft, and formed a most gratefulanddignifiedadditiontothevaried,grotesque,andinterestingmakeshiftsofthewardrobeof theSouthernConfederacy. Thoughweavingonhand-loomsinourNorthernandMiddlestatesispracticallyextinct,saveasto theweavingofragcarpets(andthatonlyinfewcommunities),intheSouthallisdifferent.Inallthe mountain and remote regions of Kentucky, Tennessee, Georgia, the Carolinas, and I doubt not in Alabama,bothamongthewhiteandnegromountain-dwellers,hand-weavingisstillahouseholdart. The descendants of the Acadians in Louisiana still weave and wear homespun. The missions in the mountains encourage spinning and weaving; and it is pleasant to learn that many women not only pursuethesehandicraftsfortheirhomeuse,butsomesecureagoodlivingbyhand-weaving,earning ten cents a yard in weaving rag carpets. The coverlet patterns resemble the ones already described. Names from Waynesville, North Carolina, are "Washington's Diamond Ring," "Nine Chariot Wheels"; from Pinehurst come "Flowery Vine," "Double Table," "Cat Track," "Snow Ball and Dew Drop,""SnakeShed,""FlowersintheMountains."AtPinehursttheoldsettlers,ofsturdyScotchstock, allweave.Theymakecloth,allcotton;clothofcottonwarpandwoolfillingcalleddrugget;dimity,a heavycottonusedforcoverlets;ayarnjeanwhichhaswoolwarpandfilling,andcottonjeanwhichis cottonwarpandwoolfilling;homespunisaheavycloth,ofcottonandwoolmixed.Allbuycotton warp or "chain," as they call it, ready-spun from the mills. This is known by the name of bunchthread. These Pinehurst weavers still use home-made dyes. Cotton is dyed black with dye made by steeping the bark of the "Black Jack" or scrub-oak mixed with red maple bark. Wool is dyed black with a mixture of gall-berry leaves and sumac berries; for red they use a moss which they find growingontherocks,andwhichmaybethelichenRoccellatinctoria or dyer's-moss; also madder root,andsassafrasbark.Yellowisdyedwithlaurelleaves,or"dye-flower,"ayellowflowerofthe sunflowertribe;laurelleavesand"dye-flower"togethermadeorange-red.Blueisobtainedfromthe plentifulwildindigo;andforgreen,theclothoryarnisfirstdyedbluewithindigo,thenboiledina decoctionofhickorybarkandlaurelleaves.Abrightyellowisobtainedfromaclaywhichabounds inthatneighborhood,probablylikearedferruginouslimestonefoundinTennessee,whichgivesa splendid,fastcolor;whentheclayisbakedandgrounditgivesafine,artistic,dullred.Purpledye comesfromcedartopsandlilacleaves;brownfromanextractofwalnuthulls. Theaffectionateregardwhichallgoodworkmenhavefortheirtoolsandimplementsinhandcraftsis foundamongtheseSouthernweavers.Oneassuresmethatherloveforherloomisasforahuman companion. The machines are usually family heirlooms that have been owned for several generations,andaretreasuredlikerelics. CHAPTERXI GIRLS'OCCUPATIONS Hatchelling and carding, spinning and reeling, weaving and bleaching, cooking, candle and cheese making,werenottheonlyhouseholdoccupationsofourbusygrandmotherswhentheywereyoung;a scoreofdomesticdutieskepteverbusytheirreadyhands. Some notion of the qualifications of a housekeeper over a century ago may be obtained from this advertisementinthePennsylvaniaPacketofSeptember23,1780: "WantedataSeatabouthalfaday'sjourneyfromPhiladelphia,onwhicharegoodimprovementsand domestics, A single Woman of unsullied Reputation, an affable, cheerful, active and amiable Disposition; cleanly, industrious, perfectly qualified to direct and manage the female Concerns of country business, as raising small stock, dairying, marketing, combing, carding, spinning, knitting, sewing,pickling,preserving,etc.,andoccasionallytoinstructtwoyoungLadiesinthoseBranchesof Oeconomy,who,withtheirfather,composetheFamily.Suchapersonwillbetreatedwithrespectand esteem,andmeetwitheveryencouragementduetosuchacharacter." Respectandesteem,forsooth!anddueencouragementtosuchamiracleofsaintlinessandcapacity; lighttermsindeedtoapplytosuchacharacter. There is, in the library of the Connecticut Historical Society, a diary written by a young girl of Colchester,Connecticut,intheyear1775.HernamewasAbigailFoote.Shesetdownherdailywork, andtheentriesrunlikethis:— "Fix'd gown for Prude,—Mend Mother's Riding-hood,—Spun short thread,—Fix'd two gowns for Welsh'sgirls,—Cardedtow,—Spunlinen,—WorkedonCheese-basket,—Hatchel'dflaxwithHannah, we did 51 lbs. apiece,—Pleated and ironed,—Read a Sermon of Doddridge's,—Spooled a piece,— Milkedthecows,—Spunlinen,did50knots,—MadeaBroomofGuineawheatstraw,—Spunthreadto whiten,—SetaReddye,—HadtwoScholarsfromMrs.Taylor's,—Icardedtwopoundsofwholewool andfeltNationly,—Spunharnesstwine,—Scouredthepewter." She tells also of washing, cooking, knitting, weeding the garden, picking geese, etc., and of many visitstoherfriends.Shedippedcandlesinthespring,andmadesoapintheautumn.Thislatterwasa tryingandburdensomedomesticduty,butthesoftsoapwasimportantforhomeuse. Alltherefusegreasefromcooking,butchering,etc.,wasstoredthroughthewinter,aswellaswoodashes from the great fireplaces. The first operation was to make the lye, to "set the leach." Many familiesownedastronglymadeleach-barrel;othersmadeasortofbarrelfromasectionofthebark ofthewhitebirch.Thisbarrelwasplacedonbricksorsetataslightangleonacirculargrooveina wood or stone base; then filled with ashes; water was poured in till the lye trickled or leached out through an outlet cut in the groove, into a small wooden tub or bucket. The water and ashes were frequentlyreplenishedastheywasted,andthelyeaccumulatedinalargetuborkettle.Ifthelyewas notstrongenough,itwaspouredoverfreshashes.Anold-timereceiptsays:— "ThegreatDifficultyinmakingSoapcomeisthewantofJudgmentoftheStrengthoftheLye.Ifyour LyewillbearupanEggoraPotatosoyoucanseeapieceoftheSurfaceasbigasaNinepenceitis juststrongenough." Thegreaseandlyewerethenboiledtogetherinagreatpotoverafireoutofdoors.Ittookaboutsix bushelsofashesandtwenty-fourpoundsofgreasetomakeabarrelofsoap.Thesoftsoapmadeby thisprocessseemedlikeacleanjelly,andshowednotraceoftherepulsivegreasethathelpedtoform it.Ahardsoapalsowasmadewiththetallowofthebayberry,andwasdeemedespeciallydesirable fortoiletuse.Butlittlehardsoapwaspurchased,evenincityhomes. It was a common saying: "We had bad luck with our soap," or good luck. The soap was always carefully stirred one way. The "Pennsylvania Dutch" used a sassafras stick to stir it. A good smart workercouldmakeabarrelofsoapinaday,andhavetimetositandrestintheafternoonandtalkher luckover,beforegettingsupper. Thissoftsoapwasusedinthegreatmonthlywashingswhich,foracenturyafterthesettlementofthe colonies, seem to have been the custom. The household wash was allowed to accumulate, and the washingdoneonceamonth,orinsomehouseholdsonceinthreemonths. Thomas Tusser's rhymed instructions to good housekeepers as to the washing contain chiefly warningstothehousekeeperagainstthieves,thus:— "Drysun,drywind, Safebind,safefind. Gowashwell,saithsummer,withsunIshalldry; Gowringwell,saithwinter,withwindsoshallI. Totrustwithoutheedistoventureajoint, Givetaleandtakecountisahousewifelypoint." AbigailFootewroteofmakingabroomofGuineawheat.Thiswasnotbroom-corn,forthatuseful plantwasnotgrowninConnecticutforthepurposeofbroom-makingtilltwentyyearsormoreafter shewroteherdiary.BroomsandbrushesweremadeofitinItalynearlytwocenturiesago.Benjamin Franklin,whowaseverquicktouseanddevelopanythingthatwouldbenefithisnativecountry,and was ever ready to take a hint, noted a few seeds of broom-corn hanging on an imported brush. He plantedtheseseedsandraisedsomeofthecorn;andThomasJeffersonplacedbroom-cornamongthe productionsofVirginiain1781.Bythistimemanyhadplantedit,butnosystematicplanofraising broom-cornabundantlyforthemanufactureofbroomswasplannedtill1798,whenLeviDickenson, aYankeefarmerofHadley,Massachusetts,plantedhalfanacre.Fromthishemadebetweenoneand twohundredbroomswhichhepeddledinahorse-cartinneighboringtowns.Thefollowingyearhe plantedanacre;andthetallbroom-cornwithitsspreadingpaniclesattractedmuchattention.Though hewasthoughtvisionarywhenhepredictedthatbroommanufacturewouldbethegreatestindustryin thecounty,andthoughhewassneeringlytoldthatonlyIndiansoughttomakebrooms,hepersevered; and his neighbors finally planted and made brooms also. He carried brooms soon to Pittsfield, to New London, and in 1805 to Albany and Boston. So rapid was the increase of manufacture that in 1810seventythousandbroomsweremadeinthecounty.Sincethenmillionsofdollars'worthhave goneforthfromthefarmsandvillagesinhisneighborhood. Mr.Dickensonatfirstscrapedtheseedfromthebrushwithaknife;thenheusedasortofhoe;thena coarsecomblikearipple-comb.Hetiedeachbroombyhand,withthehelpofanegroservant.Much ofthisworkcouldbedonebylittlegirls,whosoongavegreathelpinbroommanufacture;though thefinalsewing(whentheneedlewaspressedthroughwithaleather"palm"suchassailorsuse)had tobedonebythestronghandsofgrownwomenandmen. Doubtless Abigail Foote made many an "Indian broom," as well as her brooms of Guinea wheat, whichmayhavebeenaspecialhomemanufactureofherneighborhood;formanyfibres,leaves,and strawswereusedlocallyinbroom-making. Anotherdutyofthewomenoftheold-timehouseholdwasthepickingofdomesticgeese.Geesewere raised for their feathers more than as food. In some towns every family had a flock, and their clankingwasheardalldayandsometimesallnight.Theyroamedthestreetsallsummer,eatinggrass bythehighwaysandwallowinginthepuddles.Sometimestheywereyokedwithagoose-yokemade ofashinglewithaholeinit.Inmidwintertheywerekeptinbarnyards,buttherestoftheyearthey spentthenightinthestreet,eachflocknearthehomeofitsowner.Itissaidthatoneoldgooseofeach flock always kept awake and stood watch; and it was told in Hadley, Massachusetts, that if a young manchancedtobeoutlate,asforinstancea-courting,hisreturnhomewakenedthegeesethroughout thevillage,whosoundedtheunseasonablehourwithaterribleclamor.Theymadesomuchnoiseon summerSundaysthattheyseriouslydisturbedchurchservices;andbecamesuchnuisancesthatatlast theboyskilledwholeflocks. Goose-pickingwascruelwork.Threeorfourtimesayearwerethefeathersstrippedfromthelive birds.Astockingwaspulledoverthebird'sheadtokeepitfrombiting.Sometimestheheadwasthrust intoagoosebasket.Thepickershadtowearoldclothesandtiecoversoverthehair,asthedownflew everywhere. The quills, used for pens, were never pulled but once from a goose. Palladius, On Husbondrie, written in the fourth century, and Englished in the fifteenth century, tells of goosepicking:— "Twiceayeredeplumedmaytheybe, Inspryngentymeandharvesttyme." The old Latin and English times for picking were followed in the New World. Among the Dutch, geesewereeverywhereraised;forfeather-bedswere,ifpossible,moredesiredbytheDutchthanthe English. In a work entitled Good Order established in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, written by a Quaker in 1685, he urges that schools be provided where girls could be instructed in "the spinning of flax, sewing, and making all sorts of useful needle work, knitting of gloves and stockings, making of straw-works, as hats, baskets, etc., or any other useful art or mystery." It was a century before his "makingofstraw-works"wascarriedout,nottilllargerimportationsofstrawhatsandbonnetscame tothiscountry. WhenthebeautifulandintricatestrawbonnetsofItalianbraid,Genoese,Leghorn,andothers,were broughthere,theyweretoocostlyformanytopurchase;andmanyattempts,especiallybycountrybredgirls,weremadetoplaitathomestrawbraidstoimitatetheseenviedbonnets.Manytownsclaim thefirstAmericanstrawbonnet;infact,theattemptswerealmostsimultaneous.ToBetseyMetcalfof Providence,RhodeIsland,isusuallyaccordedthehonorofstartingthestraw-hatbusinessinAmerica. The earliest recorded effort to manufacture straw head-wear is shown in a patent given to Mrs. SibyllaMastersofPhiladelphia,forusingpalmettoandstrawforhats.ThisMrs.Masterswasthefirst American, man or woman, ever awarded a patent in England. The first patent issued by the United States to a woman was also for an invention in straw-plaiting. A Connecticut girl, Miss Sophia Woodhouse,wasgivenaprizefor"leghornhats"whichshehadplaited;andshetookoutapatentin 1821foranewmaterialforbonnets.Itwasthestalks,abovetheupperjoint,ofspear-grassandredtop grassgrowingsoprofuselyinWeathersfield.Fromthisshehadanationalreputation,andaprizeof twenty guineas was given her the same year by the London Society of Arts. The wife of President JohnQuincyAdamsworeoneofthesebonnets,tothegreatprideofherhusband. Whenthebonnetwasbraidedandsewedintoshape,ithadtobebleached,foritwasthedarknatural straw. I don't know the domestic process in general use, but an ingenious family of sisters in Newburyportthusaccomplishedtheirbleaching.Theyboredholesintheheadofabarrel;tiedstrings to each new bonnet; passed the strings through the holes and carefully plugged the openings with wood.Thisleftthebonnetshanginginsidethebarrel,whichwassetoveranold-fashionedfoot-stove filledwithhotcoalsonwhichsulphurhadbeenplaced.Thefumesoftheburningsulphuraroseand filledthebarrel,andwerecloselyretainedbyquiltswrappedaroundit.Whenthebonnetsweretaken out, they were clear and white. The base of a lignum-vitæ mortar made into the proper shape with layersofpasteboardformedthemouldonwhichthebonnetcrownwaspressed. Even before they could spin girls were taught to knit, as soon as their little hands could hold the needles. Sometimes girls four years of age could knit stockings. Boys had to knit their own suspenders.Allthestockingsandmittensforthefamily,andcoarsesocksandmittensforsale,were madeinlargenumbers.Muchfineknittingwasdone,withmanyintricateandelaboratestitches;those knownasthe"herring-bone"and"foxandgeese"weregreatfavorites.Bytheuseofcuriousstitches initialscouldbeknitintomittens;anditissaidthatoneyoungNewHampshiregirl,usingfineflaxen yarn,knitthewholealphabetandaverseofpoetryintoapairofmittens;whichIthinkmusthavebeen long-armedmittsforladies'wear,tohavespaceenoughforthepoetry. To knit a pair of double mittens was a sharp and long day's work. Nancy Peabody's brother of Shelburne,NewHampshire,camehomeonenightandsaidhehadlosthismittenswhilechoppingin thewoods.Nancyrantoabundleofwoolinthegarret,cardedandspunabighankofyarnthatnight. It was soaked and scoured the next morning, and in twenty-four hours from the time the brother announced his loss he had a fine new pair of double mittens. A pair of double hooked and pegged mittenswouldlastforyears.Pegging,Iamtold,washeavycrocheting. An elaborate and much-admired form of knitting was the bead bags and purses which were so fashionableintheearlyyearsofthiscentury,thoughIhaveseensomeknittedbagsofcolonialdays. Greatvarietyandingenuitywereshowninthesebagsandpurses.Someborelandscapesandfigures; others were memorials done in black and white and purple beads, having so-called "mourning designs,"suchasweepingwillows,gravestones,urns,etc.,withthenameofthedeceasedpersonand date of death. Beautiful bags were knitted to match wedding-gowns. Knitted purses were a favorite tokenandgiftfromfairhandstohusbandorlover.Watchchainsweremoreunusual;theywereknit inageometricaldesign,wereaboutayardlongandaboutthree-eighthsofaninchindiameter.OneI sawhadintinylettersingiltbeadsthedateandthewords"RemembertheGiver."Inalltheseknitted andcrochetedbagsthebeadshadtobestrungbyaruleinadvance;inanelaboratepatternofmany colorsitmayeasilybeseenthatthemistakeofasinglebeadinthestringingwouldspoiltheentire design.Theywerethereforeneveracheapformofdecorativework.Fivedollarswasoftenpaidfor knittingasinglebag.AvariedgroupfromthecollectionofMr.J.HowardSwiftofChicagoishere shown. Nettingwasanotherdecorativehandiwork.Nettedfringesforedgingthecoverlets,curtains,testers, andvalancesofhigh-postbedsteadswereusuallymadeofcottonthreadortwine,andwhentuftedor tasselled were a pretty finish. A finer silk or cotton netting was used for trimming sacks and petticoats. A letter written by Mrs. Carrington from Mount Vernon in 1799 says of Mrs. President Washington:— "Hernettingisasourceofgreatamusementtoherandissoneatlydonethatalltheyoungerpartof thefamilyareproudoftrimmingtheirdresseswithit,andhavefurnishedmewithawholesuitsothat Ishallappear'aladomestique'atthefirstpartywehavewhenIgethome." Netted purses and work-bags also were made similar to the knitted ones. A homelier and heavier nettingoftwinewasoftendoneathomeforsmallfishing-nets. Previous to the Revolution there was a boarding-school kept in Philadelphia in Second Street near Walnut,byaMrs.SarahWilson.Shethusadvertised:— "Youngladiesmaybeeducatedinagenteelmanner,andpainstakentoteachtheminregardtotheir behaviour,onreasonableterms.Theymaybetaughtallsortsfineneedlework,viz.,workingoncatgut or flowering muslin, sattin stitch, quince stitch, tent stitch, cross-stitch, open work, tambour, embroidering curtains or chairs, writing and cyphering. Likewise waxwork in all its several branches,neverasyetparticularlytaughthere;alsohowtotakeprofilesinwax,tomakewaxflowers andfruitsandpin-baskets." There was no limit to the beauty and delicacy of the embroidery of those days. I have seen the beautiful needlework cap and skirt worn by Governor Thomas Johnson of Maryland, when he was christened. The coat of arms of both the Lux and Johnson families, the name Agnes Lux and Anne Johnson, and the words "God bless the Babe" are embroidered upon them in most delicate fairy stitches.ThebabegrewuptobethegovernorofhisstateinRevolutionarytimes. In an old book printed in 1821, a set of rules is given for teaching needlework, and it is doubtless exactlywhathadbeenthemethodforacentury.Thegirlswerefirstshownhowtoturnahemona pieceofwastepaper;thentheyproceededtothevariousstitchesinthisorder:tohem,tosewandfell aseam,todrawthreadsandhemstitch,togatherandsewongathers,tomakebuttonholes,tosewon buttons,todoherring-bonestitch,todarn,tomark,totuck,whip,andsewonafrill.Thereisalsoa longandtedioussetofquestionsandanswerslikeacatechism,explainingthevariousstitches. Therewasonepieceofneedleworkwhichwasdonebyeverylittlegirlwhowascarefullybroughtup: she sewed a sampler. These were worked in various beautiful and difficult stitches in colored silks andwoolonastrong,looselywovencanvas. In English collections, the oblong samplers, long and narrow, are as a rule older than the square samplers; and it is safe to believe the same of American samplers. Fortunately, many of them are dated,butthisancientonefromtheQuincyfamilyhasnodate.TheoldestsamplerIhaveeverseenis inthecollectionofantiquearticlesnowinPilgrimHallatPlymouth.Itwasmadebyadaughterofthe Pilgrims.Theverseembroideredonitreads:— "LoreaStandishisMyName. LordGuidemyHeartthatImaydothyWill, AndfillmyHandswithsuchconvenientskill AswillconducetoVirtuevoidofShame, AndIwillgivetheGlorytothyName." Similarverses,andportionsofhymns,areoftenfoundonthesesamplers.Afavoriterhymewas:— "WhenIwasyoungandinmyPrime, YouseehowwellIspentmyTime. Andbymysampleryoumaysee WhatcaremyParentstookofme." Averyspiritedverseis:— "You'llmendyourlifeto-morrowstillyoucry. InwhatfarCountrydoesTo-morrowlie? Itstayssolong,isfetch'dsofar,Ifear 'Twillprovebothveryold,andverydear." Strange trees and fruits and birds and beasts, wonderful vines and flowers, were embroidered on thesedomestictapestries. Inthehandsofaskilfulworker,thesamplermightbecomeathingofbeautyandhistoricalinterest; andthestitcheslearnedandpractisedonitmightbeusedonmoreambitiouspiecesofwork,which often took the shape of the family coat of arms. Such was the work of Mary Salter (Mrs. Henry Quincy),whowasbornin1726,anddiedin1755.ItisthearmsofSalterandBryanpartyperpale uponashield.Richinembossedworkingoldandsilverthread,itisabeautifultestimonialtothedeft andproficienthandoftheyoungneedlewomanwhoembroideredit. Sometimespretentiouspicturesrepresentingeventsinpublicorfamilyhistory,wereembroideredin crewels on sampler linen. The largest and funniest one I have ever seen was the boarding-school climax of glory of Miss Hannah Otis, sister of the patriot James Otis. It is a view of the Hancock House, Boston Common, and vicinity, as they appeared from 1755 to 1760. Across its expanse GovernorHancockridestriumphantly;andthefairmaidlookingoverthegardenwallattheCharles River is Dorothy Quincy, afterwards Madam Hancock. This triumph of school-girl affection and needle-craft,whollydevoidofperspectiveorproportion,madeagreatsensationinBoston,initsday. Another large piece of similar work is here represented. The original is in the library of the American Antiquarian Society at Worcester, Massachusetts. It is a view of the Old South Church, Boston; and with its hooped dames and coach and footman, has a certain value as indicating the costumeofthetimes.Itisdated1756. Familiar to the descendants of old New England families, are the embroidered mourning pieces. Theseareseldommorethanacenturyold.Onthemweepingwillowsandurns,tombsandmourning figures,namesofdepartedfriendswithdatesoftheirdeaths,andepitaphswereworkedwithvastskill, andweresomuchadmiredandweresuchadelightfulhomedecoration,thatitisnounusualthingto findtheseelaboratemementomoriswithemptyspacesfornamesanddates,waitingforsomeoneto die, and still unfilled, unfinished, blankly commemorative of no one, while the industrious embroidererhaslongsincegonetothetombshesodeftlyandeagerlypictured,andhername,too,is forgotten. Tambourworkwasafavoriteformofembroidery.In1788MadamHesseliuswrotethusinjestofher daughter,aPhiladelphiamiss:— "Totambouroncrapeshehasagreatpassion, Becausehereoflateithasbeenmuchthefashion. Theshadesaredis-sorted,thespanglesarescattered Andforwantofduecarethecrapehasgottattered." Tambouring with various stitches on different kinds of net made pretty laces; and these were apparentlythelacesusuallyworkedandworn.Intheformofrichveilsandcollarsscoresofintricate andbeautifulstitcheswereused,andexquisitearticlesofwearweremanufactured. Astripofnetfootingpinnedandsewntopaper,withreelsoffinelinenthreadandthreadedneedle attached,isshownintheaccompanyingillustrationjustasitwasleftbythedeftandindustrioushands thathavebeenfoldedforacenturyinthedust.Thepatternandstitchesinthisdesignaresimple;the design was first pricked in outline with a pin, then worked in. Other stitches and patterns, none of themthemostelaborateanddifficult,areshownintheinfant'scapandcollars,andthestripsoflace and"modesty-piece." In the seventeenth century lace-making with bobbins was taught; it is referred to in Judge Sewall's diary; and a friend has shown me the cushion and bobbins used by her far-away grandmother who learnedthevariousstitchesinLondonataguineaastitch. Thefeminineloveofcolor,thelongingfordecoration,aswellasprideinskillofneedle-craft,found riotousexpansioninquilt-piecing.Athriftyeconomy,too,adesiretouseupallthefragmentsandbits ofstuffswhichwerenecessarilycutoutintheshaping,chieflyofwomen'sandchildren'sgarments, helpedtomakethepatchworkasatisfaction.Theamountoflabor,ofcarefulfitting,neatpiecing,and elaborate quilting, the thousands of stitches that went into one of these patchwork quilts, are to-day almostpainfultoregard.Womenrevelledinintricateanddifficultpatchwork;theyeagerlyexchanged patterns with one another; they talked over the designs, and admired pretty bits of calico, and pondered what combinations to make, with far more zest than women ever discuss art or examine highartspecimenstogetherto-day.Therewasonesatisfactoryconditioninthework,andthatwasthe quality of the cottons and linens of which the patchwork was made. They were none of the slimsy, composition-filled,aniline-dyedcalicoesofto-day.Apieceof"chaney,""patch,"or"copper-plate"a hundred years old will be as fresh to-day as when woven. Real India chintzes and palampours are foundinthesequilts,beautifulandartisticstuffs,andthefirm,unyielding,high-priced,"real"French calicoes. Asenseoftheidealizationofquilt-piecingisgivenalsobythequaintdescriptivenamesappliedtothe various patterns. Of those the "Rising-sun," "Log Cabin," and "Job's Trouble" are perhaps the most familiar."Job'sTrouble"wassimplyhoneycomborhexagonalblocks."TosetaJob'sTrouble,"was tocutoutanexacthexagonforapattern(preferablyfromtin,otherwisefromfirmcardboard);tocut outfromthismanyhexagonsinstiffbrownpaperorletterpaper.Thesewerecoveredwiththebitsof calicowiththeedgesturnedunder;thesidesweresewedcarefullytogetheroverandover,tillafirm expansepermittedtheremovalofthepapers. The name of the pattern seldom gave an expression of its character. "Dove in the Window," "Rob PetertoPayPaul,""BlueBrigade,""Fan-mill,""Crow'sFoot,""ChinesePuzzle,""Fly-wheel,""Loveknot,""Sugar-bowl,"aresimplywhimsoffancy.Floralnames,suchas"DutchTulip,""Sunflower," "RoseofSharon,""Bluebells,""World'sRose,"mightsuggestaloveofflowers.Sometimesdesigns areappliquedonwithsomeregardforcoloring.Ioncesawaquiltthatwasamiracleoftediouswork. Thesquaresofwhitecottoneachheldaslenderstemwithtwoleavesofgreenorlightbrowncalico, surmountedbyafour-petalledflowerofhigh-coloredcalico,—pink,red,blue,etc.Thisdesignwas allcarefullyhemmeddown.TheeffectwassurprisinglyOriental. When the patchwork was completed, it was laid flatly on the lining (often another expanse of patchwork), with layers of wool or cotton wadding between, and the edges were basted all around. Fourbarsofwood,abouttenfeetlong,"thequiltin'-frame,"wereplacedatthefouredges,thequilt wassewedtothemwithstoutthread,thebarscrossedandtiedfirmlyatcorners,andthewholeraised onchairsortablestoaconvenientheight.Thusaroundtheoutstretchedquiltadozenquilterscouldsit runningthewholetogetherwithfancifulsetdesignsofstitching.Whenaboutafootoneithersidewas whollyquilted,itwasrolleduponitsbar,andtheworkwenton;thusthevisiblequiltdiminished,like Balzac's Peau de Chagrin, in a united and truly sociable work that required no special attention, in which all were facing together and all drawing closer together as the afternoon passed in intimate gossip. Sometimes several quilts were set up. I know of a ten days' quilting-bee in Narragansett in 1752. In early days calicoes were not common, but every one had woollen garments and pieces, and the quilts made of these were of grateful warmth in bleak New England. All kinds of commonplace garmentsandremnantsofdecayedgentilitywerepressedintoserviceinthesequilts:portionsofthe moth-eatenanddiscardeduniformsofmilitia-men,worn-outflannelsheetsdyedwithsomebrilliant home-dye, old coat and cloak linings, well-worn petticoats. A magnificent scarlet cloak worn by a lord mayor of London and brought to America by a member of the Merritt family of Salisbury, Massachusetts,wentthroughaseriesofadventuresandmigrations,andendeditsdaysassmallbitsof vividcolorcastingagratefulgloryandvarietyonapatchworkquiltintheSacovalleyofMaine.To thisdayatvenduesorsalesofoldcountryhouseholdsinNewEngland,therewillbehandedoutgreat rollsofwoollenpiecestobeusedforpatchworkquiltsorragcarpets,andtheyfindpurchasers. These woollen quilts had a thin wadding, and were usually very closely quilted, so they were quite flat.Theywerecalled"pressedquilts."AnoldfarmwifesaidtomeinNewHampshire,"Girlswon't take the trouble to make pressed quilts nowadays, it's as much as they'll do to tack a puff," that is, makealightquiltwiththickwaddingonlytackedtogetherfromfronttoback,atregularintervals.A pressedquiltwhichIsawwasquiltedininchsquares.Anotherhadafan-patternwithsunflowerleaf border;anotherwasquiltedintheelaboratepatternknownas"feather-work." Asmuchingenuitywasexercisedinthedesignofthequiltingasinthepatternofthepatchwork,and the marking for the quilt design was exceedingly tedious, since, of course, no drawings could be used.Irememberseeingonequiltmarkedbychalkingstringswhichwerestretchedtightlyacrossat thedesiredintervals,andheldupandsnappedsmartlydownonthequilt,leavingafaintchalkylineto guide the eye and needle. Another simple design was to quilt in rounds, using a saucer or plate to formaperfectcircle. The most elaborate quilt I know of is of silk containing portions of the wedding-dress of Esther Powel, granddaughter of Gabriel Bernon; she was married to James Helme in 1738. When her granddaughter was married in 1795, the quilt was still unfinished, and a woman was hired who workedonitforsixmonths,puttingamiracleoffinestitchesinthequilting.Ithinkshemusthave been very old and very slow, for the wages paid her were but twenty cents a week and "her keep," whichwasverysmallpayeveninthatdayofsmallwages.WhenWashingtoncametoNewport,this splendidquiltwassenttogracethebeduponwhichtheheroslept. Isaidafewsummersagotoafarmer'swifewholivedontheoutskirtsofasmallNewEnglandhillvillage:"Yourhomeisverybeautiful.Fromeverywindowtheviewisperfect."Sheansweredquickly: "Yes,butit'sawfullonelyforme,forIwasborninWorcester;stillIdon'tmindaslongaswehave plenty of quiltings." In answer to my questions she told me that the previous winter she had "kept count,"andshehadhelpedattwenty-eight"regular"quiltings,besidesherownhomepatchworkand quilt-making, and much informal help of neighbors on plain quilts. Any one who has attended a county fair (one not too modernized and spoiled) and seen the display of intricate patchwork and quiltingstillmadeincountryhomes,canseethatitisnotanobsoleteaccomplishment. A form of decorative work in which many women took great delight and became astonishingly skilfulwaswhatwasknown,oratanyrateadvertised,bytheambitioustitleofPapyrotamia.Itwas simplythecuttingoutofstiffpaperofvariousdecorativeandornamentaldesignswithscissors.At thetimeoftheRevolutionitwasevidentlydeemedaveryhighaccomplishment,andthebestpiecesof workwerecarefullycherished,mountedonblackpaper,framedandglazed,andgiventofriendsor bequeathed by will. One old lady is remembered as using her scissors with extraordinary deftness, andamusingherselfanddelightingherfriendsbyoccupyingthehoursofeveryafternoonvisitwith cuttingoutentirelybyhertrainedeyevariousprettyandcuriousdesigns.Valentinesinexceedingly delicate and appropriate patterns, wreaths and baskets of varied flowers, marine views, religious symbols, landscapes, all were accomplished. Coats of arms and escutcheons cut in black paper and mountedonwhitewerehighlyprized.Portraitsilhouetteswerecutwiththeaidofamachinewhich markedandreducedmechanicallyasharpshadowcastbythesitter'sprofilethroughcandle-lightona sheetofwhitepaper.Mrs.LydiaH.Sigourneywroteinrhymeofareveredfriendofheryouth,Mrs. Lathrop,ofaperiodaboutacenturyago:— "Thydextrousscissorsreadytoproduce Theflyingsquirrelorthelong-neck'dgoose, Ordancinggirlswithhandstogetherjoin'd, Ortallspruce-treeswithwreathsofrosestwin'd, Thewell-dress'ddollswhosepaperformdisplay'd, Thypenknife'slaborandthypencil'sshade." Ioncefoundinanoldlacqueredboxinacupboardapaperpacketcontainingallthecut-paperdesigns mentioned in this rhyme—and many more. The workmanship of the "spruce-trees with wreaths of roses twin'd" was specially marvellous. I plainly saw in that design a derivative of the English Maypole and encircling wreaths. This package was marked with the name of the paper-cutter, a Revolutionary dame who died at the beginning of this century. Her home was remote from the NorwichhomeofMrs.Lathrop,andIknowshenevervisitedinConnecticut,yetshemadeprecisely thesamedesignsandindeedallthedesigns.Thisisbutapettyproofamongmanyothermoredecided onesofthefactthateveninthosedaysofscantcommunicationandinfrequentandcontractedtravel, there were as in our own times waves of feminine fancy work, of attempts at artistic expression, which flooded every home, and receding, left behind much decorative silt of varying but nearly universaluselessnessandlaboriouscommonplaceness. Oneofthecut-paperlandscapesofMadamDeming,aBostonladywhowasafamous"papyrotamist," ishereshown.ItisnowownedbyJamesF.Trott,Esq.,ofNiagaraFalls.ItisaviewofBostonstreets just previous to the Revolution. In that handsome volume, the Ten Broeck Genealogical Record, are reproductionsofsomeofthelandscapeviewsbyAlbertinaTenBroeckatthesamedate.Theyshow thehouseandfarmsurroundingsoftheoldTenBroeck"Bouwerie,"theancestralhomeinNewYork, andgiveawonderfullygoodideaofit.Thesearenotindeadsilhouette,foranappearanceofshading isaffordedbyfinelycutlinesandinterveningspaces.Thehighestformofcut-paperreproductionand decorationeverreachedwasbytheEnglishwoman,Mrs.Delaney,whodiedin1788,thefriendofthe DuchessofPortland,andintimateofGeorgeIII.andhisqueen.Shereproducedincoloredpaper,in what she called "paper mosaics," the entire flora of the United Kingdom, and it is said it was impossibleatfirstsighttodistinguishtheseflowersfromtherealones. CHAPTERXII DRESSOFTHECOLONISTS At the time America was settled, rich dress was almost universal in Europe among persons of any wealthorstation.Thedressofplainpeoplealso,suchasyeomenandsmallfarmersandwork-people, wasplentifulandsubstantial,andevenpeasantshadgoodandampleclothing.Materialswerestrongly andhonestlymade,clothingwassewedbyhand,andlastedlong.Thefashionsdidnotchangefrom yeartoyear,andtherichorstoutclothesofonegenerationwerebequeathedbywillandwornbya secondandevenathirdandfourthgeneration. In England extravagance in dress in court circles, and grotesqueness in dress among all educated folk,hadbecomeabhorrenttothatclassofpersonswhowerecalledPuritans;andasanexpressionof their dislike they wore plainer garments, and cut off their flowing locks, and soon were called Roundheads.TheMassachusettssettlerswhowerePuritansdeterminedtodiscourageextravagancein dressintheNewWorld,andattemptedtocontrolthefashions. The Massachusetts magistrates were reminded of their duties in this direction by sanctimonious spurringfromgentlemenandministersinEngland.OnesuchmeddlerwrotetoGovernorWinthrop in 1636: "Many in your plantacions discover too much pride." Another stern moralist reproved the colonistsforwritingtoEngland"forcutworkcoifes,fordeepstammeldyes,"tobesenttothemin America.Others,prohibitedfromwearingbroadlaces,werecriticisedfororderingnarrowones,for "goingasfarrastheymay." In1634theMassachusettsGeneralCourtpassedrestrictingsumptuarylaws.Theselawsforbadethe purchase of woollen, silk, or linen garments, with silver, gold, silk, or thread lace on them. Two yearslateranarrowbindingoflacewaspermittedonlinengarments.Thecolonistswereorderednot tomakeorbuyanyslashedclothes,exceptthosewithoneslashineachsleeveandanotherslashinthe back."Cutworks,imbroiddorneedleorcappsbands&rayles,"andgoldorsilvergirdles,hat-bands, belts,ruffs,andbeaverhatswereforbidden.Libertywasthriftilygiven,however,tothecoloniststo wear out any garments they chanced to have unless in the form of inordinately slashed apparel, immoderategreatsleevesandrails,andlongwings,whichcouldnotpossiblybeendured. In 1639 men's attire was approached and scanned, and "immoderate great breeches" were tabooed; also broad shoulder-bands, double ruffles and capes, and silk roses, which latter adornment were wornontheshoes. In 1651 the Court again expressed its "utter detestation that men and women of meane condition, education,andcalling,shouldtakevpponthemthegarbeofgentlemenbywearingeofgoldorsilver lace,orbuttonsorpoyntsattheirknees,orwalkeingreatboots,orwomenofthesameranketowear silkeortiffanyhoodsorscarfs." Manypersonswere"presented"underthislaw,menboot-wearersaswellaswomenhood-wearers.In Salem,in1652,amanwaspresentedfor"excessinbootes,ribonds,gouldandsilverlace." InNewbury,in1653,twowomenwerebroughtupforwearingsilkhoodsandscarfs,buttheywere dischargedonproofthattheirhusbandswereworth£200each.InNorthampton,intheyear1676,a wholesaleattemptwasmadebythemagistratestoabolish"wickedapparell."Thirty-eightwomenof theConnecticutvalleywerepresentedatonetimeforvariousdegreesoffinery,andasoftoosmall estatetowearsilk.AyounggirlnamedHannahLymanwaspresentedfor"wearingsilkinafflaunting manner,inanoffensivewayandgarbnotonlybeforebutwhenshestoodpresented."Thirtyyoung menwerealsopresentedforsilk-wearing,longhair,andotherextravagances.Thecalmflauntingof her silk in the very eyes of the Court by sixteen-year-old Hannah was premonitory of the waning power of the magistrates, for similar prosecutions at a later date were quashed. By 1682 the tables were turned and we find the Court arraigning the selectmen of five towns for not prosecuting offenders against these laws as in previous years. In 1675 the town of Dedham had been similarly warned and threatened, but apparently was never prosecuted. Connecticut called to its aid in repressingextravagantdresstheeconomicpoweroftaxationbyorderingthatwhoeverworegoldor silverlace,goldorsilverbuttons,silkribbons,silkscarfs,orbonelaceworthoverthreeshillingsa yardshouldbetaxedasworth£150. Virginiafussedalittleover"excessincloathes."SirFrancisWyattwasenjoinednottopermitanybut theCouncilandtheheadsofHundredstoweargoldontheirclothes,ortowearsilktilltheymadeit —which was intended more to encourage silk-making than to discourage silk-wearing. And it provided that unmarried men should be assessed according to their apparel, and married men accordingtothatoftheirfamily.In1660Virginiacolonistswereorderedtoimportno"silkestuffein garmentsorinpeecesexceptforwhoodsandscarfs,norsilverorgoldlace,norbonelaceofsilkor threads,norribbandswroughtwithgoldorsilverinthem." Theministersdidnotfailintheirdutyinattemptingtomarchwiththemagistratesintherestriction andsimplificationofdress.Theypreachedoftenagainst"intolerableprideinclothesandhair."Even when the Pilgrims were in Holland the preachers had been deeply disturbed over the dress of their minister's wife, Madam Johnson, who wore "lawn coives" and busks, and a velvet hood, and "whalebonesinherpetticoatbodice,"andworstofall,"atopishhat."Oneoftheearliestinterferences ofRogerWilliamswaswhenheinstructedthewomenofSalemparishalwaystowearveilsinpublic. ButJohnCottonpreachedtothemthenextSunday,andheprovedtothedamesandgoodwivesthat veilswereasignandsymbolofunduesubjectiontotheirhusbands,andSalemwomensoonproved theirrightsbycomingbarefacedtomeeting. Mr.Davenportpreachedaboutmen'shead-gear,thatmenmusttakeofftheirhats,andstandupatthe announcement of the text. And if New Haven men wore their hats in meeting, I can't see why they fussedsoovertheQuakers'broadbrims. Afterawhilethewholechurchinterfered.In1769thechurchatAndoverputittovotewhether"the parishDisapproveofthefemalesexsittingwiththeirHatsonintheMeeting-houseintimeofDivine ServiceasbeingIndecent."InthetownofAbington,in1775,itwasvotedthatitwas"anindecentway thatthefemalesexdositwiththeirhatsandbonnetsontoworshipGod."Stillanothertownvotedthat itwasthe"Town'sMind"thatthewomenshouldtaketheirbonnetsoffinmeetingandhangthem"on the peggs." We do not know positively, but I suspect that the bonnets continued to grace the heads insteadofthepegsinAndover,Abington,andothertowns. Toknowhowthecolonistsweredressed,wehavetolearnfromthelistsoftheirclothingwhichthey left by will, which lists are still preserved in court records; from the inventories of the garments furnished to each settler who came by contract; from the orders sent back to England for new clothing; from a few crude portraits, and from some articles of ancient clothing which are still preserved. When Salem was settled the Massachusetts Bay Company furnished clothes to all the men who emigratedandsettledthattown.Everymanhadfourpairsofshoes,fourpairsofstockings,apairof Norwichgarters,fourshirts,twosuitsofdoubletandhoseofleatherlinedwithoiledskin,awoollen suit lined with leather, four bands, two handkerchiefs, a green cotton waistcoat, a leather belt, a woollen cap, a black hat, two red knit caps, two pairs of gloves, a mandillion or cloak lined with cotton,andanextrapairofbreeches.Littleboysjustassoonastheycouldwalkworeclothesmade preciselyliketheirfathers':doubletswhichwerewarmdoublejackets,leatherknee-breeches,leather belts, knit caps. The outfit for the Virginia planters was not so liberal, for the company was not so wealthy. It was called a "Particular of Apparell." It had only three bands, three pairs stockings, and three shirts instead of four. The suits were of canvas, frieze, and cloth. The clothing was doubtless lighter,becausetheclimateofVirginiawaswarmer.Therewerenogloves,nohandkerchiefs,nohat, no red knit caps, no mandillion, no extra pair of breeches. They had "a dozen points," which were simply tapes to hold up the clothing and fasten it together. The clothing of the Piscataquay planters variedbutlittlefromtheothers.Theyhadscarletwaistcoatsandcassocksofcloth,notofleather.We are apt to think of the Puritan settlers of New England as sombre in attire, wearing "sad-colored" garments,butgreenandscarletwaistcoatsandscarletcapscertainlyaffordedagaytouchofcolor. A young boy, about ten years old, named John Livingstone, was sent from New York to school in NewEnglandatthelatterpartoftheseventeenthcentury.An"accountofhisnewlinenandclothes" hasbeenpreserved,anditgivesanexcellentideaoftheclothingofasonofwealthypeopleatthat time.Itreadsthus,intheoldspelling:— "Elevennewshirts, 4pairlacedsleves, 8PlaneCravats, 4CravatswithLace, 4StripteWastecoatswithblackbuttons, 1FloweredWastecoat, 4Newosenbrigbritches, 1Grayhatwithablackribbon, 1Grayhatwithablewribbon, 1Dousinblackbuttons, 1Dousincolouredbuttons, 3Pairgoldbuttons, 3Pairsilverbuttons, 2PairFineblewStockings, 1PairFineredStockings, 4WhiteHandkerchiefs, 2SpeckledHandkerchiefs, 5PairGloves, 1StuffCoatwithblackbuttons, 1ClothCoat, 1Pairblewplushbritches, 1PairSergebritches, 2Combs, 1PairnewShooes, Silk&ThredtomendhisCloathes." Osenbrig was a heavy, strong linen. This would seem to be a summer outfit, and scarcely warm enoughforNewEnglandwinters.Otherschoolboysatthatdatehaddeerskinbreeches. Leatherwasmuchused,especiallyintheformoftannedbuckskinbreechesandthedeerskinhunters' jackets, which have always and deservedly been a favorite wear, since they are one of the most appropriate,useful,comfortable,andpicturesquegarmentseverwornbymeninanyactiveoutdoor life. Soon in the larger cities and among wealthy folk a much more elaborate and varied style of dress becamefashionable.Thedressoflittlegirlsinfamiliesofwealthwascertainlyalmostasformaland elegant as the dress of their mammas, and it was a very hampering and stiff dress. They wore vast hoop-petticoats,heavystays,andhigh-heeledshoes.Theircomplexionswereobjectsofspecialcare; theyworemasksofclothorvelvettoprotectthemfromthetanningraysofthesun,andlong-armed gloves. Little Dolly Payne, who afterwards became the wife of President Madison, went to school wearing"awhitelinenmasktokeepeveryrayofsunshinefromthecomplexion,asunbonnetsewed on her head every morning by her careful mother, and long gloves covering the hands and arms." Ourpresentloveofoutdoorlife,ofathleticsports,andourindifferencetobeingsunburned,makes suchpainstakingvanityseemmostunbearablytiresome. In 1737 Colonel John Lewis sent from Virginia to England for a wardrobe for a young miss, a school-girl,whowashisward.Thelistreadsthus:— "Acapruffleandtucker,thelace5shillingsperYard, 1pairWhiteStays, 8pairWhiteKidgloves, 2paircolouredkidgloves, 2pairworstedhose, 3pairthreadhose, 1pairsilkshoeslaced, 1pairmoroccoshoes, 1HoopCoat, 1Hat, 4pairplainSpanishshoes, 2paircalfshoes, 1mask, 1fan, 1necklace, 1Girdleandbuckle, 1piecefashionableCalico, 4yardsribbonforknots, 1½yardCambric, Amantuaandcoatoflute-string." In the middle of the century George Washington also sent to England for an outfit for his stepdaughter, Miss Custis. She was four years old, and he ordered for her, pack-thread stays, stiff coats of silk, masks, caps, bonnets, bibs, ruffles, necklaces, fans, silk and calamanco shoes, and leatherpumps.Therewerealsoeightpairsofkidmittsandfourpairsofgloves;thesewiththemasks showthatthislittlegirl'scomplexionwasalsotobewellguarded. AlittleNewEnglandMissHuntington,whentwelveyearsold,wassentfromNorwich,Connecticut, tobe"finished"inaBostonboarding-school.Shehadtwelvesilkgowns,butherteacherwrotehome thatshemusthaveanothergownof"arecentlyimportedrichfabric,"whichwasatoncebought for herbecauseitwas"suitableforherrankandstation." Through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries there was a constant succession of rich and gay fashions; for American dress was carefully modelled upon European, especially English modes. Men'swearwasasrichaswomen's.AnEnglishtravellersaidthatBostonwomenandmenin1740 dressedasgayeverydayascourtiersinEnglandatacoronation.Butwithalltherichnesstherewas no wastefulness. The sister of the rich Boston merchant, Peter Faneuil, who built Faneuil Hall, sent her gowns to London to be turned and dyed, and her old ribbons and gowns to be sold. But her gowns,whicharestillpreserved,areofmagnificentstuffs. NewYorkersweredressedingauzes,silks,andlaces;evenwomenQuakersinPennsylvaniahadtobe warnedagainstwearinghoop-petticoats,scarletshoes,andpuffedandrolledhair. ThefamilyofsofrugalamanasBenjaminFranklindidnotescapeaslightinfectionoftheprevailing loveforgaydress.InthePennsylvaniaGazettethisadvertisementappearedin1750:— "Whereas on Saturday night last the house of Benjamin Franklin of this city, Printer, was broken open, and the following things feloniously taken away, viz., a double necklace of gold beads, a womanslongscarletcloakalmostnew,withadoublecape,awomansgown,ofprintedcottonofthe sortcalledbrocadeprint,veryremarkable,thegrounddark,withlargeredroses,andotherlargeand yellow flowers, with blue in some of the flowers, with many green leaves; a pair of womens stays covered with white tabby before, and dove colour'd tabby behind, with two large steel hooks and sundryothergoods,etc." Southern dames, especially of Annapolis, Baltimore, and Charleston, were said to have the richest brocadesanddamasksthatcouldbeboughtinLondon.Everysailing-vesselthatcamefromEurope broughtboxesofsplendidclothing.TheheroesoftheRevolutionhadahighregardfordress.The patriot,JohnHancock,wasseenatnoondaywearingascarletvelvetcap,abluedamaskgownlined withvelvet,whitesatinembroideredwaistcoat,blacksatinsmall-clothes,whitesilkstockings,andred moroccoslippers.GeorgeWashingtonwasmostpreciseinhisordersforhisclothing,andworethe richestsilkandvelvetsuits. AtruedescriptionofaBostonprinterjustaftertheRevolutionshowshisstyleofdress:— "He wore a pea-green coat, white vest, nankeen small clothes, white silk stockings, and pumps fastenedwithsilverbuckleswhichcoveredatleasthalfthefootfrominsteptotoe.Hissmallclothes weretiedatthekneeswithribbonofthesamecolourindoublebows,theendsreachingdowntothe ancles.Hishairinfrontwaswellloadedwithpomatum,frizzledorcrapedandpowdered.Behind,his natural hair was augmented by the addition of a large queue called vulgarly a false tail, which, enrolledinsomeyardsofblackribbon,hunghalf-waydownhisback." Manylettersstillexistwrittenbyprominentcitizensofcolonialtimesorderingclothing,chieflyfrom Europe.Richlaces,silkmaterials,velvet,andfineclothoflightandgaycolorsabound.Frequently theyorderednightgownsofsilkanddamask.Thesenightgownswerenotagarmentwornatnight,but asortofdressing-gown.Harvardstudentswerein1754forbiddentowearthem.Underthenameof banyan they became very fashionable, and men had their portraits painted in them, for instance the portraitofNicholasBoylston,nowinHarvardMemorialHall. WiththeincreaseoftradewithChinamanyChineseandEastIndiangoodsbecamefashionable,with hundreds of different names. A few were of silk or linen, but far more of cotton; among them nankeenswerethemostimportedandevenforwinterwear. Bothmenandwomenworeformanyyearsgreatcloaksorcapes,knownbyvariousnames,suchas roquelaures, capuchins, pelisses, etc. Women's shoes were of very thin materials, and paper-soled. They wore to protect these frail shoes, when walking on the ill-paved streets, various forms of overshoes,knownasgoloe-shoes,clogs,pattens,etc.Whenriding,womeninthecolonieswore,as didQueenElizabeth,asafeguard,alongover-petticoattoprotectthegownfrommudandrain.This wassometimescalledafoot-mantle,alsoaweather-skirt.Atravellertellsofseeingarowofhorses tiedtoafenceoutsideaQuakermeeting.Somecarriedsidesaddles,somemen'ssaddlesandpillions. On the fence hung the muddy safeguards the Quaker dames had worn outside their drab petticoats. Menworesherry-valliesorspatter-dashestoprotecttheirgaybreeches. Therewasonefashionwhichlastedforacenturyandahalfwhichwassountidy,souncomfortable, socostly,andsoridiculousthatwecanonlywonderthatitwasenduredforasingleseason—Imean thefashionofwig-wearingbymen.Thefirstcolonistsworetheirownnaturalhair.TheCavaliershad longandperfumedlove-locks;andthoughthePuritanshadbeencalledRoundheads,theirhairwaved, also,overthebandorcollar,andoftenhungovertheshoulder.TheQuakers,also,worelonglocks, asthelovelyportraitofWilliamPennshows.Butby1675wigshadbecomecommonenoughtobe denounced by the Massachusetts government, and to be preached against by many ministers; while otherministersproudlyworethem.Wigswerecalledhorridbushesofvanity,andhundredsofother disparaging names, which seemed to make them more popular. They varied from year to year; sometimestheyswelledoutatthesides,orroseingreatpuffs,orturnedunderinheavyrolls,orhung inbraidsandcurlsandpig-tails;theyweremadeofhumanhair,ofhorsehair,goat's-hair,calves'and cows' tails, of thread, silk, and mohair. They had scores of silly and meaningless names, such as "gravefull-bottom,""giddyfeather-top,""long-tail,""fox-tail,""drop-wig,"etc.Theywereboundand braidedwithpink,green,red,andpurpleribbons,sometimesallthesecolorsononewig.Theywere veryheavy,andveryhot,andveryexpensive,oftencostingwhatwouldbeequaltoahundreddollars to-day. The care of them was a great item, often ten pounds a year for a single wig, and some gentlemen owned eight or ten wigs. Little children wore them. I have seen the bill for a wig for WilliamFreeman,dated1754;hewasachildsevenyearsold.Hisfatherpaidninepoundsforit,and the same for wigs for his other boys of nine and ten. Even servants wore them; I read in the MassachusettsGazetteofarunawaynegroslavewho"woreoffacurlofhairtiedaroundhishead with a string to imitate a wig," which must have been a comical sight. After wigs had become unfashionable,thenaturalhairwaspowdered,andwastiedinaqueueintheback.Thiswasanuntidy, troublesomefashion,whichruinedtheclothes;forthehairwassoakedwithoilorpomatumtomake thepowderstick. Comparativelylittlejewellerywasworn.Afewmenhadgoldorsilversleeve-buttons;afewwomen hadbraceletsorlockets;nearlyallofanysocialstandinghadrings,whichwerechieflymourningrings.Asthesegloomyornamentsweregiventoallthechiefmournersatfunerals,itcanbeseenthat amanoflargefamilyconnections,orofprominentsocialstanding,mightacquireagreatmanyof them.Theministeranddoctorusuallyhadaringateveryfuneraltheyattended.Itistoldofanold Salemdoctor,whodiedin1758,thathehadatankardfullofmourning-ringswhichhehadsecuredat funerals. Men sometimes wore thumb-rings, which seems no queerer than the fact that they carried muffs.OldDr.PrinceofBostoncarriedanenormousbearskinmuff. Gloves also were gifts at funerals, sometimes in large numbers. At the funeral of the wife of Governor Belcher, in 1738, over a thousand pairs were given away. Rev. Andrew Eliot, who was pastoroftheNorthChurchinBoston,hadtwenty-ninehundredpairofglovesgivenhiminthirty-two years;manyofthesehesold.Inallthecolonies,whethersettledbyDutch,English,French,German, orSwedes,gloveswereuniversallygivenatfunerals. Theearlywatcheswereclumsyaffairs,oftengloboseinshape,withadetachedoutercase. To show how few of the first colonists owned either watches or clocks, we have the contemporary evidence of Roger Williams. When he rowed thirty miles down the bay, and disputed with the "Foxians"atNewportin1672,itwasagreedthateachpartyshouldbeheardinturnforaquarterofan hour. But no clock was available in Newport; and among the whole population that flocked to the debate,therewasnotasinglewatch.Williamssays,"unlesswehadClocksandWatchesandQuarter Glasses(asinsomeShips)itwasimpossibletobeexactlypunctual,"sotheyguessedatthetime. Sun-dialswereoftensetinthestreetinfrontofhouses;andnoon-marksonthethresholdofthefront doororwindow-sillhelpedtoshowthehouroftheday. CHAPTERXIII JACK-KNIFEINDUSTRIES ChepaRosewasoneofthoseold-timechap-menknownthroughoutNewEnglandas"trunkpedlers." Bearingonhisbackbymeansofaharnessofstouthempenwebbingtwooblongtrunksofthinmetal, —probablytin,—forforty-eightyearshehadappearedateveryconsiderablefarmhousethroughout NarragansettandeasternConnecticut,atintervalsasregularastheactionandappearanceofthesun, moon,andtides;andeverywherewashegreetedwithaneagerwelcome. Chepawas,ashesaid,"halfInjun,halfFrench,andhalfYankee."FromhisIndianhalfhehadhislove oftrampingwhichmadehimchoosethewanderingtradeoftrunkpedler;hisFrenchhalfmadehima good trader and talker; while his Yankee half endowed him with a universal Yankee trait, a "handiness," which showed in scores of gifts and accomplishments and knacks that made him as warmlygreetedeverywhereaswerehisattractivetrunks. Hewasafamousmedicine-brewer;fromtherootsandherbsandbarksthathegatheredashetramped alongthecountryroadshemanufacturedacoughmedicinethatwastwiceaseffectiveandtwiceas bitter as old Dr. Greene's; he made famous plasters, of two kinds,—plasters to stick and plasters to crawl,thelattertofollowthecourseofthediseaseorpain;heconcoctedwonderfulink;heshowed Jenny Greene how to bleach her new straw bonnet with sulphur fumes; he mended umbrellas, harnesses, and tinware; he made glorious teetotums which the children looked for as eagerly and unfailinglyastheydidforhistopsandmarbles,hisribbonsandGibraltars. OnedayhecamethroughthewoodstoJohnHelme'shousecarryinginhishandastoutbirchenstaff orsmalltree-trunk,whichhelaiddownontheflatmillstoneimbeddedinthegrassatthebackdoor, whilehedisplayedandsoldhiswaresandhadhisdinner.Hethenwentouttothedooryardwithlittle JohnnyHelme,satdownonthemillstone,lightedhispipe,openedhisjack-knife,anddiscoursedthus: — "Johnny, I'm going to tell you how to make an Injun broom. Fust, you must find a big birch-tree. Thereain'tsomanybigonesnowofanykindasthereuseterbewhenwemadecanoesandplatesand cradles,andwaterspouts,andtroughs,andfurnitooroutofthebark.ButyoumustgetayallowbirchtreeasstraightasHandedzactlyfiveinchacrost.Now,howkinyetellhowfuritisacrostatreeafore yecutitoff?Ikintellbythelightofmyeye,butthat'sInjunlarnin'.Lemmetellyoubybook-larnin'. Measureitround,andmakethestringinthreeparts,andonepart'llbewhatitisacrost.Ifit'snineinch round, it'll be three inch acrost, and so on. Now don't you forgit that. Wal! you must get a straight birch-treefiveinchacrostwhereyoucutitoff,justlikethisone.Thenmakethesticksixfootlong. Thenonefootandtwoinchfromthebigendcutaringroundthebark;wal!saytwoinchwidejust likethis.Thenyoutakeoffallthebarkbelowthatring.Thenyoubegina-sliveringwithasharpjackknife,leetleteenyflatsliverswayuptothebarkring.Whenit'sallsliveredupthinandflatthere'llbe a leetle hard core left inside at the top, and you must cut it out careful. Then you take off the bark abovetheringandbeginsliveringdown.Leaveastickjustbigenoughforahandle.Thentiethislast lotofsliversdowntightovertheotherswithahard-twistedtowstring,andtrim'emoffeven.Then whittleoffandscrapeoffagoodsmoothhandlewithaholeinthetoptoputaloopofcowhidein,to hangitupbyorderly. "Yes,Johnny,I'vegotjustenoughInjuninmetomakeagoodbroom;notenoughtobeashamedof andnotenoughtobeproudof.Butyoumustn'tforgitthis;amoccasin'sthebestcoveramaneverhad on his feet in the woods; the easiest to get stuff for, the easiest to make, the easiest to wear. And a birch-barkcanoe'sthebestboatamancanhaveontheriver.It'stheeasiesttogetstufffor,easiestto carry,thefastesttopaddle.Andasnowshoe'sthebesthelpamancanhaveinthewinter.It'stheeasiest togetstufffor,theeasiesttowalkon,theeasiesttocarry.Andjustsoabirchbroomisthebestbroom amanoratanyrateawomancanhave;fourbestthingsandallof'emisInjun.Nowyoujustslipin and take that broom to Phillis. I see her the last time I was here a-using a mizrable store broom to cleanheroven—andjustaskherifIcan'thaveamugofapple-jackaforeIgotobed." IfthisscenehadbeenlaidinNewHampshireorVermontinsteadofNarragansett,theIndianbroom would have been no novelty to any boy or house-servant. For in the northern New England states, heavily wooded with yellow birch, every boy knew how to make the Indian brooms, and every household in country or town had them. There was a constant demand in Boston for them, and sometimescountrystoreshadseveralhundredofthebroomsatatime.ThroughoutVermontseventy years ago the uniform price paid for making one of these brooms was six cents; and if the splints were very fine and the handle scraped with glass, it took nearly three evenings to finish it. Indian squaws peddled them throughout the country for ninepence apiece. Major Robert Randolph told in fashionableLondoncirclesabouttheyear1750,thatwhenhewasaboyinNewHampshireheearned hisonlyspending-moneybymakingthesebroomsandcarryingthemonhisbacktenmilestotownto sellthem.Girlscouldwhittleaswellasboys,andoftenexchangedthebirchbroomstheymadefora bitofribbonorlace. Asimplerandlessdurablebroomwasmadeofhemlockbranches.Alocalrhymesaysofthem:— "Drivingattwilightthewaitingcows, Witharmsfull-ladenwithhemlockboughs, Tobetracedonabroomerethecomingday Fromitseasternchambersshoulddanceaway." The hemlock broom was simply a bunch of close-growing, full-foliaged hemlock branches tied tightly together and wound around with hempen twine, "traced," the rhyme says, with a sharply pointed handle, which the boys had shaped and whittled, driven well into the bound portion. This makingofbroomsfordomesticuseisbutanexampleofoneofthemanyscoreofusefuldomestic and farm articles which were furnished by the natural resources of every wood-lot, adapted by the Yankeejack-knifeandafewequallysimpletools,ofwhichthegimletmighttakethesecondplace. Itwassoemphaticallyawoodenageincolonialdaysthatitseemedalmostthattherewerenohard metalsusedforanyarticleswhichto-dayseemsonecessarilyofmetal.Ploughswereofwood,and harrows;cart-wheelswereoftenwhollyofwoodwithouttires,thoughsometimesironplatescalled strakes held the felloes together, being fastened to them by long clinch-pins. The dish-turner and cooperwereartisansofimportanceinthosedays;piggins,noggins,runlets,keelers,firkins,buckets, churns,dye-tubs,cowles,powdering-tubs,weremadewithcharyornouseofmetal. The forests were the wealth of the colonies in more ways than one; and it may be said that they furnishedbothdomesticwinteremploymentandtoysfortheboys.TheNewEnglandforestswerefull of richly varied kinds of wood, suitable for varied uses, with varied qualities—pliability, stiffness, durability,weight,strength;anditissurprisingtoseehowquicklythewoodswereassignedtofixed uses, even for toys; in every state pop-guns were made from elder; bows and arrows of hemlock; whistlesofchestnutorwillow. TheRev.JohnPierpontwrotethusofthewhittlingofhischildhooddays:— "TheYankeeboybeforehe'ssenttoschool Wellknowsthemysteriesofthatmagictool— Thepocket-knife.Tothathiswistfuleye Turns,whilehehearshismother'slullaby. Andintheeducationofthelad, Nolittlepartthatimplementhathhad. Hispocket-knifetotheyoungwhittlerbrings Agrowingknowledgeofmaterialthings, Projectiles,music,andthesculptor'sart. Hischestnutwhistle,andhisshingledart, Hiselderpop-gunwithitshickoryrod, Itssharpexplosionandreboundingwad, Hiscorn-stalkfiddle,andthedeepertone Thatmurmursfromhispumpkin-leaftrombone Conspiretoteachtheboy.Tothesesucceed Hisbow,hisarrowofafeatheredreed, Hiswindmillraisedthepassingbreezetowin, Hiswater-wheelthatturnsuponapin. Thusbyhisgeniusandhisjack-knifedriven Erelonghe'llsolveyouanyproblemgiven; Makeyoualocomotiveoraclock, Cutacanalorbuildafloatingdock: Makeanythinginshortforseaorshore, Fromachild'srattletoaseventy-four. Makeit,saidI—ay,whenheundertakesit, He'llmakethethingandmakethethingthatmakesit." Theboy'sjack-knifewasapossessionsohighlydesired,socloselytreasuredinthosedayswhenboys had so few belongings, that it is pathetic to read of many a farm lad's struggles and long hours of weary work to obtain a good knife. Barlow knives were the most highly prized for certainly sixty years, and had, I am told, a vast popularity for over a century. May they forever rest in glorious memory, as they lived the happiest of lots! To be the best beloved of a century of Yankee boys is indeedanenviabledestiny.AfewbatteredoldsoldiersofthisvastarmyofBarlowjack-knivesstill lingertoshowusthehomelyfeaturesbornebythecentury'swellbeloved:theSmithsonianInstitution cherishessomeofcolonialdays;andfromDeerfieldMemorialHallareshownthreeBarlowknives whosepictureshouldappeartoeveryAmericansomethingmorethanthepresentmentofdullbitsof woodandrustedmetal.TheseYankeejack-kniveswere,saidDanielWebster,thedirectforerunnersof thecotton-ginandthousandsofnobleAmericaninventions;theNewEnglandboy'swhittlingwashis alphabetofmechanics. In this connection, let us note the skilful and utilitarian adaptation not only of natural materials for domestic and farm use, but also natural forms. The farmer and his wife both turned to Nature for implements and utensils, or for parts adapted to shape readily into the implements and utensils of every-day life. When we read of the first Boston settlers that "the dainty Indian maize was eat with clam-shells out of wooden trays," we learn of a primitive spoon, a clam-shell set in a split stick, which has been used till this century. Large flat clam-shells were used and highly esteemed by housewives,asskimming-shellsinthedairy,toskimcreamfromthemilk.Gourd-shellsmadecapital bowls, skimmers, dippers, and bottles; pumpkin-shells, good seed and grain holders. Turkey-wings made an ever-ready hearth-brush. In the forests were many "crooked sticks" that were more useful thananystraightonescouldbe.Whenthemowerwantedanewsnatheorsnead,ashecalledit,forhis scythe, he found in the woods a deformed sapling that had grown under a log or twisted around a rock in a double bend, which made it the exact shape desired. He then whittled it, dressed it with a draw-shave, fastened the nebs with a neb-wedge, hung it with an iron ring, and was ready for the mowing-field. Sled-runnersweremadefromsaplingsbentattheroot.Thebestthillsforacartwerethosenaturally shapedbygrowth.Thecurvedpiecesofwoodintheharnessofadraught-horse,calledthehames,to whichthetracesarefastened,couldbefoundintwistedgrowths,ascouldalsoportionsofox-yokes. Thegambrelsusedinslaughteringtimes,hay-hooks,long-handledpothooksforbrickovens,could allbecutready-shaped. Thesmallerunderbrushandsaplingshadmanyuses.Sledandcartstakeswerecutfromsome;long bean-polesfromothers;speciallystraightcleansticksweresavedforwhip-stocks.Sectionsofbirch barkcouldbebottomedandservedforbaskets,orforpotashcans,whilecapitalfeed-boxescouldbe madeinthesamewayofsectionscutfromahollowhemlock.Elmrindandportionsof brown ash buttswerenaturalmaterialsforchair-seatsandbaskets,aswereflagsfordoor-mats.Forkedbranches madegeeseandhogyokes.Hogsthatranatlargehadtowearyokes.Itwasorderedthattheseyokes shouldmeasureaslongastwiceandahalftimesthedepthoftheneck,whilethebottompiecewas threetimesthewidthoftheneck. In the shaping of heavy and large vessels such as salt-mortars, pig troughs, maple-sap troughs, the jack-knife was abandoned and the methods of the Indians adopted. These vessels were burnt and scrapedoutofasinglelog,andthushadaweightystabilityandpermanence.Woodenbreadtroughs were also made from a single piece of wood. These were oblong, trencher-shaped bowls about eighteen inches long; across the trough ran lengthwise a stick or rod on which rested the sieve, searse, or temse, when flour was sifted into the trough. The saying "set the Thames (or temse) on fire,"meantthathardworkandactivefrictionwouldsetthewoodentemseonfire. Sometimesthemouldforanox-bowwasdugoutofalogofwood.Ofteneraplankofwoodwascut into the desired shape as a frame or mould, and fastened to a heavy backboard. The ox-bow was steamed,placedinthebow-mould,pinnedin,andthencarefullyseasoned. The boys whittled cheese-ladders, cheese-hoops, and red-cherry butter-paddles for their mothers' dairy; also many parts of cheese-presses and churns. To the toys enumerated by Rev. Mr. Pierpont, theyaddedbox-trapsand"figure4"trapsofvarioussizesforcatchingvari-sizedanimals. Manyfarmimplementsotherthanthosealreadynamedweremade,andmanyportionsoftoolsand implements;amongthemwereshovels,swingling-knives,sled-neaps,stanchions,handlesforspades andbill-hooks,rake-stales,fork-stales,flails.AgroupofoldfarmimplementsfromMemorialHall, atDeerfield,isheregiven.Thehandlelessscythe-snatheissaidtohavecomeoverontheMayflower. The making of flails was an important and useful work. Many were broken and worn out during a greatthreshing.Bothparts,thestafforhandle,andtheswingleorswiple,werecarefullyshapedfrom well-chosenwood,tobejoinedtogetherlaterbyaneelskinorleatherstrap. Theflailislittleseenonfarmsto-day.Threshingandwinnowingmachineshavetakenitsplace.The fatherofRobertBurnsdeclaredthreshingwithaflailtobetheonlydegradingandstultifyingwork onafarm;butIneverknewanotherfarmerwhodeemeditso,thoughitwascertainlyhardwork.Last autumn I visited the "Poor Farm" on Quonsett Point in old Narragansett. In the vast barn of that beautifulandsparselyoccupiedcountryhome,twopowerfulmen,picturesqueinbluejeanstuckedin heavyboots,inscarletshirtsandgreatstrawhats,werethreshingoutgrainwithflails.Bothmenwere blind,onewholly,theotherpartiallyso—andwere"TownPoor."Theirstrong,barearmsswungthe long flails in alternate strokes with the precision of clockwork, bringing each blow down on the piled-up wheat-straw which covered the barn-floor, as they advanced, one stepping backward while the other stepped forward, and then receded with mechanical and rhythmic regularity, a step and a blow,fromoneendofthelongbarntotheother.Thehalf-blindthreshercouldseetheoutlineofthe open door against the sunlight, and his steps and voice guided his sightless fellow-worker. Thus healthful and useful employment was given to two stricken waifs through the use of primitive methods, which no modern machine could ever have afforded; and the blue sky and bay, with autumnalsunshineonthepiled-upgoldenwheatonfloorandinrack,idealizedandevenmadeofthe threshers,paupersthoughtheywere,abeautifulpictureofold-timefarm-life. Wood for axe-helves was carefully chosen, sawed, split, and whittled into shape. These were then scraped as smooth as ivory with broken glass. Some men had a knack that was almost genius in shapingtheseaxe-helvesandselectingthewoodforthem.Inacountrywherethebroad-axewasso important an implement—used every day by every farmer; where lumbermen and loggers and shipwrightsswungtheaxetheentiredayformanymonths,menwerereadytopaydoublepricefora well-madehelve,soshapedastolettheheavyblowjaraslittleaspossiblethehandholdingthehelve. OneMainefarmerboastedthathehadmadeandsoldfivehundredaxe-helves,andreceivedagood price for them all; that some had gone five hundred miles out west, others a hundred miles "up country";andofnooneofthemwhichhehadsethaditeverbeensaid,asoftheaxeinDeuteronomy, "When a man goeth into the wood to hew wood, and his hand fetcheth a stroke with the axe to cut downatree,thentheheadslippethfromthehelve." A little money might be earned by cutting heel-pegs for shoemakers. These were made of a maple trunk sawed across the grain, making the circular board thin enough—a half inch or so—for the correct length of the pegs. The end was then marked in parallel lines, then grooved across at right angles,thensplitasmarkedintopegswithknifeandmallet.AstoryistoldofafarmernamedMeigs, who, on the winter ride to market in company with a score or more of his neighbors, stole out at night from the tavern fireside where all were gathered to the barn where the horses were put up. Therehetookanoat-bagoutofaneighbor'ssleighandpouredoutagoodfeedforhisownhorse.In the morning it was found that his horse had not relished the shoe-pegs that had been put in his manger;andtheirtelltalepresenceplainlypointedoutthethief.Theseshoe-pegswereaventureof twofarmerboyswhichtheirfatherwastakingtotowntosellforthem,andinindignationtheboys thrustonthethiefthenameofShoe-pegsMeigs,whichhecarriedtotheendofhislife. Whentheboyshadlearnedtouseafewothertoolsbesidestheirjack-knives,astheyquicklydid,they couldgetsawedstavesfromthesawmillsandmakeupshooksofstavesboundwithhoopsofredoak, formolasseshogsheads.ThesewouldbeshippedtotheWestIndies,andformanimportantlinkinthe profitable rum and slave round of traffic that bound Africa, New England, and the West Indies so closelytogetherinthosedays.Aconstantoccupationformenandboyswasmakingrivedorshaved shingles. They were split with a beetle and wedge. A smart workman could by sharp work make a thousand a day. There may still be occasionally found in what were well-wooded pine regions, in shedorbarn-lofts,orinoldwood-houses,astoutoakenframeorracksuchaswasatonetimefound innearlyeveryhouse.Itwasknownasabundling-mouldorshingling-mould.Atthebottomofthis strongframewerelaidstraightsticksandtwistedwitheswhichextendedupthesides.Uponthesewere evenly packed the shingles, two hundred and fifty in number, known as a "quarter." The withes or "binders" were twisted strongly around when the number was full. The mould held them firmly in place while being tied. These were sealed by law and shipped. Cullers of staves were regularly appointedtownofficers.Thedimensionsoftheshinglesweregivenbylawandrule;fifteeninches wasthelengthforoneperiodoftime,andthebundling-mouldconformedtoit. Daniel Leake of Salisbury, New Hampshire, made during his lifetime and was paid for a million shingles.Duringtheyearshewasaccomplishingthiscolossalworkheclearedthreehundredacresof land, tapped for twenty years at least six hundred maple-trees, making sometimes four thousand poundsofsugarayear.Hecouldmowsixacresaday,givingninetonsofhay;hisstrong,longarms cut a swath twelve feet wide. In his spare time he worked as a cooper, and he was a famous drummaker. Truly there were giants in those days. I love to read of such vigorous, powerful lives; they seemtobeofaraceentirelydifferentfromourown.Still,amongourNewEnglandforbearsIdoubt notmanyofushadsomesuchgiants,whoconqueredforustheearthandforests. Onemarktheshinglingindustryleftonthehousehold.Inthesawingofblockstherewouldalwaysbe sometooknottyorgnarledtosplitintoshingles.Thesewerewhatwereknowninthevernacularas "on-marchantable shingle-bolts." They formed in many a pioneer's home and in many a pioneer school-house good solid seats for children and even grown people to sit on. And even in pioneer meeting-housestheseblockscouldsometimesbeseen. Otherfittingsforthehousewerewhittledout.Long,heavy,woodenhingeswerecutfromhorn-beam forcupboardandclosetdoors;evensheddoorswerehungonwoodenhingesaswerehousedoorsin theearliestcolonialdays.Door-latchesweremadeofwood,alsooblongbuttonstofastenchamber andcupboarddoors. NewEnglandhousekeepersprizedthesmooth,close-grainedbowlswhichtheIndiansmadefromthe veined and mottled knots of maple-wood. They were valued at what seems high prices for wooden utensilsandwereoftennamedandbequeathedinwills.Maple-woodhasbeenusedandesteemedby manynationsforcupsandbowls.TheoldEnglishandGermanvesselknownasamazerwasmadeof maple-wood, often bound and tipped with silver. Spenser speaks in his Shepheard's Calendar of "a mazeryroughtofthemaplewood."Awell-knownspecimeninEnglandbearsthelegendinGothic text:— "IntheNameoftheTrinitie Fillethekupanddrinketome." SometimesaspeciallyskilfulYankeewouldrivaltheIndiansinshapingandwhittlingoutthesebowls. Ihaveseentworeallybeautifulonescarvedwithdoubleinitials,andonewithaScripturalreference, said to be the work of a lover for his bride. Another token of affection and skill from the whittler werecarvedbusks,whichwerethebroadandstrongstripsofwoodplacedincorsetsorstaystohelp to form and preserve the long-waisted, stiff figure then fashionable. One carved busk bears initials andanappropriatelysentimentaldesignofarrowsandhearts. On the rim of spinning-wheels, on shuttles, swifts, and on niddy-noddys or hand-reels I have seen letteringbythehandsofrusticlovers.Afinelycarvedlegendonahand-reelreads:— "POLLYGREENE,HERREEL. Countyourthreadsright Ifyoureelinthenight WhenIamfaraway. June,1777." PerhapssomeRevolutionarysoldiergavethisasapartinggifttohissweetheartontheeveofbattle. Onhispowder-horntherusticcarverbestowedhisbestanddaintiestwork.Emblembothofwarand of sport, it seemed worthy of being shaped into the highest expression of his artistic longing. A chapter, even a book, might be filled with the romantic history and representations of American powder-horns;patriotism,sentiment,andadventureshedequalhalosoverthem.Monthsofthepatient work of every spare moment was spent in beautifying them, and their quaintness, variety, and individuality are a never-ceasing delight to the antiquary. Maps, plans, legends, verses, portraits, landscapes,familyhistory,crests,datesofbirths,marriages,anddeaths,listsofbattles,patrioticand religioussentiments,allmaybefoundonpowder-horns.Theyhaveinmanycasesprovedvaluable historical records, and have sometimes been the only records of events. Mr. Rufus A. Grider, of Canajoharie, has made colored drawings of about five hundred of these powder-horns, and of canteensordrinking-horns.Itisunfortunatethattheordinaryprocessesofbook-illustrationgivetoo scantsuggestionofthevariety,beauty,anddelicacyoftheirdecoration,topermitthereproductionof someofthesepowder-hornsinthesepages. These habits of employing the spare moments of farm-life in the manufacture from wood of farm implements and various aids to domestic comfort, were not peculiar to New England farmers, nor inventedbythem.TheoldEnglishfarmer-author,ThomasTusser,inhisrhymedbook,FiveHundred PointsofGoodHusbandry,writteninthesixteenthcentury(whichSoutheydeclaredtobeoneofthe most curious and formerly one of the most popular books in our language), was careful to give instructions in his "remembrances" and "doings" as to similar industries on the English farm and manorhouse.Hesays:— "Yokes,forks,andsuchotherletbailiespyout Andgatherthesameashewalkethabout; Andafter,atleisure,letthisbehishire, Tobeaththemandtrimthemathomebythefire." Tobeathistoheatunseasonedwoodtohardenandstraightenit. "Ifhop-yardororchardyemeanfortohave, Forhop-polesandcrotchesinloppinggosave. "Saveelm,ash,andcrabtreeforcartandforplow, Savestepforastileofthecrotchofabough; Savehazelforforks,savesallowforrake: Savehulverandthorn,thereofflailfortomake." The Massachusetts Bay settlers came chiefly from the vicinity, many from the same county, where Tusserlivedandfarmed,andwherehispointsofgoodhusbandrywerehouseholdwords;sotheyhad intheirEnglishhomesashadtheirgrandfathersbeforethem,theknowledgeandhabitofsavingand utilizingthevariouswoodsonthefarm,andofoccupyingeveryspareminutewiththeuseful jackknife.ThevariedandbountifultreesoftheNewWorldstimulatedandemphasizedthewhittlinghabit untilitbecameuniversallyacceptedasadistinguishingNewEnglandcharacteristic,aYankeetrait. This constant employment of every moment of the waking hours contributed to impart to New Englandersaregardandmethodoflifewhichisspokenofbymanyoutsiderswithcontempt,namely, acloselygirdedandinvariablehabitofeconomy.Childrenbroughtupinthiswayknewthevalueof everythinginthehousehold,knewthetimeittooktoproduceit,fortheyhadlaboredthemselves,and theygrewtotakecareofsmallthings,nottosquanderandwastewhattheyhadbeensolongatwork on.This,insteadofbeingathingtosneerat,isoneoftheverybestelementsinacommunity,oneof the best securities of character. For sudden leaps to fortune are given to but few, and are seldom lasting,andtheresultsofsuddeninflationsaremoredisastrouseventoacommunitythantoisolated individuals,asmaybeabundantlyprovedbytheearlyhistoryofVirginia.Itwasnotmeannessthat madethewiryNewEnglandfarmersocautiousandexactingintrade,whenthepennieshesavedsent his son through college. It was not meanness which made him refuse to spend money; he had no money to spend, and it was a high sense of honor that kept him from running in debt. It was not meannesswhichsojustlyorderedconditionsandcaredfortheunfortunatethateveninthosedaysof horribledrunkennessoftentherewouldnotbeapauperintheentirevillage.Ithasbeenareproach thatinsometownsthefewtownpoorwerevenduedouttobecaredfor;themodewasharshinits wording,andunfeelinginmethod,butinrealitythepauperfoundahome.Ihaveknowncaseswhere thepauperwasnotonlysupportedbutcherishedinthefamiliestowhoselotshefell. CHAPTERXIV TRAVEL,TRANSPORTATION,ANDTAVERNS WherevertheearliestcolonistssettledinAmerica,theyhadtoadoptthemodesoftravelandtheways ofgettingfromplacetoplaceoftheirpredecessorsandnewneighbors,theIndians.Thesewerefirst —and generally—to walk on their own stout legs; second, to go wherever they could by water, in boats.InMarylandandVirginia,whereforalongtimenearlyallsettlerstriedtobuildtheirhomeson thebanksoftheriversandbays,thetravelwasalmostentirelybyboats;asitwasbetweensettlements onallthegreatrivers,theHudson,Connecticut,andMerrimac. Between the large settlements in Massachusetts—Boston, Salem, and Plymouth—travel was preferably,whentheweatherpermitted,inboats.Thecolonistswentincanoes,orpinnaces,shaped and made exactly like the birch-bark canoes of the Canadian Indians to-day; and in dugouts, which were formed from hollowed pine-logs, usually about twenty feet long and two or three feet wide; bothoftheseweremadeforthembytheIndians.ItwassaidthatoneIndian,workingalone,fellingthe pine-treebytheprimitivewayofburningandscrapingoffthecharredpartswithastonetoolcalleda celt (for the Indians had no iron or steel axes), then cutting off the top in the same manner, then burningoutpartoftheinterior,thenburningandscrapingandshapingitwithoutandwithin,could makeoneofthesedugoutsinthreeweeks.TheIndiansatOnondagastillmakethewoodenmortars theyuseinthesametediousway. WhenthewhitemencametoAmericaingreatships,theIndiansmarvelledmuchatthesize,thinking theywerehollowedoutoftree-trunksaswerethedugouts,andwonderedwheresuchvasttreesgrew. The Swedish scientific traveller, Kalm, who was in America in 1748, was delighted with the Indian canoesanddugouts.HefoundtheSwedesettlersusingthemconstantlytogolongdistancestomarket. Hesaid:— "Theyusuallycarrysixpersonswhohoweverbynomeansmustbeunruly,butsitatthebottomofthe canoeinthequietestmannerpossiblelesttheboatupset.Theyarenarrow,roundbelow,havenokeel andmaybeeasilyoverset.Sowhenthewindisbriskthepeoplemakefor the land. Larger dugouts weremadeforwar-canoeswhichwouldcarrythirtyorfortysavages." Theseboatsusuallykeptclosetotheshore,bothincalmandwindyweather,thoughthenativeswere notafraidtogomanymilesouttoseainthedugouts. The lightness of the birch-bark canoe made it specially desirable where there were such frequent overland transfers. It was and is a beautiful and perfect expression of natural and wild life; as Longfellowwrote:— "...theforest'slifewasinit, Allitsmysteryandmagic, Allthelightnessofthebirchtree, Allthetoughnessofthecedar, Allthelarch'ssupplesinews, Anditfloatedontheriver Likeayellowleafinautumn." The French governor and missionaries all saw and admired these birch-bark canoes. Father Charlevoixwroteabeautifulandvividdescriptionofthem.Alltheearlytravellersnotedtheirticklish balance. Wood, writing in 1634, said, "In these cockling fly-boats an Englishman can scarce sit withoutafearfultottering,"andMadamKnightsacenturylatersaidinhervividEnglishofatripin one:— "The Cannoo was very small and shallow, which greatly terrify'd me and caused me to be very circumspect,sittingwithmyhandsfastoneachside,myeyessteady,notdaringsomuchastolodge mytongueahair'sbredthmoreononesideofmymouththantother,norsomuchasthinkonLott's wife,foraverythoughtwouldhaveoversettourwherry." Whenboatsandvesselswerebuiltbythecolonists,theywereinformsorhadnamesbutlittleusedtoday. Shallop, ketch, pink, and snow are rarely heard. Sloops were early built, but schooner is a modernterm.Batteauandperiaguastillareused;andthegundalow,picturesquewithitslateensail, stillisfoundonournorthernNewEnglandshores. The Indians had narrow foot-paths in many places through the woods. On them foot-travel was possible, though many estuaries and rivers intersected the coast; for the narrow streams could be crossed on natural ford-ways, or on rude bridges of fallen trees, which the English government orderedtobeputinplace. Aslateas1631GovernorEndicottwouldnotgofromSalemtoBostontovisitGovernorWinthrop because he was not strong enough to wade across the fords. He might have done as Governor WinthropdidthenextyearwhenhewenttoPlymouthtovisitGovernorBradford(andittookhim twodaystogetthere);hemighthavebeencarriedacrossthefordspickabackbyanIndianguide. TheIndianpathsweregood,thoughonlytwoorthreefeetwide,andinmanyplacesthesavageskept thewoodsclearfromunderbrushbyburningoverlargetracts.WhenKingPhilip'sWartookplace, all the land around the Indian settlements in Narragansett and eastern Massachusetts was so free of brush that horsemen could ride everywhere freely through the woods. Some of the old paths are famous in our history. The most so was the Bay Path, which ran from Cambridge through Marlborough, Worcester, Oxford, Brookfield, and on to Springfield and the Connecticut River. Holland'sbeautifulstorycalledbythenameofthepathgivesitshistory,itssentiment,andmuchthat happenedonitinoldentimes. When new paths were cut through the forests, the settlers "blazed" the trees, that is, they chopped a pieceofthebarkofftreeaftertreestandingonthesideoftheway.Thusthe"blazes"stoodoutclear andwhiteinthedarkshadowsoftheforests,likewelcomeguide-posts,showingthetravellerhisway. InMarylandroadsturningofftoachurchweremarkedbyslipsorblazescutneartheground. In Maryland and Virginia what were known as, and indeed are still called, rolling-roads were cut through the forest. They were narrow roads adown which hogsheads of tobacco, fitted with axles, couldbedrawnorrolledfrominlandplantationstotheriverorbayside;sometimesthehogsheads weresimplyrolledbyhumanpropulsion,notdraggedontheseroads. Thebroaderriverssoonhadcanoe-ferries.ThefirstregularMassachusettsferryfromCharlestown to Boston was in 1639. It carried passengers for threepence apiece. From Chelsea to Boston was fourpence.In1636theCambridgeferrymanchargedbuthalfapenny,assomanywishedtoattendthe ThursdaylectureintheBostonchurches.WelearnfromtheMassachusettsLawsthatoftenariderhad tolethishorsecrossbyswimmingover,beingguidedfromtheferry-boat;hethenpaidnoferriage forthehorse.Afterwheeledvehicleswereused,theseferrieswerenotlargeenoughtocarrythem properly.Oftenthecarriagehadtobetakenapart,ortowedover,whilethehorsehadhisforefeetin one canoe-ferry and his hind feet in another, the two canoes being lashed together. The rope-ferry lingeredtillourownday,andwaseverapicturesquesightontheriver.Assoonasroadswerebuilt there were, of course, bridges and cart-ways, but these were only between the closely neighboring towns.Usuallythebridgesweremerely"horse-bridges"witharailingonbutoneside. Aftertheperiodofwalkingandcanoe-ridinghadhaditsday,nearlyalllandtravelforacenturywas onhorseback,justasitwasinEnglandatthatdate.In1672therewereonlysixstage-coachesinthe wholeofGreatBritain;andamanwroteapamphletprotestingthattheyencouragedtoomuchtravel. Boston then had one private coach. Women and children usually rode seated on a pillion behind a man.Apillionwasapaddedcushionwithstrapswhichsometimeshadononesideasortofplatformstirrup.Onewayofprogresswhichwouldhelpfourpersonsridepartoftheirjourneywaswhatwas calledtheride-and-tiesystem.Twoofthefourpersonswhoweretravellingstartedontheirroadon foot; two mounted on the saddle and pillion, rode about a mile, dismounted, tied the horse, and walkedon.Whenthetwowhohadstartedonfootreachedthewaitinghorse,theymounted,rodeon past the other couple for a mile or so, dismounted, tied, and walked on; and so on. It was also a universalandcourteousasitwasapleasantcustomforfriendstorideoutontheroadafewmiles withanydepartingguestorfriend,andthenbidthemGodspeedagatewards. In 1704 a Boston schoolmistress named Madam Knights rode from Boston to New York on horseback. She was probably the first woman to make the journey, and it was a great and daring undertaking. She had as a companion the "post." This was the mail-carrier, who also rode on horseback. One of his duties was to assist and be kind to all persons who cared to journey in his company.ThefirstregularmailstartedfromNewYorktoBostononJanuary1,1673.Thepostman carriedtwo"portmantles,"whichwerecrammedwithlettersandparcels.Hedidnotchangehorsestill he reached Hartford. He was ordered to look out and report the condition of all ferries, fords, and roads.Hehadtobe"active,stout,indefatigable,andhonest."Whenhedeliveredhismailitwaslaid onatableataninn,andanyonewhowishedlookedoveralltheletters,thentookandpaidthepostage (whichwasveryhigh)onanyaddressedtohimself.Itwasusuallyaboutamonthfromthissettingout of"thepost"inwinter,tillhisreturn.Aslatecertainlyas1730themailwascarriedfromNewYorkto Albanyinthewinterbya"foot-post."HewentuptheHudsonRiver,andlonelyenoughitmusthave been;probablyheskatedupwhentheicewasgood.Thismailwasonlysentatirregularintervals. In1760therewerebuteightmailsayearfromPhiladelphiatothePotomacRiver,andeventhenthe post-riderneednotstarttillhehadreceivedenoughletterstopaytheexpensesofthetrip.Itwasnot till postal affairs were placed in the capable and responsible hands of Benjamin Franklin that there wereanyregularortrustworthymails. The journal and report of Hugh Finlay, a post-office surveyor in 1773 of the mail service from QuebectoSt.Augustine,Florida,tellsofthevicissitudesofmail-matterevenatthatlaterday.Insome placesthedeputy,asthepostmasterwascalled,hadnooffice,sohisfamilyroomswereconstantly invaded.Occasionallyatavernservedaspost-office;letterswerethrowndownonatableandifthe weatherwasbad,orsmallpoxraged,orthedeputywerecareless,theywerenotforwardedformany days.Lettersthatarrivedmightlieonthetableorbar-counterfordaysforanyonetopullover,until the owner chanced to arrive and claim them. Good service could scarcely be expected from any deputy,forhissalarywaspaidaccordingtothenumberofletterscomingtohisoffice;andasprivate mail-carriage constantly went on, though forbidden by British law, the deputy suffered. "If an informationwerelodg'dbutaninformerwou'dgettar'dandfeather'd,nojurywou'dfindthefact." The government-riders were in truth the chief offenders. Any ship's captain, or wagon-driver, or post-ridercouldcarrymerchandise;thereforesmallshambundlesofpaper,straw,orchipswouldbe tiedtoalargesealedpacketofletter,andbothbeexemptfrompostagepaidtotheCrown. Thepost-riderbetweenBostonandNewportloadedhiscarriagewithbundlesrealandsham,which delayedhimlongindelivery.Heboughtandsoldoncommissionalongthisroad;andinviolationof lawhecarriedmanyletterstohisownprofit.Hetooktwenty-sixhourstogoeightymiles.Hadthe Newportdeputydaredtocomplain,hewouldhaveincurredmuchodiumandbeendeclareda"friend ofslaveryandoppression." "OldHerd,"theriderfromSaybrooktoNewYork,hadbeenintheserviceforty-sixyearsandhad madeagoodestate.Hecoollytookpostageofallway-lettersashisperquisite;wasamoneycarrier andtransferrer,alladvantagetohisownpocket;carriedmerchandise;returnedhorsesfortravellers; and when Finlay saw him he was waiting for a yoke of oxen he was paid for fetching along some miles. A Pennsylvania post-rider, an aged man, occupied himself as he slowly jogged along by knitting mittens and stockings. Not always were mail portmanteaux properly locked; hence many letterswerelostandthepullinginandoutofbundlesdefacedtheletters. Of course so much horseback riding made it necessary to have horse-blocks in front of nearly all houses.Incourseoftimestoneswereseteverymileontheprincipalroadstotellthedistancefrom town to town. Benjamin Franklin set milestones the entire way on the post-road from Boston to Philadelphia.Herodeinachaiseovertheroad;andamachinewhichhehadinventedwasattachedto the chaise; and it was certainly the first cyclometer that went on that road, over which so many cyclometershavepassedduringthelastfiveyears.Itmeasuredthemilesashetravelled.Whenhehad riddenamilehestopped;fromaheavycartloadedwithmilestones,whichkeptalongsidethechaise, astonewasdroppedwhichwasafterwardssetbyagangofmen. Anumberofoldcolonialmilestonesarestillstanding.ThereisoneinWorcester,onwhatwasthe "New Connecticut Path"; one in Springfield on the "Bay Path," and there are several of Benjamin Franklin'ssetting,onebeingatStratford,Connecticut. The inland transportation of freight was carried on in the colonies just as it was in Europe, on the backsofpack-horses.Veryinterestinghistoricalevidenceinrelationtothemethodsoftransportation inthemiddleoftheeighteenthcenturymaybefoundintheingeniousadvertisementandaddresswith whichBenjaminFranklinraisedtransportationfacilitiesforBraddock'sarmyin1755.Thisisoneof his most characteristic literary productions. Braddock's appeals to the Philadelphia Assembly for a roughwagon-roadandwagonsforthearmysucceededinraisingonlytwenty-fivewagons.Franklin visitedhiminhisdesolateplightandagreedtoassisthim,andappealedtothepublictosendtohim for the use of the army a hundred and fifty wagons and fifteen hundred pack-horses; for the latter Franklin offered to pay two shillings a day each, as long as used, if provided with a pack-saddle. TwentyhorsesweresentwiththeirloadstothecampasgiftstotheBritishofficers.Asagoodand definitelistoftheloadoneofthesepack-horseswasexpectedtocarry(aswellasarecordofthekind ofprovisionsgratefultoanofficerofthatday)letmegiveaninventory:— Sixpoundsloaf-sugar, Sixpoundsmuscovadosugar, Onepoundgreentea, Onepoundboheatea, Sixpoundsgroundcoffee, Sixpoundschocolate, One-halfchestbestwhitebiscuit, One-halfpoundpepper, Onequartwhitevinegar, TwodozenbottlesoldMadeirawine, TwogallonsJamaicaspirits, Onebottleflourofmustard, Twowell-curedhams, One-halfdozencuredtongues, Sixpoundsrice, Sixpoundsraisins, OneGloucestercheese, Onekegcontaining20lbs.bestbutter. The wagons and horses were all lost after Braddock's defeat, or were seized by the French and Indians,andFranklinhadmanyanxiousmonthsofresponsibilityfordamagesfromtheowners;butI amconfidenttheofficersgotalltheprovisions.FranklingatheredthewagonsinYorkandLancaster; notwoEnglishshirescouldhavedonebetteratthattimethandidthesePennsylvaniacounties. In Pennsylvania, western Virginia, and Ohio, pack-horses long were used, and a pretty picture is drawn by Doddridge and many other local historians of the trains of these horses with their gay collars and stuffed bells, as, laden with furs, ginseng, and snakeroot, they filed down the mountain roadstothetowns,andcamehomeladenwithsalt,nails,tea,pewterplates,etc.Atnightthehorses werehobbled,andtheclappersoftheirbellswereloosened;theringingpreventedthehorsesbeing lost. The animals started on their journey with two hundred pounds' burden, of which part was provenderforhorseandman,whichwasleftatconvenientrelaystobetakenuponthewayhome. Twomencouldmanagefifteenpack-horses,whichweretetheredsuccessivelyeachtothepack-saddle oftheoneinfrontofhim.Onemanledtheforemosthorse,andthedriverfollowedthefiletowatch thepacksandurgeonthelaggards.Theirnumberswerevast;fivehundredwerecountedatonetime inCarlisle,Pennsylvania,goingwestward.Itwasacostlymethodoftransportation.Mr.Howlandsays that in 1784 the expense of carrying a ton's weight from Philadelphia to Erie by pack-horses was $249. It is interesting to note that the routes taken by those men, skilled only in humble woodcraft, werethesameonesfollowedinlateryearsbytheengineersoftheturnpikesandrailroads. AstheroadsweresomewhatbetterinPennsylvaniathaninsomeotherprovinces,andmoreneeded, sowagonssoonwerefargreaterinnumber;indeed,duringtheRevolutionnearlyallthewagonsand horsesusedbythearmycamefromthatstate.TherewasdevelopedinPennsylvaniabythesoftsoilof these many roads, as well as by various topographical conditions, a splendid example of a true Americanvehicle,onewhichwasforalongtimethehighesttypeofacommodiousfreight-carrierin thisoranyothercountry—theConestogawagon,"thefinestwagontheworldhaseverknown."They werefirstusedinanyconsiderablenumberabout1760.Theyhadbroadwheel-tires,andoneofthe peculiaritieswasadecidedcurveinthebottom,analogoustothatofagalleyorcanoe,whichmadeit speciallyfittedfortraversingmountainroads;forthiscurvedbottompreventedfreightfromslipping toofarateitherendwhengoingupordownhill.Thisbodywasuniversallypaintedabrightblue,and furnished with sideboards of an equally vivid red. The wagon-bodies were arched over with six or eightstatelybows,ofwhichthemiddleoneswerethelowest,andtheothersrosegraduallytofront andreartilltheendbowswerenearlyofequalheight.Overthemallwasstretchedastrong,white, hempencover,wellcordeddownatthesidesandends.Thesewagonscouldbeloadeduptothebows, andcouldcarryfourtosixtonsinweight.TheratesbetweenPhiladelphiaandPittsburghwereabout twodollarsahundredpounds.Thehorses,fourtoseveninnumber,weremagnificent,oftenmatched throughout;somewerealldapple-gray,orallbay.Theharnesses,ofbestmaterialsandappearance, werecostly;eachhorsehadalargehousingofdeerskinorheavybearskintrimmedwithdeepscarlet fringe; while the head-stall was tied with bunches of gay ribbons. Bell-teams were common; each horseexceptthesaddle-horsethenhadafullsetofbellstiedwithhigh-coloredribbons. The horses were highly fed; and when the driver, seated on the saddle-horse, drew rein on the prancingleaderandflourishedhisfinebull-hideLondonwhip,makingthesilksnapandtingleround the leader's ears, every horse started off with the ponderous load with a grace and ease that was beautifultosee. ThewagonswerefirstusedintheConestogavalley,andmostextensivelyusedthere;andthesleek powerful draught-horses known as the Conestoga breed were attached to them, hence their name. Theseteamswereobjectsofpridetotheirowners,objectsofadmirationandattentionwhereverthey appeared,andareobjectsofhistoricalinterestandsatisfactionto-day. Often a prosperous teamster would own several Conestoga wagons, and driving the leading and handsomest team himself would start off his proud procession. From twenty to a hundred would follow in close row. Large numbers were constantly passing. At one time ten thousand ran from Philadelphiatoothertowns.JosiahQuincytoldoftheroadatLancasterbeinglinedwiththem.The sceneontheroadbetweentheCumberlandvalleyandGreensburg,wheretherearefivedistinctand noblemountainranges,—Tuscarora,RaysHill,Alleghany,LaurelHills,andChestnutRidge,—when alongtrainofwhite-toppedConestogawagonsappearedandwoundalongthemountainsides,was picturesqueandbeautifulwithacharmunparalleledto-day. "——Manyafleetofthem Inonelongupwardwindingrow. Iteverwasanoblesight Asfromthedistantmountainheight Orquietvalleyfarbelow, Theirsnow-whitecoverslookedlikesail." There were two classes of Conestoga wagons and wagoners. The "Regulars," or men who made it theirconstantandonlybusiness;and"Militia."Alocalpoetthusdescribestheseoutfits:— "Militia-mendrovenarrowtreads, FourhorsesandplainredDutchbeds, Andalwayscarriedgrubandfeed." Theywerefarmersorcommonteamsterswhomadeoccasionaltrips,usuallyinwintertime,anddid some carriage for others, and drove but four horses with their wagons. The "Regulars" had broad tires,carriednofeedforhorsesnorfoodforthemselves,butbothclassesofteamsterscarriedcoarse mattressesandblankets,whichtheyspreadsidebyside,androwafterrow,onthebar-roomfloorof thetavernatwhichthey"putup."Theirhorseswhenunharnessedfedfromlongtroughshitchedtothe wagon-pole.ThewagonsthatpliedbetweentheDelawareandthesmallcityofPittsburghwerecalled Pitt-teams. ThelifeoftheConestogawagondidnotendevenwiththeestablishmentofrailroadsintheEastern states;fartherandfartherwestitpenetrated,everchosenbyemigrantsandtravellerstothefrontiers; andatlastinitsoldageithadanequalcareerofusefulnessasthe"prairie-schooner,"inwhichvast numbers of families safely crossed the prairies of our far West. The white tilts of the wagons thus passedandrepassedtillourownday. Four-wheeled wagons were but little used in New England till after the War of 1812. Two-wheeled cartsandsledscarriedinlandfreight,whichwaschieflytransportedoverthesnowinthewinter. TheConestogawagonofthepastcenturywasfaraheadofanythinginEnglandatthatdate;indeed Mr.C.W.Ernst,thebestauthorityIknowonthesubject,sayswehadineverywayfarbettertraffic facilitiesatthattimethanEngland.Inotherwaysweexcelled.ThoughFinlayfoundmanydefectsin the postal service in 1773, he also found the Stavers mail-coach plying between Boston and Portsmouth long before England had such a thing. Mr. Ernst says: "The Stavers mail-coach was stunning; used six horses when roads were bad, and never was late. They had no mail-coaches in EnglandtillaftertheRevolution,andIbelieveMassachusettsmenintroducedtheideainEngland." We are apt to grow retrospectively sentimental over the delights, æsthetic and physical, of ancient stage-coach days. Those days are not so ancient as many fancy. The first stage-coach which ran directly from Philadelphia to New York in 1766—and primitive enough it was—was called "the flying-machine,agoodstage-wagonsetonsprings."Itsswifttripoccupiedtwodaysingoodweather. Itwasbutayearlaterthantheoriginalstage-coachbetweenEdinburghandGlasgow.Atthattime,in favorable weather, the coach between London and Edinburgh made the trip in thirteen days. The Londonmail-coachinitspalmiestdayscouldmakethistripinforty-threehoursandahalf.Asearly as 1718 Jonathan Wardwell advertised that he would run a stage to Rhode Island. In 1767 a stagecoach was run during the summer months between Boston and Providence; in 1770 a stage-chaise started between Salem and Boston and a post-chaise between Boston and Portsmouth the following year.Asearlyas1732somecommon-carrierlineshadwagonswhichwouldcarryafewpassengers. Let us hear the testimony of some travellers as to the glorious pleasure of stage-coach travelling. DescribingatripbetweenBostonandNewYorktowardstheendofthelastcenturyPresidentQuincy ofHarvardCollegesaid:— "Thecarriageswereoldandtheshacklingandmuchoftheharnessmadeofropes.Onepairofhorses carried us eighteen miles. We generally reached our resting-place for the night if no accident intervened,atteno'clock,andafterafrugalsupperwenttobed,withanoticethatweshouldbecalled at three next morning, which generally proved to be half-past two, and then, whether it snowed or rained,thetravellermustriseandmakeready,bythehelpofahorn-lanternandafarthingcandle,and proceedonhiswayoverbadroads,sometimesgettingouttohelpthecoachmanliftthecoachoutofa quagmireorrut,andarrivedinNewYorkafteraweek'shardtravelling,wonderingattheeaseaswell astheexpeditionwithwhichourjourneywaseffected." The Columbia Centinel of April 24, 1793, advertised a new line of "small genteel and easy stagecarriages" from Boston to New York with four inside passengers, and smart horses. Many of the announcementsofthedayhavepicturesofthecoaches.Theyusuallyresemblemarketwagonswith round,canvas-coveredtops,andthedriverisseatedoutsidethebodyofthewagonwithhisfeetonthe foot-board.Trunksweresmall,coveredwithdeerskinorpigskin,studdedwithbrassnails;andeach travellertookhistrunkunderhisseatandfeet. Thepoet,Moore,givesinrhymehistestimonyofVirginiaroadsin1800:— "DearGeorge,thougheveryboneisaching Aftertheshaking I'vehadthisweekoverrutsandridges, Andbridges Madeofafewuneasyplanks, Inopenranks, Overriversofmudwhosenamesalone Wouldmakeknockthekneesofstoutestman." ThetravellerWeld,in1795,gavetestimonythatthebridgesweresopoorthatthedriverhadalways tostopandarrangethelooseplankserehedaredcross,andheadds:— "Thedriverfrequentlyhadtocalltothepassengersinthestagetoleanoutofthecarriagefirstonone sidethenontheother,topreventitfromoversettinginthedeeproadswithwhichtheroadabounds. 'Now,gentlemen,totheright,'uponwhichthepassengersallstretchedtheirbodieshalf-wayoutofthe carriagetobalanceonthatside.'Now,gentlemen,totheleft,'andsoon." Thecoachinwhichthispleasuretripwastakenisshownintheillustrationentitled"AmericanStagewagon."ItiscopiedfromafirsteditionofWeld'sTravels. Ann Warder, in her journey from Philadelphia to New York in 1759, notes two overturned and abandonedstage-wagonsatPerthAmboy;andmanyothertravellersgivesimilartestimony.In1796 thetripfromPhiladelphiatoBaltimoretookfivedays. The growth in stage-coaches and travel came with the turnpike at the beginning of this century. In transportationandtravel,improvementofroadwaysiseverassociatedwithimprovementofvehicles. The first extensive turnpike was the one between Philadelphia and Lancaster, built in 1792. The growthandthecostoftheseroadsmaybebrieflymentionedbyquotingastatementfromtheannual messageofthegovernorofPennsylvaniain1838,thatthatcommonwealththenhadtwothousandfive hundredmilesofturnpikeswhichhadcost$37,000,000. Many of these turnpikes were beautiful and splendid roads; for instance, the "Mohawk and Hudson Turnpike,"whichraninastraightlinefromAlbanytoSchenectady,wasornamentedandshadedwith tworowsofthequicklygrowingandfashionablepoplar-treesandthicklypunctuatedwithtaverns.On oneturnpikethereweresixty-fivetavernsinsixtymiles.Thedashingstage-coachaccordedwellwith thisfinethoroughfare. With the splendid turnpikes came the glorious coaching days. In 1827 the Traveller's Register reported eight hundred stage-coaches arriving, and as many leaving Boston each week. The fortymileroadfromBostontoProvidencesometimessawtwentycoachesgoingeachway.Theeditorof the Providence Gazette wrote: "We were rattled from Boston to Providence in four hours and fifty minutes—if any one wants to go faster he may go to Kentucky and charter a streak of lightning." TherewerefourrivallinesontheCumberlandroad,—theNational,GoodIntent,Pioneer,andJune Bug. Some spirited races the old stage-road witnessed between the rival lines. The distance from WheelingtoCumberland,onehundredandthirty-twomiles,wasregularlyaccomplishedintwentyfour hours. No heavy luggage was carried and but nine passengers; fourteen coaches rolled off together—one was a mail-coach with a horn. Relays were every ten miles; teams were changed beforethecoachceasedrocking;onedriverboastedofchangingandharnessinghisfourhorsesin four minutes. Lady travellers were quickly thrust in the open door and their bandboxes after them. Scant time was there for refreshment, save by uncorking of bottles. The keen test and acute rivalry between drivers came in the delivery of the President's Message. Dan Gordon carried the message thirty-twomilesintwohoursandthirtyminutes,changinghorsesthreetimes.BillNoblecarriedthe messagefromWheelingtoHagerstown,ahundredandeighty-fivemiles,infifteenandahalfhours. In1818theEasternStageCompanywascharteredinthestateofNewHampshire.Theroutewasthis: astagestartedfromPortsmouthat9A.M.;passengersdinedatTopsfield;thencethroughDanversand Salem; back the following day, dining at Newburyport. The capital stock was four hundred and twenty-fivesharesatahundreddollarspar.In1834thestockwasworthtwohundreddollarsashare. Thecompanyownedseveralhundredhorses.ItwasonacoachofthislinethatHenryClayrodefrom PleasantStreet,Salem,toTremontHouse,Boston,inexactlyanhour;andontherouteextendedto Portland, Daniel Webster was carried at the rate of sixteen English miles an hour from Boston to PortlandtosigntheAshburtonTreaty. The middle of the century saw the beginning of the end of coaching in all the states that had been colonies. Further west the old stage-coach had to trundle in order to exist at all: Ohio, Indiana, Missouri,acrosstheplains,andthenovertheRockyMountainstoSaltLake.TheroadfromCarson to Plainville gave the crack ride, and the driver wore yellow kid gloves. The coach known as the Concordwagon,drawnbysixhorses,stillmakescheerfultheout-of-the-wayroadsofourWestern states, and recalls the life of olden times. The story of spirited and gay life still exists in the Wells Fargo Express. The usefulness of the Concord coach is not limited to the western nor the northern portionofourcontinent;inSouthAmericaitflourishes,banishingallrivals. Canaltravelandtransportationwereproposedatthecloseofprovincialdays,andafewshortcanals were built. Benjamin Franklin was early awake to their practicability and value. Among the stockowners of the Dismal Swamp Canal was George Washington, and he was equally interested in the PotomacCanal. The Erie Canal, first proposed to the New York legislature in 1768, was completed in 1825. There wasconsiderablepassengertravelonthiscanalat"acentandahalfamile,amileandahalfanhour." Horace Greeley has given an excellent picture of this leisurely travel; it was asserted by some that stage-coachesweredoomedbythecanal-boat,buttheycontinuedtoexisttilltheyencounteredamore formidablerival. Until turnpike days all small carriages were two-wheeled; chaises, chairs, and sulkies were those generally used. The chaise and harness used by Jonathan Trumbull—"Brother Jonathan"—are here shown. With regard to private conveyances, whether coaches, chaises, or chairs, the colonies kept closestepfromearliestdayswiththemother-countries.RandolphnotedwithenvytheBostoncoaches oftheseventeenthcentury.ParsonThatcherwasaccusedandreprehendedin1675formakingvisits withacoachandfour.CoachesweretaxedbothinEnglandandAmerica;soweknowexactlyhow plentiful they were. There were as many in Massachusetts in 1750 in proportion to the number of inhabitantsastherewereinEnglandin1830.JudgeSewall'sdiaryoftenreferstoprivatecoaches;and one of the most amusing scenes it depicts is his continued and ingenious argument when wooing MadamWinthropforhisthirdwife,whenshestipulatedthatheshouldkeepacoach,andhisfrugal minddisposedhimnottodoit. Coach-building prospered in the colonies; Lucas and Paddock in Boston, Ross in New York, made beautifulandrichcoaches.MaterialswereampleandvariedintheNewWorldforcarriage-building; horseflesh—notover-choice,tobesure—becameover-plentiful;itwassaidthatnomaneverwalked inAmericasaveavagabondorafool.AcoachmadeforMadamAngelicaCampbellofSchenectady, NewYork,bycoach-builderRoss,in1790,ishereshown.ItisnowownedbyMr.JohnD.Campbell ofRotterdam,NewYork. SleighswerecommoninNewYorkahalf-centurybeforetheywereinBoston.MadamKnightsnoted thefastracinginsleighsinNewYorkwhenshewastherein1704. One other curious conveyance of colonial days should be spoken of,—a sedan-chair. This was a strongcoveredchairfastenedontwobarswithhandleslikealitter,andmightbecarriedbytwoor fourpersons.Whensedan-chairsweresomuchusedinEngland,theyweresuretobesomewhatused incitiesinAmerica.OnewaspresentedtoGovernorWinthropasearlyas1646,portionofacapture fromaSpanishgalleon.JudgeSewallwrotein1706,"FiveIndianscarriedMr.Bromfieldinachair." Thiswasinthecountry,downonCapeCod,anddoubtlessfourIndianscarriedhimwhileonerested. Aslateas1789ElizaQuincysawDr.Franklinridinginasedan-chairinPhiladelphia. The establishment and building of roads, bridges, and opening of inns show that mutual interest whichmarkscivilization,andseparatesusfromthelonely,selfishlifeofasavage.Sooninnswere foundeverywhereintheNortherncolonies.InNewEngland,NewYork,andPennsylvaniaaninnwas calledanordinary,avictualling,acook-shop,oratavernbeforewehadourmodernwordhotel. Boardwasnotveryhighatearlyinns;thepriceswereregulatedbythedifferenttowns.In1633the Saleminnkeepercouldonlyhavesixpenceforameal.ThiswasatthefamousAnchorTavern,which waskeptasahostelryfornearlytwocenturies.AttheShipTavern,board,lodging,wineatdinner, andbeerbetweenmealscostthreeshillingsaday.Greatcarewastakenbythemagistratestochoose responsible men and women to keep taverns, and they would not permit too many taverns in one town. At first the tavern-keeper could not sell sack (which was sherry), nor stronger intoxicating liquortotravellers,buthecouldsellbeer,provideditwasgood,forapennyaquart.Norcouldhe sellcakesorbunsexceptataweddingorfuneral.Hecouldnotallowgamestobeplayed,norsinging ordancingtotakeplace. WeknowfromShakespeare'splaysthatthedifferentroomsinEnglishinnshadnames.Thiswasalso the custom in New England. The Star Chamber, Rose and Sun Chamber, Blue Chamber, Jerusalem Chamber,weresomeofthem.ManyofthetavernsofRevolutionarydaysandsomeofcolonialtimes arestillstanding.Afewhaveevenbeentavernssincefirstbuilt;othershaveservedmanyotheruses. Awell-preservedoldhouse,builtin1690inSudbury,Massachusetts,wasoriginallyknownastheRed HorseTavern,buthasacquiredgreaterfameastheWaysideInnofLongfellow'sTales.Itstap-room with raftered ceiling and cage-like bar with swinging gate is a picturesque room, and is one of the fewoldtap-roomsleftunalteredinNewEngland. Every inn had a name, usually painted on its swinging sign-board, with some significant emblem. These names were simply repetitions of old English tavern-signs until Revolutionary days, when patrioticlandlordseagerlyinventedandadoptednamessignificantofthenewnation.Thescarletcoat ofKingGeorgebecametheblueandbuffofGeorgeWashington;andtheeagleoftheUnitedStates tooktheplaceoftheBritishlion. Thesign-boardwasaninterestingsurvivaloffeudaltimes,andwithitsold-timecarvedandforged companions,suchasvanesandweathercocks,doorknockersandfigureheads,formedapicturesque elementofdecorationandsymbolism.Manychaptersmightbewrittenonhistoric,commemorative, emblematic, heraldic, biblical, humorous, or significant signs, nearly all of which have vanished from public gaze, as has disappeared also the general incapacity to read, which made pictorial devicesanecessity.Gilders,painter-stainers,smiths,andjoinersallhelpedtomakethetavern-signa thing of varied workmanship if not of art. It is said that Philadelphia excelled in the quantity and quality of her sign-boards. With fair roads for colonial days, the best and amplest system of transportation,andthesplendidConestogawagons,greatinnsmultipliedthroughoutPennsylvania.In Baltimorebothtavernsandsignsweremanyandvaried,fromtheThreeLoggerheadstotheIndian Queen with its "two hundred guest-rooms with a bell in every room," and the Fountain Inn built aroundashadycourt,withgalleriesoneverystory,liketheTabardInnatSouthwark. Theswingingsign-boardofJohnNash'sTavernatAmherst,Massachusetts,isherereproducedfrom theHistoryofAmherst.Itisagoodtypeoftheordinarysign-boardwhichwasfoundhanginginfront ofeverytavernacenturyago. InVirginiaandtheCarolinastavernswerenotsoplentifulnorsonecessary;foratravellermightride from Maryland to Georgia, and be sure of a welcome at every private house on the way. Some planters,eagerforcompanyandnews,stationednegroesatthegatetoinvitepassers-byonthepostroadtocomeintothehouseandbeentertained.Berkeley,inhisHistoryofVirginia,wrote:— "The inhabitants are very courteous to travellers, who need no other recommendation than being humancreatures.Astrangerhasnomoretodobuttoinquireupontheroadwhereanygentlemanor good housekeeper lives, and then he may depend upon being received with hospitality. This goodnatureissogeneralamongtheirpeople,thatthegentry,whentheygoabroad,ordertheirprincipal servants to entertain all visitors with everything the plantation affords; and the poor planters who havebutonebed,willoftensitup,orlieuponaformorcouchallnight,tomakeroomforaweary travellertoreposehimselfafterhisjourney." SouniversalwasthiscustomoffreeentertainmentthatitwasalawinVirginiathatunlesstherehad beenadistinctagreementtopayforboardandshelter,nopaycouldbeclaimedfromanyguest,no matter how long he remained. In the few taverns that existed prices were low, about a shilling a dinner;anditwasorderedthatthemealmustbewholesomeandgood. ThegovernorofNewNetherlandsatfirstentertainedallvisitorstoNewAmsterdamathishousein thefort.Butascommerceincreasedhefoundthishospitalityburdensome,andaHarbergortavern wasbuilt;itwaslaterusedasacityhall. InEnglandthroughouttheseventeenthcentury,andindeedmuchlater,traversingthegreatcitiesby nightwasamatterofsomedanger.Thestreetswereill-lighted,werefullofholesandmudandfilth, andwereinfestedwiththieves.Worsestill,groupsofdrunkenanddissipatedyoungmenofwealth, callingthemselvesMohocks,Scourers,andothernames,roamedthedarkstreetsarmedwithswords andbludgeons,assaulting,tormenting,andinjuringeveryonewhomtheymet,whohadtheillfortune tobeabroadatnight. There was nothing of that sort known in American cities; there was little noise or roistering, no highwayrobbery,comparativelylittlepettystealing.Thestreetswereill-pavedanddirty,butnotfoul withtheaccumulateddirtofcenturiesasinLondon.Thestreetsinnearlyallcitieswereunlighted.In 1697NewYorkerswereorderedtohavealanternandcandlehungoutonapolefromeveryseventh house.Andasthewatchmanwalkedaroundhecalledout,"Lanthorn,andawholecandell-light.Hang outyourlights."Thewatchmanwascalledarattle-watch,andcarriedalongstaffandalanternanda largerattleorklopper,whichhestrucktofrightenawaythieves.Andallnightlonghecalledouteach hour,andtoldtheweather.Forinstance,hecalledout,"Pastmidnight,andall'swell";"Oneo'clock andfairwinds,"or"Fiveo'clockandcloudyskies."Thusonecouldliesafeinbedandifhechanced towakencouldknowthatthefriendlyrattle-watchwasnearathand,andwhatwastheweatherandthe timeofnight.In1658NewYorkhadinalltenwatchmen,whowerelikeourmodernpolice;to-dayit hasmanythousands. In New England the constables and watch were all carefully appointed by law. They carried black stavessixfeetlong,tippedwithbrass,andhencewerecalledtipstaves.Thenightwatchwascalleda bell-man.Helookedoutforfireandthievesandotherdisorders,andcalledthetimeofthenight,and theweather.Thepaywassmall,oftenbutashillinganight,andoccasionallya"coatofkersey."In large towns, as Boston and Salem, thirteen "sober, honest men and householders" were the night watch. The highest in the community, even the magistrates, took their turn at the watch, and were orderedtowalktwotogether,ayoungmanwith"oneofthesoberersort." CHAPTERXV SUNDAYINTHECOLONIES ThefirstbuildingusedasachurchatthePlymouthcolonywasthefort,andtoitthePilgrimfathers and mothers and children walked on Sunday reverently and gravely, three in a row, the men fully armed with swords and guns, till they built a meeting-house in 1648. In other New England settlements,thefirstserviceswereheldintents,undertrees,orunderanyshelter.Thesettlerwhohad aroomyhouseoftenhadalsothemeeting.ThefirstBostonmeeting-househadmudwalls,athatched roof, and earthen floor. It was used till 1640, and some very thrilling and inspiring scenes were enactedwithinitshumblewalls.Usuallytheearliestmeeting-houseswereloghouses,withclay-filled chinks, and roofs thatched with reeds and long grass, like the dwelling-houses. At Salem is still preservedoneoftheearlychurches.ThesecondandmoredignifiedformofNewEnglandmeetinghousewasusuallyasquarewoodenbuildingwithatruncatedpyramidalroof,surmountedoftenwith abelfry,whichservedasalookoutstationandheldabell,fromwhichthebell-ropehungdowntothe floorinthecentreofthechurchaisle.TheoldchurchatHingham,Massachusetts,stillstandingand stillused,isagoodspecimenofthisshape.Itwasbuiltin1681,andisknownasthe"OldShip,"andis a comely and dignified building. As more elegant and costly dwelling-houses were built, so were better meeting-houses; and the third form with lofty wooden steeple at one end, in the style of architecture invented by Sir Christopher Wren, after the great fire of London, multiplied and increased until every town was graced with an example. In all these the main body of the edifice remainedasbare,prosaic,andundecoratedasweretheprecedingchurches,whilealltheambitionof both builders and congregation spent itself in the steeple. These were so varied and at times so beautifulthatachaptermightbewrittenonNewEnglandsteeples.TheOldSouthChurchofBostonis agoodexampleofthisschoolofecclesiasticalarchitecture,andisawell-knownhistoricbuildingas well. Theearliestmeeting-houseshadoiledpaperinthewindows,andwhenglasscameitwasnotsetwith putty,butwasnailedin.Thewindowshadwhatweretermed"heavycurrentside-shutters."Theoutside ofthemeeting-housewasnot"colored,"or"stained"asitwasthentermed,butwaslefttoturngray and weather-stained, and sometimes moss-covered with the dampness of the great shadowing hemlockandfirtreeswhichwereusuallyplantedaroundNewEnglandchurches.Thefirstmeetinghouseswereoftendecoratedinaverysingularandgrotesquemanner.Rewardswerepaidbyallthe earlytownsforkillingwolves;andanypersonwhokilledawolfbroughttheheadtothe meetinghouseandnailedittotheouterwall;thefiercegrinningheadsandsplashesofbloodmadeagrimand horribledecoration.Allkindsofnoticeswerealsonailedtothemeeting-housedoorwhereallofthe congregationmightreadilyseethem,—noticesoftown-meetings,ofsalesofcattleorfarms,listsof town-officers,prohibitionsfromsellinggunstotheIndians,noticesofintendedmarriages,vendues, etc. It was the only meeting-place, the only method of advertisement. In front of the church was usuallyarowofstepping-stonesorhorse-blocks,fornearlyallcameonhorseback;andoftenonthe meeting-housegreenstoodthestocks,pillory,andwhipping-post. Aversefromanold-fashionedhymnreadsthus: "NewEngland'sSabbathday Isheaven-like,still,andpure, WhenIsraelwalkstheway Uptothetemple'sdoor. Thetimewetell Whentheretocome, Bybeatofdrum, Orsoundingshell." The first church at Jamestown, Virginia, gathered the congregation by beat of drum; but while attendantsoftheEpiscopal,RomanCatholic,andDutchReformedchurchesintheNewWorldwerein generalbeingsummonedtodivineservicebytheringingofabellhungeitheroverthechurchorin the branches of a tree by its side, New England Puritans were summoned, as the hymn relates, by drum, or horn, or shell. The shell was a great conch-shell, and a man was hired to blow it—a mournfulsound—atthepropertime,whichwasusuallynineo'clockinthemorning.InStockbridge, Massachusetts, the church-shell was afterwards used for many years as a signal to begin and stop workinthehayingfield.InWindsor,Connecticut,amanwalkedupanddownonaplatformonthe topofthemeeting-houseandblewatrumpettosummonworshippers.Manychurcheshadachurch drummer,whostoodontherooforinthebelfryanddrummed;afewraisedaflagasasummons,or firedagun. Within the meeting-house all was simple enough: raftered walls, puncheon and sanded or earthen floors, rows of benches, a few pews, all of unpainted wood, and a pulpit which was usually a high desk overhung by a heavy sounding-board, which was fastened to the roof by a slender metal rod. The pulpit was sometimes called a scaffold. When pews were built they were square, with high partitionwalls,andhadnarrow,uncomfortableseatsroundthreesides.Thewordwasalwaysspelled "pue"; and they were sometimes called "pits." A little girl in the middle of this century attended a serviceinanoldchurchwhichstillretainedtheold-fashionedsquarepews;sheexclaimed,inaloud voice,"What!mustIbeshutinaclosetandsitonashelf?"Thesenarrow,shelf-likeseatswereusually hung on hinges and could be turned up against the pew-walls during the long psalm-tunes and prayers; so the members of the congregation could lean against the pew-walls for support as they stood.Whentheseatswereletdown,theyfellwithaheavyslamthatcouldbeheardhalfamileaway in the summer time, when the windows of the meeting-house were open. Lines from an old poem read:— "AndwhenatlasttheloudAmen Fellfromaloft,howquicklythen Theseatscamedownwithheavyrattle, Likemusketryinfiercestbattle." Afewoftheold-timemeeting-houses,withhighpulpit,squarepews,anddeacons'seats,stillremain in New England. The interior of the Rocky Hill meeting-house at Salisbury, Massachusetts, is here shown.Itfullyillustratesthewordsofthepoet:— "OldhouseofPuritanicwood Throughwhoseunpaintedwindowsstreamed Onseatsasprimitiveandrude AsJacob'spillowwhenhedreamed, Thewhiteandundilutedday—" The seats were carefully and thoughtfully assigned by a church committee called the Seating Committee,thebestseatsbeinggiventoolderpersonsofwealthanddignitywhoattendedthechurch. Whittierwroteofthiscustom:— "Inthegoodlyhouseofworship,whereinorderdueandfit, Asbypublicvotedirected,classedandrankedthepeoplesit. Mistressfirstandgoodwifeafter,clerklysquirebeforetheclown, Fromthebravecoatlace-embroideredtothegraycoatshadingdown." Manyoftheplansfor"seatingthemeeting-house"havebeenpreserved;thepewsandtheirassigned occupantsareclearlydesignated.AcopyisshownofonenowinDeerfieldMemorialHall. Intheearlymeeting-housesmenandwomensatonseparatesidesofthemeeting-house,asinQuaker meetingstillourowntime.Sometimesagroupofyoungwomenorofyoungmenwerepermittedto sit in the gallery together. Little girls sat beside their mothers or on footstools at their feet, or sometimesonthegallerystairs;andIhaveheardofalittlecageorframetoholdPuritanbabiesin meeting.Boysdidnotsitwiththeirfamilies,butwereingroupsbythemselves,usuallyonthepulpit and gallery stairs, where tithing-men watched over them. In Salem, in 1676, it was ordered by the townthat"allyeboyesofyetowneareappointedtosittuponyethreepaireofstairsinyemeetinghouse,andWm.Lordisappointedtolookafteryeboysuponyepulpittstairs." InStratfordthetithing-manwasorderedto"watchoveryouthsofdisorderlycarriage,andseethey behavethemselvescomelie,andusesuchrapsandblowsasisinhisdiscretionmeet."InDurhamany misbehavingboywaspunishedpubliclyaftertheservicewasover.Wewouldnowadaysscarcelyseat twenty or thirty active boys together in church if we wished them to be models of attention and dignifiedbehavior;butaftertheboys'seatswereremovedfromthepulpitstairstheywereallturned intogetherina"boys'pew"inthegallery.Therewasaboys'pewinWindsor,Connecticut,aslateas 1845, and pretty noisy it usually was. A certain small boy in Connecticut misbehaved himself on Sunday,andhiswickednesswasspecifiedbythejusticeofpeaceasfollows:— "ARudeandIdelBehaverinthemeetinghous.SuchasSmilingandLarfingandIntiseingotherstothe SameEvil.SuchasLarfingorSmilingorpulingthehairofhisnayberBenoniSimkinsinthetimeof PublickWorship.SuchasthrowingSisterPenticostPerkinsontheIce,itbeingSabothday,between themeetinghousandhisplaesofabode." I can picture well the wicked scene; poor, meek little Benoni Simpkins trying to behave well in meeting,andnotcryoutwhentheyoung"wantongospeller"pulledherhair,andunfortunateSister Perkinstrippedupontheicebytheyoungrascal. Another vain youth in Andover, Massachusetts, was brought up before the magistrate, and it was charged that he "sported and played, and by Indecent gestures and wry faces caused laughter and misbehavior in the beholders." The girls were just as wicked; they slammed down the pew-seats. Tabatha Morgus of Norwich "prophaned the Lord's daye" by her "rude and indecent behavior in Laughing and playing in ye tyme of service." On Long Island godless boys "ran raesses" on the Sabbath and "talked of vane things," and as for Albany children, they played hookey and coasted downhillonSundaytothescandalofeveryoneevidently,excepttheirparents.Whentheboyswere separatedandfamiliessatinpewstogether,allbecameorderlyinmeeting. Thedeaconssatina"Deacons'Pue"justinfrontofthepulpit;sometimesalsotherewasa"DeafPue" in front for those who were hard of hearing. After choirs were established the singers' seats were usuallyinthegallery;andhighupunderthebeamsinaloftsatthenegroesandIndians. Ifanypersonseatedhimselfinanyplacewhichwasnotassignedtohim,hehadtopayafine,usually of several shillings, for each offence. But in old Newbury men were fined as high as twenty-seven poundseachforpersistentandunrulysittinginseatsbelongingtoothermembers. Thechurcheswereallunheated.Fewhadstovesuntilthemiddleofthiscentury.Thechillofthedamp buildings,neverheatedfromautumntospring,andclosedanddarkthroughouttheweek,washard for every one to bear. In some of the early log-built meeting-houses, fur bags made of wolfskins werenailedtotheseats;andinwinterchurchattendantsthrusttheirfeetintothem.Dogs,too,were permittedtoenterthemeeting-houseandlieontheirmasters'feet.Dog-whippersordog-pelterswere appointed to control and expel them when they became unruly or unbearable. Women and children usuallycarriedfoot-stoves,whichwerelittlepiercedmetalboxesthatstoodonwoodenlegs,andheld hot coals. During the noon intermission the half-frozen church attendants went to a neighboring houseortavern,ortoanoon-housetogetwarm.Anoon-houseor"Sabba-dayhouse,"asitwasoften called, was a long low building built near the meeting-house, with horse-stalls at one end and a chimneyattheother.Initthefarmerskept,saysonechurchrecord,"theirdudsandhorses."Agreat fireoflogswasbuiltthereeachSunday,andbeforeitscheerfulblazenoondayluncheonsof brown bread, doughnuts, or gingerbread were eaten, and foot-stoves were filled. Boys and girls were not permittedtoindulgeinidletalkinthosenoon-houses,muchlesstoplay.Oftentwoorthreefamilies built a noon-house together, or the church built a "Society-house," and there the children had a sermonreadtothembyadeaconduringthe"nooning";sometimesthechildrenhadtoexplainaloud thenotestheyhadtakenduringthesermoninthemorning.Thustheythrove,asaministerwrote,on the"GoodFareofbrownBreadandtheGospel."TherewasnonearerapproachtoaSunday-school untilthiscentury. Theserviceswerenotshortenedbecausethechurcheswereuncomfortable.Bythesideofthepulpit stoodabrass-boundhour-glasswhichwasturnedbythetithing-manorclerk,butitdidnothastenthe closingofthesermon.Sermonstwoorthreehourslongwerecustomary,andprayersfromoneto twohoursinlength.WhenthefirstchurchinWoburnwasdedicated,theministerpreachedasermon nearly five hours long. A Dutch traveller recorded a prayer four hours long on a Fast Day. Many prayersweretwohourslong.Thedoorswereclosedandwatchedbythetithing-man,andnonecould leave even if tired or restless unless with good excuse. The singing of the psalms was tedious and unmusical,justasitwasinchurchesofalldenominationsbothinAmericaandEnglandatthatdate. Singingwasbyearandveryuncertain,andthecongregationhadnonotes,andmanyhadno psalmbooks,andhencenowords.Sothepsalmswere"lined"or"deaconed";thatis,alinewasreadbythe deacon,andthensungbythecongregation.Somepsalmswhenlinedandsungoccupiedhalfanhour, during which the congregation stood. There were but eight or nine tunes in general use, and even thesewereoftensungincorrectly.Therewerenochurchorganstohelpkeepthesingerstogether,but sometimespitch-pipeswereusedtosetthekey.Bass-viols,clarionets,andfluteswereplayeduponat alaterdateinmeetingtohelpthesinging.Violinsweretooassociatedwithdancemusictobethought decorousforchurchmusic.StilltheNewEnglandchurchesclungtoandlovedtheirpoorconfused psalm-singingasoneoftheirfewdelights,andwheneveraPuritan,eveninroadorfield,heardthe distantsoundofapsalm-tuneheremovedhishatandbowedhisheadinprayer. Contributionsatfirstwerenotcollectedbythedeacons,buttheentirecongregation,oneafteranother, walkeduptothedeacons'seatandplacedgiftsofmoney,goods,wampum,orpromissorynotesina box. When the services were ended, all remained in the pews until the minister and his wife had walkeduptheaisleandoutofthechurch. The strict observance of Sunday as a holy day was one of the characteristics of the Puritans. Any profanation of the day was severely punished by fine or whipping. Citizens were forbidden to fish, shoot,sail,row,dance,jump,orride,savetoandfromchurch,ortoperformanyworkonthefarm. Aninfinitenumberofexamplesmightbegiventoshowhowrigidlythelawswereenforced.Theuse of tobacco was forbidden near the meeting-house. These laws were held to extend from sunset on SaturdaytosunsetonSunday;forinthefirstinstructionsgiventoGovernorEndicottbythecompany in England, it was ordered that all in the colony cease work at three o'clock in the afternoon on Saturday. The Puritans found support of this belief in the Scriptural words, "The evening and the morningwerethefirstday." ASabbathdayinthefamilyofRev.JohnCottonwasthusdescribedbyoneofhisfellow-ministers:— "He began the Sabbath at evening, therefore then performed family duty after supper, being longer thanordinaryinexposition.Afterwhichhecatechizedhischildrenandservants,andthenreturnedto hisstudy.Themorningfollowing,familyworshipbeingended,heretiredintohisstudyuntilthebell calledhimaway.Uponhisreturnfrommeeting(wherehehadpreachedandprayedsomehours),he returned again into his study (the place of his labor and prayer), unto his favorite devotion; where having a small repast carried him up for his dinner, he continued until the tolling of the bell. The publicserviceoftheafternoonbeingover,hewithdrewforaspacetohispre-mentionedoratoryfor hissacredaddressestoGod,asintheforenoon,thencamedown,repeatedthesermoninthefamily, prayed,aftersuppersangaPsalm,andtowardbedtimebetakinghimselfagaintohisstudyheclosed thedaywithprayer.ThushespenttheSabbathcontinually." TheVirginiaCavalierswerestrictChurchofEnglandmenandthefirstwhocametothecolonywere strictSunday-keepers.RuleswerelaiddowntoenforceSundayobservance.Journeyswereforbidden, boat-ladingwasprohibited,alsoallprofanationofthedaybysports,suchasshooting,fishing,gameplaying,etc.TheoffenderwhobroketheSabbathlawshadtopayafineandbesetinthestocks.When that sturdy watch-dog of religion and government—Sir Thomas Dale—came over, he declared absencefromchurchshouldbepunishablebydeath;butthisseverityneverwasexecuted.Thecaptain ofthewatchwasmadetoplaythesamepartastheNewEnglandtithing-man.EverySunday,halfan hourbeforeservice-time,atthelasttollingofthebell,thecaptainstationedsentinels,thensearched allthehousesandcommandedandforcedall(exceptthesick)togotochurch.Then,whenallwere drivenchurchwardsbeforehim,hewentwithhisguardstochurchhimself. Captain John Smith, in his Pathway to erect a Plantation, thus vividly described the first places of divineworshipinVirginia:— "Weedidhanganawning,whichisanoldsaile,tothreeorfouretreestoshadowusfromtheSunne; ourwallswererailesofwood;ourseatsunhewedtreestillwecutplankes;ourPulpitabarofwood nailedtotwoneighbouringtrees.Infoulweatherweshiftedintoanoldrottentent;thiscamebyway of adventure for new. This was our Church till we built a homely thing like a barne set upon Cratchets,coveredwithrafts,sedge,andearth;soalsowasthewalls;thebestofourhouseswereof likecuriosity,thatcouldneitherwelldefendfromwindnorrain. "YetwehaddailyCommonPrayermorningandevening;everySundaytwosermons;andeverythree monthsaholyCommuniontillourMinisterdied:butourPrayersdailywithanHomilyonSundays wecontinuedtwoorthreeyearsafter,tillmorePreacherscame." A timber church sixty feet long took the place of this mud and clay chapel, and this was in turn replaced by the brick one whose ruined arches are still standing. The wooden church saw the most pompousceremonyofthedaywhenthegovernor,DeLaWarre,orDelawareaswenowcallit,infull dress, attended by all his councillors and officers and fifty halbert-bearers in scarlet cloaks, filed withinitsflower-deckedwalls. This decoration of flowers was significant of the difference between the church edifices of the Puritans and of the Cavaliers. The churches of the Southern colonies were, as a rule, much more richlyfurnished.ManyweremodelledinshapeaftertheoldEnglishchurchesandwerebuiltofstone, though Jonathan Boucher, the colonial clergyman, could write that the greater number of the Southernchurcheswere,atthetimeoftheRevolution,"composedofwood,withoutspires,ortowers orsteeplesorbells,placedinretiredandsolitaryspotsandcontiguoustospringsorwells."Manyof the churches and the chapels-of-ease stood by the waterside, and to the services came the church attendantsincanoes,periaugers,dugouts,etc.Itmadeananimatedsceneuponthewater,astheboats camerowinginandastheydepartedaftertheservice. Sometimestheseatswerecomfortablycushioned,andtheywerecarefullyassignedasinthePuritan meetings.InsomeVirginiachurchesseatsinthegalleriesweredeemedthemostdignified.Therewas apewforthemagistrates,anotherforthemagistrates'ladies;pewsfortherepresentativesandchurchwardens,vestrymen,etc.Personscrowdedintopewsabovetheirstations,justasinNewEngland,and were promptly displaced. Groups of men built pews together, and there were schoolboys' galleries andpews. ThefirstclergymaninVirginia,RobertHunt,atruemanofGod,cameasamissionary,andheand othersweremenofmarkedintellectandreligion,butintheeighteenthcenturythepaywastoosmall anduncertaintoattractanygreatmenfromtheChurchofEngland,andchurchattendancedwindled and became irregular. For in Virginia the parish was expected to receive any clergyman sent them from England, a rule which often proved unsatisfactory; and deservedly so, since some very disreputableoffshootsofEnglishfamilieswerethrustupontheVirginiachurches.IntheCarolinas, wherethechurchchoseitsownclergyman,harmonyandaffectionprevailedintheparishesasitdid amongtheNewEnglandPuritans.ThoughtheVirginiansdidnotalwayslovetheirclergymen,still theywereeversteadfastintheiraffectiontotheirchurch,andregardeditastheonlychurch. SundaywasnotobservedwithasmuchrigidityinNewNetherlandasinNewEngland,butstrictrules and laws were made for enforcing quiet during service-time. Fishing, gathering berries or nuts, playinginthestreets,working,goingonpleasuretrips,allwereforbidden.OnLongIslandshooting of wild fowl, carting of grain, travelling for pleasure, all were punished. In Revolutionary times a cage was set up in City Hall Park, near the present New York Post-office, in which boys were confinedwhodidnotproperlyregardtheSabbath. Before the Dutch settlers had any churches or domines, as they called their ministers, they had krankbesoeckers, or visitors of the sick, who read sermons to an assembled congregation every Sunday.ThefirstchurchatAlbanywasmuchlikethePlymouthfort,simplyablockhousewithloopholesthroughwhichgunscouldbefired.Theroofwasmountedwiththreecannon.Ithadaseatfor themagistratesandoneforthedeacons,andahandsomeoctagonalpulpitwhichhadbeensentfrom Holland,andwhichstillexists.Theedificehadachandelierandcandlesconcesandtwolowgalleries. ThefirstchurchinNewAmsterdamwasofstone,andwasseventy-twofeetlong. AfavoriteformoftheDutchchurcheswassixoreightsided,withahighpyramidalroof,toppedwith a belfry and a weather-vane. Usually the windows were so small and of glass so opaque that the church was very dark. A few of the churches were poorly heated with high stoves perched up on pillars,theAlbanyandSchenectadychurchesamongthem,butallthewomencarriedfoot-stoves,and someofthemencarriedmuffs. Almostasimportantasthedominewasthevoorleezerorchorister,whowasalsogenerallythebellringer,sexton,grave-digger,funeralinviter,schoolmaster,andsometimestownclerk.He"tunedthe psalm";turnedthehour-glass;gaveoutthepsalmsonahangingboardtothecongregation;readthe Bible;gaveupnoticestothedominebystickingthepapersintheendofacleftstickandholdingitup tothehighpulpit. The deacons had control of all the church money. In the middle of the sermon they collected contributionsbypassingsacjes.Theseweresmallclothorvelvetbagshungontheendofapolesix oreightfeetlong.AFrenchtravellertoldthattheDutchdeaconspassedround"theoldsquarehatof thepreacher"ontheendofastickforthecontributions.Usuallytherewasalittlebellonthesacje whichrungwhenacoinwasdroppedin. InmanyDutchchurchesthemensatinarowofpewsaroundthewallwhilethewomenwereseated onchairsinthecentreofthechurch.Therewerealsoafewbenchesorpewsforpersonsofspecial dignity,orfortheminister'swife. Thereweremanyothercolonistsofotherreligiousfaiths:theRomanCatholicsinMarylandandthe extremeSoutherncolonies;theQuakersinPennsylvania;theBaptistsinRhodeIsland;theHuguenots, Lutherans, Moravians; but all enjoined an orderly observance of the Sabbath day. And it may be counted as one of the great blessings of the settlement of America, one of the most ennobling conditionsofitscolonization,thatitwasmadeatatimewhenthedeepestreligiousfeelingprevailed throughoutEurope,whendevotiontosomereligionwasfoundineveryone,whentheBiblewasa newly found and deeply loved treasure; when the very differences of religious belief and the formationofnewsectsmadeeachclingmorelovinglyandmoreearnestlytohisownfaith. CHAPTERXVI COLONIALNEIGHBORLINESS If the first foundation of New England's strength and growth was godliness, its next was neighborliness,andafirmrockitprovedtobuildupon.Itmayseemanomaloustoassertthatwhile therewasinoldentimesinfinitelygreaterindependenceineachhouseholdthanatpresent,yetthere wasalsogreaterinterdependencewithsurroundinghouseholds. Itiscurioustoseehowcompletelysocialethicsandrelationshavechangedsinceoldendays.Aidin ourfamiliesintimesofstressandneedisnotgiventousnowbykindlyneighborsasofyore;we have well-arranged systems by which we can buy all that assistance, and pay for it, not with affectionateregard,butwithcurrentcoin.Thecolonistturnedtoanyandallwholivedaroundhim, andneverturnedinvainforhelpinsickness,oratthetimeofdeathofmembersofhishousehold;for friendlyadvice;forculinaryaidstoahaltingappetite;forthepreparationforfeastinganexceptional numberofpersons;inshort,inanyunusualemergency,aswellasinfrequentevery-daycoöperation in log-rolling, stone-piling, stump-pulling, wall-building, house-raising, etc.,—all the hard and exhaustinglaboronthefarm. The word "coöperation" is modern, but the thing itself is as old as civilization. In a new country where there was much work to be done which one man or one family could not do, under the mechanicalconditionswhichthenexisted,aworkingtogether,orunionoflaborwasnecessaryfor progress,indeed,almostforobtainingafoothold. Theterm"log-rolling"isfrequentlyemployedinitsmetaphoricalsenseinpolitics,bothbyEnglish andAmericanwriterswhohavevagueknowledgeoftheoriginalmeaningoftheword.Alog-rolling inearlypioneerdays,intheNortherncoloniesandinwesternVirginiaandthecentralstates,wasa nobleexampleofgenerouscoöperation,whereeachgaveofhisbest—histime,strength,andgood will; and where all worked to clear the ground in the forest for a home-farm for a neighbor who might be newly come and an entire stranger, but who in turn would just as cheerfully and energeticallygivehisworkforotherswhenitwasneeded. With the vanishing of the log-rolling, and a score of similar kindly usages and customs, has gone fromourcommunitiesalltracesoftheold-timeexaltedtypeofneighborliness.Wenowadayshave generalizedoursentiments;wehavemorephilanthropyandlessneighborliness;wehavemorelove formankindandlessformen.Weareindependentofourneighbors,butinfinitelymoredependenton theworldatlarge.Thepersonalelementhasbeenremovedtoalargeextentfromoursocialethics. We buy nursing and catering just as we hire our houses built and buy our corn ready ground. Doubtlesseverythingwebuyisinfinitelybetter;nevertheless,ourlossinaffectionatezealisgreat. TheplantationwastheunitinVirginia;inNewEnglanditwasthetown.Theneighborlyhelpfulness oftheNewEnglandsettlersextendedfromsmalltogreatmatters;itformedcommunalprivilegesand entered into every department of town life. For instance, the town of Gloucester in 1663 granted a righttoacitizenforrunningasmallsawmillfortwenty-oneyears.Inreturnforthisrightthegrantee wastosellboardstoGloucestermenat"oneshillingperhundredbettercheapethantostrangers"— and was to receive pay "raised in the towne." Saco and Biddeford, in Maine, ordered that fellowtownsmenshouldhavepreferenceineveryemployment.Othertownsorderedcertainpersonstobuy provisions"ofthetowns-meninpreference."Readingwouldnotsellanyofitsfelledtimberoutof thetown.Thusthesocialcompactcalledatownextendeditselfalsointoallthesmalldoingsofdaily life,andthemutualhelpfulnessmademutualintereststhatprovednosmallelementoftheforcewhich boundalltogetherin1776inasuccessfulstruggleforindependence. In outlying settlements and districts this feeling of mutual dependence and assistance was strong enoughtogiveanamewhichsometimeslingeredlong."TheLoomisNeighborhood,""TheMason Neighborhood," "The Robinson Neighborhood" were names distinctive for half a century, and far more distinguishing and individual than the Greenville, Masontown, and Longwood that succeeded them. There was one curious and contradictory aspect of this neighborliness, this kindliness, this thought formutualwelfare,andthatwasitsnarrowness,especiallyinNewEngland,asregardsthelimitations ofspaceandlocality.Itisimpossibletojudgewhatcausedthisrestraintofvision,butitiscertainthat ingeneralityandalmostinuniversality,justassoonasanygroupofsettlerscouldcallthemselvesa town, these colonists' notions of kindliness and thoughtfulness for others became distinctly and rigidly limited to their own townspeople. The town was their whole world. Without doubt this was partlytheresultofthelackoftravellingfacilitiesandamplecommunication,whichmadetownships far more separated and remote from each other than states are to-day, and made difficult the possibilityofspeedyorfullknowledgeofstrangers. Thiscausedaconstantsuspicionofallnewcomers,especiallythosewhochancedtoenterwithscant introduction,andmadeuniversalacustomof"warningout"allstrangerswhoarrivedinanytown. This formality was gone through with by the sheriff or tithing-man. Thereafter should the warned onesproveincapableorunsuccessfulorvicious,theycouldnotbecomeachargeuponthetown,but couldbereturnedwhencetheycamewithdespatchandviolenceifnecessary.Bythismeans,andby various attempts to restrict the powers of citizens to sell property to newcomers, the town kept a jealouswatchovertherightofentryintothecorporation. Dorchesterin1634enactedthat"nomanwithinthePlantationshallsellhishouseorlotttoanyman withoutthePlantationwhometheyshalldislikeoff."Providencewouldnotpermitaproprietortosell toany"buttoanInhabitant"withoutconsentofthetown.NewHavenwouldneithersellnorletground toastranger.Hadleywouldsellnolandtoanyuntilafterthreeyears'occupation,andthenonlywith approvalofthe"Town'sMind."In1637theGeneralCourtveryreasonablyquestionedwhethertowns could legally restrain individuals from disposal of their own property, but the custom was so established, so in touch with the narrow exclusiveness of the colonists, that it still prevailed. The expression of the town of Watertown when it would sell lots only to freemen of the congregation, becauseitwishednostrangeneighbors,butonly"tosittdownthereclosetogither,"wasthesentiment ofallthetowns.OneJohnStebbins,whohadtwiceservedasasoldierofWatertownandlivedthere sevenyears,couldnotgetatownlot. Thelegalprocessofwarningoutoftownhadanelementoftheabsurdinit,andinonecasethatof mystery,namely:asheriffappearedbeforethewoebegoneintruder,andsaid,halflaughing,"Iwarn youoffthefaceoftheearth.""LetmegetmyhatbeforeIgo,"stammeredtheterrifiedwanderer,who ran into the house for his hat and was never seen by any mortal eye in that town afterwards. It has becomeatraditionoflocalfolk-lorethatheliterallyvanishedfromtheearthatthecommandofthe officerofthelaw. Theharboringofstrangers,evenofrelativeswhowerenotlocalresidents,wasafrequentsourceof bickeringbetweencitizensandmagistrates,aswellasaconstantcauseofarbitrationbetweentowns.A widowinDorchesterwasnotpermittedtoentertainherownson-in-lawfromanothertown,andher neighborwasfinedin1671"underdistress"forhousinghisowndaughter.Shewasamarriedwoman, andallegedshecouldnotreturntoherhusbandonaccountoftheinclementweather. As time passed on and immigration continued, freemen clung closely to their right to keep out strangersandoutsiders.FromtheBostonTownRecordsof1714wefindcitizensstillprohibitedfrom entertainingastrangerwithoutgivingnoticetothetownauthorities,andadescriptionofthestranger andhiscircumstances.BostonrequiredthatallcomingfromIrelandshouldberegistered"lestthey becomechargeable."Warningsandwhippingsoutoftownstillcontinued.Allthiswassocontraryto the methods of colonies in other countries, such as the Barbadoes, Honduras, etc., where extraordinary privileges were offered settlers, free and large grants of land, absolvment from past debts, etc., that it makes an early example of the curious absorbing and assimilating power of Americannationality,whichevergrewandgrewevenagainstsuchclogsandhamperingrestrictions. IntheSoutherncoloniesthesamekindlinessexistedasintheNorth,buttheconditionsdiffered.John Hammond,ofVirginia,wrotein1656,inhisLeahandRachel:— "The Country is not only plentifull, but pleasant and profitable, pleasant in regard of the extraordinarygoodneighbourhoodandlovingconversationtheyhaveonewithanother. "Theinhabitantsaregenerallyaffable,courteous,andveryassistanttoStrangers(forwhatbutplenty makeshospitalityandgoodneighbourhood)andnosooneraretheysettled,buttheywillbevisiting, presenting and advising the strangers how to improve what they have, how to better their way of livelihood." In summer when fresh meat was killed, the neighbors shared the luxury, and in turn gave of their slaughter.Hammondadds:— "If any fall sick and cannot compass to follow his crops which would soon be lost, the adjoining neighbour, or upon request more joyn together and work it by spells, until he recovers; and that gratis,sothatnomanmaybysicknesslooseanypartofhisyear'swork. "Letanytravell,itiswithoutchargeandateveryhouseisentertainmentasinahostelry." ItwasthesameintheCarolinas.Ramsay,theearlyhistorianofSouthCarolina,saidthathospitality wassuchavirtuethatinnkeeperscomplainedthattheirbusinesswasnotworthcarryingon.Thedoors ofcitizenswereopentoalldecenttravellers,andshuttonone. Theplantationswereinmanycountiestoofarapartforanycoöperativelabor,andtheplanterswere not men of such vast strength or so great personal industry, even in their own affairs, as were the Yankees.Therewereslavesoneachplantationtodoallthehardworkoflifting,etc.Butinout-of-theway settlements the Virginia planters' kindliness was shown in a vast and unbounded hospitality, a hospitality so insatiable that it watched for and waylaid travellers to expend a welcome and lavish attentions upon. Negroes were stationed at the planter's gate where it opened on the post-road or turnpike, to hail travellers and assure them of a hearty welcome at the "big house up yonder." One writersaysoftheplanters:— "Theirmanneroflivingismostgenerousandopen:strangersaresoughtafterwithGreedinesstobe invited." TheLondonMagazineoftheyear1743publishedaseriesofpapersentitledItinerantObservationsin America. It was written with a spirited pen which thus pleasantly describes simple Maryland hospitality,notofmenofvastwealthbutofverypoorfolk:— "WiththemeanerSortyoufindlittleelsetodrinkbutWateramongstthemwhentheirCyderisspent, but the Water is presented you by one of the barefooted Family in a copious Calabash, with an innocentStrainofgoodBreedingandHeartiness,theCakebakingontheHearth,andtheprodigious CleanlinessofeverythingaroundyoumustneedsputyouinMindoftheGoldenAge,theTimesof ancientFrugalityandPurity.AllovertheColonyauniversalHospitalityreigns,fullTablesandopen Doors; the kind Salute, the generous Detention speak somewhat like the roast-Beef Ages of our Forefathers." TherecameatimewhenthisSouthernhospitalitybecameburdensome.Withtheexhaustionofthesoil andcompetitionintobacco-raising,thegreatwealthoftheVirginianswasgone.Butvisitorsdidnot cease; in fact, they increased. The generous welcome offered to kinsmen, friends, and occasional travellers was sought by curiosity-hunters and tourists who wanted to save a tavern-bill. Nothing could be more pathetic than the impoverishment of Thomas Jefferson through these impositions. Timesandconditionshadchanged,butJeffersonfeltboundinhonortohimselfandhisstatetokeep thesameopenhandandreadywelcomeasofyore.Hisoverseerdescribeshisownhopelesseffortsto keepthesetravellingfriendsandadmirersfromeatinghismasteroutofhouseandhome:— "Theyweretherealltimesoftheyear;butaboutthemiddleofJunethetravelwouldcommencefrom the lower part of the State to the Springs, and then there was a perfect throng of visitors. They travelledintheirowncarriagesandcameingangs,thewholefamilywithcarriageandridinghorses and servants, sometimes three or four such gangs at a time. We had thirty-six stalls for horses and onlyusedtenofthemforthestockwekeptthere.Veryoftenalltherestwerefull,andIhadtosend horses off to another place. I have often sent a wagon-load of hay up to the stable, and the next morningtherewouldnotbeenoughlefttomakeabird'snest.Ihavekilledafinebeef,anditwould allbeeatenupinadayortwo." Thefinalextinctionofold-timehospitalityinVirginiacamenotfromadeathofhospitableintent,but fromanentirevanishingofthemeanstofurnishentertainment.AndtheCivilWardroveawayeven thelingeringghost. Many general customs existed in the early colonies which were simply exemplifications of neighborlinessputinlegalform.Suchwerethesystemsofcommonlandsandherding.Thiswasan old Aryan custom which existed many centuries ago, and has ever been one of the best ways of uniting any settlement of people, especially a new settlement; for it makes the interest of one the interestofall,andpromotesunionratherthanselfishness.Commonlandsweresetoffandcommon herdsexistedinmanyoftheNortherncolonies;cowherdsor"cow-keeps"wereappointedandpaidby the town to care throughout the summer for all the cattle owned by the inhabitants. This was an intelligentprovision;foritsavedmuchworkofindividualsduringthemonthswhenfarmershadso muchhardworktodo,andsoshortatimetodoitin.InAlbanyandNewYorkthecowherdand"a chosen proper youngster"—in other words, a good, steady boy—went through the town at sunrise soundingahorn,whichthecattleheardandknew;andtheyquicklyfollowedhimtogreenpastures outsidethetown.Theretheylingeredtillnearlysunset,whentheywerebroughthometothechurch, andtheownerswereagainwarnedbythehornofthesafereturnoftheircattle,andthatitwasmilking time. Sometimes the cowherd received part of his pay in butter or cheese. In Cambridge, Massachusetts,CowherdRice,in1635,agreedtotakechargeofonehundredcowsforthreemonths fortenpounds.Thetownalsopaidtwomenorboystohelphimthefirsttwoweeks,andonemana weeklonger;hekeptthecowsaloneafterthat,fortheintelligentcattlehadfallenintohabitsoforder andobediencetohishorn.Hehadtopaythreepencefineeachtimehefailedtobringinallthecattleat night. OnLongIslandandinConnecticuttherewerecowherds,calf-keepers,andpound-keepers.Thecalfkeepers'dutiesweretokeepthecalvesawayfromthecows,waterthem,protectthem,etc.InVirginia andMarylandtherewerecow-pensinearlydays,andcowherds;butintheSouththecattlegenerally roamed wild through the forests, and were known to their owners by earmarks. In all communities earmarksandotherbrandsofownershiponcattle,horses,sheep,andswinewereveryimportant,and rigidlyregardedwheresomuchvaluewaskeptindomesticcattle.Theseearmarkswereregisteredby thetownclerkinthetownrecords,andwereusuallydescribedbothinwordsandrudedrawings.One ofmygreat-great-grandfather'searmarksforhiscowswasa"swallow-forkslitinbothears";another was a slit under the ear and a "half-penny mark on the foreside of the near ear." This custom of herdingcattleincommonlastedinsomeout-of-the-wayplacestothiscentury,andevenlingeredlong inlargecitiessuchasBoston,wherecowswereallowedtofeedonBostonCommontillabout1840. InPhiladelphiauntiltheyear1795acowherdstoodeverymorningatthecornerofDockandSecond streets,blewhishorn,trampedofftoadistantpasturefollowedbyallthecowsofhisneighborhood, whohadrunouttohimassoonastheyheardthefamiliarsound.Heledthembacktothesameplace atnight,wheneachreturnedalonetoherownhome. Sheep-herds or shepherds in colonial days also took charge of the sheep of many owners in herdwalks,orranges,byday,andbynightinsheep-foldsbuiltwithfencesandgates. Fence-viewers were men who were appointed by the town for common benefit to take charge of building and keeping in repair the fences that surrounded the "great lotts" or commons; that is, the enclosed fields which were the common property of each town, in which all farmers living near couldplacetheircattle.Thefence-viewerssawthateachmanworkedacertainamounteachyearon these"pales"asthefenceswerecalled,orpaidhissharefortheworkofothers.Eachfarmerorcowownerusuallybuiltabouttwentyfeetoffenceforeachcowwhichhepasturedinthe"greatlotts."The fence-viewersalsoexaminedtheconditionoffencesaroundprivatelands;notedbreaksandordered repairs.Forifcattlebrokethroughapoorlymadefence,anddiddamagetocrops,thefence-owner had to stand the loss, while if the fences were good and strong, proving the cattle unruly and destructive,theownerofthecattlehadtopay.Allthecolonieswerewatchfuloverthesafe-keepingof fences. In 1659 the Dutch rulers of New Amsterdam (now New York) ordered that for "stripping fencesofrailsandposts"theoffendershouldbewhippedandbranded,andforasecondoffencehe could be punished by death. This seems cruelly severe, but that year there was a great scarcity of grainandotherfood,andifthefenceswerepulleddown,cattlecouldgetintofieldsandeatupthe growingcrops,andfamineanddeathmightresult. SometimesacommonfieldwasfencedinandplantedwithIndiancorn.Inthiscasethefenceservedto keepthecattleout,notin.ThiswasalwaysthecaseinVirginia. Hay-wardswere,asthenameindicates,mentokeepwatchfulcareoverthegrowinghay.Forinstance, inHadley,Massachusetts,in1661,GoodmanMontaguewaschosenhay-wardbythetown.Hewasto havetwelvepenceforeachcoworhog,twoshillingsforeachhorse,andtwentypenceforeachtwenty sheep that he found loose in any field or meadow, and successfully turned out. The owner of the animal was to pay the fine. At a later date these hay-wards were called field-drivers. They are still appointedinmanytownsandcities,amongthemBoston. Hog-reeves were men appointed by the citizens to look after their hogs that roamed the roads and streets, to see that all those swine had rings in their noses, were properly marked, and did not do damagetocrops.Manytownshadhog-reevestillthiscentury;foruntilseventyyearsagohogsran freely everywhere, even in the streets of our great cities. It was a favorite jest to appoint a newly married man hog-reeve. When Ralph Waldo Emerson was married and became a householder in Concord, the young philosopher was appointed to that office. Sometimes a single swineherd was hiredtotakecareoftherovingswine.ThetwoSalemswineherdsorswine-keepersin1640wereto have sixpence for each hog they drove daily to pasture from April to November. These and many otherpublicofficesweresimplyaformoflegalizedcoöperation;ajoiningtogetherofneighborsfor publicgood. Theneighborlyassistancegiventonewsettlersbeganwiththeclearingofthegroundforoccupancy. Thegirdlingoftreeswaseasyandspeedy,butitwasdiscountenancedasdangerousandhideous,and was not frequently practised. A chopping-bee was a universal method among pioneers of clearing groundinnewlysettleddistricts,oreveninoldertownshipsinVermont,NewHampshire,andMaine, wheregreattractsoflandwereleftformanyyearsintheoriginalgrowth.Sometimesthisbeewas heldtoclearlandforanewlymarriedman,oranewneighbor,oronewhohadhadbadluck;butit wasjustasfreelygiventoaprosperousfarmer,thoughplentifulthanksandplentifulrumwerethe onlyrewardsofthewillingworkers. All the strong men of the township repaired at an early hour to the tract to be cleared, and with powerful blows attacked the great trees. A favorite way of bringing the day's work and the day's excitement to a climax was by a "drive." This was made by chopping half-way into the trunks of a great group or circle of trees—under-cutting it was called—so that by a few powerful and welldriven blows at the monarch of the group, and perhaps a few well-concerted pulls on a rope, the entire group could be felled together, the leader bringing down with his spreading branches in his mightyfallhisfellowsinfrontofhim,andtheyinturntheirneighbors,withacrashthatshookthe earthandmadethemountainsring.Itwasdangerouswork;accidentswerefrequent;therecordsof deathatlog-rollingsarepathetictoreadandtothinkof,inacountrywherethelossofasturdyman meantsomuchtosomestrugglinghousehold.Aheavyandsuddengustofwindmightblowdowna small tree, which had been carelessly "under-cut," and thus give an unexpected and premature collapseofthesimplemachineryofthegrandfinale. A century ago a New Hampshire woman and her husband went out into the forest primeval; he cut downafewtrees,madealittleclearingtermedacut-downwhereinatinypatchofskyandcloudand scant sunlight could be seen overhead, but no sunrise or sunset, and built a log house of a single room—a home. With the opening spring came one day a group of kindly settlers from distant clearingsandsettlements,someridingfromtenmilesawaythepreviousday.Infrontoftheloghouse theychoppedallthemorninglongwithsturdyarmsandswingingblows,yetfellednothing,tillinthe afternoonwhenallwasreadyforthefinalblowatthetoweringleader,whichbyitsfallshouldlay lowagreatslopingtractforadooryardandhomefield.Asthenobletreesfellatlasttotheearthwith a resounding crash, lo! in the opening there appeared to the startled eyes of the settler's wife, as if rising out of heaven, a neighbor in her loneliness—Mount Kearsage, grand, serene, and beautiful, crownedwiththegloriesofthesettingsun,standingguardoverasmilinglakeatitsfoot.Andevery daythroughherlongandhappylifetillninety-sixyearsold,asshelookedatthesplendidmountain, standing as it will till time shall be no more, did she thank God for His gift, for that noble companionship which came so suddenly, so inspiringly, upon the cramped horizon of her lonely foresthome. After the trees were all felled, it was no longer a "cut-down" but an "opening." This was made preferablyinthespring.Thefallentreeswereleftsomemonthsonthegroundtodryinthesummer sun,whilethefarmerturnedtootherworkonhisfarm,or,ifhewerestartinginlife,hiredoutforthe summer.Intheautumnthetopsweresetonfire,andthelighterlimbsusuallyburnedout,leavingthe great charred tree-trunks. Then came what was known as a piling-bee, a perfect riot of hard work, cinders, and dirt. Usually the half-burned tree-trunks were "niggered off" in Indian fashion, by burningacrosswithasmallerstickofwoodtillthelonglogwasinlengthswhichcouldbedragged bythefarmerswiththeiroxenandhorsesintovastpilesandagainsetonfire.Anothertreatofrum accompanied this day's work. The word "log-rolling" was often applied to the latter bee, and occasionallythefellingoftreesanddraggingintopilesforfiringwasdoneinasinglelog-rolling. Sometimesbeforetheopeningwascleareditwasplanted.Thespringrainsandmeltingsnowscarried thefertilizingashesdeepintothesoil.Cornwasplantedand"dugin";ryewassowedand"hackedin." Thecropswereastonishing;thegraingrewamongthefallenlogsandstumpsinriotingluxuriance.A stump-pullingwasanotheroccasionforafriendlybee,toclearoffandputintocomelyshapethenew field. Anotherexhibitionofcoöperationwasinastone-haulingorastone-bee.Someoftherockyfieldsof hard New England would defy a lifetime of work of one man and a single yoke of oxen. With judiciousblasting,manyoxen,strongarms,andwillingheartsthebouldersandledgesweretamed. Stonewallseightfeetwide,suchasmaybeseeninHopkinton,NewHampshire,standasmonuments ofthepatience,strength,skill,andcoöperationofourforbears. Toshowthestruggleandhardworkwillinglydoneforahome,letmegivethestatementin1870ofa respected citizen, the historian of Norridgewock, Maine, when he was over ninety years old. He servedanapprenticeshipofeightyearstillhewastwenty-one,thenboughtoncreditatractoffifty acres in the primeval woods. On eight acres he felled the trees and left them through the winter. In April, 1801, he spent three weeks in burning off the logs and clearing as well as possible by handworkthreeacres.Thesehesowedwithwheatandrye,buyingtheseedoncredit.Hehiredayoke ofoxenforonedayanddidwhatharrowinghecouldinthatshorttime,grubbingaroundthestumps withahoefortwomoredays.Thecropgrew,asdidallothersonsimilarsoil,amazingly.Thetwo bushels of seed-wheat yielded fifty-two bushels, the bushel of rye thirty bushels. On his other five acresamongthefallentreesheplantedcorn,andraisedahundredandtwenty-eightbushels.Headds: — "WhenIcouldleavemyworkonmynewlandIworkedouthayingandotherwork.Imadeshoesin the Fall, taught school in the Winter, paid for my board and some clothing, but husbanded my resources to pay for my land. At the end of the year found myself worth two hundred dollars. I continued to clear up four acres each year till I had cleared the fifty acres, planted an orchard and erectedsuitablefarmbuildingsandfences." Six years later he married and prospered. In eleven years he was worth two thousand dollars; he filled, during his long life, many, positions of trust and of profit, and did many and varied good deeds; he continued in active life till he was ninety years old. At his death he left a considerable fortune. It is an interesting picture of the value of honorable economy and thrift; a typical New Englandpicture,withacertainvigorandstimulusaboutitthatmakesitpleasing. A "raising" might be of a church or a school-house, or of a house or barn for a neighbor. All the strongmenfarandnearturnedouttohelp,toolswerelent,andmanystronghandsandarmsmade quickwork.Oftentheframeofawholesideofahouse—thebroadside—wasfastenedtogetheronthe ground.Afteritwaslaidoutandpinnedtogether,shoresoflongpoleswereattachedtotheplateswith ox-chains, and it was literally lifted into place by the united strength of the entire band of men and boys.Sometimeswomenpulledontheropetoexpresstheirgoodwillandhelpfulness.Thentheother sides were put up, and the cross-beams, braces, and studding all pinned and nailed into place. Afterwardsthehugerafterswereraisedfortheroof.Eachmanwasassignedinthebeginningtohis placeandwork,andworkedfaithfullywhenhisturncame.Whentheridge-polewasputinplace,the building was christened, as it was called, by breaking over it a bottle of rum. Often the house was literallygivenaname.Sittingastridetheridge-pole,onepoetsang:— "Here'samightyfineframe Whichdesarvesagoodname, Saywhatshallwecallit? Thetimbersallstraight, Andwashewedfustrate, Theframeiswellputtogether. Itisagoodframe Thatdesarvesagoodname, Say!whatshallwenameit?" Another,aRochester,NewHampshire,framewascelebratedinversewhichclosedthus:— "TheFlowerofthePlainisthenameofthisFrame, We'vehadexceedinggoodLuckinraisingtheSame." It was not luck that made these raisings a success, it was skill and strength; skill and powers of endurance which could overcome and surmount even the quantity of vile New England rum with whichtheworkmenwerepliedthroughouttheday.Accidentswerefrequent,andoftenfatal.Agreat frame of a meeting-house, or a vast barn with forty or fifty men at work on it, could not collapse withoutlossoflifeandmuchinjuryoflimb. Intheworkoftheseraisingsthehighestaswellasthehumblestcitizenstookpart.Trulyamancould glow with the warmth of home even in a bare and scantily furnished house, at the thought that the wallsandrafterswereheldinplacebythekindwishesanddeedsofallhisfriendsandneighbors. Thereisnothinginnaturesounnatural,sosingularinquality,astheglitteringartificialityoftheearly morninginthecountrythedayafteraheavy,drifting,NewEnglandsnowstorm.Foradayandanight the wildly whirling snow that "driving o'er the fields seems nowhere to alight" has restrained the outlook, and every one has turned depressed from that outside life of loneliness and gloom. The followingmorningalwaysopenswithanexcessivelybrightanddazzlingsunshinewhichisnotlike anyothersunshineinanyplaceorseason,butiswhollyartificial,likethelime-lightofatheatre.We always run eagerly to the window to greet once more the signs of life and cheerfulness; but the landscape is more devoid of life and reality than during any storm of wind and snow and sleet, no matterhowdarkandlowering.Thereisachangedaspectineverything;itismetallic,andeverything ismadeofthesamehorriblewhitemetal.Nothingseemsfamiliar;notonlyarethewontedformsand outlines vanished, and all their varied textures and materials and beautiful diversity of color gone also,butthereisasteelyimmobilityrestrainingeverythingwhichissocompletethatitseemsasifit wereashellthatcouldneverbebroken. "Welookuponaworldunknown, Onnothingwecancallourown." Itisnolongerareallandscapebutanartificialencirclingdioramaofmeaninglessobjectsmadeof vast unshaded sheets of white glazed Bristol-board, painted with white enamel, warranted not to crack; with the garish high-lights put in crystallized alum or possibly powdered glass. It is without life,oratmosphere,orreality;ithasnothingbutthemillionreflectionsofthatartificialandrepellent sunshine.Inaquarterofanhour,eveninafewminutes,itisagonizinglymonotonoustothespiritas it is painful to the eye; then, like a veritable oasis of color and motion in an unmovable glittering whitedesert,asoundandsightofbeautifulandactivelifeappears.Aroundthebendoftheroadcomes slowandstrainingdownthehill,ashascomethroughtheglaringartificialsunlightaftereveryheavy snowstormforoveracenturypast,alongtrainofoxenwithasnow-plough"breakingout"theold post-road. Beautiful emblems of patient and docile strength, these splendid creatures are never so grateful to the sight as now. Their slow progress down the hill has many elements to make it interesting;itishistoric.Eversincethetownshipwasthicklysettledenoughforfamiliestohaveany winter communication with each other, whether for school, church, mail, or doctor, this road has beenbrokenoutinpreciselythissameway. InnearlyallscatteredtownshipsinNewEnglandthecustomprevailsto-dayjustasitdidacentury andmoreagoeveninlargetowns,andadescriptionofthepresent"breakingout"isthatofthepast also.Theworkisnowusuallydoneinchargeofroad-surveyorsortheroad-masters,whoareoften appointedfromtheremotepointsofthetownship.Thereis,therefore,muchfriendlyrivalrytosee whichsurveyorwillfirstreachthecentreofthetown—andthetavern.Beginningatsunrisewithhis ownyokeofoxenhitchedtoasnow-plough,eachroad-masterbreaksthroughthedrifttothenearest neighbor,whoaddshisyoketotheother,andsofromneighbortoneighbortillsometimesfifteenor twentyyokeofoxenarehitchedinalonglinetotheplough.Sometimesapairofwildyoungsteers are hitched, plunging and kicking, with the sober elders. By this time the first yoke often begins to showsignsofdistressbylollingoutthetongue,asuresymptomofoverworkinoxen,andtheyare leftatsomefarmer'sbarntocooldown. WhittierthusdescribesthesceneofbreakingoutthewinterroadsinhisSnow-Bound:— "Nextmornwewakenedwiththeshout Ofmerryvoiceshighandclear; Andsawtheteamstersdrawingnear Tobreakthedriftedhighwaysout. Downthelonghillsidetreadingslow Wesawthehalf-buriedoxengo, Shakingthesnowfromheadsuptost, Theirstrainingnostrilswhitewithfrost. Beforeourdoorthestragglingtrain Drewup,anaddedteamtogain. Theeldersthreshedtheirhandsa-cold, Passed,withthecidermug,theirjokes Fromliptolip." Thusarethewhitesnow-wasteandthedriftedroadsturnedbycheerfulcoöperationintoamidwinter visitingwhereeveryneighborcanexchangegreetingswiththeother,youngandold.Forofcourse schooldoesnotkeep,andtheboyscrowdonthesnow-ploughortrytheirnewsnowshoes,andthe menofthevariousfamilieswhodonotgowiththeoxenhitchupthesleighs,pods,andpungsand followthesnow-plough,andtheyoungmensendavolleyofsnowballsagainsteveryhousewhere anyfairmaidlives.Andatthetavernintheafternoonisagreatsight,greaterinante-temperancedays thannow:scoresofyokeofoxenatthedoor,thehorse-shedsfullofhorsesandsleighs,allthelads andmenofthetownshipwithin.Thereisrivalryinthemethodofbreaking.Oneroad-masteralways usedasnow-plough;anotherlashedanordinaryploughoneithersideofanarrowox-sled;athird used a coarse harrow weighted down with a group of standing boys. This broke up the drifts in a wonderfulmanner.Thedeeperdriftsoftenhavetobeshovelledoutpartlybyhand.Aftertheroadto the tavern is broken, the road to the school-house, the doctor's house, and the meeting-house come next. The roads thus made were not permitted in former days to be cut up idly by careless use; many townshipsforbadebylawtheuseofnarrowsledsandsleighs.Theroadswerenarrowatbest;often whentwosleighsmetthehorseshadtobeunharnessed,andthesleighsliftedpastovereachother.On lonelyhill-roadsorstraightturnpikes,whereteamsterscouldseesomedistanceahead,turnoutswere madewhereonesleighcouldwaitforanothertopass. Aftertherehadbeenaheavyfallofsnowandtheroadswerewellbroken,thetimewasalwayschosen where any logging was done to haul logs to the sawmill on ox-sleds. An interesting sled was used whichhadaninterestingname,—chebobbin.Onewritercalleditacrossbetweenatreeandabobsled. It was made by a close and ingenious adaptation of natural forms of wood, which made excellent runners,cross-bars,etc.;theywerefastenedtogethersolooselythattheyreadilyadjustedthemselves to the inequalities of the wood-roads. The word and article are now almost obsolete. In some localitieschebobbinbecametebobbinandtarboggin,allthreebeingadaptationsinnomenclature,as theywereinform,oftheIndiantobogganormoose-sled,—asledgewithrunnersorflatbottomof wood or bark, upon which the red men drew heavy loads over the snow. This sledge has become familiar to us in the light and strong Canadian form now used for the delightful winter sport of tobogganing. Onthesechebobbinsgreatlogswerehitchedtogetherbychains,anddraggeddownfromtheupland wood-lots. Under these mighty loads the snow-tracks got an almost icy polish, prime sledding for countrysleighingparties.Sometimesalogging-beewasmadetoclearaspeciallotforaneighbor, andabandofwood-choppersworkedalldaytogether.Itwascheerfulwork,thoughthemenhadto standalldayinthesnow,andthethermometerwasbelowzero.Buttherewasnocuttingwindinthe forest,andtheexercisekeptthebloodwarm.Manyatimeaheartymanwoulddrophisaxetowipe thesweatfromhisbrow.Loosewoollenfrocks,orlong-shorts,twoorthreeovereachother,were warm as are the overlapping feathers of a bird; a few had buckskin or sheepskin waistcoats; their handswerewarmlycoveredwithhome-knitmittens.Inlaterdaysallhadheavywell-greasedboots, butintheearlyyearsofsuchpioneersettlements,asthetownsofNewHampshireandVermont, all couldnotaffordtowearboots.Theirplacewaswellsuppliedbyheavywoollenstockings,shoes,and an over-covering of old stockings, or cloth soaked in neat's-foot oil; this was deemed a positive preventiveoffrozenfeet. It was the custom both among men and women to join forces on a smaller scale and have a little neighborly visiting by what was called "change-work." For instance, if two neighbors both were to make soap, or both to make apple-butter, or both to make up a rag carpet, instead of each woman sittingathomealonesewingandfittingthecarpet,onewouldtakeherthimbleandgotospendthe day,andthetwowouldsewalldaylong,finishandlaythecarpetatonehouse.Inafewdaysthevisit would be returned, and the second carpet be finished. Sometimes the work was easier when two worked together. One man could load logs and sled them down to the sawmill alone, but two by "change-work"couldaccomplishthetaskmuchmorerapidlyandwithlessstrain. EventhoseevildaysofNewEnglandhouseholds,theannualhouse-cleaning,wererobbedofsomeof theirdismalterrorsbywhatwasknownasa"whang,"agatheringofafewfriendlywomenneighbors toassistoneanotherinthatdiretime,andthusspeedandshortenthehoursofmisery. For any details of domestic life of colonial days the reader has ever to turn to the diary of Judge Samuel Sewall of Boston, just as the student of English life of the same date turns to the diary of SamuelPepys.SewallwasaPuritanofthenarrowtypeofthelaterdaysofPuritanism;andthereis littleofwarmthorbeautyinhispages,savethatthroughoutthemthereshineswithgentleradiancethe unconsciousrecordofapureandnever-dyingneighborliness,theneighborlinessofanuprightand reserved but deeply tender Christian. No thoughtful person can read the simple and meagre, but whollyself-forgetfulentrieswhichrevealthistraitofcharacterwithoutafeelingofprofoundrespect and even affection for Sewall. He was the richest man in town, and one of the most dignified of citizens,abusymanfullofmanycaresandplans.Buthewatchedbythebedsideofhissickanddying neighbors,thoseofhumblestationaswellashisfriendsandkinsfolk,nursingthemwithtendercare, praying with them, bringing appetizing gifts, and also giving pecuniary aid to the household. He affordedevenmorehomelyexamplesofneighborlyfeeling;hesent"tastesofhisdinner"manytimes tofriendsandneighbors.ThispleasantcustomlingeredtillthepresentdayinNewEngland;Isawlast summer,severaltimes,coveredtreasuresofhousewiferybeingcarriedinpettyamounts,literally"a taste,"totempttiredappetitesorlonelydiners.Thegiftofaportionoftheover-bountifulsupplyfor thesupperofawedding,areception,etc.,wentbytheexpressivenameof"coldparty." In rural Pennsylvania a charming and friendly custom prevailed among country folk of all nationalities—the "metzel-soup," the "taste" of sausage-making. This is the anglicized form of Metzelsuppe;metzelnmeanstokillandcuttopieces—especiallyforsausagemeat.Wheneachfarmer butcheredandmadesausage,agreatdishheapedwitheightortenpoundsofthenewsausageswas senttoeachintimatefriend.Therecipientwouldinturnsendmetzel-soupwhenhisfamilykilledand made sausage. If the metzel-soup were not returned, the minister promptly learned of it and set at work to effect a reconciliation between the offended parties. The custom is dying out, and in many townsiswhollyvanished. Sewallseemedtoregarditasaduty,anddoubtlessitwasalsoapleasure,toprayforandwithdying friends.Hisisnottheonlyold-timediarythatIhavereadinwhichthoselongprayersarerecorded, norarehissurprisedoccasionalrecordsoftheimpatienceofdyingfriendstheonlyonesIhaveseen. Averysickman,eventhoughhewereaPuritan,mightoccasionallytireoftheprayersoflaymen. Sewallwaseverreadytosignifyhisgoodwillandinterestinhisneighbors'advancingfortunes,by drivinganailataship-buildingorapinatahouse-raising,bylayingastoneinawallorafoundation of a house, the latter, apparently, in the case of some very humble homes. He, the Judge of the SupremeCourt,servedonthewatch,walkingandguardingthestreetsandhisneighbors'safetyjustas faithfullyasdidthehumblestcitizen. CHAPTERXVII OLD-TIMEFLOWERGARDENS Adjoining the street through which I always, in my childhood, walked slowly each Sunday, on my way to and from church, was a spot to detain lingering footsteps—a beautiful garden laid out and tenanted like the gardens of colonial days, and serene with the atmosphere of a worthy old age; a garden which had been tended for over half a century by a withered old man and his wife, whose goldenweddingwasspentinthehousetheyhadbuilt,andinthegardentheyhadplantedwhenthey were bride and groom. His back was permanently bowed with constant weeding and pruning and plantingandhoeing,andhishandsandfacewerebrownasthesoilhecultivated.The"hot-glowing" crimsonpeonies,seedlingswhichthewifehadsowninheryouth,hadbecomegreatshrubs,fifteenor twenty feet in circumference. The flowering shrubs were trees. Vigorous borders of box crowded across the paths and towered on either side, till one could scarcely walk through them. There were beautiful fairy groves of fox gloves "gloriously freckled, purple, and white," and tall Canterbury bells; and at stiffly regular intervals were set flowering almonds, St. Peter's wreath, Persian lilacs, "Moses in the burning bush," which shrub was rare in our town, and "laburnums rich in streaming gold, syringas ivory pure." At the lower ends of the flower borders were rows of "honey-blob" gooseberries, and aged currant bushes, gray with years, overhung by a few patriarchal quince and crab-appletrees,inwhoselow-spreadinggnarledbranchesIspentmanyasummerafternoon,ahappy visitor,thoughmyownhomegardenwasjustasbeautiful,old-fashioned,andflower-filled. Thevaryinggradesofcitystreetshadgraduallyrisenaroundthegardenuntilitlaydepressedseveral feetbelowtheleveloftheadjoiningstreets,apleasantvalley,—likeAvalon,— "Deep-meadowed,happy,fair,withorchardlawns, Andboweryhollowscrown'dwithsummerseas." Aflightofstonestepsleddowntoit,—stepsverysteep,narrow,andslipperywithgreenmoss,and ladies'-delights that crowded and blossomed in every crack and crevice of the stones. On each side arose terraces to the street, and in the spring these terraces flushed a mass of vivid, glowing rosecolorfrombloomingmoss-pink,formingsuchaglorythatpiouschurch-goingfolkfromtheother endofthetowndidnotthinkitwickedtowalkthither,onaSundaymorninMay,tolookattherosy banksthatslopedtothevalleyedgarden,astheyhadwalkedthereinFebruaryorMarchtosee "Winter,slumberingintheopenair, Wearonhissmilingfaceadreamofspring," intheshapeofthefirstcrocusesandsnowdropsthatopenedbesideasnow-driftstilllingeringona shadedbank;andtowatchthefirstbenumbedhoney-beeswhogreetedeveryflowerthatbloomedin thatcherishedspot,andwhobuzzedinbleakMarchwindsoverthepurplecrocusand"blueflushing" grape-hyacinthascheerfullyasthoughtheyweresippingthescarletpoppiesinsunnyAugust. Thegardenedgesandthestreetwereoverhungbygracefullarchesandbythornyhoney-locusttrees that bore on their trunks great clusters of powerful spines and sheltered in their branches an exceedinglyunpleasantspeciesoffat,fuzzycaterpillars,whichalwayschoseSundaytodroponmy garmentsasIwalkedtochurch,andtogowithmetomeeting,andinthemiddleofthelongprayerto parade on my neck, to my startled disgust and agitated whisking away, and consequent reproof for beingnoisyinmeeting. What fragrances arose from that old garden, and were wafted out to passers-by! The ever-present, pungent,dryaromaofboxwasovercomeortempered,throughthesummermonths,byasuccession ofdelicateflower-scentsthathungoverthegarden-valelikeanimperceptiblemist;perhapsthemost perfectandclearamongmemory'sretrospectivetreasureswasthatofthepalefringed"snow-pink," and later, "sweet william with its homely cottage smell." Phlox and ten-weeks stock were there, as everywhere,thelastsweet-scentedflowersofautumn. Atnotimewasthisoldgardensweeterthaninthetwilight,theeventide,whenallthegreatclumpsof snowyphlox,night-rockets,andluminouseveningprimrose,andallthetanglesofpaleyellowand whitehoneysuckleshoneirradiated;when, "Inpuffsofbalmthenightairblows Theburdenwhichthedayforegoes," and scents far richer than any of the day—the "spiced air of night"—floated out in the dusky gloaming. Thoughtheoldgardenhadmanyfragrantleavesandflowers,theirdelicateperfumewassometimes fairly deadened by an almost mephitic aroma that came from an ancient blossom, a favorite in Shakespeare'sday—thejewelledbellofthenoxiouscrown-imperial.Thisstatelyflower,withitsrich colorandpearlydrops,hasthroughitsevilscentbeenfirmlybanishedfromourgardenborders. Oneofthemostcheerfulflowersofthisandofmymother'sgardenwasthehappy-facedlittlepansy thatundervariousfancifulfolk-nameshaseverbeenloved.LikeMontgomery'sdaisy,it"blossomed everywhere."ItsItaliannamemeans"idlethoughts";theGerman,"littlestepmother."Spensercalledit "pawnce."Shakespearesaidmaidenscalledit"love-in-idleness,"andDraytonnamedit "heartsease." Dr.Priorgivesthesenames—"HerbTrinity,ThreeFacesunderaHood,FancyFlamy,KissMe,Pull Me,CuddleMeuntoYou,TicklemyFancy,KissMeereIRise,JumpUpandKissMe,KissMeatthe Garden Gate, Pink of my Joan." To these let me add the New England folk-names—bird's-eye, garden-gate,johnny-jump-up,kit-run-about,none-so-pretty,andladies'-delight.Allthesetestifytothe affectionateandintimatefriendshipfeltforthislaughingandfairlyspeakinglittlegardenface,notthe least of whose endearing qualities was that, after a half-warm, snow-melting week in January or February,thisbright-somelittle"delight"oftenopenedatinyblossomtogreetandcheerus—atrue "jump-up-and-kiss-me,"andprovedbyitsbloomingthetruthofthegracefulChineseverse,— "Eremanisaware Thatthespringishere Theplantshavefounditout." Anotherdearlylovedspringflowerwasthedaffodil,thefavoritealsoofoldEnglishdramatistsand poets,andofmodernauthorsaswell,whenwefindthatKeatsnamesadaffodilas,thethingofbeauty that is a joy forever. Perhaps the happiest and most poetic picture of daffodils is that of Dora Wordsworth,whenshespeaksofthemas"gayandglancing,andlaughingwiththewind."Perdita,in The Winter's Tale, thus describes them in her ever-quoted list: "Daffodils that come before the swallowdaresandtakethewindsofMarchwithbeauty."Mostcheerfulandsunnyofallourspring flowers,theyhaveneverlosttheirold-timepopularity,andtheystilllaughatourbleakMarchwinds. Bouncing-betandhercomelyheartycousinsofthepinkfamilymadedelightsomemanyacornerof ourhomegarden.ThepinkswereJove'sownflowers,andthecarthusianpink,chinapink,clovepink, snow pink, plumed pink, mullein pink, sweet william, maltese cross, ragged robin, catch-fly, and campion,allmadegayandsweetthesummer.Theclovepinkwastheancestorofallthecarnations. The richest autumnal glory came from the cheerful marigold, the "golde" of Chaucer, and "marybud" of Shakespeare. This flower, beloved of all the old writers, as deeply suggestive and emblematic,hasbeencoldlyneglectedbymodernpoets,asforawhileitwasbanishedfrommodern towngardens;butitmayregainitspopularityinverseasithasincultivation.Infarmgardensithas alwaysflourished,andeveryautumnhas"gonetobedwiththesunandwithhimrisenweeping,"and has given forth in the autumn air its acrid odor, which to me is not disagreeable, though my old herbalcallsits"averynaughtysmell." A favorite shrub in our garden, as in every country dooryard, was southernwood, or lad's-love. A sprig of it was carried to meeting each summer Sunday by many old ladies, and with its finely dissected,bluish-greenfoliage,andcleanpungentscent,itwaspleasanttoseeinthemeeting-house, and pleasant to sniff at. The "virtues of flowers" took a prominent place in the descriptions in oldtimebotanies.Thesouthernwoodhadstrongmedicinalqualities,andwasusedtocure"vanityesofthe head." "TakeaquantityeofSuthernwoodandputituponkindledcoalestoburnandbeingmadeintopowder mixitwiththeoyleofradishesandanoyntabaldeplaceandyoushallseegreatexperiences." Itwasofpowerasalovecharm.Ifyouplacedasprigineachshoeandworeitthroughthedaywhen youwereinlove,youwouldthenalsoinsomeway"seegreatexperiences." In the tender glamour of happy association, all flowers in the old garden seem to have been loved savethegarishpetunias,whosesickishodorgrewmoreoffensiveandmorepowerfulatnightfalland mademelongtotearthemawayfromtheirdaintygarden-fellows,andtheportulacawithitsfleshy, worm-likestemsandleaves,anditsaggressivelypushinghabits,"neverwouldbemissed."Perhapsits closerelationtothe"pusley,"mosthatedofweeds,makesuseyeitaskance. Therewasoneattributeoftheold-timegarden,onepartofnature'seconomy,whichaddedmuchtoits charm—it was the crowding abundance, the over-fulness of leaf, bud, and blossom. Nature there displayed no bare expanses of naked soil, as in some too-carefully-kept modern parterres; the dull earthwascoveredwithatangleofready-growing,self-sowing,lowlyflowers,thatfilledeveryspace left unoccupied by statelier garden favorites, and crowded every corner with cheerful, though unostentatious, bloom. And the close juxtaposition, and even intermingling, of flowers with herbs, vegetables,andfruitsgaveasenseofhomelysimplicityandusefulness,aswellasofbeauty.Thesoft, purple eyes of the mourning-bride were no less lovely to us in "our garden" because they opened undertheshadeofcurrantandgooseberrybushes;andthesweetalyssumandcandytuftwerenoless honey-sweet. The delicate, pinky-purple hues of the sweet peas were not dimmed by their vivid neighborsattheendoftherowofpoles—thescarletrunners.Theadlumia,ormountainfringe,wasa special vine of our own and known by a special name—virgin's bower. With its delicate leaves, almostasbeautifulasamaidenhairfern,anditsdaintypinkflower,itfestoonedtheripeningcornas wantonlyandluxuriantlyasitencircledthesnowballandlilacbushes. Though "colored herbs" were cultivated in England in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries as carefullyaswereflowers,—stripedhollies,variegatedmyrtles,andbaysbeingthegardener'spride, —yet in our old American gardens few plants were grown for their variegated or odd-colored foliage. The familiar and ever-present ribbon-grass, also called striped grass, canary grass, and gardener'sgarters,—whoseprettyexpandedpaniclesformedanalmosttropicaleffectatthebaseof thegardenhedge;thevariegatedwanderingjew,thestripedleavesofsomevarietiesofday-lilies;the dusty-miller,withits"frostypow"(whichwasproperlyahouseplant),filltheshortlist.Theboxwas thesoleevergreen. AndmayInotenterhereapleaforthepreservationofthebox-edgingsofouroldgardenborders?I know they are almost obsolete—have been winter-killed and sunburned—and are even in sorry disrepute as having a graveyard association, and as being harborers of unpleasant and unwelcome gardenvisitors.Oneloverofoldwaysthusindignantlymournstheirpassing:— "I spoke of box-edgings. We used to see them in little country gardens, with paths of crude earth. Nowadays,ithasbeendiscoveredthatboxharboursslugs,andwearebeginningtohavebedswith tiledborders,whilethewalksareofasphalt.Forapleasure-groundinDante'sInfernosuchmaterials mightbesuitable." Foritsbeautyinwinteralone,theboxshouldstillfindaplaceinourgardens.Itgrowstogreatsize. BushesofboxinthedesertedgardenatVaucluseinNewport,RhodeIsland,arefifteenfeetinheight, andoverthemspreadthebranchesofforesttreesthathavesprungupinthegardenbedssincethat neglected pleasaunce was planted, over a century ago. The beautiful border and hedges of box at MountVernon,thehomeofWashington,pleadforfreshpopularityforthisold-timefavorite. Ourmothersandgrandmotherscamehonestlybytheirloveofgardens.Theyinheritedthisaffection from their Puritan, Quaker, or Dutch forbears, perhaps from the days when the famous hanging gardensofBabylonweremadeforawoman.Baconsays:"Agardenisthepurestofhumanpleasures, itisthegreatestrefreshmenttothespiritsofman."Agardenwascertainlythegreatestrefreshmentto thespiritsofawomanintheearlycolonialdays,andthepurestofherpleasures—toooftenheronly pleasure. Quickly, in tender memory of her fair English home, the homesick goodwife, trying to create a semblanceofthebirthplaceshestillloved,plantedtheseedsandrootsofhomelyEnglishflowersand herbsthatgrewandblossomedunderbleakNewEnglandskies,andonrockyNewEnglandshores,as sturdilyandcheerfullyastheyhadsprungupandbloomedbythegreenhedgerowsanddoor-sidesin thehomebeyondthesea. In the year 1638, and again in 1663, an English gentleman named John Josselyn came to New England.Hepublished,in1672,anaccountofthesetwovisits.Hewasamanofpolitereadingandof culture,andaswasthehighfashionforgentlemenofhisday,hadatasteforgardeningandbotany.He madeinterestinglistsofplantswhichhenotedinAmericaundertheseheads:— "1.SuchplantsasarecommonwithusinEngland. "2.Suchplantsasarepropertothecountry. "3.Suchplantsasarepropertothecountryandhavenonames. "4.SuchplantsashavesprungupsincetheEnglishplantedandkeptcattleinNewEngland. "5.SuchGarden-Herbsamongusasdothrivethereandofsuchasdonot." Thislastdivisionistheonethatspeciallyinterestsus,sinceitistheearliestandthefullestaccountof thegardensofourforefathers,aftertheyhadtamedtheruggedshoresoftheNewWorld,andmade them obey the rule of English husbandry. They had "good store of garden vegetables and herbs; lettuce,sorrel,parsley,mallows,chevril,burnet,summersavory,wintersavory,thyme,sage,carrots, parsnips,beets,radishes,purslain,beans";"cabbidgegrowingexceedingwell;peaseofallsortsand the best in the world; sparagus thrives exceedingly, musk mellons, cucumbers, and pompions." For grains there were wheat, rye, barley, and oats. There were other garden herbs and garden flowers: spearmint, pennyroyal, ground-ivy, coriander, dill, tansy; "feverfew prospereth exceedingly; white sattingrowethprettywell,andsodothlavender-cotton;gillyflowerswillcontinuetwoyears;horseleekprosperethnotably;hollyhocks;comferiewithwhiteflowers;clarylastsbutonesummer;sweetbryeroreglantine;celandinebutslowly;blood-wortbutsorrily,butpatienceandEnglishrosesvery pleasantly." Patience and English roses very pleasantly in truth must have shown their fair English faces to Englishwomeninthestrangeland.Dearlylovedhadthesebrier-rosesordog-rosesbeeninEngland, where,saystheoldherbalist,Gerard,"childrenwithdelightmakechainsandprettygewgawesofthe fruit;andcookesandgentlewomenmaketartsandsuchlikedishesforpleasurethereof."Hollyhocks, feverfew,andgillyflowersmusthavemadeasunshineintheshadyplacesinthenewhome.Manyof thesegardenherbsarenowcommonweedsorroadsideblossoms.Celandine,evenacenturyago,was "commonbyfencesandamongrubbish."Tansyandelecampanegroweverywhere.Sweet-brierisat home in New England pastures and roadsides. Spearmint edges our brooks. Ground-ivy is a naturalized citizen. It is easy to note that the flowers and herbs beloved in gardens and medicinal watersandkitchens"athome"weretheonestransplantedhere."Clary-water"wasafavoritetonicof Englishmenofthatday. Thelistof"suchplantsashavesprungupsincetheEnglishplanted"shouldbeofinteresttoeveryone who has any sense of the sentiment of association, or interest in laws of succession. The Spanish proverbsays:— "Moreinthegardengrows Thanthegardenersows." Theplantainhasahistoryfullofromance;itsoldNorthernnames—WegetrittinGerman,Weegbree in Dutch, Viebred in Danish, and Weybred in Old English, all indicating its presence in the muchtroddenpathsofman—werenotlostinitsnewhome,norwereitscharacteristicsoverlookedbythe nature-noting and plant-knowing red man. It was called by the Indian "the Englishman's foot," says Josselyn,andbyKalmalso,alatertravellerin1740;"fortheysaywhereanEnglishmantrod,there grew a plantain in each footstep." Not less closely did such old garden weeds as motherwort, groundsel,chickweed,andwildmustardclingtothewhiteman.Theyareoldcolonists,broughtover by the first settlers, and still thrive and triumph in every kitchen garden and back yard in the land. Mulleinandnettle,henbaneandwormwood,allareEnglishemigrants. The Puritans were not the only flower-lovers in the new land. The Pennsylvania Quakers and Mennonites were quick to plant gardens. Pastorius encouraged all the Germantown settlers to raise flowersaswellasfruit.WhittiersaysofhiminhisPennsylvaniaPilgrim:— "Theflowershisboyhoodknew Smiledathisdoor,thesameinformandhue, AndonhisvinestheRhenishclustersgrew." ItgivesoneapleasantnotionoftheoldQuaker,GeorgeFox,toreadhisbequestbywillofatractof landnearPhiladelphia"foraplaygroundforthechildrenofthetowntoplayonandforagardento plantwithphysicalplants,forladsandlassiestoknowsimples,andlearntomakeoilsandointments." AmongPennsylvanianstheartofgardeningreachedthehighestpoint.Thelandscapegardeningwasa reproduction of the best in England. Our modern country places cannot equal in this respect the colonial country seats near Philadelphia. Woodlands and Bush Hill, the homes of the Hamiltons, Cliveden, of Chief Justice Chew, Fair Hill, Belmont, the estate of Judge Peters, were splendid examples.Anecstaticaccountofthegloriesandwondersofsomeofthemwaswrittenjustafterthe Revolution by a visitor who fully understood their treasures, the Rev. Manasseh Cutler, the clergyman,statesman,andbotanist. In Newport, Rhode Island, where flowers ever seem to thrive with extraordinary luxuriance, there were handsome gardens in the eighteenth century. A description of Mr. Bowler's garden during the Revolutionreadsthus:— "Itcontainsfouracresandhasagrandaisleinthemiddle.Nearthemiddleisanovalsurroundedwith espaliersoffruit-trees,inthecentreofwhichisapedestal,onwhichisanarmillaryspherewithan equatorial dial. On one side of the front is a hot-house containing orange-trees, some ripe, some green,someblooms,andvariousotherfruit-treesoftheexotickindandcuriousflowers.Atthelower end of the aisle is a large summer-house, a long square containing three rooms, the middle paved with marble and hung with landscapes. On the right is a large private library adorned with curious carvings.Thereareespaliersoffruit-treesateachendofthegardenandcuriousfloweringshrubs. Theroomontheleftisbeautifullydesignedformusicandcontainsaspinnet.Butthewholegarden discoveredthedesolationsofwar." In the Southern colonies men of wealth soon had beautiful gardens. In an early account of South Carolina,writtenin1682,wefind:— "TheirGardensaresuppliedwithsuchEuropeanPlantsandHerbsasarenecessaryfortheKitchen, andtheybegintobebeautifulandadornedwithsuchFlowersastotheSmellorEyearepleasingor agreeable,viz.:theRose,Tulip,Carnation,Lilly,etc." BythemiddleofthecenturymanyexquisitegardenscouldbeseeninCharleston,andtheywerethe pride of Southern colonial dames. Those of Mrs. Lamboll, Mrs. Hopton, and Mrs. Logan were the largest. The latter flower-lover in 1779, when seventy years old, wrote a treatise on flower-raising calledTheGardener'sKalendar,whichwasreadandusedformanyyears.Mrs.Laurenshadanother splendidgarden.ThoseSouthernladiesandtheirgardenersconstantlysentspecimenstoEngland,and received others in return. The letters of the day, especially those of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, ever interestedinfloricultureandarboriculture,showaconstantexchangewithEnglishflower-lovers. BeverleywroteofVirginia,in1720:"Agardenisnowheresoonermadethanthere."WilliamByrd andothertravellers,afewyearslater,sawmanybeautifulterracedgardensinVirginianhomes.Mrs. AnneGrantwritesatlengthoftheloveandcaretheDutchwomenofthepastcenturyhadforflowers: — "Thecareofplantssuchasneededpeculiarcareorskilltorearthem,wasthefemaleprovince.Every oneintownorcountryhadagarden.Intothegardennofootofmanintrudedafteritwasduginthe spring.IthinkIseeyetwhatIhavesooftenbeheld—arespectablemistressofafamilygoingoutto hergarden,inanAprilmorning,withhergreatcalash,herlittlepaintedbasketofseeds,andherrake over her shoulders, to her garden of labours. A woman in very easy circumstances and abundantly gentleinformandmannerswouldsowandplantandrakeincessantly." InNewYork,beforetheRevolution,weremanybeautifulgardens,suchasthatofMadamAlexander onBroadStreet,whereintheirproperseasongrew"pausbloemenofallhues,laylocksandtallMay rosesandsnowballsintermixedwithchoicevegetablesandherbsallboundedandhemmedinbyhuge rows of neatly clipped box edgings." We have a pretty picture also, in the letters of Catharine Rutherfurd,ofanentirecompanygatheringrose-leavesinJuneinMadamClark'sgarden,andsetting therose-stillatworktoturntheirsweet-scentedspoilsintorose-water. Atradeinflowerandvegetableseedsformedalucrativeandpopularmeansbywhichwomencould earn a livelihood in colonial days. I have seen in one of the dingy little newspaper sheets of those days,inthelargetotalofnineadvertisements,containedtherein,theannouncements,byfiveBoston seedswomen,oflistsoftheirwares. The earliest list of names of flower-seeds which I have chanced to note was in the Boston Evening PostofMarch,1760,andisofmuchinterestasshowingtouswithexactnesstheflowersbelovedand soughtforatthattime.Theywere"holly-hook,purpleStock,whiteLewpins,Africans,blewLewpins, candy-tuff,cyanus,pink,wall-flower,doublelarkin-spur,venusnavelwort,bromptonflock,princess feather, balsam, sweet-scented pease, carnation, sweet williams, annual stock, sweet feabus, yellow lewpins, sunflower, convolus minor, catch-fly, ten week stock, globe thistle, globe amaranthus, nigella, love-lies-bleeding, casent hamen, polianthus, canterbury bells, carnation poppy, india pink, convolusmajor,QueenMargrets."Thisiscertainlyaveryprettylistofflowers,nearlyallofwhich arestillloved,thoughsometimesunderothernames—thustheQueenMargretsareourasters.And thehomelyoldEnglishnamesseemtobringtheflowerstoourverysight,forwedonotseemtobe onveryfriendlyintimacy,onverysociabletermswithflowers,unlesstheyhavewhatMissMitford calls "decent, well-wearing English names"; we can have no flower memories, no affections that cling to botanical nomenclature. Yet nothing is more fatal to an exact flower knowledge, to an acquaintancethatshalleverbemorethanlocal,thanatooconfidentdependenceonthefolk-namesof flowers. Our bachelor's-buttons are ragged sailors in a neighboring state; they are corn-pinks in Plymouth, ragged ladies in another town, blue bottles in England, but cyanus everywhere. Ragged robin is, in the garden of one friend, a pink, in another it flaunts as London-pride, while the true glowingLondon-pridehashalfadozenpseudonymsinasmanydifferentlocalities,andonlyreally recognizes itself in the botany. An American cowslip is not an English cowslip, an American primroseisnoEnglishprimrose,andtheEnglishdaisyisnocountryfriendofoursinAmerica. Whatcheerfulandappropriatefurnishingstheold-timegardenshad;benchesfullofstrawbeeskepes andwoodenbeehives,thosehomelikeandbusydwelling-places;frequently,also,awell-filleddovecote.Sometimeswasseenasun-dial—oncetheevery-dayfriendandsuggestivemonitorofallwho wanderedamongtheflowersofanhour;nowknown,alas!onlytotheantiquary.Sentimentandeven spiritualityseemsuggestedbythesun-dial,yetfewremaintocasttheirinstructiveshadowbeforeour sight. One stood for years in the old box-bordered garden at Homogansett Farm, at Wickford, in old Narragansett. Governor Endicott's dial is in the Essex Institute, at Salem; and my forbear, Jacob Fairbanks, had one dated 1650, which is now in the rooms of the Dedham Historical Society. Dr. Bowditch,ofBoston,hadasun-dialwhichwasthusinscribed:— "WithwarninghandImarkTimesrapidflight Fromlife'sgladmorningtoitssolemnnight. AndlikeGod'sloveIalsoshow Thereslightaboveme,bytheshadebelow." Anothergardendialthusgives,"inlong,leanletters,"itswarningword:— "You'llmendyourWaysTo-morrow WhenbloomsthatbuddedFlour? Mortall!LerntoyourSorrow DeathmaycreepwithhisArrow Andpierceyo'rvitallMarrow LongeremywarningShadow CanmarkthatHour." Thesedialsareallofheavymetal,usuallylead;sometimeswithgnomonofbrass.ButIhaveheardof onewhichwasunique;itwascutinbox. Attheedgeofthefarmgardenoftenstoodthewell-sweep,oneofthemostpicturesqueadjunctsofthe countrydooryard.Itssuccessor,theroofedwellwithbucket,stone,andchain,andeventhehomely long-handledpump,hadacertainappropriatenessaspartofthegardenfurnishings. Somanythoughtscrowduponusinregardtotheoldgarden;oneistheageofitsflowers.Wehave noolderinhabitantsthanthesegardenplants;theyareoldsettlers.Clumpsofflower-de-luce,double buttercups, peonies, yellow day-lilies, are certainly seventy-five years old. Many lilac bushes a centuryoldstillbloominNewEngland,andsyringasandfloweringcurrantsareasoldastheelms andlocuststhatshadethem. Thisestablishedconstancyandyearlyrecurrenceofbloomisoneofthegarden'smanycharms.To thosewhohaveknownandlovedanoldgardeninwhich, "Theregrownostrangeflowerseveryyear, Butwhenspringwindsblowo'erthepleasantplaces, Thesamedearthingsliftupthesamefairfaces," andfaithfullytellandretellthestoryofthechangingseasonsbytheirgrowth,blossom,anddecay, nothingcanseemmoreartificialthanthemodernshow-bedsoffull-grownplantswhichareremoved byassiduousgardenersassoonastheyhaveflowered,tobereplacedbyothers,onlyinturntobloom and disappear. These seem to form a real garden no more than does a child's posy-bed stuck with short-stemmedflowerstowitherinamorning. Andthetiresome,tastelessribbon-bedsofourdaywereprecededinearliercenturiesbyfiguredbeds of diverse-colored earths—and of both we can say with Bacon, "they be but toys, you may see as goodsightsmanytimesintarts." ThepromisetoNoah,"whiletheearthremainethseed-timeandharvestshallnotcease,"whenheeded inthegarden,bringsvariousinterests.Theseed-time,thespringing-upoffamiliarfavorites,andthe cherishingofthesefavoritesthroughtheirin-gatheringofseedsorbulbsorrootsforanotheryear, bringpleasureasmuchasdoestheirinflorescence. Another pathetic trait of many of the old-time flowers should not be overlooked—their persistent clingingtolifeaftertheyhadbeenexiledfromthetrimgardenborderswheretheyfirstsawthechill sunofaNewEnglandspring.Youseethemgrowingandbloomingoutsidethegardenfence,against oldstonewalls,wheretheirup-tornrootshavebeenthrowntomakeplacesfornewandmorepopular favorites. You find them cheerfully spreading, pushing along the foot-paths, turning into vagrants, becoming flaunting weeds. You see them climbing here and there, trying to hide the deserted chimneysoftheirearlyhomes,orwanderingoverandhidingtheuntroddenfoot-pathsofotherdays. A vivid imagination can shape many a story of their life in the interval between their first careful plantingincolonialgardensandtheirneglectedexiletohighwaysandbyways,wherethepoorbitsof depauperatedearthcangrownomorelucrativeharvest. Thesitesofcolonialhouseswhicharenowdestroyed,thetrend,almosttheexactlineofoldroads, can be traced by the cheerful faces of these garden-strays. The situation of old Fort Nassau, in Pennsylvania, so long a matter of uncertainty, is said to have been definitely determined by the familiargardenflowersfoundgrowingononeofthesedisputedsites.Itisatenderthoughtthatthis indeliblemarkisleftuponthefaceofournativelandthroughtheaffectionofourforbearsfortheir gardens. The botany tells us that bouncing-bet has "escaped from cultivation"—she has been thrust out, but unresentfully lives and smiles; opening her tender pinky-opalescent flowers adown the dusty roadsides,andevenonbarrengravel-bedsinrailroadcuts.Butter-and-eggs,tansy,chamomile,spiked loosestrife, velvet-leaf, bladder-campion, cypress spurge, live-for-ever, star of Bethlehem, moneyvine,—allhaveseenbetterdays,butnowareflower-tramps.Eventhelarkspur,belovedofchildren, themoss-pink,andthegrape-hyacinthmaysometimesbeseengrowingincountryfieldsandbyways. The homely and cheerful blossoms of the orange-tawny ephemeral lily, and the spotted tiger-lily, whosegaudycolorsglowwiththewarmthoffarCathay—theirearlyhome—nowmakegaymanyof our roadsides and crowd upon the sweet cinnamon roses of our grandmothers, which also are undauntedgardenexiles. Drivingoncealongacountryroad,Isawontheedgeofafieldanexpanseofyellowbloomwhich seemedtobeanunfamiliarfield-tint.Itprovedtobeavastbedofcoreopsis,self-sownfromyearto year;andtheblackenedoutlinesofanoldcellarwallinitsmidstshowedthatinthatfieldoncestooda home,oncethereagardensmiled. I am always sure when I see bouncing-bet, butter-and-eggs, and tawny lilies growing in a tangle together that in their midst may be found an untrodden door-stone, a fallen chimney, or a filled-in well. Still broader field expanses are filled with old-country plants. In June a golden glory of bud and blossomcoversthehillsandfieldsofEssexCountyinMassachusettsfromLynntoDanvers,andRyal Side to Beverly; it is the English gorse or woad-wax, and by tradition it was first brought to this countryinsprayandseedasapackingforsomeofthehouseholdbelongingsofGovernorEndicott. Thrown out in friendly soil, the seeds took root and there remain in the vicinity of their first Americanhomes.Itisastubbornsquatter,yieldingonlytoscythe,plough,andhoecombined. Chicoryorblueweedwas,itissaid,broughtfromEnglandbyGovernorBowdoinasfoodforhis sheep. It has spread till its extended presence has been a startling surprise to all English visiting botanists.Ithurtsnoone'sfields,foritinvadeschieflywasteandneglectedland—the"dearcommon flower"—andithasredeemedmanyacitysuburbofvacantlots,manyarailroadashheapfromthe abominationofdesolation. Whiteweedorox-eyedaisy,afargreaterpestthangorseorchicory,hasbeencarriedintentionallyto manyatownshipbyhomesicksettlerswhosedescendantsto-dayruethesentimentoftheirancestors. Whilethevalliedgardenofouroldneighborswassweetwithblossoms,mymother'sgardenborea stillfresherfragrance—thatofgreengrowingthings;of"posies,"lemon-balm,rosegeranium,mint, andsage.Ialwaysassociatewithitinspringthescentofthestrawberrybush,orcalycanthus,andin summer of the fraxinella, which, with its tall stem of larkspur-like flowers, its still more graceful seed-vessels and its shining ash-like leaves, grew there in rich profusion and gave forth from leaf, stem,blossom,andseedapure,amemory-sweetperfumehalflikelavender,halflikeanise. Truly,muchofourtenderestloveofflowerscomesfromassociation,andmanyarelovinglyrecalled solely by their odors. Balmier breath than was ever borne by blossom is to me the pure pungent perfume of ambrosia, rightly named, as fit for the gods. Not the miserable weed ambrosia of the botany,butalowlyherbthatgrewthroughouttheentiresummereverywherein"ourgarden";sowing itsseedsbroadcastfromyeartoyear;springingupuncheckedineveryunoccupiedcorner,andunder everyshrubandbushyplant;givingoutfromserratedleafandirregularracemeoftinypale-green flowers, a spicy aromatic fragrance if we brushed past it, or pulled a weed from amongst it as we strolleddownthegardenwalk.Anditisourveryown—Ihaveneverseenitelsewherethanatmyold home,andinthegardensofneighborstowhomitsseedsweregivenbythegentlehandthatplanted "ourgarden"andmadeitadelight.Goethesays,"Someflowersarelovelytotheeye,butothersare lovelytotheheart."Ambrosiaislovelytomyheart,foritwasmymother'sfavorite. Andaseach"springcomesslowlyuptheway,"IsayinthewordsofSolomon,"Awake,Onorthwind; andcome,thousouth;blowuponmygarden,thatthespicesthereofmayflowout"—thatthebalmand mint, the thyme and southernwood, the sweetbrier and ambrosia, may spring afresh and shed their tenderincensetothememoryofmymother,whoplantedthemandlovedtheirpurefragrance,andat whosepresence,asatthatofEve,flowerseversprung— "Andtouchedbyherfairtendancegladliergrew." Index Abington,churchvotein,286. Acrelius,Dr.,quoted,146. Adams,Abigail,gardenof,435. Adams,John,quoted,71,160; Sundaydinnerof,159–160; cider-drinkingof,161. Adams,JohnQuincy,Mrs.,strawbonnetof,261. Adamsfamily,homesof,22. Albany,housesat,9; deerin,109; beerat,161; badboysin,374–375; firstchurchin,385; cow-herdingin,399. Alchymy,88. Alewives,inNewEnglandwaters,120. Ambrosia,aflower,450. Ames,quoted,136. Amherst,sign-boardat,360. Andirons,62. Andover,churchvotein,286; badboyin,373. Annapolis,dressin,293. Apostlespoons,90. Apples,cultureof,145; plentyinMaryland,145; modesofcooking,146; inpies,146. Apple-butter,146–147. Apple-paring,146–147. Apple-sauce,146–147. Architecture,ofchurches,364etseq.,385etseq. Arkamy,88. Axe-helves,314–315. Back-baroffireplace,description,53. Bacon,quoted,431. Bagging,fromcoarseflax,172. Bake-kettle,66. Bake-shops,147. Ballots,ofcornandbeans,141. Balsam,asdye,194. Baltimore,dressin,293; tavernsin,359. Banyan,294. Barberry,rootasdye,194. Basins,106. Bass,inNewEnglandwaters,120–121. Bass-viols,inmeeting,378. Batesofflax,169. Batteau,329. Batten,ofloom,220–221. Baxter,187. Bayberry,description,39; candlesof,39; waxof,40; lawsabout,40; soapfrom,255. Beadbags,263. Beam.SeeWarp-beam. Beaming,inweaving,218. Beans,asballots,141; modeofcooking,145. Bedcoverlet.SeeCoverlet. Bedstead,alcove,55; turn-up,55–56. Beer,amongDutch,161. Bees,calledEnglishflies,111. Beehives,442. Beetlingofflax,172. Bell,assummonstomeeting,368. Belt-loom.SeeTape-loom. Bennet,quoted,123. Berkeley,Gov.,quoted,111,360–361. Berries,145. Bettylamps,43–44. Beverages.SeeDrinks. Bible,referencestoflaxin,177. Biddeford,communalprivilegesin,390. Bier,inweaving,220. Birch-bark,doorsof,6; platesof,83; basketsof,cansof,253,310. Birchbroom,makingof,301–303; priceof,302. Blackjacks,95–96. Blazing,oftrees,330. Bleaching,offlaxthread,175; oflinen,234; ofstrawbonnets,261. Bleeding-basins,86. Block-houses,26. Boards,scarcityof,76. Boardcloth,76–77. BoardmanHillHouse,22. Bobbins,forweaving.SeeQuills. Bobs,offlax,168. Bombards,96. Booksofetiquette,79. Bore-staffofloom,224. Boston,fire-enginein,19; earlyhousesof,19,27; firstforkin,77; pigeonsin,110; fishin,123; teain,164–165; coffeein,165; chocolatein,165; spinningschoolsin,180; fulling-millin,187; dressin,292–294; coachin,331; stage-travelfrom,350–351; nightwatchin,363; meeting-housesin,364,366; restrictionsofsettlementin,394; cowsin,400. Bottles,ofwood,82; ofpewter,85; ofglass,92–93; ofleather,95. Boucher,Jonathan,quoted,382. Bouncing-bet,427,447. Bountycoats,248. Bouts,inweaving,218. Box-borders,apleafor,430–431. Boxing,ofmapletrees,112. Boylston,Nicholas,banyanof,294. Boys,clothingof,287–288; wigsof,297; seatsinmeetingfor,372etseq.; misbehaviorof,372–373; inchurch,384. Braid-loom.SeeTape-loom. Bradford,Governor,quoted,129–130. Bread,white,147; ryeandIndian,147 Bread-peel,67. Breadtrough,311. Breakfast,orbreadandmilk,148. Breaking,offlax,169–170; ofhemp,170. Breakingoutthewinterroads,412etseq. Breweries,inNewYork,161. Brewster,Elder,quoted,117. Brick,imported,21. Britishspinningandweavingschool,186. Broach,198. Brooklyn,oystersin,118–119; saltingshadin,124–125. Brooms,ofbroom-corn,256–257; ofbirch,301–304; ofhemlock,304–305. Broom-corn,256–257. BrownUniversity,dressoffirstgraduatingclass,183. Bucking,offlaxthread,175; oflinen,234. Bull's-eyelamp,45. Bun,offlax,169. Bunch-thread,251. Bundling-mould.SeeShingling-mould. Burlers,inweaving,252. Bushnell,Horace,quoted,246. Busks,carved,320. Butter,priceof,149. Buttermilk,forbleaching,175. Caches,forcorn,138. Cage,forbabies,372; forbadboys,385. Calash,289. Calf-keeper,dutiesof,400. Cambridge,cow-herdingin,399. Campbell,MadamAngelica,coachof,335. Candles,costof,34; makingof,35–37; materialsfor,38–39,42. Candle-arms,42. Candle-beams,42. Candle-box,38. Candle-dipping,36. Candle-moulds,36–37. Candle-prongs,42. Candle-rods,36. Candle-sticks,42. Candle-wood,32. Canoes,323–327. Canteens,ofhorn,321. Captainofthewatch,dutiesof,380. Cards.SeeWool-cards. Cardingdescribed,194–196. Carding-machines,206. Card-setting.SeeWool-cards. Capuchins,295. Carolinas,sweetpotatoesin,145; hand-weavingin,249–251; gardensin,438–439. Carpet.SeeRagcarpet. Carrots,145. Carving,termsin,104–105; ofwood,320; ofhorn,321–322. Caves,descriptionof,2; forcorn,138. Cave-dwellers,1. Cedartops,fordyeing,251. CellarofDutchhouses,10. Chaininweaving,250. Chair-seats,310–311. ChaiseofBrotherJonathan,353. "Change-work,"417. Chap-men,300. Chargers,80,84. Charleston,flaxmanufacturein,182–183; dressin,293; gardensin,438–439. Charlevoix,Father,oncanoes,327. Chaucer,quoted,onspinning,179. Chebobbin,415. Cheese,makingof,150. Cheese-basket,150–151. Cheese-hoop,312. Cheese-ladder,150–151,312. Cheese-press,150–151,312. Chesapeake,turkeyson,109; wildfowlon,125. Chicory,introductionof,449. Children,attable,101–102; occupationsof,179–180,182,188–189,203–204,261–262; dressof,287; inmeeting,372etseq.; innoon-house,376. Chimney,catted,15,53; sizeof,52,68; description,53; inDutchhouses,55. China,earlyuseof,100; importationof,100–101. Chinesestuffs,294. Chinkingwalls,5. Chopping-bee,403etseq. Chorister,inDutchchurches,386. Churches,inVirginia,381–383; inAlbany,385. SeealsoMeeting-house. Churns,fewinNewEngland,149; examplesof,149–150; whittlingof,312. Cider,usebychildren,148–149,161; usebystudents,161; priceof,161; manufactureof,161–162; generoususeof,161–163. Clam-shells,useof,308–309. Clarionets,inmeeting,378. Clavell-piece,54. Clay,fordyeing,241. Clergymen,inVirginia,384. Clocks,299. Clock-jack,65. Clock-reel,174–175; priceof,177; foryarn,200. Clogs,295. Cloth,finishingof,231–233. Clothbar,224. Clothes,durabilityof,281; extravagancein,281; lawsabout,281etseq.; ofMassachusettssettlers,286–287; ofVirginiaplanters,287; ofchildren,288etseq. Coaches,inBoston,331,353–354; inEngland,354; JudgeSewallon,354; inNewYork,354–355. SeealsoStage-coach. Coat-of-arms,onsampler,267. Coatroll,248. Cobirons,62. Cocoanut-cups,96–97. Codfish,earlydiscovererson,115–116; plentyof,115; inNewEnglandwaters,120–121; varietiesof,121; forSaturdaydinner,122; priceinBoston,123. SeeFishandFishing. Coffee,substitutesfor,159; earlyuseof,165; queermodeofcooking,165. Colchester,girls'lifein,253. Coldhouses,70–71. Coldparty,419. Coloredherbs,430. Coloring,23. Combing,descriptionof,196. Combingmachine,230. Combs.SeeWool-combs. Comfortier,69. Commoncrops,130. Commonherds.SeeHerding. Commonlands,398. Communalprivileges,390etseq. Conch-shell,assummonstomeeting,367–368. Concordcoaches,352–353. Concordance,33. Conestogawagon,339–343; shapeof,339; rateson,340; greatnumberof,340. Connecticut,tar-makingin,33; pumpkinbreadin,143; flaxculturein,179; strawmanufacturein,260. ContributionsinNewEnglandmeetings,378; inDutchchurches,386–387. Cooking,influenceofIndianmethods,131–136; Englishmodesof,151; spicesusedin,152; limitationsin,158–159. Coöperationinoldentimes,389etseq. Corbelroof,9. Coreopsis,persistenceof,448. Corn,influenceoncolonists'lives,126; inVirginia,127–128; priceof,128,138; scarcityof,129; modeofcultivating,130–131; Indianfoodsfrom,131; Indianmodesofpreparing,131; modesofcooking,133–136; ascurrency,138; profitsonraising,139; gameswith,139; shellingof,139–140; asballots,141; asnationalflower,141. Corn-cobs,useof,141,209. Corndances,138. Corn-husking,descriptionof,136. Corn-sheller,140–141. Cotton,earlyuseof,206–207; cultivationof,207; rarityof,207–208; domesticmanufacture,209–210; GoldenAgeof,230. Cotton-gin,208. Cotton,John,quoted,148,285. Coverlets,inPennsylvania,190; inNarragansett,242–246. Cows,herdingof,399–401. Cowherds,dutiesof,399–400; payof,399. Cowkeeps,399. Cow-pens,400. Crabs,inVirginia,118. Crane,53. Creepers,62. Crocus,237. Crofting,oflinen,234. Crown-imperial,425. Cups,85,90,93–96. Currency,cornas,138. "Cut-down,"oftrees,405. Cutler,Dr.,quoted,159. Cut-tails,122–123. Daffodils,426–427. Dale,SirThomas,oncorn-growing,127; onSundayobservance,380. Danvers,Mass.,housein,30. Daubingwalls,5. DaughtersofLiberty,183–184. Day'sworkinspinning,185. Deacons,inDutchchurches,386–387. Deacons'pew,374. "Deaconing"thepsalm,378. Deafpew,374. Dedham,Mass.,housein,22–23. Deer,abundanceof,108–109; descriptionof,108. Deerskin,clothingof,288–289. DeLaWarre,churchattendanceof,382. Delaware,housepiein,146. Delftware,100. Dents,ofsley,219–220. Designs,forweaving,243–244,250–251; ofancientGauls,242; forquilts,272–273; forpaper-cutting,278–289. Dew-retting,169. Dimity,250. Dinner,servingof,104; primitiveforms,105–106; forSaturday,122; inNewYork,159; atJohnAdams'home,159–160. Discomfortsoftemperature,70–71. Distaff,inIndia,178. Dogs,inmeeting,374. Dog-pelter,374. Dog-whipper,374. Donnisonfamily,firebucketsof,18. Doorlatch,11,318. Dorchester,windmillat,133; corporation,lawsin,392,394. Doublestring-roaster,64. Drawing,inweaving,219. Drawingabore,224. Dress.SeeClothes. Dresser,68. Drinking-cups,85–96,98. Drinks,fromcuriousmaterials,163. Drinkinghabits,93–94,161,164. Drinking-horns,321. Driver,198. Drugget,250. Drum,assummonstomeeting,367,368. Duck.SeeWildfowl. Duer,Colonel,dinnerof,159. Dugouts,326. Dunfish,121–122. AlsoseeCodfish. Durabilityofhomespun,238–239. Durham,churchdisciplinein,372. Dutchmodeofservingmeals,106. Dutchoven,65. Dyes,domestic,155,193–194,250–251. Dye-flower,251. Earmarks,400. EasternStageCompany,351. Economyofcolonists,42,185,321–324; ofMarthaWashington,237–238. Eddis,quoted,118. Eels,methodofcatching,117. Egypt,flaxin,177–178;linenin,178. Embroidery.SeeNeedlework. Emerson,R.W.,appointedhog-reeve,403. Endicott,Governor,sun-dialof,443; hisintroductionofwoad-wax,448. Entering,inweaving.SeeDrawing. Ernst,C.W.,quoted,343,345. Etiquetteforchildren,100–102; ofcarving,104–105. Eye,ofharness,218. Fairbanks,Jacob,houseof,22–23; sun-dialof,443. Fairs,institutedbyPenn,190; encouragedbyFranklin,191. Faneuil,Miss,dressof,292. Fences,differentvarietiesof,25; commonbuildingof,401–402; lawsabout,401–402. Fence-viewers,401. Ferries,bycanoe,330–331. Finlay,Hugh,postalreportof,333–335. Fireback,54. Fire-buckets,description,16; useof,17; ofDonnison's,18; ofQuincy's,18; ofOliver's,19. Fire-dogs,62. Fire-engine,firstinBoston,19; firstinBrooklyn,19. Fire-hunting,108–109. Firelanes,16. Firelaws,15. Fireplaceofourfathers,53. Fire-plate,54–55. Fire-room,7. Fire-wardens,15. Fish,plentyof,115–125; varietiesof,inNewEnglandwaters,117; inVirginiawaters,119; inNewYorkwaters,120; salted,124–125; asfertilizer,130; poisonedbyflax,169. Fishing,KingJameson,116; ill-successin,117; suppliesfor,117; inVirginia,119–120; encouragementof,121; lawson,121; divisionofprofit,122,123. Fish-weirs,121. Flag,assummonstomeeting,368. Flails,makingof,312;useof,313–314. Flannelsheets,238. Flax,patchof,167; blossomof,167; growthof,168; weedingof,168; ripeningof,168; pullingof,168; spreadingof,168; ripplingof,168–169; wateringof,169; stackingof,169; breakingof,169–170; tenacityof,171; swinglingof,171–172; beetlingof,172; hetchelingof,172–173; spreadinganddrawing,173; manymanipulationsof,173; spinningof,174; inBible,177; inEgypt,177–178; inNewEngland,179–181,186; inPennsylvania,181; inVirginia,181,182; inSouthCarolina,182–183; inIreland,186; inCourtrai,186; inEngland,186. Flaxbasket,173. Flax-brake,169–170. Flaxhetchels,172. Flaxseed,howsown,167; howgathered,168,176; howstored,176. Flax-thread,spinningof,174; knottingof,175; reelingof,175; bleachingof,175; backingof,175. Flax-wheel,revivalof,167; useof,174; priceof,177. Flintandsteel,48. Flower,anational,141. Flowers,inchurches,383; old-time,421etseq.; folk-namesof,448; ageof,443–445; persistencyof,447; escapedfromcultivation,448. Flower-seeds,soldbywomen,440–441; oldlistof,441. Flutes,inmeeting,378. Flying-machine,345. Fly-shuttle,228. Food,fromforests,108–114; fromseaandriver,114–125; transportationof,143; entirelyfromfarm,158; substitutes,158–159. Foot-mantle,295. Foot-paths,329. Foot-stoves,375,385. Foot-treadle,ofloom,219. Foot-wheel.SeeFlax-wheel. Foote,Abigail,diaryof,253. Forefathers'Dinner,129. Forests,destructionof,52; richesof,108–114. Forms,101. Forks,useof,77; first,77. Forts,aschurches,365,385. Fox,George,bequestof,437. Franklin,quoted,53,181; fairsencouragedby,191; advertisementof,292–293; aspostmaster,333; setmilestones,335; cyclometerof,335–336; oncanals,353; insedan-chair,356. Franklinstove,70. Fraxinella,449. Fringe-loom,227. Frocking,striped,237. Fulling-mill,inBoston,188. Fulling-stocks,232. Fulhamjugs,98. Funerals,ringsat,298; glovesat,298–299. Furs,searchfor,115. Fustian,inAmerica,237; inEurope,237. Gallows-balke,53. Gallows-crooks,53. Gallows-frame.SeeTape-loom. Gambrels,310. Gambrelroof,description,22. Games,withcorn,139. Garden,anold-time,419etseq.; inNewEngland,419etseq.; insoutherncolonies,438–439; inNewYork,439–440. Garnishofpewter,85. Garrisonhouse,26. Garter-loom.SeeTape-loom. Geese,raisingof,257–258; pickingsof,257–259; noiseof,258. Georgia,deerin,109; turkeysin,110; hand-weavingin,249–251. GeorgiusRexjug,99. Germantown,flax-raisingat,181; flax-workersat,181; sealof,181; woolmanufactureat,190. Gibcrokes,53. Gimlet,305. Giotto,loomof,213. Girdling,oftrees,403. Girls,dressof,289–292; seatsinmeetingfor,372. Giskins,96. Glass,inwindows,23,366; nailedin,366; forlamps,46; earlyuseof,92. Gloucester,oldhouseat,70; fishingat,122–123; communalprivilegesin,390. Gloves,givenatfunerals,298–299. Goinga-leafing,67. Goldenrod,asdye,193. Goloe-shoes,295. Gookin,quoted,137. Goose-basket,258. Goose-neckandirons,62. Gooseyoke,258. Gorse.SeeWoad-wax. Gourds,cupsof,96; utensilsof,309. Grant,Mrs.Anne,onDutchgardens,439. Grapes,145. Grassing,oflinen,234. Greeley,Horace,oncanal-travel,353. Gridirons,61. Grist-mill,earliest,133. Guineawheat,129.SeeCorn. Gun,assummonstomeeting,368. Gundalow,329. Guttersofhouses,9. Hackling.SeeHetcheling. Hadley,shadin,123–124; potatoesin,144; broom-makingin,256–257; restrictionsofsettlementin,392–393; hay-wardin,402. Hakes,53. Half-facedcamp,3. Hammond,John,quoted,395. Hamor,Ralph,quoted,143. HancockHouse,knockerof,28; onsampler,268. Hancock,John,hatredofpewter,85; drinkingcupof,97; dressof,293. Hand-distaff.SeeDistaff. Hand-loom.SeeLoom. Hand-reel.SeeNiddy-noddy. Hap-harlot,242. Harness.SeeHeddle. HarvardCollege,standingsaltof,78–79; trenchersat,81. Hastypudding,135. Hats,worninmeeting,285; churchvotesabout,286. Hay-wards,402. Heddleofloom,219. Heddle-frame.SeeTape-loom. Heel-pegs.SeeShoe-pegs. Hemlock,broomsof,304–305; boxesof,310. Hemp,blossomof,167; breakingof,169. Herding,ofcows,399–401; ofsheep,401; ofswine,403. Hetchelingofflax,172. Hexe,offlax,169. Hides,useof,109; taxon,109. Higginson,quoted,33,35,117,148. Hind's-foothandle,90. Hinges,materialof,9,318. Hingham,churchat,365. Hogarth,loomof,213–214. Hogs,asscavengers,125; yokesof,311; lawsabout,402–403. Hog-reeves,402–403. Homespunindustries,167; beneficenteffectof,179; foundationofliberty,189. Hominy,131. Honey,plentyof,111. Honey-locust,163. Horn,spoonsof,88; cupsof,96; assummonstomeeting,368. Horse-blocks,infrontofchurches,367. Horse-bridges,331. Horse-laurel,asdye,194. Hose.SeeStockings. Hospitality,inSoutherncolonies,395etseq. Houndhandle,100. Hour-glass,inmeeting,376. Housekeeper,qualificationsof,252–253. Housepie,146. House-raising.SeeRaising. Hyperiontea,165. Indiachina,100. Indians,housesof,3–4; cavesof,138; corndancesof,138; cultivationofcornby,126–131; enduranceof,137; modeofcookingcorn,131–135; namesofcornfoods,131–137; modeofdryingpumpkins,143; spoonsof,88; modeofcookingbeans,145; broomsof,301–304; fourbestthings,304; modesoftravelof,325; boatsof,325; pathsof,329–330. Indiancorn.SeeCorn. Indianpudding,135. Indigo,asdye,193. Inns.SeeTaverns. Invention,ofcotton-gin,208; offly-shuttle,228; ofspinning-jenny,229; ofthrostle-spunyarn,229; ofcombing-machine,230; offlax-spinningmachine,230–231. Ipswich,grist-millat,133. Iris,asdye,193. Itineracies,old-time,176,300–301. Jack-knife,307–308. Jacks,64. JamesI.onfishing,116. Jamestown,spinning-schoolsat,182; summonstomeetingat,367. Jeans,250. Jefferson,Thomas,quoted,207,256; hospitalityof,397; impoverishmentof,397–398. Jewellery,slightwearof,297. Johnson,quoted,143,145,188. Johnson,Governor,babyclothesof,265. Johnny-cakes,135. Josselyn,quoted,117; hislistofplantsinNewEngland,432etseq. Judd,Sylvester,quoted,216,237. Jugs,ofstoneware,98. Jumel,Madame,cavehouseof,3. Kalm,quoted,39–40; onsquirrels,110; onbees,111; onmaizebread,134; oncanoes,326–327; ontheplantain,436. Kearsarge,Mount,romanceof,405. Kentucky,hand-weavingin,249. Ketch,328. Kill-devil.SeeRum. Killingtime,153. KingHooperhouse,30. Kitchen,description,52; inrhyme,73–75. Knife.SeeJack-knife. Knife-racks,68. Knights,Madame,quoted,8; oncanoes,327–328; journeyof,332; onsleighs,355. Knitting,190; yarnfor,201; bychildren,261–262; elaboratedesigns,262. Knittingmachine,190. Knives,offlaxbrake,170. Knocker,Hancockhouse,28; Winslowhouse,29. Knots,offlaxthread,175. Krankbesoeckers,385. Labadistmissionaries,quoted,118–119. Lad'slore,428. Lamps,43–45. Lathe.SeeBatten. Lattenware,58. Laws,aboutflaxculture,179–180; aboutdress,282–284; aboutferries,330–331; aboutmail,334; abouttaverns,357; onobservanceofSunday,378–379; ofwarningout,392etseq.; aboutfences,401–402. Lay,ofloom.SeeBatten. Layingafire,74. Lays,offlaxthread,175. Lean-to,description,22. Leashes,ofheddle,219. Leather,utensilsof,95–96. Letters.SeePost. LibertyTea,165. Lincoln,Abraham,earlyhomeof,4; rail-splitting,25. Linden,fibrefrom,211. Linen,manipulationsof,234; clothingof,234; sentimentof,234; priceof,234; checked,238. Liningthepsalm,378. Litster,187. Livingstone,John,clothingof,288. Loaf-sugar.SeeSugar-cones. Lobsters,plentyof,117; vastsizeof,118. Logan,Mrs.,onflower-raising,438. Logcabin,formsof,5. Logging-bee,416,417. Log-rolling,389,404,406. Longfellow,quoted,327. LongIsland,bayberrieson,40; samp-mortarson,133; woolraisingon,191; badboyson,373; Sundayobservanceon,385; cow-herdingon,400. Long-short,236–237. Loom,antiquityof,213–214; ofGiotto,213; ofHogarth,213–214; descriptionof,214. SeePower-loom,Tape-loom. Loom-room,212. Louisiana,cornin,128; petticoatrebellionin,128; hand-weavingin,250. Lowell,quoted,73. Lucas,Governor,quoted,182–183. Lug-pole,53. Luxury,aftertheRevolution,159–160. Lye,makingof,254. MacMaster,quoted,207. Madison,Dolly,dressof,290. Mail,ofheddle,219. Mail.SeePost. Mailcoaches,344,350. Maine,windowsin,23; candle-woodin,32; chumsin,149; axe-makingin,315. Maize.SeeCorn. Mandillion,287. Manhattan,barkhouseson,4; palisadoson,24. Manners.SeeEtiquette. Maplesugar,olddescriptionof,111; manufactureof,111–112. Maple-wood,bowlsof,82,318–320. Marblehead,fishingat,122–123. Marigolds,427. Marmalades,152. Maryland,housesin,11; wildfowlin,125; applesin,145; hospitalityin,396–397. Masks,290. Massachusetts,cavedwellingsin,1; palisadosin,24; venisonin,109; fishin,123; flaxculturein,179–180; wool-raisingin,188; bountyin,205; sumptuarylawsin,281–284; outfitforsettlers,286–287; ferriesin,330–331. Matches,first,50–51. Mazer,319. Mead,163. Meeting-house,inBoston,364,366; inSalem,364; inHingham,365; descriptionsof,364,366–369. Metheglin,163. Metheglincups,85. Metzel-soup,419. Milestones,335–336. Milford,Conn.,palisadosin,24. Milk,priceof,148;useasfood,148. Milkpitchers,namesof,106. Milkweed,forcandlewicks,35,211. Mill,Indian,132. Mince-pies,pioneer,159. Ministers,encouragefisheries,121. Mittens,fineknittingof,262; quickknittingof,262. Modesty-piece,270–271. Molasses,forNewEnglandslave-trade,163. Monkeyspoons,90. Moore,Thomas,quoted,348. Mortar,Indian,132. Morton,quoted,120–121. Moss-pink,423. MountVernon,descriptionof,13; weavingat,237; gardenat,431. Mourningrings.SeeRings. Mourningsamplers,268–269. Muffs,wornbymen,298,386. Mutton,itsdisuseprevioustoRevolution,189,191. Nails,scarcityof,11. Napkins,useof,77. Narragansett,hand-weavingin,241–244; shiftmarriagesin,241–242; oldquiltin,275–276; threshingin,313–314. Needlework,stitchesin,264–265; delicacyof,265; rulesfor,265. Neighborhood,titleofsettlement,391. Neighbors,old-time,388etseq.,395etseq. Netting,263–264. Nettles,fibrespun,211. NewAmsterdam,firstchurchin,385; lawsaboutfencesin,401–402. Newman,Rev.Mr.,mannerofwork,33. Newburyport,houseat,27; strawbleachingat,261; sumptuarylawsin,283; finesin,374. NewEngland,housesin,15; candle-woodin,32; lobstersin,117; fisheriesin,117–124; Indiancornin,127–136; millsin,131–133; pumpkinsin,142–143; potatoesin,144; squashesin,144; milkandministersin,148; churnsin,149; ciderin,161–162; rumin,163–164; slaveryin,164; wool-raisingin,188–189; tavernsin,356–357; watchmenin,363; meeting-housesin,365etseq.; summonstomeetingin,368; Sundayobservancein,378etseq.; "tasteofdinnerin,"418; old-timegardensin,421etseq. NewHampshire,candle-woodin,32; potatoesin,144; pioneermince-piesin,159; wheelwrightsin,176; flaxmanufacturein,180,236; fineknittingin,269; birchbroomsin,304. NewHaven,restrictionsin,392. NewLondon,millat,133. Newport,boxplantsat,430; gardenin,437–438. NewYork,housesin,8; candle-woodin,32; firstforkin,78; venisonin,109; lobstersat,118; fishin,120; saltingshadin,124–125; suppawnin,133; aleandbeerin,161; wool-raisingin,191; dressin,292; turnpikesin,349–350; coachesin,354–355; sleighsin,355; streetlightingin,362; watchin,363; Sundayobservancein,384; cow-herdingin,399; gardensin,439–440. Niddy-noddy,200–201;carved,320. Nightgowns,294. Nocake,descriptionof,137; useof,137; Eliot'suseofword,137–138. Noggins,82. Noil,196. Nokick.SeeNocake. Noon-houses,374–375. Noon-marks,299. Norridgewock,life-workofacitizenof,407–408. Northampton,sumptuarylawsin,283–284. Northboro,spinningmatchat,184. NorthSaugus,housein,21. Norwich,naughtygirlin,373. Notices,nailedonchurchdoors,367. Nott,President,storyofboyhood,202–203. Occamy,88. Occupations,ofchildren,179,180,182,186,437; ofwomen,187. Oiledpaperforwindows,23,366. OldSouthChurch,onsampler,268. OldShip,365. OldSouth,366. Openinginland,clearing,406. Ordinary,namefortavern,356. Osenbrigs,288. Otis,Hannah,samplerof,268. Overhang,inwalls,19–20. Ovens,67. Ox-bows,311. Oxen,signofdistressin,413. Oysters,inBrooklyn,118–119; inVirginia,119; vastsizeof,119. Pace-weight,ofloom,224. Pack-horses,useof,336–339; payfor,337; loadof,337–338. Pails,early,58. Paint,notused,23. Pales.SeeFences. Palfrey,quoted,122. Palisado,descriptionof,24. Pansy,folk-namesof,425–426. Paper-cutting.SeePapyrotamia. Papyrotamia,277–278. Parley,Peter,reminiscenceof,140. Parsnips,145. Pastorius,Father,hischoiceforseal,181; hisencouragementofgardening,436. Patchwork.SeeQuilt-piecing. Patent,firsttoAmericans,138–139,260. Pattens,295. Paupers,inNarragansett,313; treatmentof,inNewEngland,324. Pawn,55. Pawtucket,cottonthreadin,207. Pay,forspinning,185; forweaving,230,250; forcow-herding,399; ofswineherds,403. Peabody,Francis,houseof,31. Peachy,163. Peas,145. Peel,67. Pegging,262. Pelisses,295. Penn,William,fairsinstitutedby,190. Pennsylvania,cave-dwellersin,2; stovesin,69; squirrelsin,110; woolmanufacturein,190; dressin,292–293; mailin,333; post-rider,335; transportationin,335–344; roadsin,339; turnpikesin,349; coachingin,350–351; metzel-soupin,419; gardensin,436–437. Peonies,421. Perfumes,incooking,152; ofoldgardenflowers,424; ofsweet-scentedleaves,449etseq. Periagua,329. Perry,163. Peter,Hugh,encouragesfisheries,121. Petticoatrebellion,128. Petunias,428. Pews,described,368etseq. Pewter,forlamps,44–45; forutensils,84–85; ondresser,68; lidsof,100. Phœbe-lamps,44. Philadelphia,earlyhousesin,15; luxuriousdinnersin,160; strawmanufacturein,260; travelfrom,347–350; tavernsin,359; cow-herdingin,400–401. Pickling,old-time,152. PierceGarrisonHouse,26. Pierpont,Rev.John,versesof,306–307. Pies,146. Pigeons,plentyof,110; priceof,110. Pilgrims,starvationof,129. Piling-bee,406. Pillions,331–332. Pillory,locationof,367. Pinckney,Mrs.,exchangeofflowersof,439. Pinehurst,hand-weavingin,250–251. Pine-knots,useof,32–33. Pink,nameofvessel,328. Pinks,varietiesof,427. Pipeshelves,68. Pipe-tongs,68–69. Pitch-pipes,inmeeting,378. Plantain,romanceof,435–436. Plate-racks,68. Plate-warmer,61. Plymouth,vacantfieldsat,130; samplerat,266. Pokeberry,asdye,193. Pompion.SeePumpkin. Pones,134. Pop-corn,135. Poplarwood,useof,81–82. Porcelain.SeeChina. Porringers,85–86. Porter'sfluid,45. Portsmouth,oldhouseat,21. Portulaca,429. Posnet,87. Possing,oflinen,234. Post,first,332;dutiesof,332–333; inVirginia,333; reportabout,333–335. Potatoes,inNewEngland,144; queermodesofcooking,144–145. SeeSweetpotatoes. Potato-boiler,57. Pot-brakes,53. Pot-clips,53. Pot-crooks,53. Pot-hangers,53. Pothooks,53. Pots,costof,56; sizeof,56. Pound-keepers,400. Powder-horns,320–321. Powderingofhair,297. Powderingtub,153. Power-loom,230. Powhatan,teachescorn-planting,127. Prairie-schooner.SeeConestogawagon. Prayers,lengthof,376; withthesick,419. Preserving,old-time,152. Printer,dressof,293. Providence,strawmanufacturein,260; restrictionsin,392. Psalm-singing,376etseq. Puddings,ofcorn,135. Pudding-time,104,160. Pue.SeePews. Pullingofflax,168. Pulpits,368,385. Pumpkin,tributesto,143; modesofcooking,143; theirplenty,143; shellsof,309. Puncheonfloor,6. Quakers,dressof,258,292. Quarels,ofglass,9. Quarnes,133. Quiddonies,152. Quills,forweaving,216; fromgeese,259. Quilling-wheel,216,229. Quilts,piecingof,270–275; materialsfor,272–274; patternsfor,272–275; quiltingof,273–274. Quincedrink,96. Quincyfamily,fire-bucketsof,18; samplersof,266–267. Quincy,Josiah,quoted,341–342,346. Raddle,ofloom,219. Ragcarpet,239–240. Rail-fence,25. Raising,ofahouse,408etseq. Rake.SeeRaddle. Ramsay,quoted,395–396. Randolph,John,quoted,205. Raspberryleavesfortea,158,165. Rattle-watch,362. Ravel.SeeRaddle. Reading,communalprivilegesin,391. Recons,53. Reed.SeeSley. Reed-hook.SeeSley-hook. Reel,triple,200. SeeClock-reelandNiddy-noddy. Revolution,influencestowardssuccess,166–167,189. RhodeIsland,stage-coachin,346. RhodeIslandCollege.SeeBrownUniversity. Ribbon-beds,445. Ribbon-grass,430. Ride-and-tiesystem,332. Rings,wearingof,297; atfunerals,298. Ripplingofflax,168–169; ofhemp,169. Rippling-comb,168; ofEgyptians,178. Roastingears,134. Roasting-kitchens,65. Rockforspinning,inEgypt,178; inIndia,178; inNewEngland,179. Rock-candy,157. Rocking-tree,ofloom,220. Rochester,house-raisingat,410. Rolliches,154. Rolling-roads,330. Rolling-upahouse,6. Roof,ofDutchhouses,10; gambrel,22. Roquelaure,295. Rosselini,quoted,178. Roving,ofyarn,201. Rowley,spinningmatchat,184. Rufflerforflax,172. Rum,manufactureof,163; inNewEngland,163; inslave-trade,163–164; athouse-raisings,410. Rush,forscouring,85. Rushlight,38. Rutland,cave-dwellersin,3. Sabba-dayhouse.SeeNoon-house. SabinHall,14. Sack,lawofsale,357. Sacjes,386–387. Saco,communalprivilegesin,390. Safeguards,295. Salem,coloringhousesat,23; lobstersat,117; fisheriesat,121; milkin,148; sumptuarylawsin,283; tavernsat,356–357; night-watchin,363; meeting-housein,364; seatsforboysatmeetingin,372; swineherdsin,403. Saler,78. Salisbury,meeting-houseat,369. Salmon,priceinBoston,123; lowregardof,123; fishingfor,124. Salt-cellar,78–79. Saltingoffish,124; ofmeat,153. Samp,modeofpreparing,131–132,134; porridgeof,134. Samplers,265–268. Samp-mills,133. Samp-mortars,133. Sap-buckets,112. Sap-yoke,113. Sassafras,asdye,194; forsoap,255. Sausages,makingof,154–155. Sausage-gun,154. Save-alls,42. Scaffold,nameforpulpit,368. Scarne.SeeSkarne. Sconces,42. Scouring-rush,85. Scutching.SeeSwingling. Scythesnathe,309–312. SealofGermantown,181. Seatingthemeeting,370–371. Seats,attable,101; inNewEnglandmeetings,369; inVirginiachurches,383–384; inDutchchurches,386–387. Section.SeeBout. Sedan-chairs,356. Sermons,lengthof,376. Sewall,Samuel,quoted,354–356; characterof,418. Shad,lowregardof,123–124; priceof,124; fishingfor,124; saltingof,124. Shallop,328. Shed,inweaving,221. Sheep,inMassachusetts,188; lawsabout,188,189; herdingof,409. Sheep-folds,401. Sheep-herds,401. Sheep-ranges,401. Shelburne,girlsworkin,262. Shepster,187. Sherry-vallies,296. Shingles,makingof,316–317. Shingle-bolts,318. Shingle-mould,317. Shoe-pegs,315–316. Shuttles,forloom,224–225. Sign-boards,nameon,358–359; historicalvalueof,359; ofPhiladelphia,359; ofBaltimore,359. Sigourney,Mrs.,quoted,277–278. Silk-grass,211. Silver,useof,89–92. Skarne,216–217. Skeins,offlaxthread,175. Skillet,50. Skilts,236. Slave-kitchen,54. Slavequarters,14. Slavery,inNewEngland,163; inVirginia,164. Sleds,343. Sleighs,inNewYork,355. Sley,ofloom,219–220; priceof,224. Slice,67. Slippings,offlaxthread,175. Smith,John,quoted,115–116; plantscorn,127; descriptionoffirstVirginiachurch,381–382. Smoke-house,153. Smoke-jack,65. Smokingtongs,68–69. Snake-fence,25. Sneak-cups,106. Snow,nameofvessel,328. Snowstorm,inNewEngland,410etseq. Snuffers,42. Snufferstray,42. Soap,makingof,253–255. Societyhouse,396. Sorrel,asdye,194. SouthCarolina.SeeCarolinas. Southernwood,428. Spatter-dashes,296. Spelling,varied,ofsquashes,144. Spenser,quoted,319. Spermaceti,42. Spices,incooking,153; groundathome,158. Spice-mills,158. Spice-mortars,158. Spinning,offlax,174,230; payfor,175; inEgypt,178; inIndia,178; inNewEngland,179–180; inPennsylvania,181; inFrance,230–231; day'sworkin,185; inmoderntimes,186; ofwool,196–198,229–230; newmaterialsfor,211; racebetweenweavingand,228–229; aby-industry,228. Spinningclasses,180. Spinning-cup,174. Spinning-jenny,229. Spinning-matches,184–185. Spinning-school,180,182. Spinning-wheel.SeeFlax-wheelandWool-wheel. Spinster,legaltitleofwomen,187. Splintbrooms.SeeBirchbrooms. Spool-holder.SeeSkarne. Spoons,useof,87; materialof,87–88; typesof,89–90. Spoon-moulds,87–88. Spoon-racks,68. Spreadingofflax,168. Spunks,50. Squadrons,ofspinners,189. Squanto,teachesfishing,117; teachescorn-planting,130. Squashes,variednamesof,144. Squirrels,abundanceof,110; premiumon,110. Stage-coach,inGreatBritain,331,345–346; inAmerica,345–346. Stage-wagon,345. Staircases,27. Standingsalt,78–79. Standish,Lorea,samplerof,266. Startingafire,48–50. Starvingtimes,inVirginia,127; inNewEngland,129. Staves,316. Stays,291. Steeples,366. Steep-pool,forflax,169. Stepping-stones.SeeHorse-blocks. Stitches,namesof,264–265. St.-John's-wort,asdye,194. Stockings,knittingof,190,262–263; weavingof,190. Stocks,locationof,367. Stone-bee,407. Stone-hauling,407. Stonewalls,407. Stoves,first,69; inDutchchurches,385. Strachey,quoted,119. Strangers,harboringof,forbiddeninNewEngland,393–394. Stratford,tithing-manin,372. Strawmanufacture,259–261. Streets,conditionof,362; lightingof,362; washingof,363. Strikes,offlax,172. Strikingalight,47. Stump-pulling,407. Sturgeon,greatcatchof,120; inNewYork,120. Substitutesforimportedfoods,158–159. Succotash,134. Sudbury,tavernat,357–358. Sugar,substitutesfor,110,111,147,157,158; cuttingof,155–156. Sugar-bowls,namesfor,106. Sugar-cones,155. Sugar-cutters,155–156. Summer-piece,8. Sunday,observanceof,byPuritans,378etseq.; byRev.JohnCotton,379; byVirginians,380; bytheDutch,384; durationof,379. Sun-dials,299,442–443; inscriptionson,443; materialsof,443. Suppawn,useof,133. Sweepandmortarmill,132. Sweetpotatoes,modesofcooking,145. Swifts,215–216. Swineherds.SeeHog-reeves. Swinglingofflax,171–172. Swinglingblock,171. Swinglingknives,171,312. Swingle-treehurds,172. Swinglingtow,bonfiresof,177. Swing-sign.SeeSign-board. Table,descriptionof,76. Table-board,76,81. Table-cloths,77. Tallow,lackof,34. Tambourwork,269. Tankards,originalmeaning,83; ofwood,83–84; ofsilver,99. Tapping-gauge,112. Tape-loom,variousnamesof,225; described,225–227. Tap-room,ofWaysideInn,357–358. Tarboggin.SeeChebobbin. Tar-making,33. Tasteofadinner,418. Tasters,86–87. Taverns,establishmentof,356; titlesfor,356; pricesat,357; valuesabout,357; namesofroomsat,357; insoutherncolonies,360; inNewNetherland,361. Tea,substitutesfor,158–159; firstsalesof,164; queermodeofcooking,165. Teazels,232. Teazeling,ofcloth,232. Temperature,ofhouses,70–71; ofchurches,374. Temple,ofloom,223. Tennessee,hand-weavingin,249. Tenting,ofcloth,232. Terbobbin.SeeChebobbin. Terrapin,120. Thatch,forroofs,15. Threshing,313–314. Thumbing,inweaving,218. Thumb-rings,298. Tin,slightuseof,58. Tinder,48. Tinder-box,48. Tinder-mill,50. Tinder-wheel,49. Tithing-men,372,373. Titles,old-time,forwomen,187. Toasting-forks,60. Tobacco,ascurrency,189; useforbiddennearmeeting-house,379. Tomble.SeeTemple. Tongs,236. Tow,garmentsof,235–236. Town,unitinNewEngland,390; narrowfeelingof,391. Townsend,revolutionarystoryof,203. Toys,ofwood,306. Trammels,53. Transportation,onhorseback,176,336etseq.; bywagons,339etseq. Trees,girdlingof,403; driveof,404; under-cuttingof,404. Trenchers,description,80; material,82. Trivets,60. Troughs,makingof,311. Trumbull,Jonathan,chaiseof,353. Trunks,348. Trunkpedler,300. Tumble.SeeTemple. Tummings,195. Turkeys,wild,109; sizeof,109–110; priceof,110. Turkeywheat,129. SeeCorn. Turkey-wings,309. Turnips,145. Turnpikes,349–350. Turnspitdog,65. Tusser,Thomas,quoted,35,168,255,321–322. Twifflers,106. VanderDonck,quoted,118,119,120. VanTienhoven,quoted,2. Veils,interferenceabout,285. Venison.SeeDeer. Vermont,candle-woodin,32; broom-makingin,303. Victualling,namefortavern,356. Violins,inmeeting,378. Virginia,earlyhousesin,11; palisadosin,24; candle-woodin,32; firstforkin,78; silverin,91; tablefurnishingsin,104; deerin,108–109; birdsandfowlin,110; lobstersin,118; crabsin,118; oystersin,119; plentyoffishin,118–119; cornin,127; massacrein,127; windmillsin,133; tollin,133; starvationin,127,144; pumpkinsin,143; locustgrovesin,163; flaxculturein,181–182; woolculturein,189–190; clothsin,237; broom-cornin,256; sumptuarylawsin,285; outfitofsettlers,289; roadsin,331; tavernsin,361; Sundayobservancein,380; churchesin,381–382; cowsin,400; fencesin,402. Virginiafence,25. Voiders,106–107. Voorleezer,dutiesof,386. Waffle-irons,61. Wagon.SeeConestogawagon. Warming-pans,72. Warningout,392; amysteryin,393. Warp,218. Warp-beam,214. Warping,217–218. Warping-bars,217–218. Warping-needle,219. Warp-threads.SeeWarp. Washing,domestic,255. Washington,George,homeof,13; outfitofhisstepdaughter,291; dressof,293; ascanalpromoter,353. Washington,Martha,thriftof,237–238; nettingof,265. Watches,299. Watch-chains,263. Water,asbeverage,147. Wateringofflax,169. Water-fowl,plentyof,125; enumerated,125. Watertown,windmillat,133; restrictionsofsettlementin,393. Wax,candlesof,37;bayberry,39–40. Waynesville,hand-weavingin,250. WaysideInn,357–358. Weather-skirt,295. Weavers,statusof,212–213; seatof,221; working-hoursof,228; inNarragansett,241–244. Weaving,noiseof,212,220; threemotionsin,221–222; disappearanceof,227; ontape-looms,225–227; racebetweenspinningand,228–230; oflinens,230–231; ofragcarpet,239–240; ofcoverlets,242–246; duringCivilWar,249. SeeLoom. Weaving-room.SeeLoom-room. Webster,187. Weeds,oncegardenflowers,435–436,447–449. Weight-timbers,11. Weld,quoted,348–349. Well-sweep,443–444. WestmorelandRevival,227. Whale-fishing,41. "Whang,"417. Wheat,plantingof,147. Wheel.SeeFlax-wheelandWool-wheel. Wheel-peg,198. Wheelwrights,earlyuseofwood,176. Whipping-post,locationof,367. White-ElleryHouse,19. Whiteweed,inAmerica,449. Whitney,Eli,inventionof,208. Whittemore,Amos,inventionof,205. Whittier,quoted,73–74,181,370,413,436; homespunattireof,248. Whittling,321–323. Wicksforcandles,34,45. Wigs,wearingof,296–297; denounced,296; namesof,296–299; costof,297. Wigwams,3. WilliamandMaryCollege,taxfor,109. Williams,Roger,quoted,134,137,285. Windmills,Indianfearof,130; firsterected,133; ofJohnWinthrop,133; inVirginia,133. Windows,ofglass,23; ofoiledpaper,23. Windsor,boys'pewsin,372. Wine-taster,87. Winslowhouse,knockerof,29. Winthrop,John,forkof,77; jugof,98; hisuseofwaterasbeverage,148; pick-a-back,329; sedan-chairof,356. Winthrop,John,Jr.,quoted,32;millof,133. Woad-wax,inMassachusetts,448. Woburn,longservicesat,376. Wolfskinbagsinmeeting,374. Wolves'heads,nailedonmeeting-houses,364–365. Wood,trenchersof,80–81; utensilsof,82; spoonsof,88; forshuttles,225; unusualusesof,305; toysof,306; naturalshapesin,308–311. Wood,quoted,32–33,137. Wool,anancientindustry,187; earlycultureof,187–193; manufactureof,187–193; restraintsonmanufacture,191–192; inEngland,192; preparationof,193; dyeingof,193–194; cardingof,194–195; combingof,196; spinningof,196–198. SeeYarn. Wool-cards,described,194–195; historyof,204–206. Wool-combs,196. Wool-wheel,priceof,177. Wordsworth,quoted,onspinning,179. Worstedstuffs,233. Wrathe.SeeRaddle. Yarn,spinningof,197–198,201,229; windingof,198; skeiningof,199; cleansingof,202; water-twist,229. Yarnbeam.SeeWarp-beam.
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