1. business and industrial
2. energy
3. oil

HomeLifeinCOLONIALDAYS
Wr ittenby
ALICEMORSEEARLE
intheyear 1898
THEBERKSHIRETRAVELLERPRESS
Stockbridge,Massachusetts
THISBOOKISBEGUN
ASITISENDED
INMEMORYOFMYMOTHER
Foreword
Theillustrationsforthisbookareineverycasefromrealarticlesandscenes,usuallyfromthosestill
inexistence—rarerelicsofpastdays.Thepicturesarethesymbolsofyearsofcarefulsearch,patient
investigation,andconstantwatchfulness.Manyacuriousarticleasnamelessandincomprehensibleas
the totem of an extinct Indian tribe has been studied, compared, inquired and written about, and
finallytriumphantlynamedandplacedinthelistofobsoletedomesticappurtenances.Fromthelofts
of woodsheds, under attic eaves, in dairy cellars, out of old trunks and sea-chests from mouldering
warehouses,havestrangelyshapedbitsandcombinationsofwood,stuff,andmetalbeenrescuedand
recognized.ThetreasurestoresofDeerfieldMemorialHall,oftheBostonianSociety,oftheAmerican
AntiquarianSociety,andmanyStateHistoricalSocietieshavebeenfreelysearched;andtotheofficers
ofthesesocietiesIgivecordialthanksfortheircoöperationandassistanceinmywork.
TheartisticandcorrectphotographicrepresentationofmanyoftheseobjectsIowetoMr.WilliamF.
HallidayofBoston,Massachusetts,Mr.GeorgeF.CookofRichmond,Virginia,andtheMissesAllenof
Deerfield, Massachusetts. To many friends, and many strangers, who have secured for me single
articlesorsinglephotographs,Ihererepeatthethanksalreadygivenfortheirkindness.
Thereweretwoconstantobstaclesinthepath:Anarticlewouldbefoundandanamegivenbyold-time
countryfolk,butnodictionarycontainedtheword,noprinteddescriptionofitsuseorpurposecould
beobtained,thoughacenturyagoitwasineveryhousehold.Again,somecuriouslyshapedutensilor
tool might be displayed and its use indicated; but it was nameless, and it took long inquiry and
deduction,—the faculty of "taking a hint,"—to christen it. It is plain that different vocations and
occupations had not only implements but a vocabulary of their own, and all have become almost
obsolete;tothevariousterms,phrases,andnames,onceingeneralapplicationanduseinspinning,
weaving, and kindred occupations, and now half forgotten, might be given the descriptive title, a
"homespun vocabulary." By definite explanation of these terms many a good old English word and
phrasehasbeenrescuedfromdisuse.
ALICEMORSEEARLE.
Contents
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
HomesoftheColonists
TheLightofOtherDays
TheKitchenFireside
TheServingofMeals
FoodfromForestandSea
IndianCorn
MeatandDrink
FlaxCultureandSpinning
WoolCultureandSpinning,withaPostscriptonCotton
Hand-Weaving
Girls'Occupations
DressoftheColonists
Jack-knifeIndustries
Travel,Transportation,andTaverns
SundayintheColonies
ColonialNeighborliness
Old-timeFlowerGardens
Index
HomeLifeinColonialDays
CHAPTERI
HOMESOFTHECOLONISTS
WhenthefirstsettlerslandedonAmericanshores,thedifficultiesinfindingormakingsheltermust
haveseemedironicalaswellasalmostunbearable.Thecolonistsfoundalandmagnificentwithforest
treesofeverysizeandvariety,buttheyhadnosawmills,andfewsawstocutboards;therewasplenty
of clay and ample limestone on every side, yet they could have no brick and no mortar; grand
bouldersofgraniteandrockwereeverywhere,yettherewasnotasinglefacilityforcutting,drawing,
orusingstone.Thesehomelessmen,sosorelyinneedofimmediateshelter,werebaffledbypioneer
conditions, and had to turn to many poor expedients, and be satisfied with rude covering. In
Pennsylvania,NewYork,Massachusetts,and,possibly,otherstates,somerevertedtoanancientform
ofshelter:theybecamecave-dwellers;caveswereduginthesideofahill,andlivedintillthesettlers
couldhavetimetochopdownandcutuptreesforloghouses.CornelisVanTienhoven,Secretaryof
the Province of New Netherland, gives a description of these cave-dwellings, and says that "the
wealthyandprincipalmeninNewEnglandlivedinthisfashionfortworeasons:first,nottowaste
timebuilding;second,nottodiscouragepoorerlaboringpeople."Itistobedoubtedwhetherwealthy
meneverlivedintheminNewEngland,butJohnson,inhisWonder-workingProvidence, written in
1645, tells of the occasional use of these "smoaky homes." They were speedily abandoned, and no
records remain of permanent cave-homes in New England. In Pennsylvania caves were used by
newcomers as homes for a long time, certainly half a century. They generally were formed by
diggingintothegroundaboutfourfeetindepthonthebanksorlowcliffsneartheriverfront.The
wallswerethenbuiltupofsodsorearthlaidonpolesorbrush;thushalfonlyofthechamberwas
reallyunderground.Ifdugintoasidehill,theearthformedatleasttwowalls.Theroofswerelayers
of tree limbs covered over with sod, or bark, or rushes and bark. The chimneys were laid of
cobblestoneorsticksofwoodmortaredwithclayandgrass.Thesettlerswerethankfulevenforthese
poorshelters,anddeclaredthattheyfoundthemcomfortable.By1685manyfamilieswerestillliving
incavesinPennsylvania,fortheGovernor'sCouncilthenorderedthecavestobedestroyedandfilled
in.Sometimesthesettlerusedthecaveforacellarforthewoodenhousewhichhebuiltoverit.
Thesecave-dwellingswereperhapsthepooresthouseseverknownbyanyAmericans,yetpioneers,
orpoor,ordegradedfolkhaveusedthemforhomesinAmericauntilfarmorerecentdays.Inoneof
thesemiserablehabitationsofearthandsodinthetownofRutland,Massachusetts,werepassedsome
oftheearlyyearsofthegirlhoodofMadameJumel,whosebeautifulhouseonWashingtonHeights,
NewYork,stillstandstoshowthecontraststhatcancomeinasinglelife.
ThehomesoftheIndianswerecopiedbytheEnglish,beingreadyadaptationsofnaturalandplentiful
resources.WigwamsintheSouthwereofplaitedrushorgrassmats;ofdeerskinspinnedonaframe;
oftreeboughsrudelypiledintoacover,andinthefarSouth,oflayersofpalmettoleaves.Inthemild
climateoftheMiddleandSouthernstatesa"half-facedcamp,"oftheIndianform,withoneopenside,
whichservedforwindowsanddoor,andwherethefirewasbuilt,madeagoodtemporaryhome.In
suchforatime,inhisyouth,livedAbrahamLincoln.Barkwigwamswerethemosteasilymadeof
all;theycouldbequicklypinnedtogetheronalightframe.In1626therewerethirtyhome-buildings
ofEuropeansontheislandofManhattan,nowNewYork,andallbutoneofthemwereofbark.
Though the settler had no sawmills, brick kilns, or stone-cutters, he had one noble friend,—a firm
rocktostandupon,—hisbroad-axe.Withhisaxe,andhisownstrongandwillingarms,hecouldtake
a long step in advance in architecture; he could build a log cabin. These good, comfortable, and
substantialhouseshaveeverbeenbuiltbyAmericanpioneers,notonlyincolonialdays,butinour
WesternandSouthernstatestothepresenttime.Atypicalonelikemanynowstandingandoccupiedin
themountainsofNorthCarolinaishereshown.Roundlogswerehalvedtogetheratthecorners,and
roofedwithlogs,orwithbarkandthatchonpoles;thismadeacomfortableshelter,especiallywhen
the cracks between the logs were "chinked" with wedges of wood, and "daubed" with clay. Many
cabinshadatfirstnochinkingordaubing;onesettlerwhilesleepingwasscratchedontheheadbythe
sharpteethofahungrywolf,whothrusthisnoseintothespacebetweenthelogsofthecabin.Doors
werehungonwoodenhingesorstrapsofhide.
Afavoriteformofaloghouseforasettlertobuildinhisfirst"cutdown"inthevirginforest,wasto
digasquaretrenchabouttwofeetdeep,ofdimensionsaslargeashewishedthegroundfloorofhis
house,thentosetuprightallaroundthistrench(leavingaspaceforafireplace,window,anddoor),a
closelyplacedrowoflogsallthesamelength,usuallyfourteenfeetlongforasinglestory;ifthere
wasaloft,eighteenfeetlong.Theearthwasfilledinsolidlyaroundtheselogs,andkeptthemfirmly
upright;ahorizontalbandofpuncheons,whichweresplitlogssmoothedoffonthefacewiththeaxe,
wassometimespinnedaroundwithinthelogwalls,tokeepthemfromcavingin.Overthiswasplaced
abarkroof,madeofsquaresofchestnutbark,orshinglesofoverlappingbirch-bark.Abarkorlog
shutter was hung at the window, and a bark door hung on withe hinges, or, if very luxurious, on
leatherstraps,completedthequicklymadehome.Thiswascalledrolling-upahouse,andthehouse
wascalledapuncheonandbarkhouse.Aroughpuncheonfloor,hewedflatwithanaxeoradze,was
truly a luxury. One settler's wife pleaded that the house might be rolled up around a splendid flat
stump; thus she had a good, firm table. A small platform placed about two feet high alongside one
wall, and supported at the outer edge with strong posts, formed a bedstead. Sometimes hemlock
boughsweretheonlybed.Thefrontiersayingwas,"Ahardday'sworkmakesasoftbed."Thetired
pioneerssleptwellevenonhemlockboughs.Thechinksofthelogswerefilledwithmossandmud,
andintheautumnbankedupoutsidewithearthforwarmth.
TheseloghousesdidnotsatisfyEnglishmenandwomen.TheylongedtohavewhatRogerWilliams
calledEnglishhouses,whichwere,however,scarcelydifferentinground-plan.Asingleroomonthe
ground,calledinmanyoldwillsthefire-room,hadavastchimneyatoneend.Aso-calledstaircase,
usually but a narrow ladder, led to a sleeping-loft above. Some of those houses were still made of
whole logs, but with clapboards nailed over the chinks and cracks. Others were of a lighter frame
coveredwithclapboards,orinDelawarewithboardspinnedonperpendicularly.Soonthishousewas
doubledinsizeandcomfortbyhavingaroomoneithersideofthechimney.
Eachsettlementoftenfollowedingeneraloutlineaswellasdetailthehousestowhichtheownershad
become accustomed in Europe, with, of course, such variations as were necessary from the new
surroundings, new climate, and new limitations. New York was settled by the Dutch, and therefore
naturallythefirstpermanenthouseswereDutchinshape,suchasmaybeseeninHollandto-day.In
the large towns in New Netherland the houses were certainly very pretty, as all visitors stated who
wroteaccountsatthatday.MadamKnightsvisitedNewYorkin1704,andwroteofthehouses,—Iwill
giveherownwords,inherownspellingandgrammar,whichwerenotverygood,thoughshewas
theteacherofBenjaminFranklin,andthefriendofCottonMather:—
"The Buildings are Brick Generaly very stately and high: the Bricks in some of the houses are of
diversCoullers,andlaidinCheckers,beingglazed,lookveryagreable.Theinsideofthehousesis
neat to admiration, the wooden work; for only the walls are plaster'd; and the Sumers and Gist are
planedandkeptverywhitescour'dassoisallthepartitionsifmadeofBords."
The "sumers and gist" were the heavy timbers of the frame, the summer-pieces and joists. The
summer-piecewasthelargemiddlebeaminthemiddlefromendtoendoftheceiling;thejoistswere
cross-beams.Thesewerenotcoveredwithplasterasnowadays,butshowedineveryceiling; and in
old houses are sometimes set so curiously and fitted so ingeniously, that they are always an
entertainingstudy.AnothertravellersaysthatNewYorkhouseshadpatternsofcoloredbricksetin
thefront,andalsoborethedateofbuilding.TheGovernor'shouseatAlbanyhadtwoblackbrickhearts.Dutchhousesweresetclosetothesidewalkwiththegable-endtothestreet;andhadtheroof
notchedlikesteps,—corbel-roofwasthename;andtheseendswereoftenofbrick,whiletherestof
thewallswereofwood.Theroofswerehighinproportiontothesidewalls,andhencesteep;they
weresurmountedusuallyinHollandfashionwithweather-vanesintheshapeofhorses,lions,geese,
sloops, or fish; a rooster was a favorite Dutch weather-vane. There were metal gutters sticking out
from every roof almost to the middle of the street; this was most annoying to passers-by in rainy
weather,whoweredelugedwithwaterfromtheroofs.Thecellarwindowshadsmallloop-holeswith
shutters.Thewindowswerealwayssmall;somehadonlyslidingshutters,othershadbuttwopanesor
quarels of glass, as they were called, which were only six or eight inches square. The front doors
were cut across horizontally in the middle into two parts, and in early days were hung on leather
hingesinsteadofiron.
Intheupperhalfofthedoorweretworoundbull's-eyesofheavygreenishglass,whichletfaintrays
oflightenterthehall.Thedooropenedwithalatch,andoftenhadalsoaknocker.Everyhousehada
porch or "stoep" flanked with benches, which were constantly occupied in the summer time; and
every evening, in city and village alike, an incessant visiting was kept up from stoop to stoop. The
Dutch farmhouses were a single straight story, with two more stories in the high, in-curving roof.
Theyhaddoorsandstoopslikethetownhouses,andallthewindowshadheavyboardshutters.The
cellarandthegarretwerethemostusefulroomsinthehouse;theywerestore-roomsforallkindsof
substantialfood.Inthecellarweregreatbinsofapples,potatoes,turnips,beets,andparsnips.There
werehogsheadsofcornedbeef,barrelsofsaltpork,tubsofhamsbeingsaltedinbrine,tonnekensof
saltshadandmackerel,firkinsofbutter,kegsofpigs'feet,tubsofsouse,kilderkinsoflard.Onalong
swing-shelfweretumblersofspicedfruits,and"rolliches,"head-cheese,andstringsofsausages—all
Dutchdelicacies.
Instrongrackswerebarrelsofciderandvinegar,andoftenofbeer.Manycontainedbarrelsofrum
andapipeofMadeira.Whatastorehouseofplentyandthrift!WhatanemblemofDutchcharacter!In
theatticbythechimneywasthesmoke-house,filledwithhams,bacon,smokedbeef,andsausages.
InVirginiaandMaryland,wherepeopledidnotgatherintotowns,butbuilttheirhousesfartherapart,
therewereatfirstfewsawmills,andthehouseswereuniversallybuiltofundressedlogs.Nailswere
costly,aswereallarticlesmanufacturedofiron,hencemanyhouseswerebuiltwithoutiron;wooden
pinsandpegsweredriveninholescuttoreceivethem;hingeswereofleather;theshinglesonthe
roofweresometimespinned,orwereheldinplaceby"weight-timbers."Thedoorshadlatcheswith
strings hanging outside; by pulling in the string within-doors the house was securely locked. This
form of latch was used in all the colonies. When persons were leaving houses, they sometimes set
themonfireinordertogatherupthenailsfromtheashes.Topreventthisdestructionofbuildings,
the government of Virginia gave to each planter who was leaving his house as many nails as the
housewasestimatedtohaveinitsframe,providedtheownerwouldnotburnthehousedown.
Someyearslater,whenboardscouldbereadilyobtained,thefavoritedwelling-placeintheSouthwas
aframedbuildingwithagreatstoneorlog-and-claychimneyateitherend.Thehousewasusuallyset
on sills resting on the ground. The partitions were sometimes covered with a thick layer of mud
which dried into a sort of plaster and was whitewashed. The roofs were covered with cypress
shingles.
Hammond wrote of these houses in 1656, in his Leah and Rachel, "Pleasant in their building, and
contriveddelightfull;theroomslarge,daubedandwhitelimed,glazedandflowered;andifnotglazed
windows,shuttersmadeprettyandconvenient."
When prosperity and wealth came through the speedily profitable crops of tobacco, the houses
improved. The home-lot or yard of the Southern planters showed a pleasant group of buildings,
which would seem the most cheerful home of the colonies, only that all dearly earned homes are
cheerful to their owners. There was not only the spacious mansion house for the planter with its
pleasantporch,butseparatebuildingsinwhichwereakitchen,cabinsforthenegroservantsandthe
overseer,astable,barn,coach-house,hen-house,smoke-house,dove-cote,andmilk-room.Inmany
yardsatallpolewithatoyhouseattopwaserected;inthisbird-housebee-martinsbuilttheirnests,
and by bravely disconcerting the attacks of hawks and crows, and noisily notifying the family and
servants of the approach of the enemy, thus served as a guardian for the domestic poultry, whose
home stood close under this protection. There was seldom an ice-house. The only means for the
preservationofmeatsinhotweatherwasbywaterconstantlypouringintoandthroughaboxhouse
erected over the spring that flowed near the house. Sometimes a brew-house was also found in the
yard,formakinghome-brewedbeer,andatool-houseforstoringtoolsandfarmimplements.Some
farms had a cider-mill, but this was not in the house yard. Often there was a spinning-house where
servants could spin flax and wool. This usually had one room containing a hand-loom on which
coarsebaggingcouldbewoven,andhomespunfortheuseofthenegroes.Averybeautifulexample
ofasplendidandcomfortableSouthernmansionsuchaswasbuiltbywealthyplantersinthemiddle
of the eighteenth century has been preserved for us at Mount Vernon, the home of George
Washington.
MountVernonwasnotsofinenorsocostlyahouseasmanyothersbuiltearlierinthecentury,such
asLowerBrandon—twocenturiesandahalfold—andUpperBrandon,thehomesoftheHarrisons;
Westover,thehomeoftheByrds;Shirley,builtin1650,thehomeoftheCarters;SabinHall,another
Carter home, is still standing on the Rappahannock with its various and many quarters and
outbuildings,andisasplendidexampleofcolonialarchitecture.
As the traveller came north from Virginia through Pennsylvania, "the Jerseys," and Delaware, the
negrocabinsanddetachedkitchendisappeared,andmanyofthehouseswereofstoneandmortar.A
clayovenstoodbyeachhouse.Inthecitiesstoneandbrickweremuchused,andby1700nearlyall
Philadelphiahouseshadbalconiesrunningtheentirelengthofthesecondstory.Thestoopbeforethe
doorwasuniversal.
For half a century nearly all New England houses were cottages. Many had thatched roofs. Seaside
townssetasideforpublicusecertainreedylotsbetweensalt-marshandlow-watermark,wherethatch
couldbefreelycut.Thecattedchimneyswereoflogsplasteredwithclay,orplatted,thatis,madeof
reedsandmortar;andaswoodandhaywerestackedinthestreets,alltheearlytownssufferedmuch
fromfires,andsoonlawswerepassedforbiddingthebuildingoftheseunsafechimneys;asbrickwas
imported and made, and stone was quarried, there was certainly no need to use such danger-filled
materials.Fire-wardenswereappointedwhopeeredaroundinallthekitchens,huntingforwhatthey
called foul chimney hearts, and they ordered flag-roofs and wooden chimneys to be removed, and
replacedwithstoneorbrickones.InBostoneveryhousekeeperhadtoownafire-ladder;andladders
andbucketswerekeptinthechurch.Salemkeptits"fire-bucketsandhook'dpoles"inthetown-house.
Sooninalltownseachfamilyownedfire-bucketsmadeofheavyleatherandmarkedwiththeowner's
name or initials. The entire town constituted the fire company, and the method of using the firebucketswasthis.Assoonasanalarmoffirewasgivenbyshoutsorbell-ringing,everyoneranat
once towards the scene of the fire. All who owned buckets carried them, and if any person was
delayedevenforafewminutes,heflunghisfire-bucketsfromthewindowintothestreet,wheresome
oneintherunningcrowdseizedthemandcarriedthemon.Onreachingthefire,adoublelinecalled
lanesofpersonswasmadefromthefiretotheriverorpond,orawell.Averygoodrepresentationof
theselanesisgiveninthisfireman'scertificateoftheyear1800.
The buckets, filled with water, were passed from hand to hand, up one line of persons to the fire,
whiletheemptyoneswentdowntheotherline.Boyswerestationedonthedrylane.Thusaconstant
supplyofwaterwascarriedtothefire.Ifanypersonattemptedtopassthroughtheline,orhinderthe
work,hepromptlygotabucketfulortwoofwaterpouredoverhim.Whenthefirewasover,thefirewardentookchargeofthebuckets;somehourslatertheownersappeared,eachpickedouthisown
buckets from the pile, carried them home, and hung them up by the front door, ready to be seized
againforuseatthenextalarmoffire.
Manyoftheseoldfire-bucketsarestillpreserved,anddeservedlyarecherishedheirlooms,forthey
representthedignityandimportancedueahouse-holdingancestor.Theywereavaluedpossessionat
thetimeoftheiruse,andacostlyone,being,madeofthebestleather.Theywereoftenpaintednot
only with the name of the owner, but with family mottoes, crests, or appropriate inscriptions,
sometimesinLatin.Theleatherhand-bucketsoftheDonnisonfamilyofBostonarehereshown;those
oftheQuincyfamilybearthelegendImpavadiFlammarium;thoseoftheOliverfamily,Friend and
Public. In these fire-buckets were often kept, tightly rolled, strong canvas bags, in which valuables
couldbethrustandcarriedfromtheburningbuilding.
Thefirstfire-enginemadeinthiscountrywasforthetownofBoston,andwasmadeabout1650by
JosephJencks,thefamousoldiron-workerinLynn.Itwasdoubtlessverysimpleinshape,aswereits
successors until well into this century. The first fire-engine used in Brooklyn, New York, is here
shown.Itwasmadein1785byJacobBoome.Relaysofmenatbothhandlesworkedtheclumsypump.
Thewatersupplyforthisenginewasstillonlythroughthelanesoffire-buckets,exceptinrarecases.
Bytheyear1670woodenchimneysandloghousesofthePlymouthandBaycolonieswerereplaced
bymoresightlyhousesoftwostories,whichwerefrequentlybuiltwiththesecondstoryjuttingouta
footortwooverthefirst,andsometimeswiththeatticstorystillfurtherextendingoverthesecond
story. A few of these are still standing: The White-Ellery House, at Gloucester, Massachusetts, in
1707, is here shown. This "overhang" is popularly supposed to have been built for the purpose of
affordingaconvenientshooting-placefromwhichtorepeltheIndians.Thisis,however,anhistoric
fable. The overhanging second story was a common form of building in England in the time of
Queen Elizabeth, and the Massachusetts and Rhode Island settlers simply and naturally copied their
oldhomes.
Theroofsofmanyofthesenewhousesweresteep,andwereshingledwithhand-rivenshingles.The
wallsbetweentheroomswereofclaymixedwithchoppedstraw.Sometimesthewallswerewhitened
with a wash made of powdered clam-shells. The ground floors were occasionally of earth, but
puncheon floors were common in the better houses. The well-smoothed timbers were sanded in
carefuldesignswithcleanlybeachsand.
By 1676 the Royal Commissioners wrote of Boston that the streets were crooked, and the houses
usually wooden, with a few of brick and stone. It is a favorite tradition of brick houses in all the
colonies that the brick for them was brought from England. As excellent brick was made here, I
cannot believe all these tales that are told. Occasionally a house, such as the splendid Warner
Mansion,stillstandinginPortsmouth,NewHampshire,isprovedtobeofimportedbrickbythebills
whicharestillexistingforthepurchaseandtransportationofthebrick.Alaterformofmanyhouses
wastwostoriesortwostoriesandahalfinfront,withapeakedroofthatslopeddownnearlytothe
groundinthebackoveranellcoveringthekitchen,addedintheshapeknownasalean-to,or,asit
was called by country folk, the linter. This sloping roof gave the one element of unconscious
picturesqueness which redeemed the prosaic ugliness of these bare-walled houses. Many lean-to
houses are still standing in New England. The Boardman Hill House, built at North Saugus,
Massachusetts, two centuries and a half ago, and the two houses of lean-to form, the birthplaces of
PresidentJohnAdamsandofPresidentJohnQuincyAdams,aretypicalexamples.
Thenextroof-form,builtfromearlycolonialdays,andpopularacenturyago,waswhatwasknown
as the gambrel roof. This resembled, on two sides, the mansard roof of France in the seventeenth
century,butwasalsogabledattwoends.Thegambrelroofhadacertaingraceofoutline,especially
when joined with lean-tos and other additions. The house partly built in 1636 in Dedham,
Massachusetts,bymyfar-awaygrandfather,andknownastheFairbanksHouse,istheoldestgambrelroofedhousenowstanding.Itisstilloccupiedbyoneofhisdescendantsintheeighthgeneration.The
rear view of it, here given, shows the picturesqueness of roof outlines and the quaintness which
comes simply from variety. The front of the main building, with its eight windows, all of different
sizesandsetatdifferentheights,showsequaldiversity.Within,theboardsinthewall-panellingvary
fromtwototwenty-fiveinchesinwidth.
Thewindowsofthefirsthouseshadoiledpapertoadmitlight.AcolonistwrotebacktoEnglandtoa
friendwhowassoontofollow,"Bringoiledpaperforyourwindows."Theminister,Higginson,sent
promptlyin1629forglassforwindows.Thisglasswassetinthewindowswithnails;thesasheswere
oftennarrowandoblong,ofdiamond-shapedpanessetinlead,andopeningupanddownthemiddle
on hinges. Long after the large towns and cities had glass windows, frontier settlements still had
heavywoodenshutters.TheywereasaferprotectionagainstIndianassault,aswellascheaper.Itis
assertedthatintheprovinceofKennebec,whichisnowthestateofMaine,therewasnot,evenaslate
as1745,ahousethathadasquareofglassinit.Oiledpaperwasuseduntilthiscenturyinpioneer
housesforwindowswhereveritwasdifficulttotransportglass.
FewoftheearlyhousesinNewEnglandwerepainted,orcolored,asitwascalled,eitherwithoutor
within.Paintersdonotappearinanyoftheearlylistsofworkmen.ASalemcitizen,justpreviousto
the Revolution, had the woodwork of one of the rooms of his house painted. One of a group of
friends,discussingthisextravaganceafewdayslater,said:"Well!Archerhassetusafineexampleof
expense,—hehaslaidoneofhisroomsinoil."Thissentenceshowsboththewordingandideasofthe
times.
There was one external and suggestive adjunct of the earliest pioneer's home which was found in
nearly all the settlements which were built in the midst of threatening Indians. Some strong houses
werealwayssurroundedbyastockade,or"palisado,"ofheavy,well-fittedlogs,whichthusformeda
garrison, or neighborhood resort, in time of danger. In the valley of Virginia each settlement was
formedofhousessetinasquare,connectedfromendtoendoftheoutsidewallsbystockadeswith
gates; thus forming a close front. On the James River, on Manhattan Island, were stockades. The
wholetownplotofMilford,Connecticut,wasenclosedin1645,andtheIndianstauntedthesettlersby
shoutingout,"Whitemenallsamelikepigs."AtonetimeinMassachusetts,twentytownsproposedan
all-surroundingpalisade.Theprogressandconditionofoursettlementscanbetracedinourfences.
AsIndiansdisappearedorsuccumbed,thesolidrowofpalesgaveplacetoalog-fence,whichserved
well to keep out depredatory animals. When dangers from Indians or wild animals entirely
disappeared,boardswerestillnotover-plenty,andthestrengthoftheownercouldnotbeover-spent
onunnecessaryfencing.Thencamethedouble-railfence;tworails,heldinplaceoneabovetheother,
at each joining, by four crossed sticks. It was a boundary, and would keep in cattle. It was said that
every fence should be horse-high, bull-proof, and pig-tight. Then came stone walls, showing a
thoroughclearingandtamingoftheland.Thesucceeding"half-high"stonewall—afootortwohigh,
withasinglerailontop—showedthatstoneswerenotasplentifulinthefieldsasinearlydays.The
"snake-fence,"or"Virginiafence,"socommonintheSouthernstates,utilizedthesecondgrowthof
foresttrees.Thesplit-railfence,fourorfiverailsinheight,wassetatintervalswithposts,pierced
withholestoholdtheendsoftherails.ThesewereusedtosomeextentintheEast;butourWestern
states were fenced throughout with rails split by sturdy pioneer rail-splitters, among them young
Abraham Lincoln. Board fences showed the day of the sawmill and its plentiful supply; the wire
fences of to-day equally prove the decrease of our forests and our wood, and the growth of our
mineral supplies and manufactures of metals. Thus even our fences might be called historical
monuments.
Afewoftheoldblock-houses,orgarrisonhouses,the"defensiblehouses,"whichweresurrounded
by these stockades, are still standing. The most interesting are the old Garrison at East Haverhill,
Massachusetts,builtin1670;ithaswallsofsolidoak,andbrickafootandahalfthick;theSaltonstall
HouseatIpswich,builtin1633;CradockOldFortinMedford,Massachusetts,builtin1634ofbrick
made on the spot; an old fort at York, Maine; and the Whitefield Garrison House, built in 1639 at
Guilford,Connecticut.TheoneatNewburyportisthemostpicturesqueandbeautifulofthemall.
As social life in Boston took on a little aspect of court life in the circle gathered around the royal
governors, the pride of the wealthy found expression in handsome and stately houses. These were
copiedandaddedtobymenofwealthandsocialstandinginothertowns.TheProvinceHouse,built
in 1679, the Frankland House in 1735, and the Hancock House, all in Boston; the Shirley House in
Roxbury, the Wentworth Mansion in New Hampshire, are good examples. They were dignified and
simple in form, and have borne the test of centuries,—they wear well. They never erred in overornamentation,beingscantofinteriordecoration,saveintwoorthreeprincipalroomsandthehall
and staircase. The panelled step ends and soffits, the graceful newels and balusters, of those old
staircasesholdswayasmodelstothisday.
Thesametastewhichmadethestaircasethecentreofdecorationwithin,madethefrontdoorthesole
pointofornamentationwithout;andequalbeautyistherefocused.Worthyofstudyandreproduction,
manyoftheold-timefrontdoorsarewiththeirfinepanels,graceful,leadedsidewindows,elaborate
andprettyfan-lights,andslightbutappropriatecarving.TheprettiestleadedwindowsIeversawinan
Americanhomewereinatherebyglorifiedhen-house.Theyhadbeentakenfromthediscardedfront
doorofaremodelledoldFalmouthhouse.Thehensandtheirownerwerenotofantiquariantastes,
and relinquished the windows for a machine-made sash more suited to their plebeian tastes and
occupations.Manycolonialdoorshaddoor-latchesorknobsofheavybrass;nearlyallhadaknocker
ofwroughtironorpolishedbrass,acheerfulornamentthateverseemstoresoundawelcometothe
visitoraswellasanotificationtothevisited.
The knocker from the John Hancock House in Boston and that from the Winslow House in
Marshfieldarehereshown;botharenowinthecustodyoftheBostonianSociety,andmaybeseenat
theOldStateHouseinBoston.ThelatterwasgiventothesocietybyDr.OliverWendellHolmes.
The"King-Hooper"House,stillstandinginDanvers,Massachusetts,closelyresembledtheHancock
House.Thishouse,builtbyRobertHooperin1754,wasforatimetherefugeoftheroyalgovernor
of Massachusetts—Governor Gage; and hence is sometimes called General Gage's Headquarters.
Whentheminute-menmarchedpastthehousetoLexingtononApril18,1775,theystrippedthelead
from the gate-posts. "King Hooper" angrily denounced them, and a minute-man fired at him as he
entered the house. The bullet passed through the panel of the door, and the rent may still be seen.
HencethehousehasbeenoftencalledTheHouseoftheFrontDoorwiththeBullet-Hole.Thepresent
owner and occupier of the house, Francis Peabody, Esq., has appropriately named it The Lindens,
fromthestatelylindentreesthatgraceitsgardensandlawns.
Inridingthroughthoseportionsofourstatesthatweretheearlysettledcolonies,itispleasanttonote
where any old houses are still standing, or where the sites of early colonial houses are known, the
good taste usually shown by the colonists in the places chosen to build their houses. They dearly
loved a "sightly location." An old writer said: "My consayte is such; I had rather not to builde a
mansyonorahousethantobuildeonewithoutagoodprospectinit,toit,andfromit."InVirginiathe
houses were set on the river slope, where every passing boat might see them. The New England
colonistspainfullyclimbedlong,tedioushills,thattheymighthavehomesfromwhencecouldbehad
abeautifulview,andthiswasforthedoublereason,astheoldwritersaid,thatintheirnewhomes
theymightbothseeandbeseen.
CHAPTERII
THELIGHTOFOTHERDAYS
ThefirstandmostnaturalwayoflightingthehousesoftheAmericancolonists,bothintheNorthand
South, was by the pine-knots of the fat pitch-pine, which, of course, were found everywhere in the
greatest plenty in the forests. Governor John Winthrop the younger, in his communication to the
English Royal Society in 1662, said this candle-wood was much used for domestic illumination in
Virginia,NewYork,andNewEngland.Itwasdoubtlessgatheredeverywhereinnewsettlements,asit
hasbeeninpioneerhomestillourownday.InMaine,NewHampshire,andVermontitwasusedtill
thiscentury.IntheSouthernstatesthepine-knotsarestillburnedinhumblehouseholdsforlighting
purposes,andaverygoodlighttheyfurnish.
ThehistorianWoodwrotein1642,inhisNewEngland'sProspect:—
"OutofthesePinesisgottentheCandlewoodthatismuchspokeof,whichmayserveasashiftamong
poore folks, but I cannot commend it for singular good, because it droppeth a pitchy kind of
substancewhereitstands."
That pitchy kind of substance was tar, which was one of the most valuable trade products of the
colonists.SomuchtarwasmadebyburningthepinesonthebanksoftheConnecticut,thatasearlyas
1650thetownshadtoprohibittheusingofcandle-woodfortar-makingifgatheredwithinsixmiles
oftheConnecticutRiver,thoughitcouldbegatheredbyfamiliesforilluminationandfuel.
Rev.Mr.Higginson,writingin1633,saidofthesepine-knots:—
"TheyaresuchcandlesastheIndianscommonlyuse,havingnoother,andtheyarenothingelsebut
thewoodofthepinetree,clovenintwolittleslices,somethingthin,whicharesofullofthemoysture
ofturpentineandpitchthattheyburneascleereasatorch."
Toavoidhavingsmokeintheroom,andonaccountofthepitchydroppings,thecandle-woodwas
usually burned in a corner of the fireplace, on a flat stone. The knots were sometimes called pinetorches. One old Massachusetts minister boasted at the end of his life that every sermon of the
hundreds he had written, had been copied by the light of these torches. Rev. Mr. Newman, of
Rehoboth,issaidtohavecompiledhisvastconcordanceoftheBiblewhollybythedancinglightof
thiscandle-wood.Lightingwasanimportantitemofexpenseinanyhouseholdofsosmallanincome
as that of a Puritan minister; and the single candle was often frugally extinguished during the long
familyprayerseachevening.Everyfamilylaidinagoodsupplyofthislightwoodforwinteruse,
anditwassaidthataprudentNewEnglandfarmerwouldassoonstartthewinterwithouthayinhis
barnaswithoutcandle-woodinhiswoodshed.
Mr. Higginson wrote in 1630: "Though New England has no tallow to make candles of, yet by
abundance of fish thereof it can afford oil for lamps." This oil was apparently wholly neglected,
though there were few, or no domestic animals to furnish tallow; but when cattle increased, every
ounceoftallowwassavedasapreciousandusefultreasure;andastheybecameplentifulitwasone
of the household riches of New England, which was of value to our own day. When Governor
WinthroparrivedinMassachusetts,hepromptlywroteovertohiswifetobringcandleswithherfrom
Englandwhenshecame.Andin1634hesentoverforalargequantityofwicksandtallow.Candles
costfourpenceapiece,whichmadethemcostlyluxuriesforthethriftycolonists.
Wicks were made of loosely spun hemp or tow, or of cotton; from the milkweed which grows so
plentifullyinourfieldsandroadsto-daythechildrengatheredinlatesummerthesilver"silk-down"
whichwas"spungrosslyintocandlewicke."Sometimesthewicksweredippedintosaltpetre.
ThomasTusserwroteinEnglandinthesixteenthcenturyinhisDirectionstoHousewifes:—
"Wife,makethineowncandle,
Sparepennytohandle.
Provideforthytallowerefrostcomethin,
Andmakethineowncandleerewinterbegin."
EverythriftyhousewifeinAmericasavedherpennyasinEngland.Themakingofthewinter'sstock
of candles was the special autumnal household duty, and a hard one too, for the great kettles were
tiresomeandheavytohandle.Anearlyhourfoundtheworkwellunderway.Agoodfirewasstarted
inthekitchenfireplaceundertwovastkettles,eachtwofeet,perhaps,indiameter,whichwerehung
ontrammelsfromthelug-poleorcrane,andhalffilledwithboilingwaterandmeltedtallow,which
hadhadtwoscaldingsandskimmings.Attheendofthekitchenorinanadjoiningandcoolerroom,
sometimesinthelean-to,twolongpoleswerelaidfromchairtochairorstooltostool.Acrossthese
poles were placed at regular intervals, like the rounds of a ladder, smaller sticks about fifteen or
eighteenincheslong,calledcandle-rods.Thesepolesandrodswerekeptfromyeartoyear,eitherin
thegarretoruponthekitchenbeams.
Toeachcandle-rodwasattachedaboutsixoreightcarefullystraightenedcandle-wicks.Thewicking
wastwistedstronglyoneway;thendoubled;thentheloopwasslippedoverthecandle-rod,whenthe
twoends,ofcourse,twistedtheotherwayaroundeachother,makingafirmwick.Arod,withitsrow
ofwicks,wasdippedinthemeltedtallowinthepot,andreturnedtoitsplaceacrossthepoles.Each
rowwasthusdippedinregularturn;eachhadtimetocoolandhardenbetweenthedips,andthusgrew
steadily in size. If allowed to cool fast, they of course grew quickly, but were brittle, and often
cracked. Hence a good worker dipped slowly, but if the room was fairly cool, could make two
hundred candles for a day's work. Some could dip two rods at a time. The tallow was constantly
replenished,astheheavykettleswereusedalternatelytokeepthetallowconstantlymelted,andwere
swungoffandonthefire.Boardsorsheetsofpaperwereplacedundertherodstoprotectthesnowy,
scouredfloors.
Candles were also run in moulds which were groups of metal cylinders, usually made of tin or
pewter. Itinerant candle-makers went from house to house, taking charge of candle-making in the
household, and carrying large candle-moulds with them. One of the larger size, making two dozen
candles, is here shown; but its companion, the smaller mould, making six candles, is such as were
morecommonlyseen.Eachwickwasattachedtoawireoranailplacedacrosstheopentopofthe
cylinder, and hung down in the centre of each individual mould. The melted tallow was poured in
carefullyaroundthewicks.
Waxcandlesalsoweremade.Theywereoftenshapedbyhand,bypressingbitsofheatedwaxaround
awick.Farmerskepthivesofbeesasmuchforthewaxasforthehoney,whichwasofmuchdemand
forsweetening,when"loaves"ofsugarweresohigh-priced.Deersuet,moosefat,bear'sgrease,all
weresavedinfrontiersettlements,andcarefullytriedintotallowforcandles.Everyparticleofgrease
rescuedfrompotliquor,orfatfrommeat,wasutilizedforcandle-making.Rushlightsweremadeby
strippingpartoftheouterbarkfromcommonrushes,thusleavingthepithbare,thendippingthemin
talloworgrease,andlettingthemharden.
The precious candles thus tediously made were taken good care of. They were carefully packed in
candle-boxeswithcompartments;werecoveredover,andsetinadarkcloset,wheretheywouldnot
discolorandturnyellow.Ametalcandle-box,hungontheedgeofthekitchenmantel-shelf,always
heldtwoorthreecandlestoreplenishthosewhichburntoutinthecandlesticks.
Anatural,andapparentlyinexhaustible,materialforcandleswasfoundinallthecoloniesinthewaxy
berriesofthebayberrybush,whichstillgrowsinlargequantitiesonourcoasts.Intheyear1748a
Swedishnaturalist,ProfessorKalm,cametoAmerica,andhewroteanaccountofthebayberrywax
whichIwillquoteinfull:—
"There is a plant here from the berries of which they make a kind of wax or tallow, and for that
reason the Swedes call it the tallow-shrub. The English call the same tree the candle-berry tree or
bayberry bush; it grows abundantly in a wet soil, and seems to thrive particularly well in the
neighborhoodofthesea.Theberrieslookasifflourhadbeenstrewedonthem.Theyaregathered
lateinAutumn,beingripeaboutthattime,andarethrownintoakettleorpotfullofboilingwater;by
thismeanstheirfatmeltsout,floatsatthetopofthewater,andmaybeskimmedoffintoavessel;with
theskimmingtheygoontillthereisnotallowleft.Thetallow,assoonasitiscongealed,lookslike
commontalloworwax,buthasadirtygreencolor.Bybeingmeltedoverandrefineditacquiresa
fine and transparent green color. This tallow is dearer than common tallow, but cheaper than wax.
Candlesofthisdonoteasilybend,normeltinsummerascommoncandlesdo;theyburnbetterand
slower,nordotheycauseanysmoke,butyieldratheranagreeablesmellwhentheyareextinguished.
InCarolinatheynotonlymakecandlesoutofthewaxoftheberries,butlikewisesealing-wax."
Beverley,thehistorianofVirginia,wroteofthesmellofburningbayberrytallow:—
"Ifanaccidentputsacandleout,ityieldsapleasantfragrancytoallthatareintheroom;insomuch
thatnicepeopleoftenputthemoutonpurposetohavetheincenseoftheexpiringsnuff."
Bayberrywaxwasnotonlyausefulhome-product,butanarticleoftraffictillthiscentury,andwas
constantlyadvertisedinthenewspapers.In1712,inaletterwrittentoJohnWinthrop,F.R.S.,Ifind:—
"Iamnowtobegonefavourofyou,—thatyousecureformeallthebayberrywaxyoucanpossibly
putyourhandson.Youmusttakeacaretheydonotputtoomuchtallowamongit,beingacustomand
cheattheyhavegot."
Bayberries were of enough importance to have some laws made about them. Everywhere on Long
Islandgrewthestuntedbushes,andeverywheretheywerevalued.ThetownofBrookhaven,in1687,
forbadethegatheringoftheberriesbeforeSeptember15,underpenaltyoffifteenshillings'fine.
Thepungentanduniquescentofthebayberry,equallystronginleafandberry,istomeoneofthe
elementsofthepurityandsweetnessoftheairofourNewEnglandcoastfieldsinautumn.Itgrows
everywhere,greenandcheerful,insun-witheredshorepastures,inpoorbitsofearthonourrocky
coast,whereithasfewfellowfield-tenantstocrowdtheground.Itissaidthatthehighesteffortsof
memoryarestimulatedthroughoursenseofsmell,bytheassociationofideaswithscents.Thatof
bayberry, whenever I pass it, seems to awaken in me an hereditary memory, to recall a life of two
centuriesago.Irecalltheautumnsoftrialandofpromiseinourearlyhistory,andthebayberryfields
arepeopledwithchildreninPuritangarb,industriouslygatheringthetinywaxenfruit.Equallyfullof
sentimentisthescentofmyburningbayberrycandles,whichweremadelastautumninanoldcolony
town.
The history of whale-fishing in New England is the history of one of the most fascinating
commercialindustriestheworldhaseverknown.Itisastorywitheveryelementofintenseinterest,
showing infinite romance, adventure, skill, courage, and fortitude. It brought vast wealth to the
communities that carried on the fishing, and great independence and comfort to the families of the
whalers.Tothewhalementhemselvesitbroughtincrediblehardshipsanddangers,yettheylovedthe
life with a love which is strange to view and hard to understand. In the oil made from these "royal
fish"thecolonistsfoundavastandcheapsupplyfortheirmetalandglasslamps;whilethetoothed
whaleshadstoredintheirbluntheadsavaluablematerialwhichwasatonceusedformakingcandles;
itistermed,inthemostancientreferenceIhavefoundtoitinNewEnglandrecords,Sperma-Coeti.
Itwasassertedthatoneofthesespermaceticandlesgaveoutmorelightthanthreetallowcandles,and
had four times as big a flame. Soon their manufacture and sale amounted to large numbers, and
materiallyimproveddomesticillumination.
Allcandles,whatevertheirmaterial,werecarefullyusedbytheeconomicalcoloniststothelastbitby
alittlewireframeofpinsandringscalledasave-all.Candle-sticksofvariousmetalsandshapeswere
found in every house; and often sconces, which were also called candle-arms, or prongs. Candlebeams were rude chandeliers, a metal or wooden hoop with candle-holders. Snuffers were always
seen, with which to trim the candles, and snuffers trays. These were sometimes exceedingly richly
ornamented,andwereoftenofsilver:extinguishersoftenaccompaniedthesnuffers.
Thoughlampsoccasionallyappearonearlyinventoriesandlistsofsales,andthoughtherewasplenty
of whale and fish oil to burn, lamps were not extensively used in America for many years. "Bettylamps," shaped much like antique Roman lamps, were the earliest form. They were small, shallow
receptacles, two or three inches in diameter and about an inch in depth; either rectangular, oval,
round,ortriangularinshape,withaprojectingnoseorspoutaninchortwolong.Theyusuallyhada
hookandchainbywhichtheycouldbehungonanailinthewall,orontheroundinthebackofa
chair; sometimes there was also a smaller hook for cleaning out the nose of the lamp. They were
filledwithtallow,grease,oroil,whileapieceofcottonragorcoarsewickwassoplacedthat,when
lighted,theendhungoutonthenose.Fromthiswick,drippingdirtygrease,roseadull,smoky,illsmellingflame.
Phœbe-lamps were similar in shape; though some had double wicks, that is, a nose at either side.
Threebetty-lampsareshownintheillustration:allcamefromoldcolonialhouses.Theironlamp,
solidwiththeaccumulatedgreaseofcenturies,wasfoundinaVirginiacabin;therectangularbrass
lamp came from a Dutch farmhouse; and the graceful oval brass lamp from a New England
homestead.
Pewterwasafavoritematerialforlamps,asitwasforallotherdomesticutensils.Itwasspeciallyin
favor for the lamps for whale oil and the "Porter's fluid," that preceded our present illuminating
medium, petroleum. A rare form is the pewter lamp here shown. It is in the collection of ancient
lamps,lanterns,candlesticks,etc.,ownedbyMrs.SamuelBowneDuryea,ofBrooklyn.Itcamefroma
Salemhome,whereitwasusedasahouse-lantern.Withitsclearbull's-eyesofunusuallypureglass,it
gavewhatwastrulyabrilliantlightforthecenturyofitsuse.Agroupofoldpewterlamps,ofthe
shapescommonlyusedinthehomesofourancestorsacenturyorsoago,isalsogiven;chosen,not
becausetheywereunusualorbeautiful,butbecausetheywereuniversalintheiruse.
ThelampsofCountRumford'sinventionweredoubtlessagreatluxury,withtheirclearsteadylight;
buttheyweretoocostlytobecommonlyseeninourgrandfathers'homes.NorwereArgandburners
everuniversal.Glasslampsofmanysimpleshapessharedpopularityforalongtimewiththepewter
lamps;andaspewtergraduallydisappearedfromhouseholduse,theseglasslampsmonopolizedthe
field. They were rarely of cut or colored glass, but were pressed glass of commonplace form and
quality.AgroupofthemisheregivenwhichwereallusedinoldNewEnglandhousesintheearly
partofthiscentury.
Formanyyearsthemethodsofstrikingalightwereveryprimitive,justastheywereinEurope;many
families possessed no adequate means, or very imperfect ones. If by ill fortune the fire in the
fireplacebecamewhollyextinguishedthroughcarelessnessatnight,someone,usuallyasmallboy,
wassenttothehouseofthenearestneighbor,bearingashovelorcoveredpan,orperhapsabroad
stripofgreenbark,onwhichtobringbackcoalsforrelightingthefire.Nearlyallfamilieshadsome
formofaflintandsteel,—amethodofobtainingfirewhichhasbeenusedfromtimeimmemorialby
both civilized and uncivilized nations. This always required a flint, a steel, and a tinder of some
vegetable matter to catch the spark struck by the concussion of flint and steel. This spark was then
blown into a flame. Among the colonists scorched linen was a favorite tinder to catch the spark of
fire; and till this century all the old cambric handkerchiefs, linen underwear, and worn sheets of a
householdwerecarefullysavedforthispurpose.Theflint,steel,andtinderwereusuallykepttogether
inacirculartinder-box,suchasisshownintheaccompanyingillustration;itwasashapeuniversalin
EnglandandAmerica.Thishadaninnerflatcoverwitharing,aflint,ahorseshoe-shapedsteel,and
anupperlidwithaplacetosetacandle-endin,tocarrythenewlyacquiredlight.ThoughIhavetried
hundredsoftimeswiththistinder-box,Ihaveneveryetsucceededinstrikingalight.Thesparksfly,
butthentheoperationceasesinmodernhands.CharlesDickenssaidifyouhadgoodluck,youcould
getalightinhalfanhour.Soontherewasanimprovementonthistinder-box,bywhichsparkswere
obtainedbyspinningasteelwheelwithapieceofcord,somewhatlikespinningahummingtop,and
makingthewheelstrikeaflintfixedinthesideofalittletroughfulloftinder.Thiswasaninfinite
advance in convenience on tinder-box No. 1. This box was called in the South a mill; one is here
shown. Then some person invented strips of wood dipped in sulphur and called "spunks." These
readilycaughtfire,andretainedit,andwerehandytocarrylighttoacandleorpileofchips.
Another way of starting a fire was by flashing a little powder in the pan of an old-fashioned gun;
sometimesthisfiredatwistoftow,whichinturnstartedaheapofshavings.
Downtothetimeofourgrandfathers,andinsomecountryhomesofourfathers,lightswerestarted
withthesecrudeelements,—flint,steel,tinder,—andtransferredbythesulphursplint;forfiftyyears
agomatcheswereneithercheapnorcommon.
Though various processes for lighting in which sulphur was used in a match shape, were brought
beforethepublicatthebeginningofthiscentury,theywerecomplicated,expensive,andrarelyseen.
Thefirstpracticalfrictionmatcheswere"Congreves,"madeinEnglandin1827.Theywerethinstrips
ofwoodorcardboardcoatedwithsulphurandtippedwithamixtureofmucilage,chlorateofpotash,
andsulphideofantimony.Eighty-fourofthemweresoldinaboxfortwenty-fivecents,withapiece
of"glass-paper"throughwhichthematchcouldbedrawn.Therehasbeenalongstepthislastfifty
years between the tinder-box used so patiently for two centuries, and the John Jex Long matchmakingmachineofourtimes,whichturnsoutseventeenmillionmatchesaday.
CHAPTERIII
THEKITCHENFIRESIDE
Thekitcheninallthefarmhousesofallthecolonieswasthemostcheerful,homelike,andpicturesque
roominthehouse;indeed,itwasintownhousesaswell.Thewallswereoftenbare,theraftersdingy;
thewindowsweresmall,thefurnituremeagre;butthekitchenhadawarm,glowingheartthatspread
lightandwelcome,andmadethepoorroomahome.Inthehousesofthefirstsettlersthechimneys
andfireplaceswerevastinsize,sometimessobigthatthefore-logsandback-logsforthefirehadto
bedraggedinbyahorseandalongchain;orahand-sledwaskeptforthepurpose.Oftentherewere
seatswithinthechimneyoneitherside.Atnightchildrencouldsitontheseseatsandtherewatchthe
sparksflyupwardandjointhestarswhichcouldplainlybeseenupthegreatchimney-throat.
But as the forests disappeared under the waste of burning for tar, for potash, and through wanton
clearing, the fireplaces shrank in size; and Benjamin Franklin, even in his day, could write of "the
fireplacesofourfathers."
Theinflammablecattedchimneyoflogsandclay,hurriedlyandreadilybuiltbythefirstsettlers,soon
gaveplaceinallhousestovastchimneysofstone,builtwithprojectinginnerledges,onwhichrested
abaraboutsixorsevenoreveneightfeetfromthefloor,calledalug-pole(lugmeaningtocarry)or
a back-bar; this was made of green wood, and thus charred slowly—but it charred surely in the
generousflamesofthegreatchimneyheart.Manyannoying,andsomefatalaccidentscamefromthe
collapsingofthesewoodenback-bars.Thedestructionofadinnersometimeswasattendedwiththe
lossofalife.Latertheback-barsweremadeofiron.Onthemwerehungironhooksorchainswith
hooks of various lengths called pothooks, trammels, hakes, pot-hangers, pot-claws, pot-clips, potbrakes,pot-crooks.Mr.ArnoldTalbot,ofProvidence,RhodeIsland,hasfoldingtrammels,ninefeet
long,whichwerefoundinanoldNarragansettchimneyheart.Gibcrokesandreconswerelocaland
lessfrequentnames,andthefolkswhointheirdialectcalledthelug-poleagallows-balkecalledthe
pothooksgallows-crooks.Onthesehookspotsandkettlescouldbehungatvaryingheightsoverthe
fire. The iron swinging-crane was a Yankee invention of a century after the first settlement, and it
provedaconvenientandgracefulsubstitutefortheback-bar.
SomeDutchhouseshadanadaptationofaSouthernmethodofhousekeepingintheuseofadetached
housecalledaslave-kitchen,wherethemealsofthenegrohouseandfarmservantswerecookedand
served. The slave-kitchen of the old Bergen homestead stood unaltered till within a few years on
ThirdAvenueinBrooklyn.Itstillexistsinadismantledcondition.Itspictureplainlyshowsthestone
ledges within the fireplace, the curved iron lug-pole, and hanging pothooks and trammels. With
ample fire of hickory logs burning on the hearthstone, and the varied array of primitive cookingvesselssteamingwithsavoryfare,acircleoflaughing,blackfacesshiningwiththeglowingfirelight
andhungryanticipation,wouldmakea"Dutchinterior"ofAmericanformandshapingaspicturesque
andartisticasanyofHolland.ThefireplaceitselfsometimeswentbytheoldEnglishname,clavellpiece,asshownbythelettersofJohnWynter,writtenfromMainein1634tohisEnglishhome."The
Chimneyislarge,withanovenateachendofhim:heissolargethatweecanplaceourCyttlewithin
theClavell-piece.WeecanbrewandbakeandboylourCyttleallatonceinhim."Oftenalargeplate
ofiron,calledthefire-backorfire-plate,wassetatthebackofthechimney,wheretheconstantand
fiercefirecrumbledbrickandsplitstone.Theseironbackswereoftencastinahandsomedesign.
In New York the chimneys and fireplaces were Dutch in shape; the description given by a woman
travellerattheendoftheseventeenthcenturyranthus:—
"Thechimney-placesareverydroll-like:theyhavenojambsnorlintellaswehave,butaflatgrate,
and there projects over it a lum in the form of the cat-and-clay lum, and commonly a muslin or
ruffledpawnaroundit."
The"ruffledpawn"wasacalicoorlinenvalancewhichwashungontheedgeofthemantel-shelf,a
prettyandcheerfulfashionseeninsomeEnglishaswellasDutchhomes.
AnotherDutchfurnishing,thealcovebedstead,muchlikeacloset,seeninmanyNewYorkkitchens,
wasreplacedinNewEnglandfarm-kitchensbythe"turn-up"bedstead.Thiswasastrongframefilled
withanetworkofropewhichwasfastenedatthebed-headbyhingestothewall.Bynightthefootof
thebedrestedontwoheavylegs;bydaytheframewithitsbedfurnishingswashookeduptothewall,
andcoveredwithhomespuncurtainsordoors.Thiswasthesleeping-placeofthemasterandmistress
ofthehouse,chosenbecausethekitchenwasthewarmestroominthehouse.Oneofthese"turn-up"
bedsteads which was used in the Sheldon homestead until this century may be seen in Deerfield
MemorialHall.
Overthefireplaceandacrossthetopoftheroomwerelongpolesonwhichhungstringsofpeppers,
driedapples,andringsofdriedpumpkin.Andthefavoriteresting-placefortheoldqueen's-armor
fowling-piecewasonhooksoverthekitchenfireplace.
Onthepothooksandtrammelshungwhatformedinsomehouseholdsthecostliesthouse-furnishing,
—the pots and kettles. The Indians wished their brass kettles buried with them as a precious
possession,andthesettlersequallyvaluedthem;oftenthesekettleswereworththreepoundsapiece.In
manyinventoriesoftheestatesofthesettlersthebrass-wareformedanimportantitem.Rev.Thomas
HookerofHartfordhadbrass-warewhich,intheequalizingofvaluesto-day,wouldbeworththreeor
fourhundreddollars.Thegreatbrassandcopperkettlesoftenheldfifteengallons.Thevastironpot
—desiredandbelovedofeverycolonist—sometimesweighedfortypounds,andlastedindailyuse
for many years. All the vegetables were boiled together in these great pots, unless some very
particular housewife had a wrought-iron potato-boiler to hold potatoes or any single vegetable in
placewithinthevastgeneralpot.
Chafing-dishes and skimmers of brass and copper were also cheerful discs to reflect the kitchen
firelight.
Verylittletinwasseen,eitherforkitchenortableutensils.GovernorWinthrophadafewtinplates,
and some Southern planters had tin pans, others "tynnen covers." Tin pails were unknown; and the
pails they did own, either of wood, brass, or other sheet metal, had no bails, but were carried by
thrustingastickthroughlittleearsoneithersideofthepail.Lattenwarewasusedinsteadoftin;itwas
a kind of brass. A very good collection of century-old tinware is shown in the illustration. By a
curious chance this tinware lay unpacked for over ninety years in the attic loft of a country
warehouse, in the packing-box, just as it was delivered from an English ship at the close of the
Revolution. The pulling down of the warehouse disclosed the box, with its dated labels. The tin
utensilsaremoregaylylacqueredthanmodernones,otherwisetheydifferlittlefromthetinwareof
to-day.
Therewasonedistinctcharacteristicinthehouse-furnishingofoldentimeswhichislackingto-day.It
wasatendencyforthemainbodyofeverythingtosetwellup,onlegswhichwerestrongenoughfor
adequatesupportoftheweight,yetwereslenderinappearance.To-daybureaus,bedsteads,cabinets,
desks, sideboards, come close to the floor; formerly chests of drawers, Chippendale sideboards,
four-postbedsteads,dressing-cases,wereset,oftenafoothigh,inatidy,cleanlyfashion;thusthey
couldallbethoroughlysweptunder.Thissamepeculiarityofformextendedtocooking-utensils.Pots
and kettles had legs, as shown in those hanging in the slave-kitchen fireplace; gridirons had legs,
skilletshadlegs;andfurtherappliancesintheshapeoftrivets,whichweremovableframes,tookthe
place of legs. The necessity for the stilting up of cooking-utensils was a very evident one; it was
necessarytoraisethebodyoftheutensilabovetheashesandcoalsoftheopenfireplace.Ifthebedof
coalsandburninglogsweretoodeepfortheskilletorpot-legs,thentheutensilmustbehungfrom
abovebytheever-readytrammel.
Ofteninthecornerofthefireplacetherestoodagroupoftrivets,orthree-leggedstands,ofvarying
heights,throughwhichtheexactlydesiredproximitytothecoalscouldbeobtained.
Eventoasting-forks,andsimilarfrailutensilsofwireorwroughtiron,stoodontall,spindlinglegs,
or were carefully shaped to be set up on trivets. They usually had, also, long, adjustable handles,
whichhelpedtomakeendurabletheblazingheatofthegreatlogs.Allsuchironsaswaffle-ironshad
farlongerhandlesthanareseenonanycooking-utensilsinthesedaysofstovesandranges,wherethe
flamesarecoveredandthehousewifeshielded.Gridironshadlonghandlesofwoodoriron,which
could be fastened to the shorter stationary handles. The two gridirons in the accompanying
illustrationareacenturyold.Thecircularonewastheoldestform.Theoblongones,withgrooveto
collect the gravy, did not vary in shape till our own day. Both have indications of fittings for long
handles,butthehandleshavevanished.Along-handledfrying-panisseenhangingbythesideofthe
slave-kitchenfireplace.
An accompaniment of the kitchen fireplace, found, not in farmhouses, but among luxury-loving
town-folk, was the plate-warmer. They are seldom named in inventories, and I know of but one of
Revolutionarydays,anditishereshown.Similaronesaremanufacturedto-day;thelegs,perhaps,are
shorter,butthegeneraloutlineisthesame.
Animportantfurnishingofeveryfireplacewastheandirons.Inkitchenfireplacesthesewereusually
ofiron,andtheshapeknownasgoose-neckwerecommon.Cobironswerethesimplestform,and
merelysupportedthespit;sometimestheyhadhookstoholdadripping-pan.Acommonnameforthe
kitchenandironswasfire-dogs;andcreeperswerelow,smallandirons,usuallyusedwiththetallfiredogs.Thekitchenandironsweresimplyforusetohelpholdthelogsandcooking-utensils.Butother
fireplaces had handsome fire-dogs of copper, brass, or cut steel, cast or wrought in handsome
devices.Thesewereaprideanddelighttothehousewife.
Aprimitivemethodofroastingajointofmeatorafowlwasbysuspendingitinfrontofthefirebya
strong hempen string tied to a peg in the ceiling, while some one—usually an unwilling child—
occasionallyturnedtheroastaround.Sometimesthesoleturnspitwasthehousewife,who,everytime
shebastedtheroast,gavethestringagoodtwist,andthereafteritwoulduntwist,andthentwistalittle
again, and so on until the vibration ceased, when she again basted and started it. As the juices
sometimes ran down in the roast and left the upper part too dry, a "double string-roaster" was
invented, by which the equilibrium of the joint could be shifted. A jack was a convenient and
magnified edition of the primitive string, being a metal suspensory machine. A still further
glorificationwastheadditionofarevolvingpowerwhichranbyclockworkandturnedtheroastwith
regularity;thiswasknownasaclock-jack.TheonehereshownhangsinthefireplaceinDeerfield
MemorialHall.Asmoke-jackwasrunsomewhatirregularlybythepressureofsmokeandthecurrent
of hot air in the chimney. These were noisy and creaking and not regarded with favor by oldfashionedcooks.
We are apt to think of the turnspit dog as a creature of European life, but we had them here in
America—little low, bow-legged, patient souls, trained to run in a revolving cylinder and keep the
roastingjointa-turnbeforethefire.MinehostClarkoftheStateHouseInninPhiladelphiainthefirst
halfoftheeighteenthcenturyadvertisedinBenjaminFranklin'sPennsylvaniaGazettethathehadfor
sale"severaldogsandwheels,muchpreferabletoanyjacksforroastinganyjointsofmeat."Ihope
neitherhenoranyoneelsehadmanyoftheselittlecanineslaves.
Afrequentaccompanimentofthekitchenfireplaceintheeighteenthcentury,andadomesticluxury
seen in well-to-do homes, was the various forms of the "roasting-kitchen," or Dutch oven. These
succeeded the jacks; they were a box-like arrangement open on one side which when in use was
turnedtothefire.Likeotherutensilsoftheday,theyoftenstooduponlegs,tobringtheopenside
beforetheblaze.Alittledooratthebackcouldbeopenedforconvenienceinbastingtheroast.These
kitchenscameinvarioussizesforroastingbirdsorjoints,andinthembreadwasoccasionallybaked.
Thebake-kettle,whichinsomecommunitieswasalsocalledaDutchoven,waspreferredforbaking
bread.Itwasastrongkettle,standing,ofcourse,onstout,stumpylegs,andwheninusewasplaced
amongthehotcoalsandcloselycoveredwithastrongmetal,convexcover,onwhichcoalswerealso
closelyheaped.Suchperfectrolls,suchbiscuit,suchshortcake,asissuedfromtheheaped-upbakekettlecanneverbeequalledbyothermethodsofcooking.
Whenthegreatstonechimneywasbuilt,therewasusuallyplacedononesideofthekitchenfireplace
abrickovenwhichhadasmokeuptakeintothechimney—and-anash-pitbelow.Thegreatdoorwas
ofiron.Thisovenwasusuallyheatedonceaweek.Agreatfireofdrywood,calledovenwood,was
kindledwithinitandkeptburningfiercelyforsomehours.Thisthoroughlyheatedallthebricks.The
coals and ashes were then swept out, the chimney draught closed, and the oven filled with brown
bread,pies,potsofbeans,etc.Sometimesthebreadwasbakedinpans,sometimesitwasbakedina
greatmasssetoncabbageleavesoroakleaves.Insometownsanautumnharvestofoakleaveswas
gatheredbychildrentousethroughoutthewinter.Theleaveswerestrungonsticks.Thisgathering
wascalledgoinga-leafing.
Bytheovensidewasalwaysalong-handledshovelknownasapeelorslice,whichsometimeshada
rack or rest to hold it; this implement was a necessity in order to place the food well within the
glowingoven.Thepeelwassprinkledwithmeal,greatheapsofdoughwereplacedthereon,andbya
dexteroustwisttheywerethrownonthecabbageoroakleaves.Abreadpeelwasauniversalgifttoa
bride; it was significant of domestic utility and plenty, and was held to be luck-bearing. On
Thanksgivingweekthegreatovenhadafirebuiltiniteverymorning,andeverynightitwaswell
filledandclosedtillmorning.
Ononesideofthekitchenoftenstoodadresser,onwhichwasplacedinorderlyrowsthecheerful
pewterandscantearthenwareofthehousehold:—
"——theroomwasbright
Withglimpsesofreflectedlight,
Fromplatesthatonthedressershone."
InDutchhouseholdsplate-racks,spoon-racks,knife-racks,—allhangingonthewall,—tooktheplace
oftheNewEnglanddresser.
In the old Phillips farmhouse at Wickford, Rhode Island, is a splendid chimney over twenty feet
square.Somuchroomdoesitoccupythatthereisnocentralstaircase,butlittlewindingstairsascend
at three corners of the house. In the vast fireplace an ox could literally have been roasted. On each
chimney-piecearehookstohangfirearms,andatonesidecuriouslittledrawersaresetforpipesand
tobacco. In some Dutch houses in New York these tobacco shelves are in the entry, over the front
door, and a narrow flight of three or four steps leads up to them. Hanging on a nail alongside the
tobaccodrawer,orshelf,wouldusuallybeseenapipe-tongs,orsmoking-tongs.Theywere slender
littletongs,usuallyofironorsteel;withthemthesmokerliftedacoalfromthefireplacetolighthis
pipe.ThetongsownedandusedbyCaptainJoshuaWingate,ofHampton,NewHampshire,wholived
from 1679 to 1769, are here shown. The handle is unlike any other I have seen, having one end
elongated,knobbed,andingeniouslybentS-shapedintoconvenientformtopressdownthetobacco
intothebowlofthepipe.Otherold-timepipe-tongswereintheformoflazy-tongs.Acompanionof
thepipe-tongsonthekitchenmantelwaswhatwasknownasacomfortier—alittlebrazierofmetalin
which small coals could be handed about for pipe-lighting. An unusual luxury was a comfortier of
silver.ThesewerefoundamongtheDutchsettlers.
ThePennsylvaniaGermanswerethefirsttousestoves.Thesewereofvariousshapes.Acuriousone,
seeninhousesandchurches,wasofsheet-metal,box-shaped;threesideswerewithinthehouse,and
thefourth,withthestovedoor,outsidethehouse.Thuswhatwasreallythebackofthestoveprojected
into the room, and when the fire was fed it was necessary for the tender to go out of doors. These
German stoves and hot-air drums, which heated the second story of the house, were ever a fresh
wondertotravellersofEnglishbirthanddescentinPennsylvania.Thereisnodoubtthattheirevident
economyandcomfortsuggestedtoBenjaminFranklinthe"NewPennsylvaniaFireplace,"whichhe
invented in 1742, in which both wood and coal could be used, and which was somewhat like the
heatingapparatuswhichwenowcallaFranklinstove,orheater.
Thus German settlers had, in respect to heating, the most comfortable homes of all the colonies.
Among the English settlers the kitchen was, too often, the only comfortable room in the house in
winter weather. Indeed, the discomforts and inconveniences of a colonial home could scarcely be
enduredto-day;ofcoursetheseculminatedinthewintertime,whenicyblastsblewfiercelydownthe
great chimneys, and rattled the loosely fitting windows. Children suffered bitterly in these cold
houses. The rooms were not warm three feet away from the blaze of the fire. Cotton Mather and
JudgeSamuelSewallbothtell,intheirdiaries,oftheinkfreezingintheirpensastheywrotewithin
thechimney-side.Onenotedthat,whenagreatfirewasbuiltonthehearth,thesapforcedoutofthe
woodbytheflamesfrozeintoiceattheendofthelogs.Thebedroomswereseldomwarmed,andhad
itnotbeenforthedeepfeatherbedsandheavybed-curtains,wouldhavebeenunendurable.InDutch
andsomeGermanhouses,withalcovebedsteads,andsleepingononefeatherbed,withanotherfor
cover,theDutchsettlerscouldbefarwarmerthananyEnglishsettlers,eveninfour-postbedsteads
curtainedwithwoollen.
Water froze immediately if left standing in bedrooms. One diary, written in Marshfield,
Massachusetts,tellsofabasinofwaterstandingonthebedroomhearth,infrontofablazingfire,in
whichthewaterfrozesolid.PresidentJohnAdamssodreadedthebleakNewEnglandwinterandthe
ill-warmedhousesthathelongedtosleeplikeadormouseeveryyear,fromautumntospring.Inthe
Southerncolonies,duringthefewercolddaysofthewintermonths,thetemperaturewasnotsolow,
butthehousesweremoreopenandlightlybuiltthanintheNorth,andwerewithoutcellars,andhad
fewerfireplaces;hencethediscomfortfromthecoldwasasgreat,ifnotthepositivesuffering.
The first chilling entrance into the ice-cold bed of a winter bedroom was sometimes mitigated by
heatingtheinnersheetswithawarming-pan.Thisusuallyhungbythesideofthekitchenfireplace,
andwhenusedwasfilledwithhotcoals,andthrustwithinthebed,andconstantlyandrapidlymoved
back and forth to keep from scorching the bed-linen. The warming-pan was a circular metal pan
aboutafootindiameter,fourorfiveinchesdeep,withalongwoodenhandleandaperforatedmetal
cover,usuallyofcopperorbrass,whichwaskepthighlypolished,andformed,asithungonthewall,
oneofthecheerfulkitchendiscstoreflectthelightoftheglowingfire.Thewarming-panhasbeen
deemed of sufficient decorative capacity to make it eagerly sought after by collectors, and a great
roomofoneofthesecollectorsishungentirelyaroundthefourwallswithafriezeofwarming-pans.
ManyofourNewEnglandpoetshavegivenusglimpsesinrhymeoftheold-timekitchen.Lowell's
well-knownlinesarevividenoughtobearnever-dyingquotation:—
"Afireplacefilledtheroomsoneside
Withhalfacordofwoodin—
Therewarn'tnostoves(tellcomfortdied)
Tobakeyetoapuddin'.
"Thewa'nutlogshotsparklesout
Towardsthepootiest—blessher!
An'littleflamesdancedallabout
Thechinyonthedresser.
"Aginthecrumblycrookneckshung,
An'inamongst'emrusted
Theoldqueen's-armthatgrantherYoung
FetchedbackfromConcordbusted."
Tomethetrueessenceoftheold-timefiresideisfoundinWhittier'sSnow-Bound.Theverychimney,
fireplace, and hearthstone of which his beautiful lines were written, the kitchen of Whittier's
boyhood'shome,atEastHaverhill,Massachusetts,isshownintheaccompanyingillustration.Itshows
aswingingcrane.Hisdescriptionofthe"layingthefire"canneverbeequalledbyanyprose:—
"Wepiledwithcareournightlystack
Ofwoodagainstthechimneyback—
Theoakenlog,green,huge,andthick,
Andonitstopthestoutback-stick;
Theknottyfore-sticklaidapart,
Andfilledbetweenwithcuriousart
Theraggedbrush;thenhoveringnear,
Wewatchedthefirstredblazeappear,
Heardthesharpcrackle,caughtthegleam
Onwhitewashedwallandsaggingbeam,
Untiltheold,rude-furnishedroom
Burst,flower-like,intorosybloom."
Nogreaterpictureofhomelycontentmentcouldbeshownthanthefollowinglines:—
"Shutinfromalltheworldwithout,
Wesattheclean-wingedhearthabout,
Contenttoletthenorthwindroar
Inbaffledrageatpaneanddoor,
Whiletheredlogsbeforeusbeat
Thefrost-linebackwithtropicheat;
Andever,whenalouderblast
Shookbeamandrafterasitpassed,
Themerrierupitsroaringdraught
Thegreatthroatofthechimneylaughed.
Thehousedogonhispawsoutspread
Laidtothefirehisdrowsyhead,
Thecat'sdarksilhouetteonthewall
Acouchanttiger'sseemedtofall;
And,forthewinterfiresidemeet,
Betweentheandirons'straddlingfeet
Themugofcidersimmeredslow,
Andapplessputteredinarow.
And,closeathand,thebasketstood
WithnutsfrombrownOctober'swoods.
Whatmatterhowthenightbehaved!
Whatmatterhowthenorthwindraved!
Blowhigh,blowlow,notallitssnow
Couldquenchourhearth-fire'sruddyglow."
Norcanthepassingofyearsdimtheruddyglowofthathearth-fire,northecharmofthepoem.The
simplicity of metre, the purity of wording, the gentle sadness of some of its expressions, make us
readbetweenthelinesthedeepandaffectionatereminiscencewithwhichitwaswritten.
CHAPTERIV
THESERVINGOFMEALS
Perhapsnogreaterdifferenceexistsbetweenanymodeoftheoldentimesandthatofto-day,thancan
beseeninthemannerofservingthemealsofthefamily.Inthefirstplace,theverydining-tableofthe
colonists was not like our present ones; it was a long and narrow board, sometimes but three feet
wide,withnolegsattachedtoit.Itwaslaidonsupportsortrestles,shapedusuallysomethinglikea
saw-horse. Thus it was literally a board, and was called a table-board, and the linen cover used at
mealswasnotcalledatablecloth,butaboard-clothorboard-clothes.
Assmoothlysawedandfinishedboardswerenotsoplentifulatfirstinthecoloniesasmightnaturally
bethoughtwhenwerememberthevastencirclingforests,allsuchboardswerecarefullytreasured,
and used many times to avoid sawing others by the tedious and wearying process of pit-sawing.
Henceportionsofpacking-boxes,orchestswhichhadcarriedstoresfromEnglandtothecolonies,
weremadeintotable-boards.Onesuchoakentable-board,stillinexistence,hasontheundersidein
quaintletteringthenameandaddressoftheBostonsettlertowhomtheoriginalpacking-boxwassent
in1638.
The old-time board-cloth was in no way inferior in quality or whiteness to our present table-linen;
for we know how proud colonial wives and daughters were of the linen of their own spinning,
weaving,andbleaching.Thelinentableclothwaseitherofholland,huckaback,dowlas,osnaburg,or
lockram—allheavyandcomparativelycoarsematerials—oroffinedamask,justasto-day;someof
thehandsomeboard-clothswereeventrimmedwithlace.
The colonists had plenty of napkins; more, as a rule, than families of corresponding means and
station own to-day. They had need of them, for when America was first settled forks were almost
unknowntoEnglishpeople—beingusedforeatinginluxuriousItalyalone,wheretravellershaving
seenandfoundthemusefulandcleanly,afterwardsintroducedthemintoEngland.Sohandshadtobe
constantlyemployedforholdingfood,insteadoftheforkswenowuse,andnapkinswerethereforeas
constantlynecessary.ThefirstforkbroughttoAmericawasforGovernorJohnWinthrop,inBoston,
in1633,anditwasinaleathercasewithaknifeandabodkin.Ifthegovernoratewithaforkatthe
table, he was doubtless the only person in the colony who did so. Thirty or forty years later a few
two-tinedironandsilverforkswerebroughtacrossthewater,andusedinNewYorkandVirginia,as
well as Massachusetts; and by the end of the century they had come into scant use at the tables of
personsofwealthandfashion.ThefirstmentionofaforkinVirginiaisinaninventorydated1677;
thiswasofasinglefork.Thesalt-cellar,orsaler,asitwasfirstcalled,wasthecentrepieceofthetable
—"Sett in the myddys of the tabull," says an old treatise on laying the table. It was often large and
high, of curious device in silver, and was then called a standing salt. Guests of honor were seated
"above the salt," that is, near the end of the table where sat the host and hostess side by side; while
childrenandpersonswhowerenotofmuchdignityoraccountasguestswereplaced"belowthesalt,"
thatis,belowthemiddleofthetable.
ThereisownedbyHarvardUniversity,andhereshowninanillustration,"agreatsilversalt"givento
the college in 1644, when the new seat of learning was but eight years old. At the table it divided
graduates,thefaculty,andsuch,fromtheundergraduates.Itwasvaluedat£51s.3d.,atfiveshillings
anounce,whichwasequaltoahundreddollarsto-day;arichgift,whichshowstometheprofound
affection of the settlers for the new college. It is inscribed with the name of the giver, Mr. Richard
Harris. It is of simple English design well known during that century, and made in various sizes.
Thereisnodoubtthatmanyofsimilarpattern,thoughnotsoheavyorsorich,wereseenonthetables
ofsubstantialcolonists.Theyarenamedinmanywills.Oftenasmallprojectingarmwasattachedto
oneside,overwhichafoldednapkincouldbethrowntobeusedasacover;forthesalt-cellarwas
usually kept covered, not only to preserve cleanliness, but in earlier days to prevent the ready
introductionofpoison.
TherearesomeveryentertainingandcuriousoldEnglishbookswhichwerewritteninthesixteenth
centurytoteachchildrenandyoungrusticscorrectandelegantmannersatthetable,andalsohelpful
ways in which to serve others. These books are called The Babees Boke, The Boke of Nurture, The
BokeofCurteseye,etc.,andwiththeexceptionofvariationsinthewayofservingadinner,andafew
obsoletecustoms,andinthenamesandshapesandmaterialsofthedifferentdishes,plates,etc.,used
atthetable,thesebooksarejustasinstructiveandsensibleto-dayasthen.Fromthemwelearnthatthe
onlykindoftablefurnishingsusedatthattimewerecupstodrinkoutof;spoonsandknivestoeat
with;chafing-dishestoservehotfood;chargersfordisplayandforservinglargequantitiesoffood;
salt-cellars,andtrenchersforuseasplates.Therewereveryfewothertableappointmentsusedonany
Englishtable,eitherhumbleorgreat,whenthePilgrimslandedatPlymouth.
Oneofthemostimportantarticlesforsettingthetablewasthetrencher.Theseweremadeofwood,
and often were only a block of wood, about ten or twelve inches square and three or four deep,
hollowed down into a sort of bowl in the middle. In this the food was placed,—porridge, meat,
vegetables,etc.Eachpersondidnothaveevenoneofthesesimpledishes;usuallytwochildren,ora
manandhiswife,ateoutofonetrencher.ThiswasacustominEnglandformanyyears;andsome
verygreatpeople,adukeandhiswife,notmorethanacenturyandahalfago,satsidebysideatthe
tableandateoutofoneplatetoshowtheirunityandaffection.ItistoldofanoldConnecticutsettler,a
deacon, that as he had a wood-turning mill, he thought he would have a trencher apiece for his
children. So he turned a sufficient number of round trenchers in his mill. For this his neighbors
deemed him deeply extravagant and putting on too many airs, both as to quantity and quality, since
squaretrenchers,oneforusebytwopersons,weregoodenoughforanyone,evenadeacon.Sogreat
awarriorandsoprominentamaninthecolonyasMilesStandishusedwoodentrenchersatthetable,
as also did all the early governors. Nor did they disdain to name them in their wills, as valued
householdpossessions.FormanyyearscollegeboysatHarvardateoutofwoodentrenchersatthe
collegemess-table.
Ihaveseenacuriousoldtabletop,ortable-board,whichpermitteddinersseatedatittodispensewith
trenchers or plates. It was of heavy oak about six inches thick, and at intervals of about eighteen
inches around its edge were scooped out deep, bowl-shaped holes about ten inches in diameter, in
which each individual's share of the dinner was placed. After each meal the top was lifted off the
trestles,thoroughlywashedanddried,andwasreadyforthenextmeal.
Poplar-wood is an even, white, and shining wood. Until the middle of this century poplar-wood
trenchers and plates were used on the table in Vermont, and were really attractive dishes. From
earliestdaystheIndiansmadeandsoldmanybowlsandtrenchersofmaple-woodknots.Oneofthese
bowls,ownedbyKingPhilip,isattheroomsoftheMassachusettsHistoricalSocietyinBoston.Old
wooden trenchers and "Indian bowls" can be seen at the Memorial Hall in Deerfield. Bottles were
madealsoofwood,anddrinking-cupsand"noggins,"whichwereasortofmugwithahandle.Wood
furnished many articles for the table to the colonist, just as it did in later days on our Western
frontiers,wheretrenchersofwoodandplatesofbirch-barkwereseenineverylog-cabin.
Thewordtankardwasoriginallyappliedtoaheavyandlargevesselofwoodbandedwithmetal,in
which to carry water. Smaller wooden drinking tankards were subsequently made and used
throughoutEurope,andwereoccasionallybroughtherebythecolonists.Theplainlyshapedwooden
tankard,madeofstavesandhoopsandhereshown,isfromthecollectionatDeerfieldMemorialHall.
ItwasfoundinthehouseofRev.EliMoody.Thesecommonplacetankardsofstaveswerenotsorare
asthebeautifulcarvedandhoopedtankardwhichisherepictured,andwhichisinthecollectionof
Mrs.SamuelBowneDuryea,ofBrooklyn.Ihaveseenafewotherquaintlycarvedones,blackwith
age,inAmericanfamiliesofHuguenotdescent;thesewereapparentlySwisscarvings.
Thechargers,orlargeroundplattersfoundoneverydining-table,wereofpewter.Someweresobig
andheavythattheyweighedfiveorsixpoundsapiece.Pewterisametalneverseenformoderntable
furnishing, or domestic use in any form to-day; but in colonial times what was called a garnish of
pewter, that is, a full set of pewter platters, plates, and dishes, was the pride of every good
housekeeper,andalsoafavoriteweddinggift.Itwaskeptasbrightandshiningassilver.Oneofthe
dutiesofchildrenwastogatherakindofhorse-tailrushwhichgrewinthemarshes,andbecauseit
wasusedtoscourpewter,wascalledscouring-rush.
Pewter bottles of various sizes were sent to the Massachusetts Bay Colony, in 1629. Governor
Endicotthadone,buttheywerecertainlyfarfromcommon.Dramcups,winemugs,andfunnelsof
pewterwerealsooccasionallyseen,butscarcelyformedpartofordinarytablefurnishings.Metheglin
cans and drinking-mugs of pewter were found on nearly every table. Pewter was used until this
centuryinthewealthiesthomes,bothintheNorthandSouth,andwaspreferredbymanywhoowned
rich china. Among the pewter-lovers was the Revolutionary patriot, John Hancock, who hated the
clatteroftheporcelainplates.
Porringersofpewter,andoccasionallyofsilver,weremuchusedatthetable,chieflyforchildrento
eatfrom.Thesewereaprettylittleshallowcirculardishwithaflat-piercedhandle.Somehada"fishtail"handle;thesearesaidtobeDutch.Theseporringerswereinmanysizes,fromtinylittleonestwo
inchesindiametertothoseeightornineinchesacross.Whennotinusemanyhousekeeperskeptthem
hanging on hooks on the edge of a shelf, where they formed a pretty and cheerful decoration. The
poetSwiftsays:—
"Theporringersthatinarow
Hunghighandmadeaglitteringshow."
Itshouldbestatedthatthewordporringer,asusedbyEnglishcollectors,usuallyreferstoadeepcup
with a cover and two handles, while what we call porringers are known to these collectors as
bleeding-basinsortasters.Hereweapplythetermtaster,orwine-taster,toasmall,shallowsilvercup
withbossesinthebottomtoreflectthelightandshowthecolorandqualityofwine.Ihaveoftenseen
the item wine-taster in colonial inventories and wills, but never bleeding-basin; while porringers
werealmostuniversalonsuchlists.Somefamilieshadadozen.IhavefoundfifteeninoneoldNew
Englandfarmhouse.Thesmallporringersaresometimescalledposnets,whichisanold-timeword
thatmayoriginallyhavereferredtoaposset-cup.
"Spoons,"saysthelearnedarchæologist,Laborde,"ifnotasoldastheworld,areasoldassoup."All
thecolonistshadspoons,andcertainlyallneededthem,foratthattimemuchoftheirfoodwasinthe
formofsoupand"spoon-meat,"suchashadtobeeatenwithspoonswhentherewerenoforks.Meat
wasusuallymadeintohashesorragouts;thickstewsandsoupswithchoppedvegetablesandmeats
werecommon,aswerehotch-pots.Thecerealfoods,whichformedsolargeapartofEnglishfarein
theNewWorld,weremorefrequentlyboiledinporridgethanbakedinloaves.Manyofthespoons
were of pewter. Worn-out pewter plates and dishes could be recast into new pewter spoons. The
moulds were of wood or iron. The spoon mould of one of the first settlers of Greenfield,
Massachusetts,namedMartindale,ishereshownwithapewterspoon.Inthismouldallhisspoonsand
thoseofhisneighborswerecast.ItisnowintheDeerfieldMemorialHall.
Astillmoreuniversalspoonmaterialwasalchymy,alsocalledoccamy,alcamy,arkamy,etc.,ametal
neverusednow,whichwasmadeofamixtureofpan-brassandarsenicum.Woodenspoons,too,were
alwaysseen.InPennsylvaniaandNewYorklaurelwascalledspoonwood,becausetheIndiansmade
pretty white spoons from that wood to sell to the colonists. Horn was an appropriate and available
materialforspoons.ManyIndiantribesexcelledastheydoto-dayinthemakingofhornspoons.The
vulgaraffirmation,"Bythegreathornspoon,"hasperpetuatedtheirfamiliaruse.
Every family of any considerable possessions or owning good household furnishings had a few
silverspoons;nearlyeverypersonownedatleastone.AtthetimeAmericawassettledthecommon
formofsilverspooninEnglandhadwhatwasknownasabalusterstemandasealhead;theassay
markwasintheinnerpartofthebowl.Butthefashionwasjustchanging,andanewandmuchaltered
form was introduced which was made in large numbers until the opening reign of George I. This
shapewastheveryonewithoutdoubtinwhichmanyofthespoonsofthefirstcolonistsweremade;
andwhereversuchspoonsarefound,iftheyaregenuineantiques,theymaysafelybeassignedadate
earlierthan1714.Thehandlewasflatandbroadattheend,whereitwascleftinthreepointswhich
wereturnedup,thatis,nottowardthebackofthespoon.Thiswasknownasthe"hind's-foothandle."
Thebowlwasaperfectlyregularellipseandwasstrengthenedbycontinuingthehandleinanarrow
tongueorrat-tail,whichrandownthebackofthebowl.Thesucceedingfashion,intheearlypartof
theeighteenthcentury,hadalongerellipticalbowl.Theendofthehandlewasroundedandturnedup
attheend,andithadahighsharpridgedownthemiddle.ThiswasknownastheoldEnglishshape,
andwasincommonuseforhalfacentury.AbouttheperiodofourRevolutionaryWarashapenearly
liketheoneinordinarypresentusebecamethemode;thebowlbecameegg-shaped,andtheendof
thehandlewasturneddowninsteadofup.Therat-tail,whichextendeddownthebackofthebowl,was
shortenedintoadrop.Apostlespoons,andmonkeyspoonsforextraordinaryusewereoccasionally
made,andafewarestillpreserved;examplesoffivetypesofspoonsareshownfromthecollection
ofEdwardHolbrook,Esq.,ofNewYork.
Families of consequence had usually a few pieces of silver besides their spoons and the silver salt.
Somekindofadrinking-cupwastheusualform.Personsofmoderatemeansoftenownedasilver
cup.Ihaveseeninearlyinventoriesandliststhenamesofalargevarietyofsilvervessels:tankards,
beer-bowls, beakers, flagons, wine cups, wine bowls, wine cans, tasters, caudle-cups, posset-cups,
dram-cups, punch-bowls, tumblers, mugs, dram bottles, two-eared cups, and flasks. Virginians and
Marylanders in the seventeenth century had much more silver than New Englanders. Some Dutch
merchants had ample amounts. It was deemed a good and safe investment for spare money. Breadbaskets,salvers,muffineers,chafing-dishes,casters,milkpitchers,sugarboxes,candlesticks,appear
ininventoriesattheendofthecentury.Atankardorflagon,evenifheavyandhandsome,wouldbe
placed on the table for every-day use; the other pieces were usually set on the cupboard's head for
ornament.
ThehandsomesilvertankardownedbySarahJansendeRapeljeishereshown.Shewasthefirstchild
ofEuropeanparentsborninNewNetherland.Thetankardwasaweddinggiftfromherhusband,and
aDutchweddingsceneisgravenonthelid.
Therewasagreatdesireforglass,ararenoveltytomanypersonsatthedateofcolonization.The
English were less familiar with its use than settlers who came from Continental Europe. The
establishmentofglassfactorieswasattemptedinearlydaysinseveralplaces,chieflytomanufacture
sheet-glass,butwithslightsuccess.Littleglasswasownedintheshapeofdrinking-vessels,noneused
generallyonthetable,Ithink,duringthefirstfewyears.Glassbottleswerecertainlyagreatrarity,
andwerebequeathedwithspecialmentioninwills,andtheyaretheonlyformofglassvesselnamed.
The earliest glass for table use was greenish in color, like coarse bottle glass, and poor in quality,
sometimesdecoratedincrudedesignsinafewcolors.Bristolglass,intheshapeofmugsandplates,
wasnextseen.Itwasopaque,amilkywhitecolor,andwascoarselydecoratedwithvitrifiablecolors
in a few lines of red, green, yellow, or black, occasionally with initials, dates, or Scriptural
references.
Though shapes were varied, and the number was generally plentiful, there was no attempt made to
give separate drinking-cups of any kind to each individual at the table. Blissfully ignorant of the
existenceorpresenceofmicrobes,germs,andbacteria,oursturdyandunsqueamishforbearsdrank
contentedlyinsuccessionfromasinglevessel,whichwaspassedfromhandtohand,andliptolip,
aroundtheboard.Evenwhentumbler-shapedglasseswereseeninmanyhouses,—flip-glasses,they
were called,—they were of communal size,—some held a gallon,—and all drank from the same
glass.Thegreatpunch-bowl,notaveryhandyvesseltohandlewhenfilledwithpunch,waspassedup
anddownasfreelyasthoughitwerealoving-cup,andalldrankfromitsbrim.Atcollegetables,and
even at tavern boards, where table neighbors might be strangers, the flowing bowl and foaming
tankardwaspassedserenelyfromonetoanother,andreplenishedtopassagain.
Leatherwasperhapsthemostcuriousmaterialused.Pitchers,bottles,anddrinking-cupsweremade
ofit.Greatjugsofheavyblackleather,waxedandbound,andtippedwithsilver,wereusedtohold
metheglin,ale,andbeer,andwereaverysubstantial,andattimesaveryhandsomevessel.Thefinest
examplesIhaveeverseenarehererepresented.Thestitchesandwaxedthreadatthebaseandonthe
handles can plainly be perceived. They are bound with a rich silver band, and have a silver shield
bearingadateofgifttoSamuelBrentonin1778;buttheyareprobablyacenturyolderthanthatdate.
They are the property by inheritance of Miss Rebecca Shaw, aged ninety-six years, of Wickford,
RhodeIsland.
Theuseofthesegreatleatherjacks,inaclumsierformthanhereshown,ledtotheamusingmistake
of a French traveller, that the English drank their ale out of their boots. These leather jugs were
commonlycalledblackjacks,andthelargeroneswerebombards.Giskinwasstillanotherandrarer
name.
Drinking-cupsweresometimesmadeofhorn.Ahandsomeonehasbeenusedsincecolonialdayson
Long Island for "quince drink," a potent mixture of hot rum, sugar, and quince marmalade, or
preserves.Ithasabaseofsilver,arimofsilver,andacoverofhorntippedwithsilver.Astirrup-cup
ofhorn,tippedwithsilver,wasusedto"speedthepartingguest."Occasionallythewholehorn,intrue
mediævalfashion,wasusedasadrinking-cup.Oftentheywerecarvedwithconsiderableskill,asthe
beautifulonesinthecollectionofMr.A.G.Richmond,ofCanajoharie,NewYork.
Gourdswereplentifulonthefarm,andgatheredwithcare,thatthehard-shelledfruitmightbeshaped
intosimpledrinking-cups.InElizabeth'stimesilvercupsweremadeintheshapeofthesegourds.The
shipsthatbrought"lemmonsandraysinsofthesun"fromthetropicstothecolonists,alsobrought
cocoanuts.Sincethethirteenthcenturytheshellsofcocoanutshavebeenmountedwithsilverfeetand
"covercles" in a goblet shape, and been much sought after by Englishmen. Mounted in pewter, and
sometimesinsilver,orsimplyshapedwithawoodenhandleattached,theshellofthecocoanutwasa
favorite among the English settlers. To this day one of the cocoanut-shell cups, or dippers, is a
favoritedrinking-cupofmany.Ahandsomecocoanutgoblet,richlymountedinsilver,isshowninthe
accompanyingillustration.ItwasoncethepropertyoftheRevolutionarypatriot,JohnHancock,and
isnowinthecustodyoftheBostonianSociety,attheOldStateHouse,inBoston,Massachusetts.
Populardrinking-mugsoftheEnglish,fromwhichspeciallytheydranktheirmead,metheglin,and
ale, were the stoneware jugs which were made in Germany and England, in the sixteenth and
seventeenthcenturies,ingreatnumbers.AnEnglishwriterin1579,spokeoftheEnglishcustomof
drinkingfrom"potsofearth,ofsundrycolorsandmoulds,whereofmanyaregarnishedwithsilver,
or leastwise with pewter." Such a piece of stoneware is the oldest authenticated drinking-jug in this
country,whichwasbroughthereandusedbyEnglishcolonists.ItwasthepropertyofGovernorJohn
Winthrop, who came to Boston in 1630, and now belongs to the American Antiquarian Society, in
Worcester,Massachusetts.Itstandseightinchesinheight,isapparentlyofGermanGresware,andis
heavilymountedinsilver.ThelidisengravedwithaquaintdesignofAdamandEveandthetempting
serpent in the apple-tree. It was a gift to John Winthrop's father from his sister, Lady Mildmay, in
1607, and was then, and is still now, labelled, "a stone Pot tipped and covered with a Silver Lydd."
Many other Boston colonists had similar "stone juggs," "fflanders juggs," "tipt juggs." What were
known as "Fulham juggs" were also much prized. The most interesting ones are the Georgius Rex
jugs, those marked with a crown, the initials G. R., or a medallion head of the first of the English
Georges.IknowoneofthesejugswhichhasaRevolutionarybulletimbeddedinitstougholdside,
andisnotevencracked.Manyofthemhadpewterorsilverlids,whicharenowmissing.Somehave
thecurioushoundhandlewhichwassopopularwithEnglishpotters.
There was no china in common use on the table, and little owned even by persons of wealth
throughout the seventeenth century, either in England or America. Delft ware was made in several
factories in Holland at the time the Dutch settled in New Netherland; but even in the towns of its
manufactureitwasnotusedfortableware.Thepieceswereusuallyoflargesize,whatwerecalled
statepieces,forcabinetanddecorativepurposes.TheDutchsettlers,however,had"purslincupps"and
earthendishesinconsiderablequantitiestowardtheendofthecentury.TheearthenwaspossiblyDelft
ware, and the "Purslin" India china, which by that time was largely imported to Holland. Some
Portuguese and Spanish pottery was imported, but was not much desired, as it was ill fired and
perishable. It was not until Revolutionary times that china was a common table furnishing; then it
begantocrowdoutpewter.ThesuddenandenormousgrowthofEastIndiacommerce,andthevast
cargoesofChinesepotteryandporcelainwaresbroughttoAmericanportssoongaveamplechinato
everyhousewife.IntheSoutherncoloniesbeautifulisolatedpiecesofporcelain,suchasvastpunchbowls,oftenwerefoundinthehomesofopulentplanters;butthere,asintheNorth,thefirstchinafor
general table use was the handleless tea-cups, usually of some Canton ware, which crept with the
fragrantherbintoeverywoman'sheart—bothwelcomeOrientalwaifs.
Itmaywellbeimaginedthatthislongnarrowtable—withahighsalt-cellarinthemiddle,withclumsy
wooden trenchers for plates, with round pewter platters heaped high with the stew of meat and
vegetables,withagreatnogginortwoofwood,acanofpewter,orasilvertankardtodrinkfrom,
withleatherjackstoholdbeerormilk,withmanywoodenorpewterandsomesilverspoons,butno
forks,noglass,nochina,nocovereddishes,nosaucers—didnotlookmuchlikeourdinnertablestoday.
Even the seats were different; there were seldom chairs or stools for each person. A long narrow
bench without a back, called a form, was placed on each side of the table. Children in many
households were not allowed to sit, even on these uncomfortable forms, while eating. Many times
they had to stand by the side of the table during the entire meal; in old-fashioned families that
uncomfortableandungraciouscustomlastedtillthiscentury.Iknowofchildrennotfiftyyearsago
standingthusatallmealsatthetableofoneoftheJudgesoftheSupremeCourt.Hehadabountiful
table, was a hospitable entertainer and well-known epicure; but children sat not at his board. Each
stood at his own place and had to behave with decorum and eat in entire silence. In some families
childrenstoodbehindtheirparentsandothergrownpersons,andfoodwashandedbacktothemfrom
thetable—sowearetold.Thisseemscloselyakintothrowingfoodtoananimal,andmusthavebeen
amongpeopleofverylowstationandsocialmanners.
In other houses they stood at a side-table; and, trencher in hand, ran over to the great table to be
helpedtomorefoodwhentheirfirstsupplywaseaten.
The chief thought on the behavior of children at the table, which must be inferred from all the
accountswehaveofthosetimesisthattheyweretoeatinsilence,asfastaspossible(regardlessof
indigestion),andleavethetableasspeedilyasmightbe.InalittlebookcalledAPrettyLittlePocket
Book,printedinAmericaaboutthetimeoftheRevolution,Ifoundalistofrulesforthebehaviorof
childrenatthetableatthatdate.Theywereorderednevertoseatthemselvesatthetableuntilafterthe
blessinghadbeenasked,andtheirparentstoldthemtobeseated.Theywerenevertoaskforanything
onthetable;nevertospeakunlessspokento;alwaystobreakthebread,nottobiteintoawholeslice;
nevertotakesaltexceptwithacleanknife;nottothrowbonesunderthetable.Oneruleread:"Hold
not thy knife upright, but sloping; lay it down at right hand of the plate, with end of blade on the
plate."Another,"Looknotearnestlyatanyotherpersonthatiseating."Whenchildrenhadeatenall
thathadbeengiventhem,iftheywere"moderatelysatisfied,"theyweretoldtoleaveatoncethetable
androom.
Whenthetable-boarddescribedhereinwassetwithsnowylinenclothandnapkins,andamplefare,it
had some compensations for what modern luxuries it lacked, some qualifications for inducing
contentmentsuperioreventoourbeautifultable-settings.Therewasnothingperishableinitsentire
furnishing: no frail and costly china or glass, whose injury and destruction by clumsy or heedless
servants would make the heart of the housekeeper ache, and her anger nourish the germs of
ptomaineswithinher.Therewaslittleofintrinsicvaluetowatchandguardandworryabout.There
waslittletomakeextraanddifficultwork,—noglasstowashwithanxiouscare,noelaboratesilverto
clean,—only a few pieces of pewter to polish occasionally. It was all so easy and so simple when
compared with the complex and varied paraphernalia and accompaniments of serving of meals today,thatitwaslikeArcadiansimplicity.
In Virginia the table furnishings were similar to those in New England; but there were greater
contrastsintableappointments.Therewasmoresilver,andricherfood;butthenegroservantswere
so squalid, clumsy, and uncouth that the incongruity made the meals very surprising and, at times,
repellent.
Whendinnersofsomestateweregiveninthelargertowns,thetablewasnotsetorservedlikethe
formal dinner of to-day, for all the sweets, pastry, vegetables, and meats were placed on the table
together,withagrand"conceit"fortheornamentinthecentre.Atoneperiod,whenpuddingwaspart
ofthedinner,itwasservedfirst.Thusanold-timesayingisexplained,whichalwaysseemedrather
meaningless, "I came early—in pudding-time." There was considerable formality in portioning out
thefood,especiallyincarving,whichwasregardedasmuchmorethanapoliteaccomplishment,even
asanart.Ihaveseenalistofsixtyorseventydifferenttermsincarvingtobeappliedwithexactness
todifferentfish,fowl,andmeats.Anoldauthorsays:—
"HowallmustregrettohearsomePersons,evenofqualitysay,'praycutupthatChickenorHen,'or
'HalvethatPlover';notconsideringhowindiscreetlytheytalk,whentheproperTermsare,'breakthat
Goose,''thrustthatChicken,''spoilthatHen,''piercethatPlover.'Iftheyaresomuchoutincommon
Things,howmuchmorewouldtheybewithHerons,Cranes,andPeacocks."
Itmusthaverequiredgoodjudgmentandconstantwatchfulnessnevertosay"spoilthatHen,"whenit
wasachicken;orelsebethoughthopelesslyill-bred.
There were few state dinners, however, served in the American colonies, even in the large cities;
therewerefewdinners,even,ofmanycourses;notalwaysweretheremanydishes.Therewerestill
seeninmanyhomesmoreprimitiveformsofservingandeatingmeals,thanwereindicatedbythe
lackofindividualdrinking-cups,themutualuseofatrencher,oreventheutilizationofthetabletop
as a plate. In some homes an abundant dish, such as a vast bowl of suppawn and milk, a pumpkin
stewedwholeinitsshell,orasavoryandmammothhotchpotwasset,oftensmokinghot,onthetableboard; and from this well-filled receptacle each hungry soul, armed with a long-handled pewter or
wooden spoon, helped himself, sometimes ladling his great spoonfuls into a trencher or bowl, for
moremoderateandreservedafter-consumption,—justasfrequentlyeatingdirectlyfromthebountiful
dishwithaspoonthatcameandwentfromdishtomouthwithoutreproach,orthoughtofill-manners.
Theaccountsoftravellersinallthecoloniesfrequentlytellofsuchrepasts;sometermediteatingin
the fashion of the Dutch. The reports of old settlers often recall the general dish; and some very
distinguished persons joined in the circle around it, and were glad to get it. Variety was of little
account,comparedtoquantityandquality.Acheerfulhospitalityandgratefulheartsfilledthehollow
placeofformalityandelegance.
Bythetimethatnewspapersbegantohaveadvertisementsinthem—about1750—wefindmanymore
articles for use at the table; but often the names were different from those used to-day. Our sugar
bowlswerecalledsugarboxesandsugarpots;milkpitchersweremilkjugs,milkewers,andmilk
pots.Vegetabledisheswerecalledbasins,puddingdishestwifflers,smallcupswerecalledsneakcups.
Wehavestillto-dayacustommuchlikeoneofoldentimes,whenwehavethecrumbsremovedfrom
ourtablesafteracourseatdinner.Thenavoiderwaspassedaroundthetablenearthecloseof the
dinner, and into it the persons at the table placed their trenchers, napkins, and the crumbs from the
table.Thevoiderwasadeepwicker,wooden,ormetalbasket.IntheBokeofNurture,writtenin1577,
aretheselines:—
"Whenmeateistakenquyteawaye
AndVoydersinpresence,
Putyouyourtrenchourinthesame
andallyourresydence.
Takeyouwithyournapkin&knyfe
thecromsthatareforethe,
IntheVoyderyourNapkinleave
foritisacurtesye."
CHAPTERV
FOODFROMFORESTANDSEA
Though all the early explorers and travellers came to America eager to find precious and useful
metals,theydidnotdiscoverwealthandprosperityundergroundinmines,butonthetopoftheearth,
inthewoodsandfields.Totheforeststheyturnedforfood,andtheydidnotturninvain.Deerwere
plentifuleverywhere,andvenisonwasofferedbytheIndianstothefirstwholandedfromtheships.
Somefamilieslivedwhollyonvenisonforninemonthsoftheyear.InVirginiawerevastnumbersof
redandfallowdeer,thelatterlikethoseofEngland,exceptinthesmallernumberofbranchesofthe
antlers.Theyweresodevoidoffearastoremainundisturbedbytheapproachofmen;awriterofthat
day says: "Hard by the Fort two hundred in one herd have been usually observed." They were
destroyed ruthlessly by a system of fire-hunting, in which tracts of forests were burned over, by
startingacontinuouscircleoffiremilesaround,whichburntintowardthecentreofthecircle;thus
thedeerweredrivenintothemiddle,andhundredswerekilled.Thismiserable,wholesaleslaughter
wasnotforvenison,butforthesakeofthehides,whichwereveryvaluable.Theywereusedtomake
thedurableandsuitablebuckskinbreechesandjacketssomuchwornbythesettlers;andtheywere
alsoexportedtoEuropeinlargenumbers.Ataxwasplacedonhidesforthesupportofthebeloved
WilliamandMaryCollege.
In Georgia, in 1735, the Indians sold a deer for sixpence. Deer were just as abundant in the more
Northern colonies. At Albany a stag was sold readily by the Indians for a jack-knife or a few iron
nails.Thedeerinwintercameandfedfromthehog-pensofAlbanyswine.Evenin1695,aquarterof
venisoncouldbeboughtinNewYorkCityforninepence.AtthefirstMassachusettsThanksgiving,in
1621,theIndiansbroughtinfivedeertothecolonistsfortheirfeast.Thatyeartherewasalso"great
store of wild turkies." These beautiful birds of gold and purple bronze were at first plentiful
everywhere, and were of great weight, far larger than our domestic turkeys to-day. They came in
flocksofahundred,EvelynsaysofthreehundredontheChesapeake,andtheyweighedthirtyorforty
pounds each: Josselyn says he saw one weighing sixty pounds. William Penn wrote that turkeys
weighingthirtypoundsapiecesoldinhisdayandcolonyforashillingonly.Theywereshycreatures
and fled inland from the white man, and by 1690 were rarely shot near the coast of New England,
though in Georgia, in 1733, they were plentiful enough and cheap enough to sell for fourpence
apiece.Flightsofpigeonsdarkenedthesky,andbrokedownthelimbsoftreesonwhichtheylighted.
FromMainetoVirginiathesevastflockswereseen.Someyearspigeonsweresoplentifulthatthey
weresoldforapennyadozeninBoston.Pheasant,partridge,woodcock,andquailabounded,plover,
snipe,andcurlewwereinthemarsh-woods;infact,inVirginiaeverybirdfamiliartoEnglishmenat
homewasfoundsavepeacockanddomesticfowl.
Wildhareandsquirrelsweresomanythattheybecamepests,andsomuchgrainwaseatenbythem
thatbountieswerepaidinmanytownsfortheheadsofsquirrels.Countytreasurieswereexhaustedby
thesepremiums.TheSwedishtraveller,Kalm,saidthatinPennsylvaniainoneyear,1749,£8000was
paidoutforheadsofblackandgraysquirrels,atthreepenceahead,whichwouldshowthatoversix
hundredthousandwerekilled.
From the woods came a sweet food-store, one specially grateful when sugar was so scarce and so
high-priced,—wildhoney,whichthecolonistseagerlygatheredeverywherefromhollowtree-trunks.
Curiouslyenough,thetraveller,Kalm,insistedthatbeeswerenotnativeinAmerica,butwerebrought
overbytheEnglish;thattheIndianshadnonameforthemandcalledthemEnglishflies.
GovernorBerkeleyofVirginia,writingin1706,calledthemaplethesugar-tree;hesaid:—
"The Sugar-Tree yields a kind of Sap or Juice which by boiling is made into Sugar. This Juice is
drawnout,bywoundingtheTrunkoftheTree,andplacingaReceiverundertheWound.Itissaidthat
theIndiansmakeonePoundofSugaroutofeightPoundsoftheLiquor.Itisbrightandmoistwitha
fulllargeGrain,theSweetnessofitbeinglikethatofgoodMuscovada."
Thesugar-makingseasonwaseverhailedwithdelightbytheboysofthehouseholdincolonialdays,
whofoundinthisworkinthewoodsawonderfuloutletfortheloveofwildlifewhichwasstrongin
them. It had in truth a touch of going a-gypsying, if any work as hard as sugaring-off could have
anythingcommonwithgypsylife.Themaple-treesweretappedassoonasthesapbegantoruninthe
trunkandshowedattheendofthetwigs;thiswasinlatewinterifmild,orintheearliest spring. A
notchwascutinthetrunkofthetreeataconvenientheightfromtheground,usuallyfourorfivefeet,
andtherunningsapwasguidedbysettinginthenotchasemicircularbasswoodspoutcutandsetwith
aspecialtoolcalledatapping-gauge.Inearlierdaysthetreeswere"boxed,"thatis,agreatgashcut
acrossthesideandscoopedoutanddowntogatherthesap.Thisoftenprovedfataltothetrees,and
wasabandoned.Atrough,usuallymadeofabutternutlogaboutthreefeetlong,wasdugout,Indian
fashion,andplacedundertheendofthespout.Thesetroughsweremadedeepenoughtoholdabout
tenquarts.Inlateryearsaholewasboredinthetreewithanaugur;andsap-bucketswereusedinstead
oftroughs.
Sometimesthesetroughswereleftindistantsugar-campsfromyeartoyear,turnedbottomsideup,
throughthesummerandwinter.Itwasmorethriftyandtidy,however,tocarrythemhomeandstore
them. When this was done, the men and boys began work by drawing the troughs and spouts and
provisionstothewoodsonhand-sleds.Sometimesamightymantookinaloadonhisback.Itistold
ofJohnAlexanderofBrattleboro,Vermont,thatheoncewentintocampuponsnowshoescarryingfor
three miles one five-pail iron kettle, two sap-buckets, an axe and trappings, a knapsack, four days'
provisions,andagunandammunition.
Themasterofceremonies—theownerofthecamp—selectedthetreesanddrovethespouts,whilethe
boysplacedthetroughs.Thenthesnowhadtobeshovelledawayonalevelspotabouteighteenor
twentyfeetsquare,inwhichstrongforkedsticksweresettwelvefeetapart.Orthegroundwaschosen
sothattwosmalllow-spreadingandstrongtreescouldbetrimmedandusedasforks.Aheavygreen
stick was placed across from fork to fork, and the sugaring-off kettles, sometimes five in number,
hungonit.Thendrywoodhadtobegatheredforthefires;hardworkitwastokeepthemconstantly
supplied.Itwasoftencutayearinadvance.Asthesapcollectedinthetroughsitwasgatheredinpails
orbucketswhich,hungonasap-yokeacrosstheneck,werebroughttothekettlesandthesapsetaboilingdown.Whentherewasa"goodrunofsap,"itwasusuallynecessarytostayinthecampover
night.Manytimesthecampersstayedseveralnights.Asthe"goodrun"meantmilderweather,anight
ortwowasnotabitterexperience;indeed,Ihaveneverheardanyonespeaknorseenanyaccountof
anightspentinasugar-campexceptwithkeenexpressionsofdelight.Ifpossible,thetimewaschosen
duringatermofmoonlight;thesnowstillcoveredthefieldsanditspureshiningwhitelightcouldbe
seenthroughthetrees.
"Godmakessechnights,sowhiteandstill
Fer'syoucanlookandlisten.
Moonlightan'snow,onfieldandhill,
Allsilenceandallglisten."
Thegreatsilence,brokenonlybysteadydroppingofthesap,thecrackleofblazingbrush,andthe
occasionalhootingofstartledowls;thestarsseensinglyoverheadthroughtheopeningsofthetrees,
shiningdownthedarktunnelasbrightasthoughtherewerenomoon;aboveall,theclearnessand
sweetness of the first atmosphere of spring,—gave an exaltation of the senses and spirit which the
countryboyfeltwithoutunderstanding,andindeedwithoutanyformulatedconsciousness.
If the camp were near enough to any group of farmhouses to have visitors, the last afternoon and
eveningincampwasmadeacountryfrolic.Greatsled-loadsofgirlscameouttotastethenewsugar,
todropitintothesnowtocandy,andtohaveaneveningoffun.
Longerethefullrichesoftheforestsweretestedthecoloniststurnedtoanotherfood-supply,—the
treasuresofthesea.
TheearlyvoyagersandcolonistscametothecoastsoftheNewWorldtofindgoldandfurs.Thegold
was not found by them nor their children's children in the land which is now the United States, till
overtwocenturieshadpassedfromthetimeofthesettlement,andthegold-minesofCaliforniawere
opened.Thefurswereatfirstfoundandprofitablygathered,butthetimidfur-bearinganimalswere
soonexterminatednearthesettlements.Therewas,however,avastwealthreadyforthecolonistson
thecoastoftheNewWorldwhichwasgreaterthangold,greaterthanfurs;awealthever-obtainable,
ever-replenished,ever-useful,ever-salable;itwasfish.Thesea,therivers,thelakes,teemedwithfish.
Notonlywastherefoodforthesettlers,butforthewholeworld,andallEuropedesiredfishtoeat.
Theshipsoftheearlydiscoverer,Gosnold,in1602,were"pesteredwithcod."CaptainJohnSmith,
theacuteexplorer,famousinhistoryasbefriendedbyPocahontas,wenttoNewEngland,in1614,to
seekforwhale,andinsteadhefishedforcod.Hesecuredsixtythousandinonemonth;andhewrote
tohiscountrymen,"Letnotthemeannessofthewordfishdistasteyou,foritwillaffordasgoodgold
astheminesofGuianaorPotosi,withlesshazardandcharge,andmorecertaintyandfacility."This
promiseofwealthhasprovedtrueathousandfold.SmithwrotehometoEnglandfullaccountsofthe
fisheries,oftheproperequipmentofafishing-vessel,ofthemethodsoffishing,theprofits,allina
mostenticingandfamiliarstyle.HesaidinhisDescriptionofNewEngland:—
"What pleasure can be more than to recreate themselves before their owne doores in their owne
boates,upontheSea,whereman,woman,andchilde,withasmallhookeandlinebyangling,may
takediversesortsofexcellentfish,attheirpleasure?Andisitnotprettysporttopulluptwopence,
sixpence,ortwelvepence,asfastasyoucanhaleandvearealine?Ifamanworkebutthreedaysin
seavenheemaygetmorethanheecanspendunlessheewillbeexcessive.
"Young boyes and girles, salvages, or any other, be they never such idlers may turne, carry, and
returnefishwithoutshameoreithergreatpain:heeisveryidlethatispasttwelveyearsofageand
cannotdoesomuch:andsheeisveryoldthatcannotspinathreadtocatchthem."
HisaccountsandsimilaronesweresomuchreadinEnglandthatwhenthePuritansaskedKingJames
of England for permission to come to America, and the king asked what profit would be found by
their emigration, he was at once answered, "Fishing." Whereupon he said in turn, "In truth 'tis an
honesttrade;'twastheapostles'owncalling."Yetinspiteoftheirintenttofish,thefirstEnglishships
camebutpoorlyprovidedforfishing,andthesettlershadlittlesuccessatfirsteveningettingfishfor
theirownfood.ElderBrewsterofPlymouth,whohadbeenacourtierinQueenElizabeth'stime,and
hadseenandeatenmanyrichfeasts,hadnothingtoeatatonetimebutclams.Yethecouldgivethanks
toGodthathewas"permittedtosuckoftheabundanceoftheseasandthetreasureshidinthesand."
The Indian Squanto showed the Pilgrims many practical methods of fishing, among them one of
treading out eels from the brook with his feet and catching them with his hands. And every ship
broughtineithercod-hooksandlines,mackerel-hooksandlines,herring-nets,seines,shark-hooks,
bass-nets, squid-lines, eel-pots, coils of rope and cable, "drails, barbels, pens, gaffs," or musselhooks.
Josselyn,inhisNewEngland'sRarities,writtenin1672,enumeratedovertwohundredkindsoffish
thatwerecaughtinNewEnglandwaters.
Lobsters certainly were plentiful enough to prevent starvation. The minister Higginson, writing of
lobstersatSalem,saidthatmanyofthemweighedtwenty-fivepoundsapiece,andthat"theleastboyin
the plantation may catch and eat what he will of them." In 1623, when the ship Anne arrived from
England,bringingmanyofthewivesandchildrenofthePilgrimswhohadcomeinthefirstships,the
onlyfeastofwelcomethatthepoorhusbandshadtoofferthenewcomerswas"alobsterorapieceof
fishwithoutbreadoranythingelsebutacupofspringwater."
Patriarchal lobsters five and six feet long were caught in New York Bay. The traveller, Van der
Donck, says "those a foot long are better for serving at table." Truly a lobster six feet long would
seemalittleawkwardtoserveonadinnertable.Eddis,inhisLettersfromAmerica,writtenin1792,
says these vast lobsters were caught in New York waters until Revolutionary days, when "since the
incessantcannonading,theyhaveentirelyforsakenthecoast;notonehavingbeentakenorseensince
thecommencementofhostilities."Besidethesegreatshell-fishthegiantlobsterconfinedinourNew
YorkAquariumin1897seemsbutadwarf.InVirginiawaterslobsterswerecaught,andvastcrabs,
often a foot in length and six inches broad, with a long tail and many legs. One of these crabs
furnishedasufficientmealforfourmen.
FromthegossipingpagesoftheLabadistmissionarieswhocametoAmericain1697wefindhintsof
goodfareinoystersinBrooklyn.
"Thenwasthrownuponthefire,toberoasted,apailfullofGowanesoysterswhicharethebestinthe
country.TheyarefullyasgoodasthoseofEngland,betterthanthoseweeatatFalmouth.Ihadtotry
someofthemraw.Theyarelargeandfull,someofthemnotlessthanafootlong.Othersareyoung
andsmall.Inconsequenceofthegreatquantitiesofthemeverybodykeepstheshellsfortheburning
oflime.TheypickletheoystersinsmallcasksandsendthemtoBarbados."
VanderDonckcorroboratesthefoot-longoystersseenbytheLabadisttravellers.Hesaysthe"large
oystersroastedorstewedmakeagoodbite,"—averygoodbite,itwouldseemtous.
Strachey,inhisHistorieofTravaileintoVirginia,sayshesawoystersinVirginiathatwerethirteen
incheslong.FortunatelyforthestarvingVirginians,oysterbanksroseabovethesurfaceatebb-tideat
the mouth of the Elizabeth River, and in 1609 a large number of these famished Virginia colonists
foundintheseoysterbanksameansofpreservationoflife.
As might be expected of any country so intersected with arms of the sea and fresh-water streams,
Virginiaatthetimeofsettlementteemedwithfish.TheIndianskilledtheminthebrooksbystriking
themwithsticks,anditissaidthecolonistsscoopedthemupinfrying-pans.Horsesriddenintothe
rivers stepped on the fish and killed them. In one cast of a seine the governor, Sir Thomas Dale,
caughtfivethousandsturgeonaslargeascod.Somesturgeonweretwelvefeetlong.Theworksof
Captain John Smith, Rolfe's Relation, and other books of early travellers, all tell of the enormous
amountoffishinVirginia.
TheNewYorkriverswerealsofulloffish,andthebays;theirplentyinNewNetherlandinspiredthe
first poet of that colony to rhyming enumeration of the various kinds of fish found there; among
themweresturgeon—belovedoftheIndiansanddespisedofChristians;andterrapin—notdespised
byanyone."Somepersons,"wrotetheDutchtraveller,VanderDonck,in1656,"preparedelicious
dishesfromthewaterterrapin,whichislusciousfood."TheMiddleandSouthernstatespaidequally
warmbutmoretardytributetotheterrapin'sreputationaslusciousfood.
Whileotherfishwereusedeverywhereforfood,codwasthegreatstapleofthefishingindustry.By
theyear1633DorchesterandMarbleheadhadstartedinthefisheriesfortradingpurposes.Sturgeon
alsowascaughtatalittlelaterdate,andbassandalewives.
Morton,inhisNewEnglandCanaan,writtenin1636,says,"Imyselfattheturningofthetydehave
seensuchmultitudesofseabassthatitseemedtomethatonemightgoeovertheirbacksdri-shod."
Theregulationoffish-weirssoonbecameanimportantmatterinalltownswherestreamsletalewives
upfromthesea.TheNewEnglandministerstookahandinpromotingandencouragingthefisheries,
astheydidallpositivesocialmovementsandcommercialbenefits.Rev.HughPeterinSalemgavethe
fisheriesaspeciallygoodturn.Fishermenwereexcusedfrommilitarytraining,andportionsofthe
commonstockofcornwereassignedtothem.TheGeneralCourtofMassachusettsexempted"vessels
andstock"from"countrycharges"(whichweretaxes)forsevenyears.Seashoretownsassignedfree
landstoeachboattobeusedforstaysandflakesfordrying.Asearlyas1640threehundredthousand
driedcodfishweresenttomarketfromNewEngland.
Codfish consisted of three sorts, "marchantable, middling, and refuse." The first grade was sold
chieflytoRomanCatholicEurope,tosupplytheconstantdemandsofthefast-daysofthatreligion,
and also those of the Church of England; the second was consumed at home or in the merchant
vesselsofNewEngland;thethirdwenttothenegroesoftheWestIndies,andwasoftencalledJamaica
fish.Thedun-fishordumb-fish,asthewordwassometimeswritten,werethebest;socalledfromthe
dun-color. Fish was always eaten in New England for a Saturday dinner; and Mr. Palfrey, the
historian,saysthatuntilthiscenturynoNewEnglanddinneronSaturday,evenaformaldinnerparty,
wascompletewithoutdun-fishbeingserved.
Of course the first fishing-vessels had to be built and sent from England. Some carried fifty men.
Theyarrivedonthecoastinearlyspring,andbymidsummersailedhome.Thecrewhadforwages
one-thirdshareofthefishandoil;anotherthirdpaidforthemen'sfood,thesalt,nets,hooks,lines,
etc.;theotherthirdwenttotheship'sownersforprofit.
ThissystemwasnotcarriedoutinNewEngland.There,eachfishermanworkedon"hisownhook"—
anditwasliterallyhisownhook;foratallywaskeptofthefishcaughtbyeachman,andtheproceeds
ofthetripweredividedinproportiontothenumberoffisheachcaught.Whentherewasabigrunof
fish,themenneverstoppedtoeatorsleep,butwhenfoodwasheldtothemgnaweditoffwhiletheir
hands were employed with the fish-lines. With every fishing-vessel that left Gloucester and
Marblehead,thechiefcentresofthefishingindustries,wentaboyoftenortwelvetolearntobe a
skilledfisherman.Hewascalleda"cut-tail,"forhecutawedge-shapedbitfromthetailofeveryfish
hecaught,andwhenthefishweresortedoutthecut-tailsshowedtheboy'sshareoftheprofit.
Forcenturies,fishwasplentifulandcheapinNewEngland.ThetravellerBennetwroteofBoston,in
1740:—
"Fishisexceedinglycheap.Theysellafinecod,willweighadozenpoundsormore,justtakenoutof
the sea for about twopence sterling. They have smelts, too, which they sell as cheap as sprats in
London.Salmon,too,theyhaveingreatplenty,andthesetheysellforaboutashillingapiecewhich
willweighfourteenorfifteenpounds."
Twokindsofdeliciousfish,beloved,perhaps,aboveallothersto-day,—salmonandshad,—seemto
havebeenlightlyregardedincolonialdays.Thepriceofsalmon—lessthanapennyapound—shows
thelowestimationinwhichitwasheldintheearlyyearsoftheeighteenthcentury.Itistoldthatfarmlaborers in the vicinity of the Connecticut River when engaged to work stipulated that they should
havesalmonfordinnerbutonceaweek.
Shad were profoundly despised; it was even held to be somewhat disreputable to eat them; and the
story is told of a family in Hadley, Massachusetts, who were about to dine on shad, that, hearing a
knockatthedoor,theywouldnotopenittilltheplatterholdingtheobnoxiousshadhadbeenhidden.
Atfirsttheywerefedchieflytohogs.Twoshadforapennywastheignoblepricein1733,anditwas
nevermuchhigheruntilaftertheRevolution.Aftershadandsalmonacquiredabetterreputationas
food,thefallsofvariousriversbecamegreatresortsforAmericanfishermenastheyhadbeenfor
theIndians.Bothkindsoffishwerecaughtinscoop-netsandseinesbelowthefalls.Mencamefroma
distance and loaded horses and carts with the fish to carry home. Every farmhouse near was filled
withvisitors.ItwasestimatedthatatthefallsatSouthHadleytherewerefifteenhundredhorsesinone
day.
SaltedfishwasascarefullypreparedandamiablyregardedforhomeuseinNewEnglandandNew
YorkasinEnglandandHollandatthesamedate.ThelingandherringoftheoldcountriesofEurope
gaveplaceinAmericatocod,shad,andmackerel.Thegreatestpainswastakeninpreparing,drying,
andsaltingtheplentifulfish.ItissaidthatinNewYorktowns,suchasNewYorkandBrooklyn,after
shadbecameapopularfish,greatheapswereleftwhenpurchasedateachdoor,andthatthenecessary
cleaning and preparation of the shad was done on the street. As all housewives purchased shad and
saltedandpackedataboutthesametime,thosepublicscavengers,thedomestichogswhoroamedthe
townstreetsunchecked(andeverwelcomed),musthavebeenspeciallyusefulatshad-time.
Not in the waters, but of it, were the magnificent tribes of marine fowl that, undiminished by the
feeble weapons and few numbers of the Indians, had peopled for centuries the waters of the New
World.TheChesapeakeanditstributariesfurnishedeachautumnvastfeeding-groundsofwildcelery
andotheraquaticplantstomillionsofthosecreatures.ThefirearmsofCaptainJohnSmithandhis
two companions were poor things compared with the fowling-pieces of to-day, but with their three
shotstheykilledahundredandforty-eightducksatonefiring.Thesplendidwildswanwheeledand
trumpetedintheclearautumnair;thewildgeeseflewthereintheirbeautifulV-shapedflight;duckin
all the varieties known to modern sportsmen—canvas-back, mallard, widgeon, redhead, oxeye,
dottrel—restedontheChesapeakewatersinvastflocksamilewideandsevenmileslong.Governor
Berkeleynamedalsobrant,shelldrake,teal,andblewings.Thesoundoftheirwingswassaidtobe
"likeagreatstormcomingoverthewater."Forcenturiestheseduckshavebeenkilledbythewhite
man,andstilltheyreturneachautumntotheiroldfeeding-places.
CHAPTERVI
INDIANCORN
A great field of tall Indian corn waving its stately and luxuriant green blades, its graceful spindles,
andglossysilkunderthehotAugustsun,shouldbenotonlyabeautifulsighttoeveryAmerican,buta
suggestiveone;onetosetusthinkingofallthatIndiancornmeanstousinourhistory.Itwasanative
ofAmericansoilatthesettlementofthiscountry,andunderfullandthoroughlyintelligentcultivation
by the Indians, who were also native sons of the New World. Its abundance, adaptability, and
nourishingqualitiesnotonlysavedthecolonists'lives,butalteredmanyoftheirmethodsofliving,
especiallytheirmannerofcookingandtheirtastesinfood.
One of the first things that every settler in a new land has to learn is that he must find food in that
land;thathecannottrustlongtoanysuppliesoffoodwhichhehasbroughtwithhim,ortoanyfresh
supplieswhichhehasorderedtobesentafterhim.Hemustturnatoncetohunting,fishing,planting,
tofurnishhimwithfoodgrownandfoundintheveryplacewhereheis.
ThiswasquicklylearnedbythecolonistsinAmerica,exceptinVirginia,wheretheyhadsadstarvingtimesbeforeallwereconvincedthatcornwasabettercropforsettlersthansilkoranyofthemany
hoped-forproductionswhichmightbevaluableinonesensebutwhichcouldnotbeeaten.Powhatan,
thefatheroftheIndianprincessPocahontas,wasoneofthefirstto"sendsomeofhisPeoplethatthey
mayteachtheEnglishhowtosowtheGrainofhisCountry."CaptainJohnSmith,everquicktolearn
ofeveryoneandeverpractical,gottwoIndians,intheyear1608,toshowhimhowtobreakupand
plant forty acres of corn, which yielded him a good crop. A succeeding governor of Virginia, Sir
Thomas Dale, equally practical, intelligent, and determined, assigned small farms to each colonist,
andencouragedandenforcedthegrowingofcorn.Soonmanythousandbushelswereraised.There
wasaterribleIndianmassacrein1622,forthecarelesscolonists,inordertobefreetogivetheirtime
to the raising of that new and exceedingly alluring and high-priced crop, tobacco, had given the
Indiansfirearmstogohuntinggameforthem;andthelessonofeasykillingwithpowderandshot,
when once learned, was turned with havoc upon the white men. The following year comparatively
littlecornwasplanted,astheluxuriantfoliagemadeaperfectambushforthecloseapproachofthe
savages to the settlements. There was, of course, scarcity and famine as the result; and a bushel of
corn-meal became worth twenty to thirty shillings, which sum had a value equal to twenty to thirty
dollars to-day. The planters were each compelled by the magistrates the following year to raise an
ampleamountofcorntosupplyallthefamilies;andtosaveacertainamountforseedaswell.There
hasbeennolackofcornsincethattimeinVirginia.
TheFrenchcolonistsinLouisiana,perhapsbecausetheywereaccustomedtomoredaintyfoodthan
theEnglish,fiercelyhatedcorn,ashavetheIrishinourownday.AbandofFrenchwomensettlers
fairly raised a "petticoat rebellion" in revolt against its daily use. A despatch of the governor of
Louisianasaysoftheserebels:—
"Themeninthecolonybeginthroughhabittousecornasanarticleoffood;butthewomen,whoare
mostly Parisians, have for this food a dogged aversion, which has not been subdued. They inveigh
bitterlyagainstHisGrace,theBishopofQuebec,who,theysay,hasenticedthemawayfromhome
underpretextofsendingthemtoenjoythemilkandhoneyofthelandofpromise."
Thishatredofcornwassharedbyotherraces.Anoldwritersays:—
"PeterMartyrcouldmagnifietheSpaniards,ofwhomhereportstheyledamiserablelifeforthree
daystogether,withparchedgrainofmaizeonlie"—
which, when compared with the diet of New England settlers for weeks at a time, seems such a
bagatelle as to be scarce worth the mention of Peter Martyr. By tradition, still commemorated at
Forefathers'Dinners,therationofIndiancornsuppliedtoeachpersoninthecolonyintimeoffamine
wasbutfivekernels.
ThestoresbroughtoverbythePilgrimswerepoorandinadequateenough;thebeefandporkwere
tainted,thefishrotten,thebutterandcheesecorrupted.Europeanwheatandseedsdidnotmaturewell.
Soon, as Bradford says in his now famous Log-Book, in his picturesque and forcible English, "the
grimandgrizzledfaceofstarvationstared"atthem.Thereadiestsupplytoreplenishthescantylarder
wasfish,buttheEnglishmadesurprisinglybunglingworkoverfishing,andsoonthemostunfailing
andvaluablesupplywasthenativeIndiancorn,or"Guinnywheat,"or"Turkiewheat,"asitwascalled
bythecolonists.
FamineandpestilencehadlefteasternMassachusettscomparativelybareofinhabitantsatthetimeof
the settlement of Plymouth; and the vacant cornfields of the dead Indian cultivators were taken and
plantedbytheweakandemaciatedPlymouthmen,whonevercouldhaveclearednewfields.Fromthe
teemingsea,intheAprilrunoffish,wasfoundtheneededfertilizer.SaysGovernorBradford:—
"In April of the first year they began to plant their corne, in which service Squanto stood them in
greatstead,showingthembothyemannerhowtosetit,andafter,howtodressandtendit."
Fromthisplantingsprangnotonlythemostusefulfood,butthefirstandmostpregnantindustryof
thecolonists.
Thefirstfieldsandcropswerecommunal,andtheresultwasdisastrous.Thethirdyear,atthesightof
theparalyzedsettlement,GovernorBradfordwiselydecided,asdidGovernorDaleofVirginia,that
"they should set corne every man for his owne particuler, furnishing a portion for public officers,
fishermen, etc., who could not work, and in that regard trust to themselves." Thus personal energy
succeeded to communal inertia; Bradford wrote that women and children cheerfully worked in the
fieldstoraisecornwhichshouldbetheirveryown.
AfieldofcornonthecoastofMassachusettsorNarragansettorbytheriversofVirginia,growing
long before any white man had ever been seen on these shores, was precisely like the same field
plantedthreehundredyearslaterbyourAmericanfarmers.Therewasthesameplantinginhills,the
samenumberofstalksinthehill,withpumpkin-vinesrunningamongthehills,andbeansclimbing
thestalks.ThehillsoftheIndianswereatriflenearertogetherthanthoseofourowndayareusually
set,forthenativesoilwasmorefertile.
TheIndianstaughtthecolonistsmuchmorethantheplantingandraisingofcorn;theyshowedalso
how to grind the corn and cook it in many palatable ways. The various foods which we use to-day
madefromIndiancornareallcookedjustastheIndianscookedthematthetimeofthesettlementof
the country; and they are still called with Indian names, such as hominy, pone, suppawn, samp,
succotash.
The Indian method of preparing maize or corn was to steep or parboil it in hot water for twelve
hours,thentopoundthegraininamortarorahollowedstoneinthefield,tillitwasacoarsemeal.It
wasthensiftedinarathercloselywovenbasket,andthelargegrainswhichdidnotpassthroughthe
sievewereagainpoundedandsifted.
Samp was often pounded in olden times in a primitive and picturesque Indian mortar made of a
hollowed block of wood or a stump of a tree, which had been cut off about three feet from the
ground.Thepestlewasaheavyblockofwoodshapedliketheinsideofthemortar,andfittedwitha
handleattachedtooneside.Thisblockwasfastenedtothetopofayoungandslendertree,agrowing
sapling, which was bent over and thus gave a sort of spring which pulled the pestle up after being
poundeddownonthecorn.Thiswascalledasweepandmortarmill.
Theycouldbeheardatalongdistance.TwoNewHampshirepioneersmadeclearingsaboutaquarter
ofamileapartandbuilthouses.Therewasanimpenetrablegullyandthickwoodsbetweenthecabins;
andtheblazedpathwasalongdistancearound,sothewivesofthesettlersseldomsaweachotheror
anyotherwoman.Itwasasourceofgreatcomfortandcompanionshiptothemboththattheycould
signaltoeachothereverydaybypoundingontheirmortars.Andtheyhadaningenioussystemof
communication which one spring morning summoned one to the home of the other, where she
arrivedintimetobethefirsttowelcomefinetwinbabies.
After these simple stump and sapling mortars were abandoned elsewhere they were used on Long
Island,anditwasjestinglytoldthatsailorsinafogcouldalwaysknowonwhatshoretheywere,when
theycouldhearthepoundingofthesamp-mortarsonLongIsland.
Rudehand-millsnextwereused,whichwerecalledquernes,orquarnes.Somearestillinexistence
and known as samp-mills. Windmills followed, of which the Indians were much afraid, dreading
"their long arms and great teeth biting the corn in pieces"; and thinking some evil spirit turned the
arms.Assoonasmaizewasplentiful,Englishmillsforgrindingmealwerestartedinmanytowns.
There was a windmill at Watertown, Massachusetts, in 1631. In 1633 the first water-mill, at
Dorchester,wasbuilt,andinIpswichagrist-millwasbuiltin1635.ThemillbuiltbyGovernorJohn
WinthropinNewLondonisstillstanding.
ThefirstwindmillerectedinAmericawasonebuiltandsetupbyGovernorYeardleyinVirginiain
1621. By 1649 there were five water-mills, four windmills, and a great number of horse and hand
millsinVirginia.Millershadone-sixthofthemealtheygroundfortoll.
Suppawnwasanotherfavoriteofthesettlers,andwasanIndiandishmadefromIndiancorn;itwasa
thickcorn-mealandmilkporridge.ItwassoonseenoneveryDutchtable,fortheDutchwerevery
fond of all foods made from all kinds of grain; and it is spoken of by all travellers in early New
York,andintheSoutherncolonies.
Samp and samp porridge were soon abundant dishes. Samp is Indian corn pounded to a coarsely
groundpowder.RogerWilliamswroteofit:—
"Nawsampisakindofmealpottageunparched.FromthistheEnglishcalltheirsamp,whichisthe
Indian corn beaten and boiled and eaten hot or cold with milk and butter, and is a diet exceedingly
wholesomeforEnglishbodies."
TheSwedishscientist,ProfessorKalm,toldthattheIndiansgavehim"freshmaize-bread,bakedinan
oblongshape,mixedwithdriedhuckleberries,whichlayascloseinitasraisinsinaplumpudding."
RogerWilliamssaidthatsukquttahhashwas"cornseethedlikebeans."Ourword"succotash"wenow
applytocorncookedwithbeans.Ponesweretheredmen'sappones.
TheloveoftheIndiansfor"roastingears"wasquicklysharedbythewhiteman.InVirginiaaseries
ofplantingsofcornweremadefromthefirstofApriltothelastofJune,toaffordathreemonths'
successionofroastingears.
Thetraveller,Strachey,writingoftheIndiansin1618,said:"Theylaptheircorninrowleswithinthe
leavesofthecomeandsoboyleytforadayntie."Thismethodofcookingwehavealsoretainedto
thepresentday.
ItseemedtomeverycurioustoreadinGovernorWinthrop'sjournal,writteninBostonabout1630,
thatwhencornwas"parched,"ashecalledit,itturnedinsideoutandwas"whiteandflourywithin";
andtothinkthatthenlittleEnglishchildrenwereatthattimelearningwhatpop-cornwas,andhowit
lookedwhenitwasparched,orpopped.
Hasty pudding had been made in England of wheat-flour or oatmeal and milk, and the name was
given to boiled puddings of corn-meal and water. It was not a very suitable name, for corn-meal
shouldneverbecookedhastily,butrequireslongboilingorbaking.ThehardIndianpuddingslightly
sweetenedandboiledinabagwaseverywheremade.ItwastoldthatmanyNewEnglandfamilieshad
threehundredandsixty-fivesuchpuddingsinayear.
Thevirtuesof"jonny-cake"havebeenloudlysungintheinterestingpagesofShepherdTom.Theway
thecornshouldbecarriedtothemill,themannerinwhichitshouldbeground,thewayinwhichthe
stonesshouldrevolve,andthekindofstones,receiveminutedescription,asdoesthemixingandthe
baking, to the latter of which the middle board of red oak from the head of a flour-barrel is
indispensableasabakeboard,whilethefiretobakewithmustbeofwalnutlogs.Hastypudding,corn
dumplings,andcorn-mealporridge,soeminentlygoodthatitwasevermentionedwithrespectinthe
plural,as"themporridge,"allaredescribedwiththeexuberantjoyousnessofahappy,healthfulold
ageinremembranceofahappy,high-spirited,andhealthfulyouth.
Theharvestingofthecornaffordedoneofthefewscenesofgayetyinthelivesofthecolonists.A
diaryofoneAmes,ofDedham,Massachusetts,intheyear1767,thusdescribesacorn-husking,and
mostungallantlysaysnaughtoftheredearandattendantosculation:—
"MadeahuskingEntertainm't.PossiblythisleafemaylastaCenturyandfallintothehandsofsome
inquisitivePersonforwhoseEntertainm'tIwillinformhimthatnowthereisaCustomamongstusof
makinganEntertainm'tathuskingofIndianCornwheretoalltheneighboringSwainsareinvitedand
aftertheCornisfinishedtheyliketheHottentotsgivethreeCheersorhuzza'sbutcannotcarryinthe
huskswithoutaRhumbottle;theyfeigngreatExertionbutdonothingtillRhumenlivensthem,when
allisdoneinatrice,thenafteraheartyMealabout10atNighttheygototheirpastimes."
Therewasonewayofeatingcornwhichwasspokenofbyalltheearlywritersandtravellerswhich
weshouldnotbeverywellsatisfiedwithnow,butitshowsushowusefulandnecessarycornwasat
thattime,andhowmuchalldependedonit.Thispreparationofcornwascallednocakeornookick.
AnoldwriternamedWoodthusdefinedit:—
"It is Indian corn parched in the hot ashes, the ashes being sifted from it; it is afterwards beaten to
powderandputintoalongleathernebagtrussedattheIndian'sbackelikeaknapsacke,outofwhich
theytakethreespoonsfuladay."
Itwasheldtobethemostnourishingfoodknown,andinthesmallestandmostcondensedform.Both
Indiansandwhitemenusuallycarrieditinapouchwhentheywentonlongjourneys,andmixedit
withsnowinthewinterandwaterinsummer.Gookinsaysitwassweet,toothsome,andhearty.With
onlythisnourishmenttheIndianscouldcarryloads"fitterforelephantsthanmen."RogerWilliams
saysaspoonfulofthismealandwatermadehimmanyagoodmeal.Whenwereadthiswearenot
surprisedthatthePilgrimscouldkeepaliveonwhatissaidwasatonetimeoffaminetheirfoodfora
day,—five kernels of corn apiece. The apostle Eliot, in his Indian Bible, always used the word
nookickfortheEnglishwordsflourormeal.
We ought to think of the value of food in those days; and we may be sure the governor and his
councilthoughtcornofvaluewhentheytookitfortaxesandmadeitalegalcurrencyjustlikegold
andsilver,andforbadeanyonetofeedittopigs.Ifyouhappentoseethepriceofcornduringthose
yearsdowntoRevolutionarytimes,youwill,perhaps,besurprisedtoseehowmuchthepricevaried.
Fromtenshillingsabushelin1631,totwoshillingsin1672,totwentyin1747,totwoin1751,and
onehundredshillingsattheopeningoftheRevolution.Inthesepricesofcorn,asinthepriceofall
otherarticlesatthistime,thedifferencewasinthemoney,whichhadaconstantlychangingvalue,not
in the article itself or its usefulness. The corn had a steady value, it always furnished just so much
food; and really was a standard itself rather than measured and valued by the poor and shifting
money.
Therearemanyotherinterestingfactsconnectedwiththeearlycultureofcorn:ofthefindinghidden
incavesor"caches"inthegroundtheIndian'scornwhichhehadstoredforseed;ofthesacred"corndances"oftheIndians;thatthefirstpatentgrantedinEnglandtoanAmericanwastoaPhiladelphia
womanforamilltogrindakindofhominy;ofthegreatprofittothecolonistsincorn-raising,for
thecarelessandgreedyIndiansalwaysateupalltheircornassoonaspossible,thenhadtogooutand
trapbeaversinthewoodstoselltheskinstothecolonistsforcorntokeepthemfromstarving.One
colonist planted about eight bushels of seed-corn. He raised from this eight hundred and sixty-four
bushelsofcorn,whichhesoldtotheIndiansforbeaverskinswhichgavehimaprofitof£327.
Many games were played with the aid of kernels of corn: fox and geese, checkers, "hull gull, how
many,"andgamesinwhichthecornservedascounters.
The ears of corn were often piled into the attic until the floor was a foot deep with them. I once
enteredanellbedroominaMassachusettsfarmhousewherethewalls,rafters,andfour-postbedstead
werehungsolidwithearsofyellowcorn,whichtruly"madeasunshineinashadyplace."
Someofthepreparationofcornfellupontheboys;itwastheirregularworkallwinterintheevening
firelighttoshellcornfromtheearsbyscrapingthemontheironedgeofthewoodenshoveloronthe
fire-peel. My father told me that even in his childhood in the first quarter of this century many
familiesofmoderatemeansfastenedthelong-handledfrying-panacrossatubanddrewthecornears
acrossthesharpedgeofthehandleofthepan.InoteinPeterParley'sreminiscencesofhischildhood
a similar use of a frying-pan handle in his home. Other farmers set the edge of a knife blade in a
pieceofwoodandscrapedonthebackoftheblade.Insomehouseholdsthecornwaspounded into
hominyinwoodenmortars.Anoldcorn-shellerusedinwesternMassachusettsishereshown.
Whenthecornwasshelled,thecobswerenotcarelesslydiscardedordisregarded.Theywerestored
ofteninalean-toorloftinthekitchenell;fromthencetheywerebroughtdowninskepesorboxes
about a bushel at a time; and after being used by the children as playthings to build "cob-houses,"
wereemployedaslightwoodforthefire.Theyhadaspecialuseinmanyhouseholdsforsmoking
hams;andtheirsmokewasdeemedtoimpartaspeciallydelightfulflavortohamsandbacon.
Onespecialuseofcornshouldbenoted.ByorderofthegovernmentofMassachusettsBayin1623,it
wasusedasballotsinpublicvoting.Atannualelectionsofthegovernors'assistantsineachtown,a
kernelofcornwasdepositedtosignifyafavorablevoteuponthenominee,whileabeansignifieda
negativevote;"andifanyfree-manshallputinmorethanoneIndiancornorbeanheshallforfeitfor
everysuchoffenceTenPounds."
Thechoiceofanationalflowerorplantismuchtalkedaboutto-day.Asidefromthebeautyofmaize
when growing and its wonderful adaptability in every part for decoration, would not the noble and
usefulpartplayedbyIndiancorninourearlyhistoryentitleittobeourfirstchoice?
CHAPTERVII
MEATANDDRINK
The food brought in ships from Europe to the colonists was naturally limited by the imperfect
methodsoftransportationwhichthenexisted.Nothinglikerefrigeratorswereknown;notinnedfoods
were even thought of; ways of packing were very crude and careless; so the kinds of provisions
which would stand the long voyage on a slow sailing-vessel were very few. The settlers turned at
once, as all settlers in a new land should, to the food-supplies found in the new home; of these the
threemostimportantoneswerecorn,fish,andgame.Ihavetoldoftheirplenty,theirvalue,andtheir
use.Thereweremanyotherbountifulandgoodfoods,amongthempumpkinsorpompions,asthey
wereatfirstcalled.
ThepumpkinhassturdilykeptitsownplaceontheNewEnglandfarm,varyinginpopularityanduse,
but always of value as easy of growth, easy of cooking, and easy to keep in a dried form. Yet the
colonistsdidnotwelcomethepumpkinwitheagerness,evenintimesofgreatwant.Theywerejustly
rebukedfortheirindifferenceanddislikebyJohnsoninhisWonder-workingProvidence,whocalled
thepumpkin"afruitwhichtheLordfedhispeoplewithtillcornandcattleincreased";andanother
pumpkin-loverreferredto"thetimeswhereinoldPompionwasasaint."Onecolonialpoetgivesthe
goldenvegetablethistribute:—
"Wehavepumpkinsatmorningandpumpkinsatnoon,
Ifitwerenotforpumpkinsweshouldbeundone."
IamverysurewereIlivingondriedcornandscantshell-fish,asthePilgrimswereforcedtodo,I
should have turned with delight to "pompion-sause" as a change of diet. Stewed pumpkins and
pumpkin bread were coarse ways of using the fruit for food. Pumpkin bread—made of half Indian
meal—was not very pleasing in appearance. A traveller in 1704 called it an "awkward food." It is
eateninConnecticuttothisday.TheIndiansdriedpumpkinsandstrungthemforwinteruse,andthe
colonistsfollowedtheIndiancustom.
InVirginiapumpkinswereequallyplentifulanduseful.RalphHamor,inhisTrueDiscourse,saysthey
grewinsuchabundancethatahundredwereoftenobservedtospringfromoneseed.TheVirginia
Indiansboiledbeans,peas,corn,andpumpkinstogether,andthecolonistslikedthedish.Inthetrying
timesat"James-Citty,"theplentifulpumpkinsplayedagreatpartinprovidingfood-suppliesforthe
starvingVirginians.
Squasheswerealsonativevegetables.ThenameisIndian.Toshowthewonderfulandvariedwayin
whichtheEnglishspeltIndiannamesletmetellyouthatRogerWilliamscalledthemaskutasquashes;
the Puritan minister Higginson, squantersquashes; the traveller Josselyn, squontorsquashes, and the
historianWood,isquoukersquashes.
Potatoes were known to New Englanders, but were rare and when referred to were probably sweet
potatoes.Itwasalongtimebeforetheyweremuchliked.AfarmeratHadley,Massachusetts,hadwhat
hethoughtaverylargecropin1763—itwaseightbushels.Itwasbelievedbymanypersonsthatifa
manatethemeveryday,hecouldnotlivesevenyears.Inthespringallthatwereleftonhandwere
carefully burned, for many believed that if cattle or horses ate these potatoes they would die. They
werefirstcalled,whencarriedtoEngland,Virginiapotatoes;thentheybecamemuchlikedandgrown
inIreland;thentheIrishsettlersinNewHampshirebroughtthembacktothiscontinent,andnowthey
arecalled,verysenselessly,Irishpotatoes.Manypersonsfanciedtheballswerewhatshouldbeeaten,
andsaidthey"didnotmuchdesirethem."Afashionablewayofcookingthemwaswithbutter,sugar,
andgrape-juice;thiswasmixedwithdates,lemons,andmace;seasonedwithcinnamon,nutmeg,and
pepper;thencoveredwithafrostingofsugar—andyouhadtohuntwelltofindthepotatoamongall
theseotherthings.
IntheCarolinasthechangeinEnglishdietwaseffectedbythesweetpotato.Thisrootwascookedin
variousways:itwasroastedintheashes,boiled,madeintopuddings,usedasasubstituteforbread,
madeintopancakeswhichaforeignersaidtastedasthoughcomposedofsweetalmonds;andinevery
wayitwaslikedandwassoplentifulthateventheslavesfeduponit.
Beanswereabundant,andwerebakedbytheIndiansinearthenpotsjustaswebakethemto-day.The
settlers planted peas, parsnips, turnips, and carrots, which grew and thrived. Huckleberries,
blackberries,strawberries,andgrapesgrewwild.Apple-treeswereplantedatonce,andgrewwellin
NewEnglandandtheMiddlestates.TwentyyearsaftertheRomanCatholicsettlementofMarylandthe
fruitfulorchardswereconspicuouslyflourishing.
Johnson,writingin1634,saidthatalltheninNewEnglandcouldhaveapple,pear,andquince tarts
insteadofpumpkin-pies.Theymadeapple-slump,apple-mose,apple-crowdy,apple-tarts,messapplepies,andpuffapple-pies.TheSwedishparson,Dr.Acrelius,writinghomein1758anaccountofthe
settlementofDelaware,said:—
"Apple-pieisusedthroughthewholeyear,andwhenfreshapplesarenolongertobehad,driedones
areused.Itistheeveningmealofchildren.House-pie,incountryplaces,ismadeofapplesneither
peelednorfreedfromtheircores,anditscrustisnotbrokenifawagonwheelgoesoverit."
The making of a portion of the autumn's crop of apples into dried apples, apple-sauce, and applebutterforwinterwasprecededinmanycountryhomesbyanapple-paring.Thecheerfulkitchenofa
farmhouse was set with an array of empty pans, tubs, and baskets; of sharp knives and heaped-up
barrels of apples. A circle of laughing faces completed the scene, and the barrels of apples were
quickly emptied by the many skilful hands. The apples intended for drying were strung on linen
thread and hung on the kitchen and attic rafters. The following day the stout crane in the open
fireplace was hung with brass kettles which were filled with the pared apples, sweet and sour in
properproportions,thesouratthebottomsincetheyrequiredmoretimetocook.Ifquincescouldbe
had, they were added to give flavor, and molasses, or boiled-down pungent "apple-molasses," was
added for sweetening. As there was danger that the sauce would burn over the roaring logs, many
housewives placed clean straw at the bottom of the kettle to keep the apples from the fiercest heat.
Dayswerespentinpreparingthewinter'sstockofapple-sauce,butwhendoneandplacedinbarrelsin
thecellar,itwasalwaysreadyforuse,andwhenslightlyfrozenwasakeenrelish.Apple-butterwas
madeoftheparedapplesboileddownwithcider.
Wheatdidnotatfirstripenwell,sowhitebreadwasforatimerarelyeaten.Ryegrewbetter,sobread
madeof"rye-an'-injun,"whichwashalfrye-meal,halfcorn-meal,wasusedinstead.Bake-shopswere
so many in number in all the towns that it is evident that housewives in towns and villages did not
makebreadineveryhomeasto-day,butboughtitatthebaker's.
At the time when America was settled, no European peoples drank water as we do to-day, for a
constant beverage. The English drank ale, the Dutch beer, the French and Spanish light wines, for
every-dayuse.Henceitseemedtothecolonistsagreattrialandevenaverydangerousexperimentto
drink water in the New World. They were forced to do it, however, in many cases; and to their
surprisefoundthatitagreedwiththemverywell,andthattheirhealthimproved.GovernorWinthrop
of Massachusetts, who was a most sensible and thoughtful man, soon had water used as a constant
drinkbyallinhishousehold.
As cows increased in number and were cared for, milk of course was added to the every-day fare.
Rev.Mr.Higginsonwrotein1630thatmilkcostinSalembutapennyaquart;whileanotherminister,
John Cotton, said that milk and ministers were the only things cheap in New England. At that time
milkcostbutapennyandaquarteraquartinoldEngland.
Milk became a very important part of the food of families in the eighteenth century. In 1728 a
discussiontookplaceintheBostonnewspapersastotheexpenseofkeepingafamily"ofmiddling
figure." These writers all named only bread and milk for breakfast and supper. Ten years later a
minister, calculating the expenses of his family, set down bread and milk for both breakfast and
supper.Milkandhastypudding,milkandstewedpumpkin,milkandbakedapples,milkandberries,
werevariations.Inwinter,whenmilkwasscarce,sweetenedciderdilutedwithwaterwasusedinstead.
Sometimesbreadwassoakedwiththismixture.Itissaidthatchildrenwereusuallyveryfondofit.
AscomparativelyfewNewEnglandfamiliesintheseventeenthcenturyownedchurns,Icannotthink
that many made butter; of course families of wealth ate it, but it was not common as to-day. In the
inventories of the property of the early settlers of Maine there is but one churn named. Butter was
worthfromthreepencetosixpenceapound.Ascattleincreasedthedutiesofthedairygrew,andsoon
were never-ceasing and ever-tiring. The care of cream and making of butter was in the eighteenth
centurythedutyofeverygoodwifeanddameinthecountry,andusuallyinthetown.
Thoughtheshapeandeaseofactionofchurnsvaried,stillbutter-makingitselfvariedlittlefromthe
sameworkto-day.Severalold-timechurnsareshown,therevolvingonebeingthemostunusual.
Cheese was plentiful and good in all the Northern colonies. It was also an unending care from the
timethemilkwassetoverthefiretowarmandthentocurdle;throughthebreakingofthecurdsin
thecheese-basket;throughshapingintocheesesandpressinginthecheese-press,placingthemonthe
cheese-ladders, and constantly turning and rubbing them. An old cheese-press, cheese-ladder, and
cheese-basketfromDeerfieldMemorialHallareshownintheillustration.
In all households, even in those of great wealth and many servants, assistance was given in all
housewifery by the daughters of the household. In the South it was chiefly by superintendence and
teachingthroughactualexpositionthenegroslaves;intheNorthitwasbythecarefulperformanceof
thework.
The manuscript cooking receipt-book of many an ancient dame shows the great care they took in
familycooking.Englishmethodsofcookingatthetimeofthesettlementofthiscountrywerevery
complicatedandverylaborious.
Itwasadayofhashes,ragouts,soups,hotch-pots,etc.Therewerenogreatjointsserveduntilthetime
of Charles the First. In almost every sixteenth-century receipt for cooking meat, appear some such
directionsasthese:"Y-mynceit,smytethemongobbets,hewthemongobbets,chopongobbets,hew
small,dycethem,skernthemtodyce,kerfittodyce,grindalltodust,smyteonpeces,parcel-hem;
hewsmallonmorselyen,hackthemsmall,cutthemonculpons."Greatamountsofspiceswereused,
even perfumes; and as there was no preservation of meat by ice, perhaps the spices and perfumes
werenecessary.
Ofcoursethecolonistswereforcedtoadoptsimplerwaysofcooking,butastownsandcommerce
increasedthereweremanykitchendutieswhichmademuchtediouswork.Manypickles,spicedfruits,
preserves,candiedfruitsandflowers,andmarmaladesweremade.
Preservingwasaverydifferentartfromcanningfruitto-day.Therewerenohermeticallysealedjars,
nochemicalmethods,noquickworkaboutit.Vastjarswerefilledwithpreservessorichthatthere
wasnoneedofkeepingtheairfromthem;theycouldbeopened,thatis,thepapercovertakenoff,
andusedasdesired;therewasnofearoffermentation,souring,ormoulding.
The housewives pickled samphire, fennel, purple cabbage, nasturtium-buds, green walnuts, lemons,
radish-pods,barberries,elder-buds,parsley,mushrooms,asparagus,andmanykindsoffishandfruit.
They candied fruits and nuts, made many marmalades and quiddonies, and a vast number of fruit
wines and cordials. Even their cakes, pies, and puddings were most complicated, and humble
householdswerelavishinthevariouskindstheymanufacturedandate.
Theycollaredandpottedmanykindsoffishandgame,andtheysaltedandsoused.Saltedmeatwas
eaten,andverylittlefreshmeat;fortherewerenomeansofkeepingmeatafteritwaskilled.Every
well-to-dofamilyhada"powdering-tub,"inwhichmeatwas"powdered,"thatis,saltedandpickled.
Manyfamilieshadasmoke-house,inwhichbeef,ham,andbaconweresmoked.
Perhaps the busiest month of the year was November,—called "killing time." When the chosen day
arrived,oxen,cows,andswinewhichhadbeenfattenedforthewinter'sstockwereslaughteredearly
in the morning, that the meat might be hard and cold before being put in the pickle. Sausages,
rolliches,andhead-cheeseweremade,lardtriedout,andtallowsaved.
Acuriousandquaintdomesticimplementorutensilfoundhangingonthewallsofsomekitchenswas
whatwasknownasasausage-gun.Onehereisshownwiththepistondetached,andalsoreadyforuse.
The sausage-meat was forced out through the nozzle into the sausage-cases. A simpler form of
sausage-stufferhasalsobeenseen,muchlikeatube-and-pistongarden-syringe;thoughImustadda
suspicionwhichhasalwayslingeredinmymindthatthelatterutensilwasreallyasyringe-gun,such
asoncewasusedtodisablehumming-birdsbysquirtingwateruponthem.
Sausage-meatwasthuspreparedinNewYorkfarmhouses.Themeatwascutcoarselyintohalf-inch
pieces and thrown into wooden boxes about three feet long and ten inches deep. Then its first
choppingwasbymenusingspadeswhichhadbeengroundtoasharpedge.
There were many families that found all their supply of sweetening in maple sugar and honey; but
housewivesofdignityandelegancedesiredtohavesomesupplyofsugar,certainlytooffervisitors
fortheirdishoftea.Thissugarwasalwaysloaf-sugar,andtrulyloaf-sugar;foritwaspurchasedever
ingreatloavesorconeswhichaveragedinweightaboutninetotenpoundsapiece.Oneconewould
last thrifty folk for a year. This pure clear sugar-cone always came wrapped in a deep blue-purple
paper, of such unusual and beautiful tint and so color-laden that in country homes it was carefully
savedandsoaked,tosupplyadyeforasmallamountofthefinestwool,whichwasusedwhenspun
and dyed for some specially choice purpose. The cutting of this cone of sugar into lumps of equal
sizeandregularshapewasdistinctlytheworkofthemistressanddaughtersofthehouse.Itwastoo
exactandtoodaintyapieceofworktobeintrustedtoclumsyorwastefulservants.Varioussimply
shapedsugar-shearsorsugar-cutterswereused.Anordinaryformisshownintheillustration.Iwell
recall the only family in which I ever saw this solemn function of sugar-cutting take place—it was
aboutthirtyyearsago.AnoldBostonEastIndiamerchant,oneofthelasttoclingtoaresidencein
whatisknownnowasthe"BurntDistrict,"alwaysdesired(andhisdesirewaslaw)tousetheseloaves
ofsugarinhishousehold.Idon'tknowwherehegotthemsolongaftereveryoneelsehadapparently
ceasedbuyingthem—hemayhavespeciallyimportedthem;atanyratehehadthem,andtotheendof
herlifeitwasthemorningdutyofhiswife"tocutthesugar."Icanseemyoldcousinstillinwhatshe
termed her breakfast room, dressed very handsomely, standing before a bare mahogany table on
whichamaidplacedtheconsiderablearrayofasilversalverwithoutlegs,whichwassetonafolded
cloth and held the sugar-loaf and the sugar-cutter; and another salver with legs that bore various
bowls and one beautiful silver sugar-box which was kept filled high for her husband's toddy. It
seemed an interminably tedious work to me and a senseless one, as I chafingly waited for the
delightfulmorningdriveindelightfulBoston.ItwasinthishouseholdthatIencounteredthesweetest
thingofmywholelife;Ihavewrittenelsewhereitspraisesinfull;abarrel,asmallone,tobesure,
butstillawholeteak-woodbarrelfulloflongstringsofglisteningrock-candy.Ihadmyfillofitat
will, though it was not kept as a sweetmeat, but was a kitchen store having a special use in the
manufactureofrichbrandysaucesforplumpuddings,andofakindofmarchepaneornamentation
fordesserts.
All the spices used in the household were also ground at home, in spice-mortars and spice-mills.
These were of various sizes, including the pepper-mills, which were set on the table at meal-times,
andthetinyornamentalgraterswhichwerecarriedinthepocket.
The entire food of a household was the possible production of a farm. In a paper published in the
AmericanMuseumin1787anoldfarmersays:—
"Atthistimemyfarmgavemeandmywholefamilyagoodlivingontheproduceofit,andleftme
oneyearwithanotheronehundredandfiftysilverdollars,forIneverspentmorethantendollarsa
year which was for salt, nails, and the like. Nothing to eat, drink or wear was bought, as my farm
providedall."
Thefarmfoodwasnotvaried,itistrue,asto-day;forarticlesofluxurycamebyimportation.The
productsoftropicalcountries,suchassugar,molasses,tea,coffee,spices,foundpoorsubstitutesin
home food-products. Dried pumpkin was a poor sweetening instead of molasses; maple sugar and
honey were not esteemed as was sugar; tea was ill-replaced by raspberry leaves, loosestrife,
hardhack,goldenrod,dittany,blackberryleaves,yeopon,sage,andascoreofotherherbs;coffeewas
betterthanparchedryeandchestnuts;spicescouldnotbecompensatedfororremotelyimitatedby
anysubstitutes.
So though there was ample quantity of food, the quality, save in the town, was not such as English
housewiveshadbeenaccustomedto;thereweremanydeprivationsintheirkitchenswhichtriedthem
sorely.Thebettercookstheywere,themoretryingwerethelimitations.Everywomanwithalovefor
herfellow-womanmustfeelathrillofkeensympathyforthegoodwifeofNewport,NewHampshire,
who had to make her Thanksgiving mince-pies with a filling of bear's meat and dried pumpkins,
sweetenedwithmaplesugar,andhercrustofcorn-meal.Herhusbandloyallyrecordedthattheywere
thebestmince-piesheeverate.
Asyearspassedonandgreatwealthcametoindividuals,thetablesoftheopulent,especiallyinthe
Middlecolonies,rivalledtheluxuryofEnglishandFrenchhousesofwealth.Itissurprisingtoreadin
Dr.Cutler'sdiarythatwhenhedinedwithColonelDuerinNewYorkin1787,therewerefifteenkinds
ofwineservedbesidescider,beer,andporter.
JohnAdamsprobablylivedaswellasanyNewEnglanderofsimilarpositionandmeans.ASunday
dinner at his house was thus described by a visitor: the first course was a pudding of Indian meal,
molasses,andbutter;thencameacourseofvealandbacon,neckofmutton,andvegetables.Whenthe
NewEnglanderwenttoPhiladelphia,hiseyesopenedwideattheluxuryandextravaganceoffare.He
hasgiveninhisdiarysomeaccountsofthelavishnessofthePhiladelphialarder.Suchentriesasthese
arefound:—
(OfthehomeofMiersFisher,ayoungQuakerlawyer.)"ThisplainFriend,withhisplainbutpretty
wifewithherTheesandThous,hadprovidedusacostlyentertainment;ducks,hams,chickens,beef,
pig,tarts,creams,custards,jellies,fools,trifles,floatingislands,beer,porter,punch,wineandalong,
etc."
(AtthehomeofChiefJusticeChew.)"Aboutfouro'clockwewerecalledtodinner.Turtleandevery
otherthing,flummery,jellies,sweetmeatsoftwentysorts,trifles,whippedsillabubs,floatingislands,
fools,etc.,withadessertoffruits,raisins,almonds,pears,peaches."
"A most sinful feast again! everything which could delight the eye or allure the taste; curds and
creams, jellies, sweetmeats of various sorts, twenty kinds of tarts, fools, trifles, floating islands,
whippedsillabubs,etc.Parmesancheese,punch,wine,porter,beer."
BywhichlistsmayplainlybeseenthatoursecondPresidenthadsomewhatofasweettooth.
TheDutchweregreatbeer-drinkersandquicklyestablishedbreweriesatAlbanyandNewYork.But
beforethecenturyhadendedNewEnglandershadabandonedtheconstantdrinkingofaleandbeer
for cider. Cider was very cheap; but a few shillings a barrel. It was supplied in large amounts to
students at college, and even very little children drank it. President John Adams was an early and
earnestwisherfortemperancereform;buttotheendofhislifehedrankalargetankardofhardcider
everymorningwhenhefirstgotup.Itwasfreeineveryfarmhousetoalltravellersandtramps.
Acider-millwasusuallybuiltonahillsidesothebuildingcouldbeonestoryhighinfrontandtwoin
the back. Thus carts could easily unload the apples on the upper level and take away the barrels of
cideronthelower.Standingbelowonthelowerflooryoucouldseetwouprightwoodencylinders,
setalittlewayapart,withknobs,ornutsastheywerecalled,ononecylinderwhichfittedlooselyinto
holesontheother.Thecylindersworkedinoppositedirectionsanddrewinandcrushedtheapples
poured down between them. The nuts and holes frequently clogged with the pomace. Then the mill
wasstoppedandaboyscrapedoutwithastickorhookthecrushedapples.Ahorsewalkinginasmall
circlemovedaleverwhichturnedthemotorwheel.Itwasslowwork;ittookthreehourstogrinda
cart-loadofapples;butthemachinerywasefficientandsimple.Thepomacefellintoalargeshallow
vatortank,andifitcouldlieinthevatovernightitwasabenefit.Thenthepomacewasputinapress.
Thiswassimpleinconstruction.Atthebottomwasaplatformgroovedinchannels;asheafofclean
strawwasspreadontheplatform,andwithwoodenshovelsthepomacewasspreadthickoverit.Then
alayerofstrawwaslaidatrightangleswiththefirst,andmorepomace,andsoontilltheformwas
aboutthreefeethigh;thetopboardwasputonasacover;thescrewturnedandblockspresseddown,
usuallywithalongwoodenhand-lever,veryslowlyatfirst,thenharder,untilthemasswassolidand
everydropofjuicehadtrickledintothechannelsoftheplatformandthencetothepanbelow.Within
thelasttwoorthreeyearsIhaveseenthosecider-millsatworkinthecountrybackofoldPlymouth
andinNarragansett,sendingafartheirsourlyfruityodors.Andthoughappleorchardsarerunning
out, and few new trees are planted, and the apple crop in those districts is growing smaller and
smaller,yetisthesweetciderofcountrycider-millsasfreeandplentifulagifttoanypasser-byasthe
waterfromthewellortheairwebreathe.Perrywasmadefrompears,asciderisfromapples,and
peachy from peaches. Metheglin and mead, drinks of the old Druids in England, were made from
honey, yeast, and water, and were popular everywhere. In Virginia whole plantations of the honeylocustfurnishedlocustbeansformakingmetheglin.Frompersimmons,elderberries,juniperberries,
pumpkins, corn-stalks, hickory nuts, sassafras bark, birch bark, and many other leaves, roots, and
barks,variouslightdrinksweremade.Anoldsongboasted:—
"Oh,wecanmakeliquortosweetenourlips
Ofpumpkins,ofparsnips,ofwalnut-treechips."
Many other stronger and more intoxicating liquors were made in large quantities, among them
enormousamountsofrum,whichwascalledoften"kill-devil."Themakingofrumaidedandalmost
supported the slave-trade in this country. The poor negroes were bought on the coast of Africa by
NewEnglandsea-captainsandmerchantsandpaidforwithbarrelsofNewEnglandrum.Theseslaves
werethencarriedonslave-shipstotheWestIndies,andsoldatalargeprofittoplantersandslavedealersforacargoofmolasses.ThiswasbroughttoNewEngland,distilledintorum,andsentoffto
Africa.Thusthecircleofmolasses,rum,andslaveswascompleted.Manyslaveswerealsolandedin
New England, but there was no crop there that needed negroes to raise it. So slavery never was as
common in New England as in the South, where the tropical tobacco and rice fields needed negro
labor. But New England's share in promoting negro slavery in America was just as great as was
Virginia's.
Besides all the rum that was sent to Africa, much was drunk by Americans at home. At weddings,
funerals,christenings,atallpublicmeetingsandprivatefeasts,NewEnglandrumwaseverpresent.In
nothing is more contrast shown between our present day and colonial times than in the habits of
liquor-drinking.Wecannotbegratefulenoughforthetemperancereform,whichbeganattheearly
partofthiscentury,andwassosadlyneeded.
Formanyyearsthecolonistshadnotea,chocolate,orcoffeetodrink;forthosewerenotinusein
England when America was settled. In 1690 two dealers were licensed to sell tea "in publique" in
Boston.GreenandboheateasweresoldattheBostonapothecaries'in1712.Formanyyearsteawas
alsosoldlikemedicineinEnglandattheapothecaries'andnotatthegrocers'.
Manyqueermistakesweremadethroughignoranceofitsproperuse.Manycolonistsputtheteainto
water,boileditforatime,threwtheliquidaway,andatethetea-leaves.InSalemtheydidnotfindthe
leavesveryattractive,sotheyputbutterandsaltonthem.
In 1670 a Boston woman was licensed to sell coffee and chocolate, and soon coffee-houses were
established there. Some did not know how to cook coffee any more than tea, but boiled the whole
coffee-beansinwater,atethem,anddranktheliquid;andnaturallythiswasnotverygoodeithertoeat
ordrink.
AtthetimeoftheStampAct,whenpatrioticAmericansthrewtheteaintoBostonharbor,Americans
werejustasgreattea-drinkersastheEnglish.Nowitisnotso.TheEnglishdrinkmuchmoreteathan
we do; and the habit of coffee-drinking, first acquired in the Revolution, has descended from
generationtogeneration,andwenowdrinkmorecoffeethantea.Thisisoneofthedifferencesinour
dailylifecausedbytheRevolution.
Manyhome-grownsubstituteswereusedinRevolutionarytimesfortea:ribwortwasafavoriteone;
strawberry and currant leaves, sage, thorough-wort, and "Liberty Tea," made from the four-leaved
loosestrife."Hyperiontea"wasraspberryleaves,andwassaidbygoodpatriotstobe"verydelicate
andmostexcellent."
CHAPTERVIII
FLAXCULTUREANDSPINNING
In recounting the various influences which assisted the Americans to success in the War for
Independence, such as the courage and integrity of the American generals, the generosity of the
American people, the skill of Americans in marksmanship, their powers of endurance, their
acclimatization, their confidence and faith, etc., we must never forget to add their independence in
theirownhomesofanyoutsidehelptogivethemeverynecessityoflife.Nofarmerorhiswifeneed
fear any king when on every home farm was found food, drink, medicine, fuel, lighting, clothing,
shelter.Home-madewasanadjectivethatmightbeappliedtonearlyeveryarticleinthehouse.Such
wouldnotbethecaseundersimilarstressto-day.Inthematterofclothingalonewecouldnotnowbe
independent.Fewfarmersraiseflaxtomakelinen;fewwomencanspineitherwoolorflax,orweave
cloth;manycannotknit.Inearlydayseveryfarmerandhissonsraisedwoolandflax;hiswife and
daughters spun them into thread and yarn, knit these into stockings and mittens, or wove them into
linenandcloth,andthenmadethemintoclothing.Eveninlargecitiesnearlyallwomenspunyarn
andthread,allcouldknit,andmanyhadhand-loomstoweaveclothathome.Thesehomeoccupations
intheproductionofclothinghavebeenveryhappilytermedthe"homespunindustries."
Nearlyeveryonehasseenoneoftheprettyfoot-wheelsforspinningflaxthreadforlinen,whichmay
yetbefoundintheatticsofmanyofourfarmhouses,aswellasinsomeofourparlors,where,witha
bunchofflaxwoundaroundandtiedtothespindle,theyhavewithinafewyearsbeenplacedasarelic
oftheoldentimes.
Ifoneoftheseflax-wheelscouldspeakto-day,itwouldsingataleofthepatientindustry,ofthetiring
workofourgrandmothers,evenwhentheywerelittlechildren,whichoughtnevertobeforgotten.
As soon as the colonists had cleared their farms from stones and stumps, they planted a field, or
"patch"offlax,andusuallyoneofhemp.Theseedwassownbroadcastlikegrass-seedinMay.Flaxis
agracefulplantwithprettydroopingblueflowers;hemphasbutasad-coloredblossom.
ThomasTussersaysinhisBookofHousewifery:—
"Goodflaxandgoodhemptohaveofherown,
InMayagoodhuswifewillseeitbesown.
Andafterwardstrimittoserveinaneed;
Thefimbletospin,thecardforherseed."
Whentheflaxplantswerethreeorfourincheshigh,theywereweededbyyoungwomenorchildren
who had to work barefoot, as the stalks were very tender. If the land had a growth of thistles, the
weeders could wear three or four pairs of woollen stockings. The children had to step facing the
wind,soifanyplantsweretroddendownthewindwouldhelptoblowthembackintoplace.Whenthe
flaxwasripe,inthelastofJuneorinJuly,itwaspulledupbytherootsandlaidoutcarefullytodry
foradayortwo,andturnedseveraltimesinthesun;thisworkwascalledpullingandspreading,and
wasusuallydonebymenandboys.Itthenwas"rippled."Acoarsewoodenorheavyironwirecomb
withgreatteeth,namedaripple-comb,wasfastenedonaplank;thestalksofflaxweredrawnthrough
it with a quick stroke to break off the seed-bolles or "bobs," which fell on a sheet spread to catch
them;theseweresavedforseedforthenextcrop,orforsale.
Ripplingwasdoneinthefield.Thestalkswerethentiedinbundlescalledbeatsorbatesandstacked.
Theyweretiedonlyattheseedend,andthebaseofthestalkswasspreadoutformingatent-shaped
stack,calledastook.Whendry,thestalkswerewateredtorottheleavesandsofterfibres.Hempwas
wateredwithoutrippling.Thiswasdonepreferablyinrunningwater,astherottingflaxpoisonedfish.
Stakesweresetinthewaterintheformofasquare,calledasteep-pool,andthebatesofflaxorhemp
werepiledinsolidly,eachalternatelayeratrightangleswiththeonebeneathit.Acoverofboards
andheavystoneswaspiledontop.Infourorfivedaysthebatesweretakenupandtherottedleaves
removed.Aslowerprocesswastermeddew-retting;anoldauthorcallsit"avileandnaughtyway,"
butitwasthewaychieflyemployedinAmerica.
Whentheflaxwascleaned,itwasoncemoredriedandtiedinbundles.Thencameworkforstrong
men, to break it on the ponderous flax-brake, to separate the fibres and get out from the centre the
hardwoody"hexe"or"bun."Hempwasalsobroken.
A flax-brake is an implement which is almost impossible to describe. It was a heavy log of wood
aboutfivefeetlong,eitherlargeenoughsotheflattopwasaboutthreefeetfromtheground,orset
onheavylogstobringittothatheight.Aportionofthetopwascutdownleavingablockateachend,
andseverallongslatsweresetinlengthwiseandheldfirmateachendwithedgesup,bybeingsetinto
theendblocks.Thenasimilarsetofslats,putinaheavyframe,wasmadewiththeslatssetfarenough
aparttogointothespacesofthelowerslats.Theflaxwaslaidonthelowerslats,theframeandupper
slats placed on it, and then pounded down with a heavy wooden mallet weighing many pounds.
Sometimestheupperframeofslats,orknivesastheywerecalled,werehingedtothebigunderlogat
oneend,andheavilyweightedattheother,andthustheblowwasgivenbythefalloftheweight,not
by the force of the farmer's muscle. The tenacity of the flax can be seen when it would stand this
violentbeating;andthecruelblowcanbeimagined,whichthefarmer'sfingerssometimesgotwhen
he carelessly thrust his hand with the flax too far under the descending jaw—a shark's maw was
equallygentle.
Flaxwasusuallybrokentwice,oncewithan"open-toothbrake,"oncewitha"closeorstraitbrake,"
thatis,onewherethelong,sharp-edgestripsofwoodweresetcloselytogether.Thenitwasscutched
or swingled with a swingling block and knife, to take out any small particles of bark that might
adhere.Amancouldswinglefortypoundsofflaxaday,butitwashardwork.Allthishadtobedone
inclearsunnyweatherwhentheflaxwasasdryastinder.
The clean fibres were then made into bundles called strikes. The strikes were swingled again, and
from the refuse called swingle-tree hurds, coarse bagging could be spun and woven. After being
thoroughlycleanedtherollsorstrikesweresometimesbeetled,thatis,poundedinawoodentrough
withagreatpestle-shapedbeetleoverandoveragainuntilsoft.
Then came the hackling or hetcheling, and the fineness of the flax depended upon the number of
hacklings,thefinenessofthevarioushacklesorhetchelsorcombs,andthedexterityoftheoperator.
In the hands of a poor hackler the best of flax would be converted into tow. The flax was slightly
wetted, taken hold of at one end of the bunch, and drawn through the hackle-teeth towards the
hetcheller, and thus fibres were pulled and laid into continuous threads, while the short fibres were
combedout.Itwasdusty,dirtywork.Thethreefoldprocesshadtobealldoneatonce;thefibreshad
tobedividedtotheirfinefilaments,thelongthreadslaidinuntangledline,andthetowseparatedand
removed.Afterthefirsthackle,calledaruffler,sixotherfinerhackleswereoftenused.Itwasoneof
thesurprisesofflaxpreparationtoseehowlittlegoodfibrewouldbeleftafterallthishackling,even
fromalargemassofrawmaterial,butitwasequallysurprisingtoseehowmuchlinenthreadcould
bemadefromthissmallamountoffineflax.Thefibresweresortedaccordingtofineness;thiswas
calledspreadinganddrawing.Sothenafterovertwentydexterousmanipulationstheflaxwasready
forthewheel,forspinning,—themostdexterousprocessofall,—andwaswrappedroundthespindle.
Seated at the small flax-wheel, the spinner placed her foot on the treadle, and spun the fibre into a
long,eventhread.Hungonthewheelwasasmallbone,wood,orearthenwarecup,oragourd-shell,
filledwithwater,inwhichthespinnermoistenedherfingersassheheldthetwistingflax,whichbythe
movement of the wheel was wound on bobbins. When all were filled, the thread was wound off in
knots and skeins on a reel. A machine called a clock-reel counted the exact number of strands in a
knot, usually forty, and ticked when the requisite number had been wound. Then the spinner would
stopandtietheknot.Aquaintoldballadhastherefrain:—
"AndhekissedMistressPollywhentheclock-reelticked."
Thatis,theloverseizedtherareandpropitiousmomentsofMistressPolly'scomparativeleisureto
kissher.
Usuallytheknotsorlayswereoffortythreads,andtwentylaysmadeaskeinorslipping.Thenumber
varied, however, with locality. To spin two skeins of linen thread was a good day's work; for it a
spinnerwaspaideightcentsadayand"herkeep."
These skeins of thread had to be bleached. They were laid in warm water for four days, the water
beingfrequentlychanged,andtheskeinsconstantlywrungout.Thentheywerewashedinthebrook
tillthewatercamefromthemclearandpure.Thentheywere"bucked,"thatis,bleachedwithashes
and hot water, in a bucking-tub, over and over again, then laid in clear water for a week, and
afterwardscameagrandseething,rinsing,beating,washing,drying,andwindingonbobbinsforthe
loom.Sometimesthebleachingwasdonewithslakedlimeorwithbuttermilk.
These were not the only bleaching operations the flax went through; others will be detailed in the
chapteronhand-weaving.
Onelucrativeproductofflaxshouldbementioned—flaxseed.Flaxwaspulledforspinningwhenthe
baseofthestalkbegantoturnyellow,whichwasusuallythefirstofJuly.Anoldsayingwas,"June
bringstheflax."Forseeditstoodtillitwasallyellow.Theflaxseedwasusedformakingoil.Usually
theupperchambersofcountrystoreswerefilledafootdeepwithflaxseedintheautumn,waitingfor
goodsleighingtoconveytheseedtotown.
InNewHampshireinearlydays,awheelwrightwasnotamanwhomadewagon-wheels(assuchhe
wouldhavehadscantoccupation),butonewhomadespinning-wheels.Oftenhecarriedthemaround
the country on horseback selling them, thus adding another to the many interesting itineracies of
colonialdays.Spinning-wheelswouldseemclumsyforhorse-carriage,buttheywerenotsetup,and
severalcouldbecompactlycarriedwhentakenapart;farmoreticklisharticleswentonpack-horses,
—large barrels, glazed window-sashes, etc. Nor would it seem very difficult for a man to carry
spinning-wheels on horseback, when frequently a woman would jump on horseback in the early
morning, and with a baby on one arm and a flax-wheel tied behind, would ride several miles to a
neighbor's to spend the day spinning in cheerful companionship. A century ago one of these
wheelwrightssoldafinespinning-wheelforadollar,aclock-reelfortwodollars,andawool-wheel
fortwodollars.
Few persons are now living who have ever seen carried on in a country home in America any of
theseold-timeprocesseswhichhavebeenrecounted.Asanoldantiquarywrote:—
"Few have ever seen a woman hatchel flax or card tow, or heard the buzzing of the foot-wheel, or
seenbunchesofflaxenyarnhanginginthekitchen,orlinenclothwhiteningonthegrass.Theflaxdresser with the shives, fibres, and dirt of flax covering his garments, and his face begrimed with
flax-dirt has disappeared; the noise of his brake and swingling knife has ended, and the boys no
longermakebonfiresofhisswinglingtow.Thesoundofthespinning-wheel,thesongofthespinster,
andthesnappingoftheclock-reelallhaveceased;thewarpingbarsandquillwheelaregone,andthe
thwack of the loom is heard only in the factory. The spinning woman of King Lemuel cannot be
found."
FrequentreferencesaremadetoflaxintheBible,notablyintheBookofProverbs;andthemethods
of growing and preparing flax by the ancient Egyptians were precisely the same as those of the
Americancolonistahundredyearsago,oftheFinn,Lapp,Norwegian,andBelgianflax-growerstoday.Thisancientskillwasnotconfinedtoflax-working.Rosselini,theeminenthierologist,saysthat
everymoderncraftsmanmayseeonEgyptianmonumentsfourthousandyearsold,representationsof
theprocessofhiscraftjustasitiscarriedonto-day.ThepaintingsintheGrottoofElKab,shownin
Hamilton's Ægyptica, show the pulling, stocking, tying, and rippling of flax going on just as it is
done in Egypt now. The four-tooth ripple of the Egyptian is improved upon, but it is the same
implement.Plinygivesanaccountofthemodeofpreparingflax:pluckingitupbytheroots,tyingit
inbundles,drying,watering,beating,andhacklingit,or,ashesays,"combingitwithironhooks."
Until the Christian era linen was almost the only kind of clothing used in Egypt, and the teeming
banks of the Nile furnished flax in abundance. The quality of the linen can be seen in the bands
preservedonmummies.Itwasnot,however,spunonawheel,butonahand-distaff,calledsometimes
arock,onwhichthewomeninIndiastillspintheveryfinethreadwhichisemployedinmakingIndia
muslins.Thedistaffwasusedinourcolonies;itwasorderedthatchildrenandotherstendingsheepor
cattle in the fields should also "be set to some other employment withal, such as spinning upon the
rock,knitting,weavingtape,etc."Iheardrecentlyadistinguishedhistorianreferinalecturetothis
colonial statute, and he spoke of the children sitting upon a rock while knitting or spinning, etc.,
evidentlyknowingnaughtofthepropersignificationoftheword.
Thehomespunindustrieshaveeverbeenheldtohaveabeneficentandpeace-bringinginfluenceon
women.Wordsworthvoicedthissentimentwhenhewrotehisseriesofsonnetsbeginning:—
"Grief!thouhastlostanever-readyfriend
Nowthatthecottagespinning-wheelismute."
Chaucermorecynicallysays,throughtheWifeofBath:—
"Deceite,weepynge,spynnyngeGodhathgive
Towymmenkyndelythattheymaylive."
Spinningdoubtlesswasanever-readyrefugeinthemonotonouslifeoftheearlycolonist.Shesoon
had plenty of material to work with. Everywhere, even in the earliest days, the culture of flax was
encouraged. By 1640 the Court of Massachusetts passed two orders directing the growth of flax,
ascertainingwhatcolonistswereskilfulinbreaking,spinning,weaving,orderingthatboysandgirls
betaughttospin,andofferingabountyforlinengrown,spun,andwoveninthecolony.Connecticut
passed similar measures. Soon spinning-classes were formed, and every family ordered to spin so
many pounds of flax a year, or to pay a fine. The industry received a fresh impulse through the
immigrationofaboutonehundredIrishfamiliesfromLondonderry.TheysettledinNewHampshire
on the Merrimac about 1719, and spun and wove with far more skill than prevailed among those
English settlers who had already become Americans. They established a manufactory according to
Irishmethods,andattemptsatasimilarestablishmentweremadeinBoston.
There was much public excitement over spinning, and prizes were offered for quantity and quality.
Women,richaswellaspoor,appearedonBostonCommonwiththeirwheels,thusmakingspinninga
popularholidayrecreation.Abrickbuildingwaserectedasaspinning-schoolcosting£15,000,anda
taxwasplacedoncarriagesandcoachesin1757tosupportit.Atthefourthanniversaryin1749ofthe
"BostonSocietyforpromotingIndustryandFrugality,"threehundred"youngspinsters"spunontheir
wheelsonBostonCommon.Andaprettysightitmusthavebeen:thefairyounggirlsinthequaintand
prettydressofthetimes,showntousinHogarth'sprints,spinningonthegreengrassunderthegreat
trees.In1754,onalikeoccasion,aministerpreachedtothe"spinsters,"andacollectionof£453was
taken up. This was in currency of depreciated value. At the same time premiums were offered in
Pennsylvaniaforweavinglinenandspinningthread.BenjaminFranklinwroteinhisPoor Richard's
Almanac:—
"Manyestatesarespentinthegetting,
Sincewomenforteaforsookspinningandknitting."
ButtheGermancolonistslongbeforethishadbeenfamousflax-raisers.APennsylvaniapoetin1692
descantedontheflax-workersofGermantown:—
"WhereliveHighGermanpeopleandLowDutch
Whosetradeinweavinglinenclothismuch,
Theregrowstheflaxasalsoyoumayknow,
Thatfromthesametheydodividethetow."
FatherPastorius,theirleader,forevercommemoratedhisinterestinhiscolonyandinthetextilearts
byhischoiceforadeviceforaseal.WhittierthusdescribesitinhisPennsylvaniaPilgrim:—
"Stillonthetown-sealhisdeviceisfound,
Grapes,flax,andthread-spoolonathree-foilground
WithVinum,Linum,etTextrinumwound."
Virginia was earlier even in awakening interest in manufacturing flax than Massachusetts, for wild
flaxgrewthereinprofusion,readyforgathering.In1646twohouseswereorderedtobeerectedat
Jamestownasspinning-schools.Theseweretobewellbuiltandwellheated.Eachcountywastosend
to these schools two poor children, seven or eight years old, to be taught carding, spinning, and
knitting.Eachchildwastobesuppliedbythecountyauthoritiesonadmissiontotheschoolwithsix
barrelsofIndiancorn,apig,twohens,clothing,shoes,abed,rug,blanket,twocoverlets,awooden
tray,andtwopewterdishesorcups.Thisplanwasnotwhollycarriedout.Prizesintobacco(which
was the current money of Virginia in which everything was paid) were given, however, for every
poundofflax,everyskeinofyarn,everyyardoflinenofVirginiaproduction,andsoonflax-wheels
andspinnerswereplentiful.
Intelligent attempts were made to start these industries in the South. Governor Lucas wrote to his
daughter,Mrs.Pinckney,inCharleston,SouthCarolina,in1745:—
"IsendbythisSlooptwoIrishservants,viz.:aWeaverandaSpinner.IaminformedMr.Cattlehath
producedbothFlaxandHemp.Iprayyouwillpurchasesome,andorderaloomandspinning-wheel
tobemadeforthem,andsetthemtowork.IshallorderFlaxsentfromPhiladelphiawithseed,that
theymaynotbeidle.IprayyouwillalsopurchaseWoolandsettthemtomakingNegroesclothing
whichmaybesufficientformyownPeople.
"As I am afraid one Spinner can't keep a Loom at work, I pray you will order a Sensible Negroe
woman or two to learn to spin, and wheels to be made for them; the man Servant will direct the
CarpenterinmakingtheloomandthewomanwilldirecttheWheel."
ThefollowingyearMadamPinckneywrotetoherfatherthatthewomanhadspunallthematerialthey
could get, so was idle; that the loom had been made, but had no tackling; that she would make the
harness for it, if two pounds of shoemaker's thread were sent her. The sensible negro woman and
hundredsofotherslearnedwelltospin,andexcellentclothhasbeenalwayswoveninthelowcountry
ofCarolina,aswellasintheupperdistricts,tillourowntime.
IntherevoltoffeelingcausedbytheStampAct,therewasaconstantsocialpressuretoencouragethe
manufactureandwearingofgoodsofAmericanmanufacture.Asoneevidenceofthismovementthe
presidentandfirstgraduatingclassofRhodeIslandCollege—nowBrownUniversity—wereclothed
infabricsmadeinNewEngland.FromMassachusettstoSouthCarolinathewomenofthecolonies
bandedtogetherinpatrioticsocietiescalledDaughtersofLiberty,agreeingtowearonlygarmentsof
homespun manufacture, and to drink no tea. In many New England towns they gathered together to
spin,eachbringingherownwheel.Atonemeetingseventylinen-wheelswereemployed.InRowley,
Massachusetts,themeetingoftheDaughtersisthusdescribed:—
"Anumberofthirty-threerespectableladiesofthetownmetatsunrisewiththeirwheelstospendthe
dayatthehouseoftheRev'dJedediahJewell,inthelaudabledesignofaspinningmatch.Atanhour
before sunset, the ladies there appearing neatly dressed, principally in homespun, a polite and
generous repast of American production was set for their entertainment. After which being present
manyspectatorsofbothsexes,Mr.JewelldeliveredaprofitablediscoursefromRomansxii.2:"Not
slothfulinbusiness,ferventinspirit,servingtheLord."
Matters of church and patriotism were never far apart in New England; so whenever the spinners
gatheredatNewLondon,Newbury,Ipswich,orBeverly,theyalwayshadanappropriatesermon.A
favorite text was Exodus xxxv. 25: "And all the women that were wise-hearted did spin with their
hands." When the Northboro women met, they presented the results of their day's work to their
minister. There were forty-four women and they spun 2223 knots of linen and tow, and wove one
linensheetandtwotowels.
By Revolutionary times General Howe thought "Linen and Woollen Goods much wanted by the
Rebels"; hence when he prepared to evacuate Boston he ordered all such goods carried away with
him. But he little knew the domestic industrial resources of the Americans. Women were then most
proficientinspinning.In1777MissEleanorFryofEastGreenwich,RhodeIsland,spunsevenskeins
one knot linen yarn in one day, an extraordinary amount. This was enough to weave twelve linen
handkerchiefs.Atthistimewhentherewereaboutfiveorsixskeinstoapoundofflax,thepayfor
spinningwassixpenceaskein.TheAbbéRobinwonderedatthedeftnessofNewEnglandspinners.
In 1789 an outcry was raised against the luxury said to be eating away the substance of the new
country. The poor financial administration of the government seemed deranging everything; and
again a social movement was instituted in New England to promote "Oeconomy and Household
Industries." "The Rich and Great strive by example to convince the Populace of their error by
Growing their own Flax and Wool, having some one in the Family to dress it, and all the Females
spin, several weave and bleach the linen." The old spinning-matches were revived. Again the
ministers preached to the faithful women "Oeconomists," who thus combined religion, patriotism,
and industry. Truly it was, as a contemporary writer said, "a pleasing Sight: some spinning, some
reeling,somecardingcotton,somecombingflax,"astheywerepreachedto.
Within a few years attempts have been made in England and Ireland to encourage flax-growing, as
before it is spun it gives employment to twenty different classes of laborers, many parts of which
workcanbedonebyyoungandunskilledchildren.InCourtrai,wherehandspinningandweavingof
flax still flourish, the average earnings of a family are three pounds a week. In Finland homespun
linenstillismadeineveryhousehold.TheBritishSpinningandWeavingSchoolinNewBondStreet
isanattempttorevivethevanishedindustryinEngland.Inourowncountryitispleasanttorecord
thattheNationalAssociationofCottonManufacturersisplanningtostartonalargescaletheculture
andmanufactureofflaxinourEasternstates;thisisnot,however,withanythoughtofrevivingeither
thepreparation,spinning,orweavingofflaxbyold-timehandprocesses.
CHAPTERIX
WOOLCULTUREANDSPINNING
WithaPostscriptonCotton
Theartofspinningwasanhonorableoccupationforwomenasearlyastheninthcentury;anditwas
souniversalthatitfurnishedalegaltitlebywhichanunmarriedwomanisknowntothisday.Spinster
istheonlyoneofallhervariouswomanlytitlesthatsurvives;webster,shepster,litster,brewster,and
baxterareobsolete.Theoccupationsarealsoobsoletesavethoseindicatedbyshepsterandbaxter—
thatis,thecuttingoutofclothandbakingofbread;thesearetheonlydutiesamongthemallthatshe
stillperforms.
The wool industry dates back to prehistoric man. The patience, care, and skill involved in its
manufacture have ever exercised a potent influence on civilization. It is, therefore, interesting and
gratifyingtonotetheintelligenteagernessofourfirstcolonistsforwoolculture.Itwasquicklyand
proudlynotedoftownsandofindividualsasaproofoftheirrapidandsubstantialprogressthatthey
could carry on any of the steps of the cloth industry. Good Judge Sewall piously exulted when
Brother Moody started a successful fulling-mill in Boston. Johnson in his Wonder-working
Providencetellswithpridethatby1654NewEnglanders"haveafulling-millandcausedtheirlittle
onestobeverydilligentinspinningcotton-woole,manyofthemhavingbeenclothiersinEngland."
Thishaseverseemedtomeoneofthefortunateconditionsthattendedtothemarkedsuccessofthe
Massachusetts Bay Colony, that so many had been "clothiers" or cloth-workers in England; or had
comefromshiresinEnglandwherewoolwasraisedandclothmade,andhenceknewtheimportance
oftheindustryaswellasitspracticalworkings.
Asearlyas1643theauthorofNewEngland'sFirstFruitswrote:"Theyaremakinglinens,fustians,
dimities,andlookimmediatelytowoollensfromtheirownsheep."Johnsonestimatedthenumberof
sheep in the colony of Massachusetts, about 1644, as three thousand. Soon the great wheel was
whirringineveryNewEnglandhouse.Theraisingofsheepwasencouragedineveryway.Theywere
permittedtograzeonthecommons;itwasforbiddentosendthemfromthecolony;nosheepunder
twoyearsoldcouldbekilledtosell;ifadogkilledasheep,thedog'sownermusthanghimandpay
double the cost of the sheep. All persons who were not employed in other ways, as single women,
girls, and boys, were required to spin. Each family must contain one spinner. These spinners were
formed into divisions or "squadrons" of ten persons; each division had a director. There were no
drones in this hive; neither the wealth nor high station of parents excused children from this work.
Thus all were levelled to one kind of labor, and by this levelling all were also elevated to
independence.Whentheopenexpressionofrevoltcame,thehomespunindustriesseemedafirmrock
forthefoundationofliberty.Peoplejoinedinagreementstoeatnolambormutton,thatthussheep
might be preserved, and to wear no imported woollen cloth. They gave prizes for spinning and
weaving.
GreatencouragementwasgiveninVirginiainearlydaystotheraisingandmanufactureofwool.The
Assemblyestimatedthatfivechildrennotoverthirteenyearsofagecouldbytheirworkreadilyspin
andweaveenoughtokeepthirtypersonsclothed.Sixpoundsoftobaccowaspaidtoanyonebringing
to the county court-house where he resided a yard of homespun woollen cloth, made wholly in his
family;twelvepoundsoftobaccowereofferedforrewardforadozenpairofwoollenhoseknittedat
home. Slaves were taught to spin; and wool-wheels and wool-cards are found by the eighteenth
centuryoneveryinventoryofplanters'housefurnishings.
ThePennsylvaniasettlerswereearlyintheencouragementofwoolmanufacture.Thepresentindustry
ofhosieryandknitgoodslongknownasGermantowngoodsbeganwiththeearliestsettlersofthat
Pennsylvania town. Stocking-weavers were there certainly as early as 1723; and it is asserted there
were knitting-machines. At any rate, one Mack, the son of the founder of the Dunkers, made "leg
stockings" and gloves. Rev. Andrew Burnaby, who was in Germantown in 1759, told of a great
manufacture of stockings at that date. In 1777 it was said that a hundred Germantown stockingweaverswereoutofemploymentthroughthewar.Stillitwasnottill1850thatpatentsforknittingmachinesweretakenoutthere.
Among the manufactures of the province of Pennsylvania in 1698 were druggets, serges, and
coverlets; and among the registered tradesmen were dyers, fullers, comb-makers, card-makers,
weavers,andspinners.TheSwedishcolonyasearlyas1673hadthewivesanddaughters"employing
themselvesinspinningwoolandflaxandmanyinweaving."ThefairsinstitutedbyWilliamPennfor
theencouragementofdomesticmanufacturesandtradeingeneral,whichwerefosteredbyFranklin
andcontinuedtill1775,brisklystimulatedwoolandflaxmanufacture.
In1765andin1775rebelliousPhiladelphiansbandedtogetherwithpromisesnottoeatorsuffertobe
eaten in their families any lamb or "meat of the mutton kind"; in this the Philadelphia butchers,
patrioticandself-sacrificing,alljoined.Awool-factorywasbuiltandfittedupandanappealmadeto
thewomentosavethestate.Inamonthfourhundredwool-spinnerswereatwork.Butthewarcutoff
thesupplyofrawmaterial,andthemanufacturelanguished.In1790,afterthewar,fifteenhundredsets
of irons for spinning-wheels were sold from one shop, and mechanics everywhere were making
looms.
NewYorkerswerenotbehindhandinindustry.LordCornburywrotehometoEngland,in1705,that
he"hadseensergemadeuponLongIslandthatanymanmightwear;theymakeverygoodlinenfor
commonuse;asforWoollenIthinktheyhavebroughtthattotoogreatperfection."
In Cornbury's phrase, "too great perfection," may be found the key for all the extraordinary and
apparently stupid prohibitions and restrictions placed by the mother-country on colonial wool
manufacture.ThegrowthofthewoollenindustryinanycolonywasregardedatoncebyEnglandwith
jealouseyes.WoolwasthepetindustryandprincipalstapleofGreatBritain;andwellitmightbe,for
until the reign of Henry VIII. English garments from head to foot were wholly of wool, even the
shoes.WoolwasalsoreceivedinEnglandascurrency.ThomasFullersaid,"Thewealthofournation
isfoldedupinbroadcloth."Therefore,theCrown,aidedbythegovernorsoftheprovinces,soughtto
maintain England's monopoly by regulating and reducing the culture of wool in America through
prohibiting the exportation to England of any American wool or woollen materials. In 1699 all
vesselssailingtoEnglandfromthecolonieswereprohibitedtakingonboardany"Wool,Woolfells,
Shortlings, Moslings, Wool Flocks, Worsteds, Bays, Bay or Woollen Yarn, Cloath, Serge, Kersey,
Says, Frizes, Druggets, Shalloons, etc."; and an arbitrary law was passed prohibiting the
transportation of home-made woollens from one American province to another. These laws were
neverfullyobservedandnevercheckedthecultureandmanufactureofwoolinthiscountry.Hence
ourcoloniesweresparedthecruelfatebywhichEngland'ssamepolicyparalyzedandobliteratedina
fewyearsthegloriouswoolindustryofIreland.Luckilyforus,itisfurtheracrosstheAtlanticOcean
thanacrossSt.George'sChannel.
The"all-woolgoodsayardwide,"whichwesoeasilypurchaseto-day,meanttothecolonialdameor
daughtertheworkofmanyweeksandmonths,fromthetimewhenthefleeceswerefirstgiventoher
defthands.Fleeceshadtobeopenedwithcare,andhaveallpitchedortarredlocks,dag-locks,brands,
andfeltingscutout.Thesecuttingswerenotwasted,butwerespunintocoarseyarn.Thewhitelocks
were carefully tossed and separated and tied into net bags with tallies to be dyed. Another homely
saying,"dyedinthewool,"showedaprocessofmuchskill.Blue,inallshades,wasthefavoritecolor,
and was dyed with indigo. So great was the demand for this dye-stuff that indigo-pedlers travelled
overthecountrysellingit.
Madder, cochineal, and logwood dyed beautiful reds. The bark of red oak or hickory made very
prettyshadesofbrownandyellow.Variousflowersgrowingonthefarmcouldbeusedfordyes.The
flower of the goldenrod, when pressed of its juice, mixed with indigo, and added to alum, made a
beautiful green. The juice of the pokeberry boiled with alum made crimson dye, and a violet juice
fromthepetalsoftheiris,or"flower-de-luce,"thatblossomedinJunemeadows,gaveadelicatelight
purpletingetowhitewool.
Thebarkofthesassafraswasusedfordyeingyellowororangecolor,andtheflowersandleavesof
thebalsamalso.Fusticandcopperasgaveyellowdyes.Agoodblackwasobtainedbyboilingwoollen
clothwithaquantityoftheleavesofthecommonfield-sorrel,thenboilingagainwithlogwoodand
copperas.
In the South there were scores of flowers and leaves that could be used for dyes. During the
RevolutionaryWaroneenterprisingSouthCaroliniangotaguineaapoundforayellowdyehemade
from the sweet-leaf or horse-laurel. The leaves and berries of gall-berry bush made a good black
muchusedbyhattersandweavers.Therootofthebarberrygavewoolabeautifulyellow,asdidthe
leaves of the devil's-bit. The petals of Jerusalem artichoke and St.-John's-wort dyed yellow. Yellow
root is a significant name and reveals its use: oak, walnut, or maple bark dyed brown. Often the
wovenclothwasdyed,notthewool.
Thenextprocesswascarding;thewoolwasfirstgreasedwithrapeoilor"meltedswine'sgrease,"
which had to be thoroughly worked in; about three pounds of grease were put into ten pounds of
wool.Wool-cardswererectangularpiecesofthinboard,withasimplehandleonthebackoratthe
side;tothisboardwasfastenedasmallerrectangleofstrongleather,setthickwithslightlybentwire
teeth, like a coarse brush. The carder took one card with her left hand, and resting it on her knee,
drewatuftofwoolacrossitseveraltimes,untilasufficientquantityoffibrehadbeencaughtuponthe
wire teeth. She then drew the second wool-card, which had to be warmed, across the first several
times, until the fibres were brushed parallel by all these "tummings." Then by a deft and catchy
motionthewoolwasrolledorcardedintosmallfleecyrollswhichwerethenreadyforspinning.
Wool-combs were shaped like the letter T, with about thirty long steel teeth from ten to eighteen
incheslongsetatrightangleswiththetopoftheT.Thewoolwascarefullyplacedononecomb,and
with careful strokes the other comb laid the long staple smooth for hard-twisted spinning. It was
tedious and slow work, and a more skilful operation than carding; and the combs had to be kept
constantlyheated;butnomachine-combingeverequalledhand-combing.Therewasagooddealof
wasteinthiscombing,thatis,largeclumpsoftangledwoolcallednoilwerecombedout.Theywere
notreallywasted,wemaybesure,byourfrugalancestors,butwerespunintocoarseyarn.
Anoldauthorsays:"Theactionofspinningmustbelearnedbypractice,notbyrelation."Sungbythe
poets,thegraceandbeautyoftheoccupationhaseversharedpraisewithitsutility.
Wool-spinningwastrulyoneofthemostflexibleandalertseriesofmovementsintheworld,andto
itsvariedandgracefulpoisesourgrandmothersmayowepartofthedignityofcarriagethatwasso
characteristic of them. The spinner stood slightly leaning forward, lightly poised on the ball of the
leftfoot;withherlefthandshepickedupfromtheplatformofthewheelalongslenderrollofthe
softcardedwoolaboutaslargeroundasthelittlefinger,anddeftlywoundtheendofthefibresonthe
pointofthespindle.Shethengaveagentlemotiontothewheelwithawoodenpegheldinherright
hand,andseizedwiththelefttherollatexactlytherightdistancefromthespindletoallowforone
"drawing."Thenthehumofthewheelrosetoasoundliketheechoofwind;shesteppedbackward
quickly, one, two, three steps, holding high the long yarn as it twisted and quivered. Suddenly she
glidedforwardwitheven,gracefulstrideandlettheyarnwindontheswiftspindle.Anotherpinchof
thewool-roll,anewturnofthewheel,anddacapo.
The wooden peg held by the spinner deserves a short description; it served the purpose of an
elongatedfinger,andwascalledadriver,wheel-peg,etc.Itwasaboutnineincheslong,aninchorso
indiameter;andataboutaninchfromtheendwasslightlygroovedinorderthatitmightsurelycatch
thespokeandthuspropelthewheel.
Itwasagoodday'sworkforaquick,activespinnertospinsixskeinsofyarnaday.Itwasestimated
thattodothatwithherquickbackwardandforwardstepsshewalkedovertwentymiles.
Theyarnmightbewounddirectlyuponthewoodenspindleasitwasspun,orattheendofthespindle
mightbeplacedaspoolorbroachwhichtwistedwiththerevolvingspindle,andheldthenew-spun
yarn.Thisbroachwasusuallysimplyastiffrollofpaper,acorn-cob,orarollofcorn-husk.When
the ball of yarn was as large as the broach would hold, the spinner placed wooden pegs in certain
holesinthespokesofherspinning-wheelandtiedtheendoftheyarntoonepeg.Thenshetookoff
thebeltofherwheelandwhirredthebigwheelswiftlyround,thuswindingtheyarnonthepegsinto
hanksorclewstwoyardsincircumference,whichwereafterwardstiedwithaloopofyarnintoknots
offortythreads;whilesevenoftheseknotsmadeaskein.Theclock-reelwasusedforwindingyarn,
alsoatriplereel.
The yarn might be wound from the spindle into skeins in another way,—by using a hand-reel, an
implement which really did exist in every farmhouse, though the dictionaries are ignorant of it, as
they are of its universal folk-name, niddy-noddy. This is fortunately preserved in an every-day
domesticriddle:—
"Niddy-noddy,niddy-noddy,
Twoheadsandonebody."
Thethreepiecesoftheseniddy-noddysweresettogetheratcuriousangles,andarehereshownrather
than described in words. Holding the reel in the left hand by seizing the central "body" or rod, the
yarn was wound from end to end of the reel, by an odd, waving, wobbling motion, into knots and
skeinsofthesamesizeasbythefirstprocessdescribed.Oneoftheseniddy-noddyswasownedby
NabbyMarshallofDeerfield,wholivedtobeonehundredandfouryearsold.Theotherwasbrought
fromIrelandin1733byHughMaxwell,fatheroftheRevolutionarypatriotColonelMaxwell.Asit
wasatatimeofEnglishprohibitionsandrestrictionsofAmericanmanufactures,thisniddy-noddy,as
anaccessoryandpromoterofcolonialwoolmanufacture,wassmuggledintothecountry.
Sometimesthewoollenyarnwasspuntwice;especiallyifaclose,hard-twistedthreadwasdesired,to
be woven into a stiff, wiry cloth. When there were two, the first spinning was called a roving. The
singlespinningwasusuallydeemedsufficienttofurnishyarnforknitting,wheresoftnessandwarmth
werethedesiredrequisites.
Itwastheprideofagoodspinstertospinthefinestyarn,andoneMistressMaryPriggespunapound
ofwoolintofiftyhanksofeighty-fourthousandyards;inall,nearlyforty-eightmiles.Iftheyarnwas
tobeknitted,ithadtobewashedandcleansed.ThewifeofColonelJohnMay,aprominentmanin
Boston,wroteinherdiaryforoneday:—
"A large kettle of yarn to attend upon. Lucretia and self rinse, scour through many waters, get out,
dry,attendto,bringin,doupandsort110scoreofyarn;thiswithbakingandironing.Thenwentto
hacklingflax."
Itshouldberememberedthatallthosebleachingprocesses,thewringingoutandrinsinginvarious
waters, were far more wearisome then than they would be to-day, for the water had to be carried
laboriously in pails and buckets, and drawn with pumps and well-sweeps; there were no pipes and
conduits.Happythehouseholdthathadarunningbrooknearthekitchendoor.
Ofcoursealltheseoperationsandmanipulationsusuallyoccupiedmanyweeksandmonths,butthey
could be accomplished in a much shorter time. When President Nott of Union College, and his
brotherSamuel,thefamouspreacher,wereboysonastonyfarminConnecticut,oneofthebrothers
needed a new suit of clothes, and as the father was sick there was neither money nor wool in the
house.Themothershearedsomehalf-grownfleecefromhersheep,andinlessthanaweektheboy
woreitasclothing.Theshiveringandgeneroussheepwereprotectedbywrappingsofbraidedstraw.
DuringtheRevolution,itissaidthatinadayandanightamotherandherdaughtersinTownsend,
Massachusetts,shearedablackandawhitesheep,cardedfromthefleeceagraywool,spun,wove,cut
andmadeasuitofclothesforaboytowearofftofightforliberty.
Thewoolindustryeasilyfurnishedhomeoccupationtoanentirefamily.Oftenbythebrightfirelight
intheearlyeveningeverymemberofthehouseholdmightbeseenatworkonthevariousstagesof
woolmanufactureorsomeofitsnecessaryadjuncts,andvariedandcheerfulindustrialsoundsfillthe
room.Theoldgrandmother,atlightandeasywork,iscardingthewoolintofleecyrolls,seatednext
thefire;for,astheballadsays,"shewasoldandsawrightdimly."Themother,steppingaslightlyas
oneofhergirls,spinstherollsintowoollenyarnonthegreatwheel.Theoldestdaughtersitsatthe
clock-reel,whosecontinuousbuzzandoccasionalclickmingleswiththehummingriseandfallofthe
wool-wheel, and the irritating scratch, scratch, of the cards. A little girl at a small wheel is filling
quillswithwoollenyarnfortheloom,notaskilledwork;theirregularsoundshowsherintermittent
industry.Thefatherissettingfreshteethinawool-card,whiletheboysarewhittlinghand-reelsand
loom-spools.
Oneofthehouseholdimplementsusedinwoolmanufacture,thewool-card,deservesashortspecial
historyaswellasadescription.Inearlydaystheleatherbackofthewool-cardwaspiercedwithan
awlbyhand;thewireteethwerecutofffromalengthofwire,wereslightlybent,andsetandclinched
onebyone.Thesecardswerelaboriouslymadebymanypersonsathome,fortheirhouseholduse.
As early as 1667 wire was made in Massachusetts; and its chief use was for wool-cards. By
Revolutionarytimesitwasrealizedthattheuseofwool-cardswasalmostthemainspringofthewool
industry, and £100 bounty was offered by Massachusetts for card-wire made in the state from iron
minedinwhattheycalledthenthe"UnitedAmericanStates."In1784amachinewasinventedbyan
Americanwhichwouldcutandbendthirty-sixthousandwireteethanhour.Anothermachinepierced
theleatherbacks.Thisgaveanewemploymenttowomenandchildrenathomeandsomespending-
money. They would get boxes of the bent wire teeth and bundles of the leather backs from the
factoriesandwouldsettheteethinthebackswhilesittingaroundtheopenfireintheevening.They
did this work, too, while visiting—spending an afternoon; and it was an unconscious and diverting
worklikeknitting;scholarssetwool-cardswhilestudying,andschoolmistresseswhileteaching.This
method of manufacture was superseded fifteen years later by a machine invented by Amos
Whittemore,whichheld,cut,andpiercedtheleather,drewthewirefromareel,cutandbentalooped
tooth,setit,bentit,fastenedtheleatherontheback,andspeedilyturnedoutafullymadecard.John
Randolphsaidthismachinehadeverythingbutanimmortalsoul.Bythistimespinningandweaving
machinerybegantocrowdouthomework,andthemachine-madecardswereneededtokeepupwith
the increased demand. At last machines crowded into every department of cloth manufacture; and
aftercarding-machineswereinventedinEngland—greatrollerssetwithcard-teeth—theyweresetup
inmanymillsthroughouttheUnitedStates.
Families soon sent all their wool to these mills to be carded even when it was spun and woven at
home.Itwassentrolledupinahomespunsheetorblanketpinnedwiththorns;andthecardedrolls
ready for spinning were brought home in the same way, and made a still bigger bundle which was
lightinweightforitssize.Sometimesared-cheekedfarmer'slasswouldbeseenridinghomefrom
thecarding-mill,throughNewEnglandwoodsoralongNewEnglandlanes,withabundleofcarded
wooltoweringupbehindherbiggerthanherhorse.
Of the use and manufacture of cotton I will speak very shortly. Our greatest, cheapest, most
indispensable fibre is also our latest one. It never formed one of the homespun industries of the
colonies;infact,itwasneveranarticleofextendeddomesticmanufacture.
Alittlecottonwasalwaysusedinearlydaysforstuffingbedquilts,petticoats,warriors'armor,and
similar purposes. It was bought by the pound, East India cotton, in small quantities; the seeds were
pickedoutonebyone,byhand;itwascardedonwool-cards,andspunintoaratherintractableyarn
whichwasusedaswarpforlinsey-woolseyandragcarpets.EveninEnglandnocottonweft,noallcottonfabrics,weremadetillafter1760,tillHargreave'stime.Sometimesatwistedyarnwasmadeof
one thread of cotton and one of wool which was knit into durable stockings. Cotton sewing-thread
was unknown in England. Pawtucket women named Wilkinson made the first cotton thread on their
homespinning-wheelsin1792.
Cotton was planted in America, Bancroft says, in 1621, but MacMaster asserts it was never seen
growingheretillaftertheRevolutionsaveasagardenornamentwithgardenflowers.Thisassertion
seemsoversweepingwhenJeffersoncouldwriteinaletterin1786:—
"ThefoursouthermostStatesmakeagreatdealofcotton.Theirpoorarealmostentirelyclothedwith
itinwinterandsummer.Inwintertheywearshirtsofitandouterclothingofcottonandwoolmixed.
In summer their shirts are linen, but the outer clothing cotton. The dress of the women is almost
entirelyofcotton,manufacturedbythemselves,exceptthericherclass,andevenmanyoftheseweara
greatdealofhomespuncotton.ItisaswellmanufacturedasthecalicoesofEurope."
Still cotton was certainly not a staple of consequence. We were the last to enter the list of cottonproducingcountriesandwehavesurpassedthemall.
Thedifficultyofremovingtheseedsfromthestaplepracticallythrustcottonoutofcommonuse.In
India a primitive and cumbersome set of rollers called a churka partially cleaned India cotton. A
Yankeeschoolmaster,EliWhitney,setKingCottononathronebyhisinventionofthecotton-ginin
1792. This comparatively simple but inestimable invention completely revolutionized cloth
manufactureinEnglandandAmerica.Italsochangedgeneralcommerce,industrialdevelopment,and
thesocialandeconomicorderofthings,foritgavenewoccupationsandofferednewmodesoflife
tohundredsofthousandsofpersons.Itentirelychangedandcheapenedourdress,andalteredrural
lifebothintheNorthandSouth.
Amancould,byhand-picking,cleanonlyaboutapoundofcottonaday.Thecotton-gincleanedas
muchinadayashadtakenthehand-pickerayeartoaccomplish.Cottonwasatonceplantedinvast
amounts; but it certainly was not plentiful till then. Whitney had never seen cotton nor cotton seed
when he began to plan his invention; nor did he, even in Savannah, find cotton to experiment with
untilafterconsiderablesearch.
After the universal manufacture and use of the cotton-gin, negro women wove cotton in Southern
houses,sometimesspinningtheirowncottonthread;morefrequentlybuyingitmill-spun.But,after
all, this was in too small amounts to be of importance; it needed the spinning-jennies and powerloomsofvastmillstouseuptheprofusesupplyaffordedbythegin.
AveryinterestingaccountofthedomesticmanufactureofcottoninTennesseeabouttheyear1850
was written for me by Mrs. James Stuart Pilcher, State Regent of the Daughters of the American
RevolutioninTennessee.Aportionofherpleasantstoryreads:—
"There were two looms in the loom-room, and two negro women were kept busy all the time
weaving;therewereeightortenotherswhodidnothingbutspincottonandwoollenthread;others
spooledandreeleditintohanks.Thespinningwasalldoneonthelargewheel,fromtherawcotton;a
corn-shuck was wrapped tightly around the steel spindle, then the thread was run and spun on this
shuckuntilitwasfull;thenthesewerereeledoffintohanksofthread,thenspooledontocorn-cobs
with holes burned through them. These were placed in an upright frame, with long slender rods of
hickorywoodsomethinglikearamrodrunthroughthem.Theframeheldaboutonehundredofthese
cob-spools;theendofthecottonthreadfromeachspoolwasgatheredupbyanexperiencedwarper
whocarriedallthethreadsbackandforthonthelargewarping-bars;thiswasadifficulttask;onlythe
brightestnegrowomenwerewarpers.Thethreadhadbeendyedbeforespoolingandthevari-colored
cob-spools could be arranged to make stripes lengthwise of the cloth; and the hanks had also been
dippedinaboiling-hotsizingmadeofmealandwater.Thewarp-threadswerecarefullytakenfrom
thebarsandrolleduponthewoodenbeamoftheloom,theendspassedthroughthesleyandtied.The
weaverthenbeganherwork.Thethreadforthefilling(calledthewoofbythenegroes)wasreeled
fromthehankonthewinding-blades,uponsmallcanesaboutfourincheslongwhich,whenfull,were
placedinthewoodenshuttles.Thesewomenspunandwovealltheclothingwornbythenegroeson
theplantation;cottonclothforwomenandmeninthesummertime;andjeansforthemen;linseywoolseyforthewomenandchildrenforwinter.Allwerewellclothed.Thewomentaughtustospin,
buttheweaverswerecrossandwouldnotletustouchtheloom,fortheysaidwebrokethethreadsin
the warp. My grandmother never interfered with them when they were careful in their work. We
wouldsay,'PleasemakeAuntRhodyletmeweave!'Sheanswered,'No,sheismanagingtheloom;if
sheiswilling,verywell;ifnot,youmustnotworryher.'Wethoughtitgreatfuntotrytoweave,but
generallyhadtopayAuntRhodyforourmeddlingbygivinghercake,ribbons,orcandy."
The colonists were constantly trying to find new materials for spinning, and also used many
makeshifts.Parkman,inhisOldRégime,tellsthatintheyear1704,whenashipwaslostthatwasto
bring cloth and wool to Quebec, a Madame de Rèpentigny, one of the aristocrats of the FrenchCanadiancolony,spunandwovecoarseblanketsofnettleandlindenbark.Similarexperimentswere
madebytheEnglishcolonists.Coarsethreadwasspunoutofnettle-fibrebypioneersinwesternNew
York.LeviBeardsley,inhisReminiscences,tellsofhismotheratthecloseofthelastcentury,inher
frontierhomeatRichfieldSprings,weavingbagsandcoarsegarmentsfromthenettleswhichgrew
soranklyeverywhereinthatvicinity.Deerhairandevencow'shairwascollectedfromthetanners,
spunwithsomewool,andwovenintoasortoffeltedblanket.
Silk-grass,amuch-vauntedproduct,wassentbacktoEnglandonthefirstshipsandwaseverywhere
beingexperimentedwith.Coarsewickingwasspunfromthedownofthemilkweed—anairy,feathery
materialthatalwayslooksasifitoughttobeputtomanyuses,yetneverhasseemedofmuchaccount
inanytrialthathasbeenmadeofit.
CHAPTERX
HAND-WEAVING
AnyonewhopassedthroughaNewEnglandvillageonaweekdayacenturyago,orrodeuptothe
door of a Pennsylvania or Virginia house, would probably be greeted with a heavy thwack-thwack
fromwithindoors,aregularsoundwhichwouldreadilyberecognizedbyeveryoneatthattimeas
proceeding from weaving on a hand-loom. The presence of these looms was, perhaps, not so
universalineveryhouseasthatoftheirhomespuncompanions,thegreatandlittlewheels,forthey
requiredmoreroom;buttheywerefoundineveryhouseofanyconsiderablesize,andinmanyalso
wheretheyseemedtofillhalfthebuilding.Manyhouseholdshadaloom-room,usuallyinanellpart
of the house; others used an attic or a shed-loft as a weaving-room. Every farmer's daughter knew
howtoweaveaswellastospin,yetitwasnotrecognizedaswhollywoman'sworkaswasspinning;
for there was a trade of hand-weaving for men, to which they were apprenticed. Every town had
professionalweavers.Theywereauniversallyrespectedclass,andbecametheancestorsofmanyof
the wealthiest and most influential citizens to-day. They took in yarn and thread to weave on their
loomsattheirownhomesatsomuchayard;wovetheirownyarnintostuffstosell;hadapprentices
totheirtrade;andalsowentoutworkingbythedayattheirneighbors'houses,sometimescarrying
theirloomsmanymileswiththem.
Weavers were a universally popular element of the community. The travelling weaver was, like all
otheritineranttradesmenoftheday,awelcomenewsmonger;andtheweaverwhotookinweaving
wasoftenastationarygossip,andgatheredinquiringgroupsinhisloom-room;evenchildrenloved
togotohisdoortobegforbitsofcoloredyarn—thrums—whichtheyusedintheirplay,andalso
tightlybraidedtowearasshoestrings,hair-laces,etc.
Thehand-loomusedinthecolonies,andoccasionallystillrunincountrytownsto-day,isanhistoric
machine,oneofgreatantiquityanddignity.Itis,perhaps,themostabsolutebequestofpastcenturies
which we have had, unchanged, in domestic use till the present time. You may see a loom like the
YankeeoneshownhereinGiotto'sfamousfrescointheCampanile,paintedin1335;another,stillthe
same,inHogarth'sIdleApprentice,paintedjustfourhundredyearslater.Manytribesandnationshave
hand-looms resembling our own; but these are exactly like it. Hundreds of thousands of men and
womenofthegenerationsofthesesevencenturiessinceGiotto'sdayhavewovenonjustsuchlooms
asourgrandparentshadintheirhomes.
This loom consists of a frame of four square timber posts, about seven feet high, set about as far
apartasthepostsofatallfour-postbedstead,andconnectedattopandbottombyportionsofaframe.
Fromposttopostacrossoneend,whichmaybecalledthebackpartoftheloom,istheyarn-beam,
about six inches in diameter. Upon it are wound the warp-threads, which stretch in close parallels
fromittothecloth-beamatthefrontoftheloom.Thecloth-beamisaboutteninchesindiameter,and
theclothiswoundastheweavingproceeds.
Theyarn-beamoryarn-rollorwarp-beamwaseveraveryimportantpartoftheloom.Itshouldbe
made of close-grained, well-seasoned wood. The iron axle should be driven in before the beam is
turned.Ifthebeamisill-turnedandirregularinshape,noeven,perfectwoofcancomefromit.The
slightestvariationinitsdimensionsmakesthewarprunoffunevenly,andthewebnever"sets"well,
buthassomeloosethreads.
We have seen the homespun yarn, whether linen or woollen, left in carefully knotted skeins after
beingspunandcleaned,bleached,ordyed.Toprepareitforuseontheloomaskeinisplacedonthe
swift,aningeniousmachine,arevolvingcylindricalframemadeofstripsofwoodarrangedonthe
principleofthelazy-tongssothesizecanbeincreasedordiminishedatpleasure,andthustakeonand
hold firmly any sized skein of yarn. This cylinder is supported on a centre shaft that revolves in a
socket,andmaybesetinaheavyblockonthefloororfastenedtoatableorchair.Alightlymade,
carvedswiftwasafrequentlover'sgift.Ihaveabeautifuloneofwhale-ivory,mother-of-pearl,and
finewhitebonewhichwasmadeonathreeyears'whalingvoyagebyaNantucketsea-captainasagift
tohiswaitingbride;ithasovertwohundredstripsoffinewhitecarvedbone.Bothquillsfortheweft
andspoolsforthewarpmaybewoundfromtheswiftbyaquilling-wheel,smallwheelsofvarious
shapes,somebeinglikeaflax-wheel,butmoresimpleinconstruction.Thequillorbobbinisasmall
reedorquill,piercedfromendtoend,andwhenwoundissetintherecessoftheshuttle.
When the piece is to be set, a large number of shuttles and spools are filled in advance. The full
spoolsarethenplacedinarowoneabovetheotherinaspool-holder,sometimescalledaskarneor
scarne. As I have not found this word in any dictionary, ancient or modern, its correct spelling is
unknown. Sylvester Judd, in his Margaret, spells it skan. Skean and skayn have also been seen.
Thoughignoredbylexicographers,itwasanarticleandwordinestablishedanduniversaluseinthe
colonies. I have seen it in newspaper advertisements of weavers' materials, and in inventories of
weavers' estates, spelled ad libitum; and elderly country folk, both in the North and South, who
rememberold-timeweaving,knowitto-day.
Itseemstomeimpossibletoexplainclearlyinwords,thoughitissimpleenoughinexecution,the
laying of the piece, the orderly placing the warp on the warp-beam. The warping-bars are entirely
detachedfromtheloom,areanaccessory,notapartofit.Theyaretwouprightbarsofwood,each
holdinganumberofwoodenpinssetatrightanglestothebars,andheldtogetherbycrosspieces.Let
forty full spools be placed in the skarne, one above the other. The free ends of threads from the
spools are gathered in the hand, and fastened to a pin at the top of the warping-bars. The group of
threadsthenarecarriedfromsidetosideofthebars,passingaroundapinononebar,thenarounda
pinontheoppositebar,totheextremeend;thenbackagaininthesameway,thespoolsrevolvingon
wiresandfreelyplayingoutthewarp-threads,tillasufficientlengthofthreadsarestretchedonthe
bars.Weaversofoldendayscouldcalculateexactlyandskilfullythelengthofthethreadsthuswound.
Youtakeofftwentyyardsofthreadsifyouwanttoweavetwentyyardsofcloth.Fortywarp-threads
makewhatwascalledaboutorsection.Awarpoftwohundredthreadswasdesignatedasawarpof
fivebouts,andthebarshadtobefilledfivetimestosetitunlessalargerskarnewithmorespoolswas
used.Fromthewarping-barstheseboutsarecarefullywoundonthewarp-beam.
Without attempting to explain farther, let us consider the yarn-beam neatly wound with these warpthreads and set in the loom—that the "warping" and "beaming" are finished. The "drawing" or
"entering"comesnext;theendofeachwarp-threadinregularorderis"thumbed"ordrawninwitha
warping-needlethroughtheeyeor"mail"oftheharness,orheddle.
Theheddleisarowoftwines,cords,orwirescalledleashes,whicharestretchedverticallybetween
twohorizontalbarsorrods,placedaboutafootapart.Onerodissuspendedbyapulleyatthetopof
the loom; and to the lower rod is hitched the foot-treadle. In the middle of each length of twine or
wire is the loop or eye, through which a warp-thread is passed. In ordinary weaving there are two
heddles,eachfastenedtoafoot-treadle.
There is a removable loom attachment which when first shown to me was called a raddle. It is not
necessaryinweaving,butaconvenienceandhelpinpreparingtoweave.Itisawoodenbarwitharow
ofcloselyset,fine,woodenpegs.Thisisplacedintheloom,andusedonlyduringthesettingofthe
warptokeepthewarpofproperwidth;thepegskeeptheboutsorsectionsofthewarpdisentangled
duringthe"thumbingin"ofthethreadsthroughtheheddle-eyes.Thisattachmentisalsocalledaravel
orraivel;andfolk-namesforit(notinthedictionary)werewratheandrake;thelatteraverygood
descriptivetitle.
Thewarp-threadsnextaredrawnthroughtheinterspacesbetweentwodentsorstripsofthesleyor
reed.Thisisdonewithawirehookcalledasley-hookorreed-hook.Twowarp-threadsaredrawnin
eachspace.
The sley or reed is composed of a row of short and very thin parallel strips of cane or metal,
somewhatlikecomb-teeth,calleddents,fixedatbothendscloselyintwolong,strong,parallelbarsof
woodsettwoorthreeorevenfourinchesapart.Theremaybefiftyorsixtyofthesedentstooneinch,
forweavingveryfinelinen;usuallythereareabouttwenty,whichgivesa"bier"—acountingoutof
fortywarp-threadstoeachinch.Sleyswerenumberedaccordingtothenumberofbierstheyheld.The
number of dents to an inch determined the "set of the web," the fineness of the piece. This reed is
placed in a groove on the lower edge of a heavy batten (or lay or lathe). This batten hangs by two
swordsorsidebarsandswingsfromanaxleor"rockingtree"atthetopoftheloom.Astheheavy
battenswingsonitsaxle,thereedforceswithasharpbloweverynewlyplacedthreadoftheweftinto
itsproperplaceclosetothepreviouslywovenpartofthetexture.Thisistheheavythwackingsound
heardinhand-weaving.
On the accurate poise of the batten depends largely the evenness of the completed woof. If the
materialisheavy,thebattenshouldbeswunghigh,thushavingagoodsweepandmuchforceinits
blow.Thebattenshouldbesopoisedastoswingbackitselfintoplaceaftereachblow.
Theweaver,withfootontreadle,sitsonanarrow,highbench,whichisfastenedfromposttopostof
the loom. James Maxwell, the weaver-poet, wrote under his portrait in his Weaver's Meditations,
printedin1756:—
"Lo!here'twixtHeavenandEarthIswing,
AndwhilsttheShuttleswiftlyflies,
WithcheerfulheartIworkandsing
Andenvynonebeneaththeskies."
There are three motions in hand-weaving. First: by the action of one foot-treadle one harness or
heddle, holding every alternate warp-thread, is depressed from the level of the entire expanse of
warp-threads.
Theseparationofthewarp-threadsbythisdepressionofoneharnessiscalledashed.Someelaborate
patternshavesixharnesses.Insuchapiecetherearetendifferentsheds,orcombinationsofopenings
ofthewarp-threads.Inafour-harnesspiecetherearesixdifferentsheds.
Roomismadebythisshedfortheshuttle,which,bythesecondmotion,isthrownfromonesideof
theloomtotheotherbytheweaver'shand,andthusgoesovereveryalternatethread.Therevolving
quillwithintheshuttleletstheweft-threadplayoutduringthisside-to-sidemotionoftheshuttle.The
shuttlemustnotbethrowntoosharplyelseitwillreboundandmakeaslackthreadintheweft.Bythe
thirdmotionthebattencrowdsthisweft-threadintoplace.Thenthemotionoftheotherfoot-treadle
forces down the other warp-threads which pass through the second set of harnesses, the shuttle is
thrownbackthroughthisshed,andsoon.
Inordertoshowtheamountofwork,thenumberofseparatemotionsinaday'sworkinweavingof
closewoollenclothlikebroadcloth(whichwasonlyaboutthreeyards),wemustrememberthatthe
shuttle was thrown over three thousand times, and the treadles pressed down and batten swung the
samenumberoftimes.
A simple but clear description of the process of weaving is given in Ovid's Metamorphoses, thus
Englishedin1724:—
"Thepieceprepare
Andordereveryslenderthreadwithcare;
Thewebenwrapsthebeam,thereeddivides
Whilethroughthewideningspacetheshuttleglides,
Whichtheirswifthandsreceive,thenpoisedwithlead
Theswingingweightstrikesclosetheinsertedthread."
AloomattachmentwhichIpuzzledoverwasatombleortumble,thewordbeingseenineighteenthcenturylists,etc.,yetabsolutelyuntraceable.Iatlastinferred,andaweaverconfirmedmyinference,
thatitwasacorruptionoftemple,anattachmentmadeofflat,narrowstripsofwoodaslongasthe
webiswide,withhooksorpinsattheendtocatchintotheselvageofthecloth,andkeepthecloth
stretchedfirmlyanevenwidthwhilethereedbeatstheweft-threadintoplace.
Thereweremanyothersimpleyeteffectiveattachmentstotheloom.Theirnameshavebeenuponthe
lips of scores of thousands of English-speaking people, and the words are used in all treatises on
weaving;yetourdictionariesaredumbandignorant of their existence. There was the pace-weight,
whichkeptthewarpeven;andthebore-staff,whichtightenedthewarp.Whenasufficientlengthof
woof had been woven (it was usually a few inches), the weaver proceeded to do what was called
drawingaboreorasink.Heshiftedthetempleforward;rolleduptheclothontheclothbar,which
hadacrank-handleandratchets;unwoundthewarpafewinches,shiftedbacktherodsandheddles,
andstartedafresh.
Loomsandtheirappurtenanceswereusuallymadebylocalcarpenters;anditcanplainlybeseenthat
thusconstantworkwasfurnishedtomanyclassesofworkmenineverycommunity,—wood-turners,
beam-makers,timber-sawyers,andothers.Thevariouspartsoftheloomswereinunceasingdemand,
thoughapparentlytheyneverworeout.Thesleywasthemostdelicatepartofthemechanism.Good
sley-makers could always command high prices for their sleys. I have seen one whole and good,
whichhasbeeningeneraluseforweavingragcarpetseversincetheWarof1812,forwhichasilver
dollar was paid. Spools were turned and marked with the maker's initials. There were choice and
inexplicablelinesintheshapeofashuttleasthereareinaboat'shull.Whenashuttlewascarefully
shaped, scraped, hollowed out, tipped with steel, and had the maker's initials burnt in it, it was a
properpieceofwork,ofwhichanycraftsmanmightbeproud.Apple-woodandboxwoodwerethe
choiceforshuttles.
Smallerlooms,calledtape-looms,braid-looms,belt-looms,garter-looms,or"gallus-frames,"were
seen in many American homes, and useful they were in days when linen, cotton, woollen, or silk
tapes,bobbins,andwebbingsorribbonswerenotcommonandcheapasto-day.Narrowbandssuch
as tapes, none-so-pretty's, ribbons, caddises, ferretings, inkles, were woven on these looms for use
for garters, points, glove-ties, hair-laces, shoestrings, belts, hat-bands, stay-laces, breechessuspenders,etc.
These tape-looms are a truly ancient form of appliance for the hand-weaving of narrow bands,—a
heddle-frame. They are rudely primitive in shape, but besides serving well the colonists in all our
original states, are still in use among the Indian tribes in New Mexico and in Lapland, Italy, and
northernGermany.Theyarescarcelymorethanaslightlyshapedboardsocutinslitsthatthecentre
oftheboardisarowofnarrowslats.Theseslatsarepiercedinarowbymeansofaheatedwireand
thewarp-threadsarepassedthroughtheholes.
A common form of braid-loom was one that was laid upon a table. A still simpler form was held
uprightonthelap,thekneesbeingfirmlypressedintosemicircularindentationscutforthepurpose
oneithersideoftheboardwhichformedthelowerpartoftheloom.Thetopoftheloomwassteadied
bybeingtiedwithabandtothetopofachair,orahookinthewall.Itwassuchlightandprettywork
that it seemed merely an industrial amusement, and girls carried their tape-looms to a neighbor's
houseforanafternoon'swork,justastheydidtheirknitting-needlesandballofyarn.Afringe-loom
mightalsobeoccasionallyfound,forweavingdecorativefringes;theseweremorecommoninthe
HudsonRivervalleythanelsewhere.
Ihavepurposelygivenminute,butItrustnottiresome,detailsoftheoperationofweavingonahandloom,becauseafewyearsmorewillseethelastofthosewhoknowtheoperationandthetermsused.
Thefactthatsomanytermsarenowobsoleteproveshowquicklydisusebringsoblivion.Whenina
country crowded full of weavers, as was England until about 1845, the knowledge has so suddenly
disappeared,needwehopeformuchgreatermemoryorlongerlifehere?Whenwhatistermedthe
WestmorelandRevivalofdomesticindustrieswasbeguneightortenyearsago,thegreatestdifficulty
wasfoundinobtainingahand-loom.Nooneknewhowtosetitup,anditwasalongtimebeforea
weavercouldbefoundtorunitandteachothersitsuse.
The first half of this century witnessed a vital struggle in England, and to an extent in America,
between hand and power machinery, and an interesting race between spinning and weaving. Under
old-time conditions it was calculated that it took the work of four spinners, who spun swiftly and
constantly,tosupplyoneweaver.Asspinningwaseverwhatwasknownasaby-industry,—thatis,one
thatchieflywasdonebybeingcaughtupatoddmoments,—thesupplybothinEnglandandAmerica
did not equal the weavers' demands, and ten spinners had to be calculated to supply yarn for one
weaver. Hence weavers never had to work very hard; as a rule, they could have one holiday in the
week.WhatwithSundays,wakes,andfairs,Irishweaversworkedonlytwohundreddaysintheyear.
InEnglandtheweaveroftenhadtospendonedayoutofthesixhuntingaroundthecountryforyarn
for weft. So inventive wits were set at work to enlarge the supply of yarn, and spinning machinery
wastheresult.Thereaftertheloomsandweaverswerepushedhardandhadtoturntoinvention.The
shuttlehadalwayssimplybeenpassedfromonehandtotheotheroftheweaveroneithersideofthe
web.Thefly-shuttlewasnowinvented,whichbyasimplepieceofmachinery,workedbyonehand,
threwtheshuttleswiftlybackwardandforward,andtheloomwasaheadintherace.Thencamethe
spinning-jenny, which spun yarn with a hundred spindles on each machine. But this was for weft
yarns,anddidnotmakestrongwarps.FinallyArkwrightsuppliedthislackinwater-twistor"throstlespun" yarn. All these inventions again overcrowded the weavers; all attempts at hand-spinning of
cotton had become quickly extinct. Wool-spinning lingered longer. Five Tomlinson sisters,—the
youngestfortyyearsold,—withtwopairofwool-cardsandfivehand-wheels,paidtherentoftheir
farm,keptthreecows,onehorse,hadaploughedfield,andmadeprimebutterandeggs.Onesister
clungtoherspinningtill1822.Power-loomswereinventedtotrytouseupthejenny'ssupplyofyarn,
butthesedidnotcrowdouthand-looms.Weaversneverhadsogoodwages.ItwastheGoldenAgeof
Cotton.Somefamiliesearnedsixpoundsaweek;goodclothes,eventotheextentofruffledshirts,
good furniture, even to silver spoons, good food, plentiful ale and beer, entered every English
cottagewiththeweavingofcottonandwool.Afarmorerevolutionaryandmorehatedmachinethan
thepower-loomwasthecombing-machinecalledBigBen.
"ComeallyeMasterCombers,andhearofourBigBen.
He'llcombmorewoolthanfiftyofyourmen
Withtheirhand-combs,andcomb-pots,andsuchold-fashionedway."
Flax-spinningandlinen-weavingbypowermachinerywereslowerinbeingestablished.Englishmen
were halting in perfecting these machines. Napoleon offered in 1810 a million francs for a flaxspinningmachine.AcleverFrenchmanclaimedtohaveinventedoneinresponseinasingleday,but
similarclumsymachineshadthenbeenrunninginEnglandfortwentyyears.By1850men,women,
and children—combers, spinners, and weavers—were no longer individual workers; they had
becomepartofthatgreatmonster,themill-machinery.Riotsandmiserywerethefirstresultofthe
passingofhandweavingandspinning.
IntheVisionofPiersPloughman(1360)aretheselines:—
"Cloththatcomethfrothewevyng
Isnoughtcomlytowere
Tillitbefulledunderfoot
Orinfullyngstokkes
Wasshenwelwithwater
Andwithtaselescracched,
Y-toukedandy-tented
Andundertaillourshande."
Justsointhecoloniesfourcenturieslater,cloththatcamefromtheweavingwasnotcomelytowear
till it was fulled under foot or in fulling-stocks, washed well in water, scratched and dressed with
teazels,dyedandtented,andputinthetailor'shands.Nordidtherollofcenturiesbringachangein
the manner of proceeding. If grease had been put on the wool when it was carded, or sizing in the
warp for the weaving, it was washed out by good rinsing from the woven cloth. This became now
somewhat uneven and irregular in appearance, and full of knots and fuzzes which were picked out
withhand-tweezersbyburlersbeforeitwasfulledormilled,asitwassometimescalled.Thefullingstockswereatroughinwhichanenormousoakenhammerwasmadetopoundupanddown,while
theclothwaskeptthoroughlywetwithwarmsoapandwater,orfullers'earthandwater.Naturallythis
thickenedthewebmuchandreduceditinlength.Itwasthenteazelled;thatis,anaporroughsurface
wasraisedalloveritbyscratchingitwithweavers'teazelsorthistles.Manywirebrushesandmetal
substituteshavebeentriedtotaketheplaceofnature'sgifttothecloth-worker,theteazel,butnothing
hasbeeninventedtoreplacewithfullsatisfactionthatwonderfulscratcher.Fortheslenderrecurved
bractsoftheteazelheadsarestiffandpricklyenoughtoroughenthoroughlythenapofthecloth,yet
theyyieldatpreciselytherightpointtokeepfrominjuringthefabric.
Iftheclothweretobe"y-touked,"thatis,dyed,itwasdoneatthisperiod,anditwasthen"y-tented,"
spreadonthetenter-fieldandcaughtontenter-hooks,toshrinkanddry.
Nowadays,wesometimescutorcropthenapwithlongshears,andboilthewebtogiveitalustre,and
inkittocoloranyill-dyedfibres,andpressitbetweenhotplatesbeforeitgoestothetailor'shands;
but these injurious processes were omitted in olden times. Worsted stuffs were not fulled, but were
wovenofhand-combedwool.
Linenwebsaftertheywerewovenhadevenmoremanipulationstocometothemthanwoollenstuffs.
In spite of all the bleaching of the linen thread, it still was light brown in color, and it had to go
throughatleasttwoscoreotherprocesses,ofbucking,possing,rinsing,drying,andbleachingonthe
grass.Sometimesitwasstretchedoutonpegswithloopssewedontheselvageedge.Thisbleaching
was called crofting in England, and grassing in America. Often it was thus spread on the grass for
weeks,andwasslightlywettedseveraltimesaday;butnottoowet,elseitwouldmildew.Inall,over
forty bleaching operations were employed upon "light linens." Sometimes they were "soured" in
buttermilktomakethempurelywhite.Thusatleastsixteenmonthshadpassedsincetheflaxseedhad
beensown,inwhich,truly,thespinsterhadnoteatenthebreadofidleness.Inthewintermonthsthe
fine, white, strong linen was made into "board cloths" or tablecloths, sheets, pillow-biers, aprons,
shifts,shirts,petticoats,shortgowns,gloves,cutfromthespinner'sownglovepattern,andascoreof
articles for household use. These were carefully marked, and sometimes embroidered with homedyed crewels, as were also splendid sets of bed-hangings, valances, and testers for four-post
bedsteads.
The homespun linens that were thus spun and woven and bleached were one of the most beautiful
expressions and types of old-time home life. Firm, close-woven, and pure, their designs were not
greatlyvaried,norwastheirwoofassymmetricalandperfectasmodernlinens—butthuswerethe
livesofthosewhomadethem;firm,close-woveninneighborlykindness,withthesimplicitybothof
innocenceandignorance;theirdayshadlittlevariety,andlifewasnotaltogethereasy,and,likethe
webtheywove,itwassometimesnarrow.Iamalwaystouchedwhenhandlingthesehomespunlinens
with a consciousness of nearness to the makers; with a sense of the energy and strength of those
enduringwomenwhoweresofullofvitality,ofunceasingaction,thatitdoesnotseemtometheycan
bedead.
The strong, firm linen woven in many struggling country homes was too valuable and too readily
exchangeableandsalabletobekeptwhollyforfarmuse,especiallywhenthereweresofewsalable
articlesproducedonthefarm.Itwassoldormorefrequentlyexchangedatthevillagestoreforany
desiredcommodity,suchascalico,salt,sugar,spices,ortea.Itreadilysoldforforty-twocentsayard.
Thereforetheboysandeventhefathersdidnotalwayshavelinenshirtstowear.Fromthetowwhich
had been hatchelled out from harl a coarse thread was spun and cloth was woven which was made
chiefly into shirts and smocks and tow "tongs" or "skilts," which were loose flapping summer
trouserswhichendedalmosthalf-wayfromthekneetotheankle.Thistowstuffwasneverfreefrom
prickling spines, and it proved, so tradition states, an absolute instrument of torture to the wearer,
untilfrequentwashingshadwornitoutandthussubdueditsknotsandspines.
AuniversalstuffwoveninNewHampshirebytheScotch-Irishlinen-weaverswhosettledthere,and
who influenced husbandry and domestic manufactures and customs all around them, was what was
known as striped frocking. It was worn also to a considerable extent in Connecticut and
Massachusetts. The warp was strong white cotton or tow thread, the weft of blue and white stripes
made by weaving alternately a shuttleful of indigo-dyed homespun yarn and one of white wool or
tow.Manyboysgrewtomanhoodneverwearing,exceptonSundays,anykindofcoatsavealong,
loose, shapeless jacket or smock of this striped frocking, known everywhere as a long-short. The
historyoftheoldtownofCharmingfaretellsofthefarmersinthatvicinitytyingtightthetwocorners
ofthislong-shortatthewaistandthusmakingasortofloosebaginwhichvariousarticlescouldbe
carried.SylvesterJudd,inhisMargaret,theclassicofoldNewEnglandlife,hashiscountrywomen
dressedalsoinlong-shorts,andtellsofthesamefabric.
Anothermaterialwhichwasuniversalincountrydistrictshadaflaxortowwarp,andacoarserslacktwistedcottonortowfilling.Thisclothwasdyedandpressedandwascalledfustian.Itwaswortha
shilling a yard in 1640. It was named in the earliest colonial accounts, and was in truth the ancient
fustian, worn throughout Europe in the Middle Ages for monks' robes and laborers' dress, not the
stuffto-daycalledfustian.WereadinTheSquierofLowDegree,"Yourblankettsshallbeoffustayne."
Another coarse cloth made in New England, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the Carolinas was crocus.
Thestuffisobsoleteandthenameisforgottensaveinafolk-sayingwhichlingersinVirginia—"as
coarseascrocus."Homespunstuffforthewearofnegroeswasknownandsoldas"Virginiacloth."
VastquantitiesofhomespunclothwasmadeonVirginianplantations,thousandsofyardsannuallyat
MountVernonforslave-wear,andforthehouse-mistressaswell.
ItistoldofMarthaWashingtonthatshealwayscarefullydyedallherwornsilkgownsandsilkscraps
toadesiredshade,ravelledthemwithcare,woundthemonbobbins,andhadthemwovenintochair
and cushion covers. Sometimes she changed the order of things. To a group of visitors she at one
timedisplayedadressofredandwhitestripedmaterialofwhichthewhitestripeswerecotton,andthe
red,ravelledchaircoversandsilkfromtheGeneral'sworn-outstockings.
Checkedlinen,withbarsofredorblue,wasmuchusedforbedticks,pillow-cases,towelling,aprons,
andevenshirtsandsummertrousers.InalltheDutchcommunitiesinNewYorkitwaswoventillthis
century. When Benjamin Tappan first attended meeting in Northampton, Massachusetts, in 1769, he
wassurprisedtofindthatallthemeninthechurchbutfourorfiveworecheckedshirts.Worcester
Countymenalwaysworewhiteshirts,anddeemedacheckedshirtthemarkofaConnecticutRiver
man.
It is impossible to overestimate the durability of homespun materials. I have "flannel sheets" a
hundred years old, the lightest, most healthful, and agreeable summer covering for children's beds
thateveranyonewasblessedwith.Cradlesheetsofthisthin,closelywoven,whiteworstedstuffare
notslimsylikethinflannel,yetaresofterthanflannel.Yearsofusewithmanygenerationsofchildren
haveleftthemfirmandwhite.
Grain-bagshavebeenseenthathavebeeninconstantandharduseforseventyyears,homespunfrom
coarseflaxandhemp.Ihaveseveraldelightfulbagsaboutfourfeetlongandtwofeetwide,ofrather
closely woven pure white homespun linen, not as heavy, however, as crash. They have the date of
their manufacture, 1789, and the initials of the weaver, and have linen tapes woven in at each side.
Theyareusedeveryspring—packedwithfursandblanketsandplacedincedarchests,andwithsuch
usagewilleasilyroundoutanothercentury.
The product of these hand-looms which has lingered longest in country use, especially in the
Northernstates,andwhichisthesoleproductofallthehand-loomsthatIknowtobesetupandinuse
inNewEngland(exceptonenotableexampletowhichIwillreferhereafter),istheragcarpet.Itis
stillinconstantdemandandesteemonfarmsandinsmallvillagesandtowns,andisaneconomical
andthrifty,andmaybeacomelyfloor-covering.Theaccompanyingillustrationofawomanweaving
rag carpet on an old hand-loom is from a fine photograph taken by Mrs. Arthur Sewall of Bath,
Maine,andgivesanexcellentpresentmentofthemachineandtheprocess.
The warp of these carpets was, in olden times, a strong, heavy flaxen thread. To-day it is a heavy
cotton twine bought machine-spun in balls or hanks. The weft or rilling is narrow strips of all the
cleanandvari-coloredragsthataccumulateinahousehold.
Thepreparingofthisfillingrequiresconsiderablejudgment.Heavywoollenclothshouldbecutin
stripsabouthalfaninchwide.Ifthereweresewnwiththesestripsoflightcottonstuffofequalwidth,
thecarpetwouldproveapoorthing,heavyinspotsandslimsyinothers.Hencelighterstuffsshould
becutinwiderstrips,astheycanthenbecrowdeddownbythebattenoftheloomtothesamewidth
andsubstanceastheheavywools.Calicoes,cottons,all-wooldelaines,andliningcambricsshouldbe
cutinstripsatleastaninchwide.Thesestrips,ofwhateverlengththeychancetobe,aresewnintoone
continuousstrip,whichisrolledintoahardballweighingaboutapoundandaquarter.Itiscalculated
thatoneoftheseballswillweaveaboutayardofcarpeting.Thejoiningmustbestronglyandneatly
doneandshouldnotbebunchy.Anagedweaverwhohadwovenmanythousandyardsofcarpeting
assured me the prettiest carpets were always those in which every alternate strip was white or very
lightincolor.Anotherthriftywayofusingoldmaterialisthecuttingintoinch-widestripsofwoven
ingrainorthree-plycarpet.This,throughthecottonwarp,makesareallyartisticmonochromefloorcovering.
In one of the most romantic and beautiful spots in old Narragansett lives the last of the old-time
weavers; not a weaver who desultorily weaves a run of rag carpeting to earn a little money in the
intervalsofotherwork,ortopleasesomeimportunatewoman-neighborwhohassavedupherrags;
but a weaver whose lifelong occupation, whose only means of livelihood, has always been, and is
still,hand-weaving.Ihavetoldhisstoryatsomelengthinmybook,OldNarragansett,—of his kin,
hislife,hiswork.Hishomeisatthecross-roadswherethreetownshipsmeet,across-roadswherehas
often taken place that curious and senseless survival of old-time tradition and superstition—shift
marriages.Awidow,acousinoftheWeaverRose'sfather,wasthelasttoundergothisordeal;clad
onlyinhershift,shethricecrossedtheKing'sHighwayandwasthusmarriedtoavoidpaymentofher
firsthusband'sdebts.ItisnotfarfromtheoldChurchFoundationofSt.Paul'sofNarragansett,and
the tumble-down house of Sexton Martin Read, the prince of Narragansett weavers in anteRevolutionarydays.WeaverRoselearnedtoweavefromhisgrandfather,whowasanapprenticeof
WeaverRead.
In the loom-room of Weaver Rose a veritable atmosphere of the past still lingers. Everything
appertainingtothemanufactureofhomespunmaterialsmaytherebefound.Wheels,skarnes,sleys,
warping-bars,clock-reels,swifts,quilling-wheels,vastbalesofyarnsandthread—forhenolonger
spins his thread and yarn. There are piles of old and new bed coverlets woven in those fanciful
geometric designs, which are just as the ancient Gauls wove them in the Bronze Age, and which
formed a favorite bed-covering of our ancestors, and of country folk to-day. These coverlets the
weavercallsbythegoodoldEnglishnameofhap-harlot,anamenowobsoleteinEngland,whichI
haveneverseenusedintextoflaterdatethanHolinshead'sSurvey of London, written four hundred
yearsago.Hismanuscriptpattern-bookisoverahundredyearsold,andhastherulesforsettingthe
harnesses.Theybearmanyprettyandoddnames,suchas"RosyWalk,""BaltimoreBeauty," "Girl's
Love," "Queen's Fancy," "Devil's Fancy," "Everybody's Beauty," "Four Snow Balls," "Five Snow
Balls,""BricksandBlocks,""Gardener'sNote,""GreenVails,""RoseinBloom,""PansiesandRoses
in the Wilderness," "Flag-Work," "Royal Beauty," "Indian March," "Troy's Beauty," "Primrose and
Diamonds," "Crown and Diamonds," "Jay's Fancy," "In Summer and Winter," "Boston Beauty," and
"IndianWar."Onenamed"BonyPart'sMarch"wasverypretty,aswas"OrangePeel,"and"Orange
Trees"; "Dog Tracks" was even checkerwork, "Blazing Star," a herring-bone design. "Perry's
Victory" and "Lady Washington's Delight" show probably the date of their invention, and were
handsomedesigns,whilethe"WhigRosefromGeorgia,"whichhadbeengiventotheweaverbyan
oldladyahundredyearsold,hadprovedapooranduglything."Kapa'sDiaper"wasacomplicated
design which took "five harnesses" to make. "Rattlesnake's Trail," "Wheels of Fancy," "Chariot
WheelsandChurchWindows,"and"Bachelor'sFancy"wereallexceptionallyfinedesigns.
Sometimesextremelyelaboratepatternswerewoveninearlierdays.Anexquisitelywovencoverletas
fine as linen sheeting, a corner of which is here shown, has an elaborate border of patriotic and
Masonic emblems, patriotic inscriptions, and the name of the maker, a Red Hook, Hudson valley,
dame of a century ago, who wove this beautiful bedspread as the crowning treasure of her bridal
outfit.The"setting-up"ofsuchadesignasthisisentirelybeyondmyskillasaweavertoexplainor
evencomprehend.Butitisevidentthatthebordermusthavebeenwovenbytakingupasinglewarpthreadatatime,withawireneedle,notbypassingashuttle,asitisfartoocomplicatedandvariedfor
anytreadle-harnesstobeabletomakeashedforashuttle.
Hand-weaving in Weaver Rose's loom-room to-day is much simplified in many of its preparatory
details by the employment of machine-made materials. The shuttles and spools are made by
machinery; and more important still, both warp and weft is purchased ready-spun from mills. The
warp is simply a stout cotton twine or coarse thread bought in balls or hanks; while various cheap
mill-yarnsorwhatisknownasworstedsorcoarsecrewelsareusedasfilling.These,ofcourse,are
cheap,butalas!aredyedwithfleetingorgarishanilinedyes.Nonewblueyarncanequaleitherin
color or durability the old indigo-dyed, homespun, hard-twisted yarn made on a spinning-wheel.
Germantown,earlyinthefieldinAmericanwoolmanufacture,stillsuppliesnearlyalltheyarnfor
hishand-looms.
ThetransitionhalfacenturyormoreagofromwhatHoraceBushnellcalled"motheranddaughter
powertowaterandsteampower,"wasacompleterevolutionindomesticlife,andindeedofsocial
mannersaswell.Whenapeoplespinandweaveandmaketheirowndress,youhaveinthisveryfact
theassurancethattheyarehome-bred,home-living,home-lovingpeople.Youaresure,also,thatthe
lives of the women are home-centred. The chief cause for women's intercourse with any of the
outside world except neighborly acquaintance, her chief knowledge of trade and exchange, is in
shopping,dressmaking,etc.Thesecausesscarcelyexistedincountrycommunitiesacenturyago.The
daughterswhoinourdaysoffactoriesleavethefarmforthecotton-mill,wheretheyperformbutone
ofthemanyoperationsinclothmanufacture,canneverbeasgoodhome-makersorashelpfulmates
as the homespun girls of our grandmothers' days; nor can they be such co-workers in great public
movements.
In the summer of 1775, when all the preparations for the War of the Revolution were in a most
unsettled and depressing condition, especially the supplies for the Continental army, the Provincial
Congressmadeademandonthepeopleforthirteenthousandwarmcoatstobereadyforthesoldiers
by cold weather. There were no great contractors then as now to supply the cloth and make the
garments,butbyhundredsofhearthstonesthroughoutthecountrywool-wheelsandhand-loomswere
startedeagerlyatwork,andtheorderwasfilledbythehandiworkofpatrioticAmericanwomen.In
therecordbookofsomeNewEnglandtownsmaystillbefoundthelistsofthecoat-makers.Inthe
inside of each coat was sewed the name of the town and the maker. Every soldier volunteering for
eightmonths'servicewasgivenoneofthesehomespun,home-made,all-woolcoatsasabounty.So
highly were these "Bounty Coats" prized, that the heirs of soldiers who were killed at Bunker Hill
beforereceivingtheircoatsweregivenasumofmoneyinstead.Thelistofnamesofsoldierswho
thenenlistedisknowntothisdayasthe"CoatRoll,"andthenamesofthewomenwhomadethecoats
might form another roll of honor. The English sneeringly called Washington's army the
"Homespuns." It was a truthful nickname, but there was deeper power in the title than the English
scoffersknew.
Thestartingupofpower-loomsandthewonderfulgrowthofwoollenmanufacturedidnotcrowdout
homespun as speedily in America as in England. When the poet Whittier set out from the Quaker
farmhousetogotoBostontoseekhisfortune,heworeahomespunsuiteverypartofwhich,eventhe
hornbuttons,wasofdomesticmanufacture.ManyamanbornsinceWhittierhasgrowntomanhood
clothedforevery-daywearwhollywithhomespun;andmanyaboyislivingwhowassenttocollege
dressedwhollyina"full-cloth"suit,withhornbuttonsorbuttonsmadeofdiscsofheavyleather.
DuringtheCivilWarspinningandweavingwererevivedartsintheConfederatecities;and,aseverin
earlierdays,provedamostvaluableeconomicresourceunderrestrictedconditions.Inthehomeofa
friend in Charleston, South Carolina, an old, worm-eaten loom was found in a garret where it had
lainsincetheembargoin1812.Itwassetupin1863,andplantationcarpentersmademanylikeitfor
neighbors and fellow-citizens. All women in the mountain districts knew how to use the loom, and
taughtweavingtomanyothers,bothwhiteandblack.Aportionofthewarp,whichwascotton,was
spun at home; more was bought from a cotton-factory. My friend sacrificed a great number of
excellent wool-mattresses; this wool was spun into yarn and used for weft, and formed a most
gratefulanddignifiedadditiontothevaried,grotesque,andinterestingmakeshiftsofthewardrobeof
theSouthernConfederacy.
Thoughweavingonhand-loomsinourNorthernandMiddlestatesispracticallyextinct,saveasto
theweavingofragcarpets(andthatonlyinfewcommunities),intheSouthallisdifferent.Inallthe
mountain and remote regions of Kentucky, Tennessee, Georgia, the Carolinas, and I doubt not in
Alabama,bothamongthewhiteandnegromountain-dwellers,hand-weavingisstillahouseholdart.
The descendants of the Acadians in Louisiana still weave and wear homespun. The missions in the
mountains encourage spinning and weaving; and it is pleasant to learn that many women not only
pursuethesehandicraftsfortheirhomeuse,butsomesecureagoodlivingbyhand-weaving,earning
ten cents a yard in weaving rag carpets. The coverlet patterns resemble the ones already described.
Names from Waynesville, North Carolina, are "Washington's Diamond Ring," "Nine Chariot
Wheels"; from Pinehurst come "Flowery Vine," "Double Table," "Cat Track," "Snow Ball and Dew
Drop,""SnakeShed,""FlowersintheMountains."AtPinehursttheoldsettlers,ofsturdyScotchstock,
allweave.Theymakecloth,allcotton;clothofcottonwarpandwoolfillingcalleddrugget;dimity,a
heavycottonusedforcoverlets;ayarnjeanwhichhaswoolwarpandfilling,andcottonjeanwhichis
cottonwarpandwoolfilling;homespunisaheavycloth,ofcottonandwoolmixed.Allbuycotton
warp or "chain," as they call it, ready-spun from the mills. This is known by the name of bunchthread. These Pinehurst weavers still use home-made dyes. Cotton is dyed black with dye made by
steeping the bark of the "Black Jack" or scrub-oak mixed with red maple bark. Wool is dyed black
with a mixture of gall-berry leaves and sumac berries; for red they use a moss which they find
growingontherocks,andwhichmaybethelichenRoccellatinctoria or dyer's-moss; also madder
root,andsassafrasbark.Yellowisdyedwithlaurelleaves,or"dye-flower,"ayellowflowerofthe
sunflowertribe;laurelleavesand"dye-flower"togethermadeorange-red.Blueisobtainedfromthe
plentifulwildindigo;andforgreen,theclothoryarnisfirstdyedbluewithindigo,thenboiledina
decoctionofhickorybarkandlaurelleaves.Abrightyellowisobtainedfromaclaywhichabounds
inthatneighborhood,probablylikearedferruginouslimestonefoundinTennessee,whichgivesa
splendid,fastcolor;whentheclayisbakedandgrounditgivesafine,artistic,dullred.Purpledye
comesfromcedartopsandlilacleaves;brownfromanextractofwalnuthulls.
Theaffectionateregardwhichallgoodworkmenhavefortheirtoolsandimplementsinhandcraftsis
foundamongtheseSouthernweavers.Oneassuresmethatherloveforherloomisasforahuman
companion. The machines are usually family heirlooms that have been owned for several
generations,andaretreasuredlikerelics.
CHAPTERXI
GIRLS'OCCUPATIONS
Hatchelling and carding, spinning and reeling, weaving and bleaching, cooking, candle and cheese
making,werenottheonlyhouseholdoccupationsofourbusygrandmotherswhentheywereyoung;a
scoreofdomesticdutieskepteverbusytheirreadyhands.
Some notion of the qualifications of a housekeeper over a century ago may be obtained from this
advertisementinthePennsylvaniaPacketofSeptember23,1780:
"WantedataSeatabouthalfaday'sjourneyfromPhiladelphia,onwhicharegoodimprovementsand
domestics, A single Woman of unsullied Reputation, an affable, cheerful, active and amiable
Disposition; cleanly, industrious, perfectly qualified to direct and manage the female Concerns of
country business, as raising small stock, dairying, marketing, combing, carding, spinning, knitting,
sewing,pickling,preserving,etc.,andoccasionallytoinstructtwoyoungLadiesinthoseBranchesof
Oeconomy,who,withtheirfather,composetheFamily.Suchapersonwillbetreatedwithrespectand
esteem,andmeetwitheveryencouragementduetosuchacharacter."
Respectandesteem,forsooth!anddueencouragementtosuchamiracleofsaintlinessandcapacity;
lighttermsindeedtoapplytosuchacharacter.
There is, in the library of the Connecticut Historical Society, a diary written by a young girl of
Colchester,Connecticut,intheyear1775.HernamewasAbigailFoote.Shesetdownherdailywork,
andtheentriesrunlikethis:—
"Fix'd gown for Prude,—Mend Mother's Riding-hood,—Spun short thread,—Fix'd two gowns for
Welsh'sgirls,—Cardedtow,—Spunlinen,—WorkedonCheese-basket,—Hatchel'dflaxwithHannah,
we did 51 lbs. apiece,—Pleated and ironed,—Read a Sermon of Doddridge's,—Spooled a piece,—
Milkedthecows,—Spunlinen,did50knots,—MadeaBroomofGuineawheatstraw,—Spunthreadto
whiten,—SetaReddye,—HadtwoScholarsfromMrs.Taylor's,—Icardedtwopoundsofwholewool
andfeltNationly,—Spunharnesstwine,—Scouredthepewter."
She tells also of washing, cooking, knitting, weeding the garden, picking geese, etc., and of many
visitstoherfriends.Shedippedcandlesinthespring,andmadesoapintheautumn.Thislatterwasa
tryingandburdensomedomesticduty,butthesoftsoapwasimportantforhomeuse.
Alltherefusegreasefromcooking,butchering,etc.,wasstoredthroughthewinter,aswellaswoodashes from the great fireplaces. The first operation was to make the lye, to "set the leach." Many
familiesownedastronglymadeleach-barrel;othersmadeasortofbarrelfromasectionofthebark
ofthewhitebirch.Thisbarrelwasplacedonbricksorsetataslightangleonacirculargrooveina
wood or stone base; then filled with ashes; water was poured in till the lye trickled or leached out
through an outlet cut in the groove, into a small wooden tub or bucket. The water and ashes were
frequentlyreplenishedastheywasted,andthelyeaccumulatedinalargetuborkettle.Ifthelyewas
notstrongenough,itwaspouredoverfreshashes.Anold-timereceiptsays:—
"ThegreatDifficultyinmakingSoapcomeisthewantofJudgmentoftheStrengthoftheLye.Ifyour
LyewillbearupanEggoraPotatosoyoucanseeapieceoftheSurfaceasbigasaNinepenceitis
juststrongenough."
Thegreaseandlyewerethenboiledtogetherinagreatpotoverafireoutofdoors.Ittookaboutsix
bushelsofashesandtwenty-fourpoundsofgreasetomakeabarrelofsoap.Thesoftsoapmadeby
thisprocessseemedlikeacleanjelly,andshowednotraceoftherepulsivegreasethathelpedtoform
it.Ahardsoapalsowasmadewiththetallowofthebayberry,andwasdeemedespeciallydesirable
fortoiletuse.Butlittlehardsoapwaspurchased,evenincityhomes.
It was a common saying: "We had bad luck with our soap," or good luck. The soap was always
carefully stirred one way. The "Pennsylvania Dutch" used a sassafras stick to stir it. A good smart
workercouldmakeabarrelofsoapinaday,andhavetimetositandrestintheafternoonandtalkher
luckover,beforegettingsupper.
Thissoftsoapwasusedinthegreatmonthlywashingswhich,foracenturyafterthesettlementofthe
colonies, seem to have been the custom. The household wash was allowed to accumulate, and the
washingdoneonceamonth,orinsomehouseholdsonceinthreemonths.
Thomas Tusser's rhymed instructions to good housekeepers as to the washing contain chiefly
warningstothehousekeeperagainstthieves,thus:—
"Drysun,drywind,
Safebind,safefind.
Gowashwell,saithsummer,withsunIshalldry;
Gowringwell,saithwinter,withwindsoshallI.
Totrustwithoutheedistoventureajoint,
Givetaleandtakecountisahousewifelypoint."
AbigailFootewroteofmakingabroomofGuineawheat.Thiswasnotbroom-corn,forthatuseful
plantwasnotgrowninConnecticutforthepurposeofbroom-makingtilltwentyyearsormoreafter
shewroteherdiary.BroomsandbrushesweremadeofitinItalynearlytwocenturiesago.Benjamin
Franklin,whowaseverquicktouseanddevelopanythingthatwouldbenefithisnativecountry,and
was ever ready to take a hint, noted a few seeds of broom-corn hanging on an imported brush. He
plantedtheseseedsandraisedsomeofthecorn;andThomasJeffersonplacedbroom-cornamongthe
productionsofVirginiain1781.Bythistimemanyhadplantedit,butnosystematicplanofraising
broom-cornabundantlyforthemanufactureofbroomswasplannedtill1798,whenLeviDickenson,
aYankeefarmerofHadley,Massachusetts,plantedhalfanacre.Fromthishemadebetweenoneand
twohundredbroomswhichhepeddledinahorse-cartinneighboringtowns.Thefollowingyearhe
plantedanacre;andthetallbroom-cornwithitsspreadingpaniclesattractedmuchattention.Though
hewasthoughtvisionarywhenhepredictedthatbroommanufacturewouldbethegreatestindustryin
thecounty,andthoughhewassneeringlytoldthatonlyIndiansoughttomakebrooms,hepersevered;
and his neighbors finally planted and made brooms also. He carried brooms soon to Pittsfield, to
New London, and in 1805 to Albany and Boston. So rapid was the increase of manufacture that in
1810seventythousandbroomsweremadeinthecounty.Sincethenmillionsofdollars'worthhave
goneforthfromthefarmsandvillagesinhisneighborhood.
Mr.Dickensonatfirstscrapedtheseedfromthebrushwithaknife;thenheusedasortofhoe;thena
coarsecomblikearipple-comb.Hetiedeachbroombyhand,withthehelpofanegroservant.Much
ofthisworkcouldbedonebylittlegirls,whosoongavegreathelpinbroommanufacture;though
thefinalsewing(whentheneedlewaspressedthroughwithaleather"palm"suchassailorsuse)had
tobedonebythestronghandsofgrownwomenandmen.
Doubtless Abigail Foote made many an "Indian broom," as well as her brooms of Guinea wheat,
whichmayhavebeenaspecialhomemanufactureofherneighborhood;formanyfibres,leaves,and
strawswereusedlocallyinbroom-making.
Anotherdutyofthewomenoftheold-timehouseholdwasthepickingofdomesticgeese.Geesewere
raised for their feathers more than as food. In some towns every family had a flock, and their
clankingwasheardalldayandsometimesallnight.Theyroamedthestreetsallsummer,eatinggrass
bythehighwaysandwallowinginthepuddles.Sometimestheywereyokedwithagoose-yokemade
ofashinglewithaholeinit.Inmidwintertheywerekeptinbarnyards,buttherestoftheyearthey
spentthenightinthestreet,eachflocknearthehomeofitsowner.Itissaidthatoneoldgooseofeach
flock always kept awake and stood watch; and it was told in Hadley, Massachusetts, that if a young
manchancedtobeoutlate,asforinstancea-courting,hisreturnhomewakenedthegeesethroughout
thevillage,whosoundedtheunseasonablehourwithaterribleclamor.Theymadesomuchnoiseon
summerSundaysthattheyseriouslydisturbedchurchservices;andbecamesuchnuisancesthatatlast
theboyskilledwholeflocks.
Goose-pickingwascruelwork.Threeorfourtimesayearwerethefeathersstrippedfromthelive
birds.Astockingwaspulledoverthebird'sheadtokeepitfrombiting.Sometimestheheadwasthrust
intoagoosebasket.Thepickershadtowearoldclothesandtiecoversoverthehair,asthedownflew
everywhere. The quills, used for pens, were never pulled but once from a goose. Palladius, On
Husbondrie, written in the fourth century, and Englished in the fifteenth century, tells of goosepicking:—
"Twiceayeredeplumedmaytheybe,
Inspryngentymeandharvesttyme."
The old Latin and English times for picking were followed in the New World. Among the Dutch,
geesewereeverywhereraised;forfeather-bedswere,ifpossible,moredesiredbytheDutchthanthe
English.
In a work entitled Good Order established in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, written by a Quaker in
1685, he urges that schools be provided where girls could be instructed in "the spinning of flax,
sewing, and making all sorts of useful needle work, knitting of gloves and stockings, making of
straw-works, as hats, baskets, etc., or any other useful art or mystery." It was a century before his
"makingofstraw-works"wascarriedout,nottilllargerimportationsofstrawhatsandbonnetscame
tothiscountry.
WhenthebeautifulandintricatestrawbonnetsofItalianbraid,Genoese,Leghorn,andothers,were
broughthere,theyweretoocostlyformanytopurchase;andmanyattempts,especiallybycountrybredgirls,weremadetoplaitathomestrawbraidstoimitatetheseenviedbonnets.Manytownsclaim
thefirstAmericanstrawbonnet;infact,theattemptswerealmostsimultaneous.ToBetseyMetcalfof
Providence,RhodeIsland,isusuallyaccordedthehonorofstartingthestraw-hatbusinessinAmerica.
The earliest recorded effort to manufacture straw head-wear is shown in a patent given to Mrs.
SibyllaMastersofPhiladelphia,forusingpalmettoandstrawforhats.ThisMrs.Masterswasthefirst
American, man or woman, ever awarded a patent in England. The first patent issued by the United
States to a woman was also for an invention in straw-plaiting. A Connecticut girl, Miss Sophia
Woodhouse,wasgivenaprizefor"leghornhats"whichshehadplaited;andshetookoutapatentin
1821foranewmaterialforbonnets.Itwasthestalks,abovetheupperjoint,ofspear-grassandredtop
grassgrowingsoprofuselyinWeathersfield.Fromthisshehadanationalreputation,andaprizeof
twenty guineas was given her the same year by the London Society of Arts. The wife of President
JohnQuincyAdamsworeoneofthesebonnets,tothegreatprideofherhusband.
Whenthebonnetwasbraidedandsewedintoshape,ithadtobebleached,foritwasthedarknatural
straw. I don't know the domestic process in general use, but an ingenious family of sisters in
Newburyportthusaccomplishedtheirbleaching.Theyboredholesintheheadofabarrel;tiedstrings
to each new bonnet; passed the strings through the holes and carefully plugged the openings with
wood.Thisleftthebonnetshanginginsidethebarrel,whichwassetoveranold-fashionedfoot-stove
filledwithhotcoalsonwhichsulphurhadbeenplaced.Thefumesoftheburningsulphuraroseand
filledthebarrel,andwerecloselyretainedbyquiltswrappedaroundit.Whenthebonnetsweretaken
out, they were clear and white. The base of a lignum-vitæ mortar made into the proper shape with
layersofpasteboardformedthemouldonwhichthebonnetcrownwaspressed.
Even before they could spin girls were taught to knit, as soon as their little hands could hold the
needles. Sometimes girls four years of age could knit stockings. Boys had to knit their own
suspenders.Allthestockingsandmittensforthefamily,andcoarsesocksandmittensforsale,were
madeinlargenumbers.Muchfineknittingwasdone,withmanyintricateandelaboratestitches;those
knownasthe"herring-bone"and"foxandgeese"weregreatfavorites.Bytheuseofcuriousstitches
initialscouldbeknitintomittens;anditissaidthatoneyoungNewHampshiregirl,usingfineflaxen
yarn,knitthewholealphabetandaverseofpoetryintoapairofmittens;whichIthinkmusthavebeen
long-armedmittsforladies'wear,tohavespaceenoughforthepoetry.
To knit a pair of double mittens was a sharp and long day's work. Nancy Peabody's brother of
Shelburne,NewHampshire,camehomeonenightandsaidhehadlosthismittenswhilechoppingin
thewoods.Nancyrantoabundleofwoolinthegarret,cardedandspunabighankofyarnthatnight.
It was soaked and scoured the next morning, and in twenty-four hours from the time the brother
announced his loss he had a fine new pair of double mittens. A pair of double hooked and pegged
mittenswouldlastforyears.Pegging,Iamtold,washeavycrocheting.
An elaborate and much-admired form of knitting was the bead bags and purses which were so
fashionableintheearlyyearsofthiscentury,thoughIhaveseensomeknittedbagsofcolonialdays.
Greatvarietyandingenuitywereshowninthesebagsandpurses.Someborelandscapesandfigures;
others were memorials done in black and white and purple beads, having so-called "mourning
designs,"suchasweepingwillows,gravestones,urns,etc.,withthenameofthedeceasedpersonand
date of death. Beautiful bags were knitted to match wedding-gowns. Knitted purses were a favorite
tokenandgiftfromfairhandstohusbandorlover.Watchchainsweremoreunusual;theywereknit
inageometricaldesign,wereaboutayardlongandaboutthree-eighthsofaninchindiameter.OneI
sawhadintinylettersingiltbeadsthedateandthewords"RemembertheGiver."Inalltheseknitted
andcrochetedbagsthebeadshadtobestrungbyaruleinadvance;inanelaboratepatternofmany
colorsitmayeasilybeseenthatthemistakeofasinglebeadinthestringingwouldspoiltheentire
design.Theywerethereforeneveracheapformofdecorativework.Fivedollarswasoftenpaidfor
knittingasinglebag.AvariedgroupfromthecollectionofMr.J.HowardSwiftofChicagoishere
shown.
Nettingwasanotherdecorativehandiwork.Nettedfringesforedgingthecoverlets,curtains,testers,
andvalancesofhigh-postbedsteadswereusuallymadeofcottonthreadortwine,andwhentuftedor
tasselled were a pretty finish. A finer silk or cotton netting was used for trimming sacks and
petticoats. A letter written by Mrs. Carrington from Mount Vernon in 1799 says of Mrs. President
Washington:—
"Hernettingisasourceofgreatamusementtoherandissoneatlydonethatalltheyoungerpartof
thefamilyareproudoftrimmingtheirdresseswithit,andhavefurnishedmewithawholesuitsothat
Ishallappear'aladomestique'atthefirstpartywehavewhenIgethome."
Netted purses and work-bags also were made similar to the knitted ones. A homelier and heavier
nettingoftwinewasoftendoneathomeforsmallfishing-nets.
Previous to the Revolution there was a boarding-school kept in Philadelphia in Second Street near
Walnut,byaMrs.SarahWilson.Shethusadvertised:—
"Youngladiesmaybeeducatedinagenteelmanner,andpainstakentoteachtheminregardtotheir
behaviour,onreasonableterms.Theymaybetaughtallsortsfineneedlework,viz.,workingoncatgut
or flowering muslin, sattin stitch, quince stitch, tent stitch, cross-stitch, open work, tambour,
embroidering curtains or chairs, writing and cyphering. Likewise waxwork in all its several
branches,neverasyetparticularlytaughthere;alsohowtotakeprofilesinwax,tomakewaxflowers
andfruitsandpin-baskets."
There was no limit to the beauty and delicacy of the embroidery of those days. I have seen the
beautiful needlework cap and skirt worn by Governor Thomas Johnson of Maryland, when he was
christened. The coat of arms of both the Lux and Johnson families, the name Agnes Lux and Anne
Johnson, and the words "God bless the Babe" are embroidered upon them in most delicate fairy
stitches.ThebabegrewuptobethegovernorofhisstateinRevolutionarytimes.
In an old book printed in 1821, a set of rules is given for teaching needlework, and it is doubtless
exactlywhathadbeenthemethodforacentury.Thegirlswerefirstshownhowtoturnahemona
pieceofwastepaper;thentheyproceededtothevariousstitchesinthisorder:tohem,tosewandfell
aseam,todrawthreadsandhemstitch,togatherandsewongathers,tomakebuttonholes,tosewon
buttons,todoherring-bonestitch,todarn,tomark,totuck,whip,andsewonafrill.Thereisalsoa
longandtedioussetofquestionsandanswerslikeacatechism,explainingthevariousstitches.
Therewasonepieceofneedleworkwhichwasdonebyeverylittlegirlwhowascarefullybroughtup:
she sewed a sampler. These were worked in various beautiful and difficult stitches in colored silks
andwoolonastrong,looselywovencanvas.
In English collections, the oblong samplers, long and narrow, are as a rule older than the square
samplers; and it is safe to believe the same of American samplers. Fortunately, many of them are
dated,butthisancientonefromtheQuincyfamilyhasnodate.TheoldestsamplerIhaveeverseenis
inthecollectionofantiquearticlesnowinPilgrimHallatPlymouth.Itwasmadebyadaughterofthe
Pilgrims.Theverseembroideredonitreads:—
"LoreaStandishisMyName.
LordGuidemyHeartthatImaydothyWill,
AndfillmyHandswithsuchconvenientskill
AswillconducetoVirtuevoidofShame,
AndIwillgivetheGlorytothyName."
Similarverses,andportionsofhymns,areoftenfoundonthesesamplers.Afavoriterhymewas:—
"WhenIwasyoungandinmyPrime,
YouseehowwellIspentmyTime.
Andbymysampleryoumaysee
WhatcaremyParentstookofme."
Averyspiritedverseis:—
"You'llmendyourlifeto-morrowstillyoucry.
InwhatfarCountrydoesTo-morrowlie?
Itstayssolong,isfetch'dsofar,Ifear
'Twillprovebothveryold,andverydear."
Strange trees and fruits and birds and beasts, wonderful vines and flowers, were embroidered on
thesedomestictapestries.
Inthehandsofaskilfulworker,thesamplermightbecomeathingofbeautyandhistoricalinterest;
andthestitcheslearnedandpractisedonitmightbeusedonmoreambitiouspiecesofwork,which
often took the shape of the family coat of arms. Such was the work of Mary Salter (Mrs. Henry
Quincy),whowasbornin1726,anddiedin1755.ItisthearmsofSalterandBryanpartyperpale
uponashield.Richinembossedworkingoldandsilverthread,itisabeautifultestimonialtothedeft
andproficienthandoftheyoungneedlewomanwhoembroideredit.
Sometimespretentiouspicturesrepresentingeventsinpublicorfamilyhistory,wereembroideredin
crewels on sampler linen. The largest and funniest one I have ever seen was the boarding-school
climax of glory of Miss Hannah Otis, sister of the patriot James Otis. It is a view of the Hancock
House, Boston Common, and vicinity, as they appeared from 1755 to 1760. Across its expanse
GovernorHancockridestriumphantly;andthefairmaidlookingoverthegardenwallattheCharles
River is Dorothy Quincy, afterwards Madam Hancock. This triumph of school-girl affection and
needle-craft,whollydevoidofperspectiveorproportion,madeagreatsensationinBoston,initsday.
Another large piece of similar work is here represented. The original is in the library of the
American Antiquarian Society at Worcester, Massachusetts. It is a view of the Old South Church,
Boston; and with its hooped dames and coach and footman, has a certain value as indicating the
costumeofthetimes.Itisdated1756.
Familiar to the descendants of old New England families, are the embroidered mourning pieces.
Theseareseldommorethanacenturyold.Onthemweepingwillowsandurns,tombsandmourning
figures,namesofdepartedfriendswithdatesoftheirdeaths,andepitaphswereworkedwithvastskill,
andweresomuchadmiredandweresuchadelightfulhomedecoration,thatitisnounusualthingto
findtheseelaboratemementomoriswithemptyspacesfornamesanddates,waitingforsomeoneto
die, and still unfilled, unfinished, blankly commemorative of no one, while the industrious
embroidererhaslongsincegonetothetombshesodeftlyandeagerlypictured,andhername,too,is
forgotten.
Tambourworkwasafavoriteformofembroidery.In1788MadamHesseliuswrotethusinjestofher
daughter,aPhiladelphiamiss:—
"Totambouroncrapeshehasagreatpassion,
Becausehereoflateithasbeenmuchthefashion.
Theshadesaredis-sorted,thespanglesarescattered
Andforwantofduecarethecrapehasgottattered."
Tambouring with various stitches on different kinds of net made pretty laces; and these were
apparentlythelacesusuallyworkedandworn.Intheformofrichveilsandcollarsscoresofintricate
andbeautifulstitcheswereused,andexquisitearticlesofwearweremanufactured.
Astripofnetfootingpinnedandsewntopaper,withreelsoffinelinenthreadandthreadedneedle
attached,isshownintheaccompanyingillustrationjustasitwasleftbythedeftandindustrioushands
thathavebeenfoldedforacenturyinthedust.Thepatternandstitchesinthisdesignaresimple;the
design was first pricked in outline with a pin, then worked in. Other stitches and patterns, none of
themthemostelaborateanddifficult,areshownintheinfant'scapandcollars,andthestripsoflace
and"modesty-piece."
In the seventeenth century lace-making with bobbins was taught; it is referred to in Judge Sewall's
diary; and a friend has shown me the cushion and bobbins used by her far-away grandmother who
learnedthevariousstitchesinLondonataguineaastitch.
Thefeminineloveofcolor,thelongingfordecoration,aswellasprideinskillofneedle-craft,found
riotousexpansioninquilt-piecing.Athriftyeconomy,too,adesiretouseupallthefragmentsandbits
ofstuffswhichwerenecessarilycutoutintheshaping,chieflyofwomen'sandchildren'sgarments,
helpedtomakethepatchworkasatisfaction.Theamountoflabor,ofcarefulfitting,neatpiecing,and
elaborate quilting, the thousands of stitches that went into one of these patchwork quilts, are to-day
almostpainfultoregard.Womenrevelledinintricateanddifficultpatchwork;theyeagerlyexchanged
patterns with one another; they talked over the designs, and admired pretty bits of calico, and
pondered what combinations to make, with far more zest than women ever discuss art or examine
highartspecimenstogetherto-day.Therewasonesatisfactoryconditioninthework,andthatwasthe
quality of the cottons and linens of which the patchwork was made. They were none of the slimsy,
composition-filled,aniline-dyedcalicoesofto-day.Apieceof"chaney,""patch,"or"copper-plate"a
hundred years old will be as fresh to-day as when woven. Real India chintzes and palampours are
foundinthesequilts,beautifulandartisticstuffs,andthefirm,unyielding,high-priced,"real"French
calicoes.
Asenseoftheidealizationofquilt-piecingisgivenalsobythequaintdescriptivenamesappliedtothe
various patterns. Of those the "Rising-sun," "Log Cabin," and "Job's Trouble" are perhaps the most
familiar."Job'sTrouble"wassimplyhoneycomborhexagonalblocks."TosetaJob'sTrouble,"was
tocutoutanexacthexagonforapattern(preferablyfromtin,otherwisefromfirmcardboard);tocut
outfromthismanyhexagonsinstiffbrownpaperorletterpaper.Thesewerecoveredwiththebitsof
calicowiththeedgesturnedunder;thesidesweresewedcarefullytogetheroverandover,tillafirm
expansepermittedtheremovalofthepapers.
The name of the pattern seldom gave an expression of its character. "Dove in the Window," "Rob
PetertoPayPaul,""BlueBrigade,""Fan-mill,""Crow'sFoot,""ChinesePuzzle,""Fly-wheel,""Loveknot,""Sugar-bowl,"aresimplywhimsoffancy.Floralnames,suchas"DutchTulip,""Sunflower,"
"RoseofSharon,""Bluebells,""World'sRose,"mightsuggestaloveofflowers.Sometimesdesigns
areappliquedonwithsomeregardforcoloring.Ioncesawaquiltthatwasamiracleoftediouswork.
Thesquaresofwhitecottoneachheldaslenderstemwithtwoleavesofgreenorlightbrowncalico,
surmountedbyafour-petalledflowerofhigh-coloredcalico,—pink,red,blue,etc.Thisdesignwas
allcarefullyhemmeddown.TheeffectwassurprisinglyOriental.
When the patchwork was completed, it was laid flatly on the lining (often another expanse of
patchwork), with layers of wool or cotton wadding between, and the edges were basted all around.
Fourbarsofwood,abouttenfeetlong,"thequiltin'-frame,"wereplacedatthefouredges,thequilt
wassewedtothemwithstoutthread,thebarscrossedandtiedfirmlyatcorners,andthewholeraised
onchairsortablestoaconvenientheight.Thusaroundtheoutstretchedquiltadozenquilterscouldsit
runningthewholetogetherwithfancifulsetdesignsofstitching.Whenaboutafootoneithersidewas
whollyquilted,itwasrolleduponitsbar,andtheworkwenton;thusthevisiblequiltdiminished,like
Balzac's Peau de Chagrin, in a united and truly sociable work that required no special attention, in
which all were facing together and all drawing closer together as the afternoon passed in intimate
gossip. Sometimes several quilts were set up. I know of a ten days' quilting-bee in Narragansett in
1752.
In early days calicoes were not common, but every one had woollen garments and pieces, and the
quilts made of these were of grateful warmth in bleak New England. All kinds of commonplace
garmentsandremnantsofdecayedgentilitywerepressedintoserviceinthesequilts:portionsofthe
moth-eatenanddiscardeduniformsofmilitia-men,worn-outflannelsheetsdyedwithsomebrilliant
home-dye, old coat and cloak linings, well-worn petticoats. A magnificent scarlet cloak worn by a
lord mayor of London and brought to America by a member of the Merritt family of Salisbury,
Massachusetts,wentthroughaseriesofadventuresandmigrations,andendeditsdaysassmallbitsof
vividcolorcastingagratefulgloryandvarietyonapatchworkquiltintheSacovalleyofMaine.To
thisdayatvenduesorsalesofoldcountryhouseholdsinNewEngland,therewillbehandedoutgreat
rollsofwoollenpiecestobeusedforpatchworkquiltsorragcarpets,andtheyfindpurchasers.
These woollen quilts had a thin wadding, and were usually very closely quilted, so they were quite
flat.Theywerecalled"pressedquilts."AnoldfarmwifesaidtomeinNewHampshire,"Girlswon't
take the trouble to make pressed quilts nowadays, it's as much as they'll do to tack a puff," that is,
makealightquiltwiththickwaddingonlytackedtogetherfromfronttoback,atregularintervals.A
pressedquiltwhichIsawwasquiltedininchsquares.Anotherhadafan-patternwithsunflowerleaf
border;anotherwasquiltedintheelaboratepatternknownas"feather-work."
Asmuchingenuitywasexercisedinthedesignofthequiltingasinthepatternofthepatchwork,and
the marking for the quilt design was exceedingly tedious, since, of course, no drawings could be
used.Irememberseeingonequiltmarkedbychalkingstringswhichwerestretchedtightlyacrossat
thedesiredintervals,andheldupandsnappedsmartlydownonthequilt,leavingafaintchalkylineto
guide the eye and needle. Another simple design was to quilt in rounds, using a saucer or plate to
formaperfectcircle.
The most elaborate quilt I know of is of silk containing portions of the wedding-dress of Esther
Powel, granddaughter of Gabriel Bernon; she was married to James Helme in 1738. When her
granddaughter was married in 1795, the quilt was still unfinished, and a woman was hired who
workedonitforsixmonths,puttingamiracleoffinestitchesinthequilting.Ithinkshemusthave
been very old and very slow, for the wages paid her were but twenty cents a week and "her keep,"
whichwasverysmallpayeveninthatdayofsmallwages.WhenWashingtoncametoNewport,this
splendidquiltwassenttogracethebeduponwhichtheheroslept.
Isaidafewsummersagotoafarmer'swifewholivedontheoutskirtsofasmallNewEnglandhillvillage:"Yourhomeisverybeautiful.Fromeverywindowtheviewisperfect."Sheansweredquickly:
"Yes,butit'sawfullonelyforme,forIwasborninWorcester;stillIdon'tmindaslongaswehave
plenty of quiltings." In answer to my questions she told me that the previous winter she had "kept
count,"andshehadhelpedattwenty-eight"regular"quiltings,besidesherownhomepatchworkand
quilt-making, and much informal help of neighbors on plain quilts. Any one who has attended a
county fair (one not too modernized and spoiled) and seen the display of intricate patchwork and
quiltingstillmadeincountryhomes,canseethatitisnotanobsoleteaccomplishment.
A form of decorative work in which many women took great delight and became astonishingly
skilfulwaswhatwasknown,oratanyrateadvertised,bytheambitioustitleofPapyrotamia.Itwas
simplythecuttingoutofstiffpaperofvariousdecorativeandornamentaldesignswithscissors.At
thetimeoftheRevolutionitwasevidentlydeemedaveryhighaccomplishment,andthebestpiecesof
workwerecarefullycherished,mountedonblackpaper,framedandglazed,andgiventofriendsor
bequeathed by will. One old lady is remembered as using her scissors with extraordinary deftness,
andamusingherselfanddelightingherfriendsbyoccupyingthehoursofeveryafternoonvisitwith
cuttingoutentirelybyhertrainedeyevariousprettyandcuriousdesigns.Valentinesinexceedingly
delicate and appropriate patterns, wreaths and baskets of varied flowers, marine views, religious
symbols, landscapes, all were accomplished. Coats of arms and escutcheons cut in black paper and
mountedonwhitewerehighlyprized.Portraitsilhouetteswerecutwiththeaidofamachinewhich
markedandreducedmechanicallyasharpshadowcastbythesitter'sprofilethroughcandle-lightona
sheetofwhitepaper.Mrs.LydiaH.Sigourneywroteinrhymeofareveredfriendofheryouth,Mrs.
Lathrop,ofaperiodaboutacenturyago:—
"Thydextrousscissorsreadytoproduce
Theflyingsquirrelorthelong-neck'dgoose,
Ordancinggirlswithhandstogetherjoin'd,
Ortallspruce-treeswithwreathsofrosestwin'd,
Thewell-dress'ddollswhosepaperformdisplay'd,
Thypenknife'slaborandthypencil'sshade."
Ioncefoundinanoldlacqueredboxinacupboardapaperpacketcontainingallthecut-paperdesigns
mentioned in this rhyme—and many more. The workmanship of the "spruce-trees with wreaths of
roses twin'd" was specially marvellous. I plainly saw in that design a derivative of the English
Maypole and encircling wreaths. This package was marked with the name of the paper-cutter, a
Revolutionary dame who died at the beginning of this century. Her home was remote from the
NorwichhomeofMrs.Lathrop,andIknowshenevervisitedinConnecticut,yetshemadeprecisely
thesamedesignsandindeedallthedesigns.Thisisbutapettyproofamongmanyothermoredecided
onesofthefactthateveninthosedaysofscantcommunicationandinfrequentandcontractedtravel,
there were as in our own times waves of feminine fancy work, of attempts at artistic expression,
which flooded every home, and receding, left behind much decorative silt of varying but nearly
universaluselessnessandlaboriouscommonplaceness.
Oneofthecut-paperlandscapesofMadamDeming,aBostonladywhowasafamous"papyrotamist,"
ishereshown.ItisnowownedbyJamesF.Trott,Esq.,ofNiagaraFalls.ItisaviewofBostonstreets
just previous to the Revolution. In that handsome volume, the Ten Broeck Genealogical Record, are
reproductionsofsomeofthelandscapeviewsbyAlbertinaTenBroeckatthesamedate.Theyshow
thehouseandfarmsurroundingsoftheoldTenBroeck"Bouwerie,"theancestralhomeinNewYork,
andgiveawonderfullygoodideaofit.Thesearenotindeadsilhouette,foranappearanceofshading
isaffordedbyfinelycutlinesandinterveningspaces.Thehighestformofcut-paperreproductionand
decorationeverreachedwasbytheEnglishwoman,Mrs.Delaney,whodiedin1788,thefriendofthe
DuchessofPortland,andintimateofGeorgeIII.andhisqueen.Shereproducedincoloredpaper,in
what she called "paper mosaics," the entire flora of the United Kingdom, and it is said it was
impossibleatfirstsighttodistinguishtheseflowersfromtherealones.
CHAPTERXII
DRESSOFTHECOLONISTS
At the time America was settled, rich dress was almost universal in Europe among persons of any
wealthorstation.Thedressofplainpeoplealso,suchasyeomenandsmallfarmersandwork-people,
wasplentifulandsubstantial,andevenpeasantshadgoodandampleclothing.Materialswerestrongly
andhonestlymade,clothingwassewedbyhand,andlastedlong.Thefashionsdidnotchangefrom
yeartoyear,andtherichorstoutclothesofonegenerationwerebequeathedbywillandwornbya
secondandevenathirdandfourthgeneration.
In England extravagance in dress in court circles, and grotesqueness in dress among all educated
folk,hadbecomeabhorrenttothatclassofpersonswhowerecalledPuritans;andasanexpressionof
their dislike they wore plainer garments, and cut off their flowing locks, and soon were called
Roundheads.TheMassachusettssettlerswhowerePuritansdeterminedtodiscourageextravagancein
dressintheNewWorld,andattemptedtocontrolthefashions.
The Massachusetts magistrates were reminded of their duties in this direction by sanctimonious
spurringfromgentlemenandministersinEngland.OnesuchmeddlerwrotetoGovernorWinthrop
in 1636: "Many in your plantacions discover too much pride." Another stern moralist reproved the
colonistsforwritingtoEngland"forcutworkcoifes,fordeepstammeldyes,"tobesenttothemin
America.Others,prohibitedfromwearingbroadlaces,werecriticisedfororderingnarrowones,for
"goingasfarrastheymay."
In1634theMassachusettsGeneralCourtpassedrestrictingsumptuarylaws.Theselawsforbadethe
purchase of woollen, silk, or linen garments, with silver, gold, silk, or thread lace on them. Two
yearslateranarrowbindingoflacewaspermittedonlinengarments.Thecolonistswereorderednot
tomakeorbuyanyslashedclothes,exceptthosewithoneslashineachsleeveandanotherslashinthe
back."Cutworks,imbroiddorneedleorcappsbands&rayles,"andgoldorsilvergirdles,hat-bands,
belts,ruffs,andbeaverhatswereforbidden.Libertywasthriftilygiven,however,tothecoloniststo
wear out any garments they chanced to have unless in the form of inordinately slashed apparel,
immoderategreatsleevesandrails,andlongwings,whichcouldnotpossiblybeendured.
In 1639 men's attire was approached and scanned, and "immoderate great breeches" were tabooed;
also broad shoulder-bands, double ruffles and capes, and silk roses, which latter adornment were
wornontheshoes.
In 1651 the Court again expressed its "utter detestation that men and women of meane condition,
education,andcalling,shouldtakevpponthemthegarbeofgentlemenbywearingeofgoldorsilver
lace,orbuttonsorpoyntsattheirknees,orwalkeingreatboots,orwomenofthesameranketowear
silkeortiffanyhoodsorscarfs."
Manypersonswere"presented"underthislaw,menboot-wearersaswellaswomenhood-wearers.In
Salem,in1652,amanwaspresentedfor"excessinbootes,ribonds,gouldandsilverlace."
InNewbury,in1653,twowomenwerebroughtupforwearingsilkhoodsandscarfs,buttheywere
dischargedonproofthattheirhusbandswereworth£200each.InNorthampton,intheyear1676,a
wholesaleattemptwasmadebythemagistratestoabolish"wickedapparell."Thirty-eightwomenof
theConnecticutvalleywerepresentedatonetimeforvariousdegreesoffinery,andasoftoosmall
estatetowearsilk.AyounggirlnamedHannahLymanwaspresentedfor"wearingsilkinafflaunting
manner,inanoffensivewayandgarbnotonlybeforebutwhenshestoodpresented."Thirtyyoung
menwerealsopresentedforsilk-wearing,longhair,andotherextravagances.Thecalmflauntingof
her silk in the very eyes of the Court by sixteen-year-old Hannah was premonitory of the waning
power of the magistrates, for similar prosecutions at a later date were quashed. By 1682 the tables
were turned and we find the Court arraigning the selectmen of five towns for not prosecuting
offenders against these laws as in previous years. In 1675 the town of Dedham had been similarly
warned and threatened, but apparently was never prosecuted. Connecticut called to its aid in
repressingextravagantdresstheeconomicpoweroftaxationbyorderingthatwhoeverworegoldor
silverlace,goldorsilverbuttons,silkribbons,silkscarfs,orbonelaceworthoverthreeshillingsa
yardshouldbetaxedasworth£150.
Virginiafussedalittleover"excessincloathes."SirFrancisWyattwasenjoinednottopermitanybut
theCouncilandtheheadsofHundredstoweargoldontheirclothes,ortowearsilktilltheymadeit
—which was intended more to encourage silk-making than to discourage silk-wearing. And it
provided that unmarried men should be assessed according to their apparel, and married men
accordingtothatoftheirfamily.In1660Virginiacolonistswereorderedtoimportno"silkestuffein
garmentsorinpeecesexceptforwhoodsandscarfs,norsilverorgoldlace,norbonelaceofsilkor
threads,norribbandswroughtwithgoldorsilverinthem."
Theministersdidnotfailintheirdutyinattemptingtomarchwiththemagistratesintherestriction
andsimplificationofdress.Theypreachedoftenagainst"intolerableprideinclothesandhair."Even
when the Pilgrims were in Holland the preachers had been deeply disturbed over the dress of their
minister's wife, Madam Johnson, who wore "lawn coives" and busks, and a velvet hood, and
"whalebonesinherpetticoatbodice,"andworstofall,"atopishhat."Oneoftheearliestinterferences
ofRogerWilliamswaswhenheinstructedthewomenofSalemparishalwaystowearveilsinpublic.
ButJohnCottonpreachedtothemthenextSunday,andheprovedtothedamesandgoodwivesthat
veilswereasignandsymbolofunduesubjectiontotheirhusbands,andSalemwomensoonproved
theirrightsbycomingbarefacedtomeeting.
Mr.Davenportpreachedaboutmen'shead-gear,thatmenmusttakeofftheirhats,andstandupatthe
announcement of the text. And if New Haven men wore their hats in meeting, I can't see why they
fussedsoovertheQuakers'broadbrims.
Afterawhilethewholechurchinterfered.In1769thechurchatAndoverputittovotewhether"the
parishDisapproveofthefemalesexsittingwiththeirHatsonintheMeeting-houseintimeofDivine
ServiceasbeingIndecent."InthetownofAbington,in1775,itwasvotedthatitwas"anindecentway
thatthefemalesexdositwiththeirhatsandbonnetsontoworshipGod."Stillanothertownvotedthat
itwasthe"Town'sMind"thatthewomenshouldtaketheirbonnetsoffinmeetingandhangthem"on
the peggs." We do not know positively, but I suspect that the bonnets continued to grace the heads
insteadofthepegsinAndover,Abington,andothertowns.
Toknowhowthecolonistsweredressed,wehavetolearnfromthelistsoftheirclothingwhichthey
left by will, which lists are still preserved in court records; from the inventories of the garments
furnished to each settler who came by contract; from the orders sent back to England for new
clothing; from a few crude portraits, and from some articles of ancient clothing which are still
preserved.
When Salem was settled the Massachusetts Bay Company furnished clothes to all the men who
emigratedandsettledthattown.Everymanhadfourpairsofshoes,fourpairsofstockings,apairof
Norwichgarters,fourshirts,twosuitsofdoubletandhoseofleatherlinedwithoiledskin,awoollen
suit lined with leather, four bands, two handkerchiefs, a green cotton waistcoat, a leather belt, a
woollen cap, a black hat, two red knit caps, two pairs of gloves, a mandillion or cloak lined with
cotton,andanextrapairofbreeches.Littleboysjustassoonastheycouldwalkworeclothesmade
preciselyliketheirfathers':doubletswhichwerewarmdoublejackets,leatherknee-breeches,leather
belts, knit caps. The outfit for the Virginia planters was not so liberal, for the company was not so
wealthy. It was called a "Particular of Apparell." It had only three bands, three pairs stockings, and
three shirts instead of four. The suits were of canvas, frieze, and cloth. The clothing was doubtless
lighter,becausetheclimateofVirginiawaswarmer.Therewerenogloves,nohandkerchiefs,nohat,
no red knit caps, no mandillion, no extra pair of breeches. They had "a dozen points," which were
simply tapes to hold up the clothing and fasten it together. The clothing of the Piscataquay planters
variedbutlittlefromtheothers.Theyhadscarletwaistcoatsandcassocksofcloth,notofleather.We
are apt to think of the Puritan settlers of New England as sombre in attire, wearing "sad-colored"
garments,butgreenandscarletwaistcoatsandscarletcapscertainlyaffordedagaytouchofcolor.
A young boy, about ten years old, named John Livingstone, was sent from New York to school in
NewEnglandatthelatterpartoftheseventeenthcentury.An"accountofhisnewlinenandclothes"
hasbeenpreserved,anditgivesanexcellentideaoftheclothingofasonofwealthypeopleatthat
time.Itreadsthus,intheoldspelling:—
"Elevennewshirts,
4pairlacedsleves,
8PlaneCravats,
4CravatswithLace,
4StripteWastecoatswithblackbuttons,
1FloweredWastecoat,
4Newosenbrigbritches,
1Grayhatwithablackribbon,
1Grayhatwithablewribbon,
1Dousinblackbuttons,
1Dousincolouredbuttons,
3Pairgoldbuttons,
3Pairsilverbuttons,
2PairFineblewStockings,
1PairFineredStockings,
4WhiteHandkerchiefs,
2SpeckledHandkerchiefs,
5PairGloves,
1StuffCoatwithblackbuttons,
1ClothCoat,
1Pairblewplushbritches,
1PairSergebritches,
2Combs,
1PairnewShooes,
Silk&ThredtomendhisCloathes."
Osenbrig was a heavy, strong linen. This would seem to be a summer outfit, and scarcely warm
enoughforNewEnglandwinters.Otherschoolboysatthatdatehaddeerskinbreeches.
Leatherwasmuchused,especiallyintheformoftannedbuckskinbreechesandthedeerskinhunters'
jackets, which have always and deservedly been a favorite wear, since they are one of the most
appropriate,useful,comfortable,andpicturesquegarmentseverwornbymeninanyactiveoutdoor
life.
Soon in the larger cities and among wealthy folk a much more elaborate and varied style of dress
becamefashionable.Thedressoflittlegirlsinfamiliesofwealthwascertainlyalmostasformaland
elegant as the dress of their mammas, and it was a very hampering and stiff dress. They wore vast
hoop-petticoats,heavystays,andhigh-heeledshoes.Theircomplexionswereobjectsofspecialcare;
theyworemasksofclothorvelvettoprotectthemfromthetanningraysofthesun,andlong-armed
gloves. Little Dolly Payne, who afterwards became the wife of President Madison, went to school
wearing"awhitelinenmasktokeepeveryrayofsunshinefromthecomplexion,asunbonnetsewed
on her head every morning by her careful mother, and long gloves covering the hands and arms."
Ourpresentloveofoutdoorlife,ofathleticsports,andourindifferencetobeingsunburned,makes
suchpainstakingvanityseemmostunbearablytiresome.
In 1737 Colonel John Lewis sent from Virginia to England for a wardrobe for a young miss, a
school-girl,whowashisward.Thelistreadsthus:—
"Acapruffleandtucker,thelace5shillingsperYard,
1pairWhiteStays,
8pairWhiteKidgloves,
2paircolouredkidgloves,
2pairworstedhose,
3pairthreadhose,
1pairsilkshoeslaced,
1pairmoroccoshoes,
1HoopCoat,
1Hat,
4pairplainSpanishshoes,
2paircalfshoes,
1mask,
1fan,
1necklace,
1Girdleandbuckle,
1piecefashionableCalico,
4yardsribbonforknots,
1½yardCambric,
Amantuaandcoatoflute-string."
In the middle of the century George Washington also sent to England for an outfit for his
stepdaughter, Miss Custis. She was four years old, and he ordered for her, pack-thread stays, stiff
coats of silk, masks, caps, bonnets, bibs, ruffles, necklaces, fans, silk and calamanco shoes, and
leatherpumps.Therewerealsoeightpairsofkidmittsandfourpairsofgloves;thesewiththemasks
showthatthislittlegirl'scomplexionwasalsotobewellguarded.
AlittleNewEnglandMissHuntington,whentwelveyearsold,wassentfromNorwich,Connecticut,
tobe"finished"inaBostonboarding-school.Shehadtwelvesilkgowns,butherteacherwrotehome
thatshemusthaveanothergownof"arecentlyimportedrichfabric,"whichwasatoncebought for
herbecauseitwas"suitableforherrankandstation."
Through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries there was a constant succession of rich and gay
fashions; for American dress was carefully modelled upon European, especially English modes.
Men'swearwasasrichaswomen's.AnEnglishtravellersaidthatBostonwomenandmenin1740
dressedasgayeverydayascourtiersinEnglandatacoronation.Butwithalltherichnesstherewas
no wastefulness. The sister of the rich Boston merchant, Peter Faneuil, who built Faneuil Hall, sent
her gowns to London to be turned and dyed, and her old ribbons and gowns to be sold. But her
gowns,whicharestillpreserved,areofmagnificentstuffs.
NewYorkersweredressedingauzes,silks,andlaces;evenwomenQuakersinPennsylvaniahadtobe
warnedagainstwearinghoop-petticoats,scarletshoes,andpuffedandrolledhair.
ThefamilyofsofrugalamanasBenjaminFranklindidnotescapeaslightinfectionoftheprevailing
loveforgaydress.InthePennsylvaniaGazettethisadvertisementappearedin1750:—
"Whereas on Saturday night last the house of Benjamin Franklin of this city, Printer, was broken
open, and the following things feloniously taken away, viz., a double necklace of gold beads, a
womanslongscarletcloakalmostnew,withadoublecape,awomansgown,ofprintedcottonofthe
sortcalledbrocadeprint,veryremarkable,thegrounddark,withlargeredroses,andotherlargeand
yellow flowers, with blue in some of the flowers, with many green leaves; a pair of womens stays
covered with white tabby before, and dove colour'd tabby behind, with two large steel hooks and
sundryothergoods,etc."
Southern dames, especially of Annapolis, Baltimore, and Charleston, were said to have the richest
brocadesanddamasksthatcouldbeboughtinLondon.Everysailing-vesselthatcamefromEurope
broughtboxesofsplendidclothing.TheheroesoftheRevolutionhadahighregardfordress.The
patriot,JohnHancock,wasseenatnoondaywearingascarletvelvetcap,abluedamaskgownlined
withvelvet,whitesatinembroideredwaistcoat,blacksatinsmall-clothes,whitesilkstockings,andred
moroccoslippers.GeorgeWashingtonwasmostpreciseinhisordersforhisclothing,andworethe
richestsilkandvelvetsuits.
AtruedescriptionofaBostonprinterjustaftertheRevolutionshowshisstyleofdress:—
"He wore a pea-green coat, white vest, nankeen small clothes, white silk stockings, and pumps
fastenedwithsilverbuckleswhichcoveredatleasthalfthefootfrominsteptotoe.Hissmallclothes
weretiedatthekneeswithribbonofthesamecolourindoublebows,theendsreachingdowntothe
ancles.Hishairinfrontwaswellloadedwithpomatum,frizzledorcrapedandpowdered.Behind,his
natural hair was augmented by the addition of a large queue called vulgarly a false tail, which,
enrolledinsomeyardsofblackribbon,hunghalf-waydownhisback."
Manylettersstillexistwrittenbyprominentcitizensofcolonialtimesorderingclothing,chieflyfrom
Europe.Richlaces,silkmaterials,velvet,andfineclothoflightandgaycolorsabound.Frequently
theyorderednightgownsofsilkanddamask.Thesenightgownswerenotagarmentwornatnight,but
asortofdressing-gown.Harvardstudentswerein1754forbiddentowearthem.Underthenameof
banyan they became very fashionable, and men had their portraits painted in them, for instance the
portraitofNicholasBoylston,nowinHarvardMemorialHall.
WiththeincreaseoftradewithChinamanyChineseandEastIndiangoodsbecamefashionable,with
hundreds of different names. A few were of silk or linen, but far more of cotton; among them
nankeenswerethemostimportedandevenforwinterwear.
Bothmenandwomenworeformanyyearsgreatcloaksorcapes,knownbyvariousnames,suchas
roquelaures, capuchins, pelisses, etc. Women's shoes were of very thin materials, and paper-soled.
They wore to protect these frail shoes, when walking on the ill-paved streets, various forms of
overshoes,knownasgoloe-shoes,clogs,pattens,etc.Whenriding,womeninthecolonieswore,as
didQueenElizabeth,asafeguard,alongover-petticoattoprotectthegownfrommudandrain.This
wassometimescalledafoot-mantle,alsoaweather-skirt.Atravellertellsofseeingarowofhorses
tiedtoafenceoutsideaQuakermeeting.Somecarriedsidesaddles,somemen'ssaddlesandpillions.
On the fence hung the muddy safeguards the Quaker dames had worn outside their drab petticoats.
Menworesherry-valliesorspatter-dashestoprotecttheirgaybreeches.
Therewasonefashionwhichlastedforacenturyandahalfwhichwassountidy,souncomfortable,
socostly,andsoridiculousthatwecanonlywonderthatitwasenduredforasingleseason—Imean
thefashionofwig-wearingbymen.Thefirstcolonistsworetheirownnaturalhair.TheCavaliershad
longandperfumedlove-locks;andthoughthePuritanshadbeencalledRoundheads,theirhairwaved,
also,overthebandorcollar,andoftenhungovertheshoulder.TheQuakers,also,worelonglocks,
asthelovelyportraitofWilliamPennshows.Butby1675wigshadbecomecommonenoughtobe
denounced by the Massachusetts government, and to be preached against by many ministers; while
otherministersproudlyworethem.Wigswerecalledhorridbushesofvanity,andhundredsofother
disparaging names, which seemed to make them more popular. They varied from year to year;
sometimestheyswelledoutatthesides,orroseingreatpuffs,orturnedunderinheavyrolls,orhung
inbraidsandcurlsandpig-tails;theyweremadeofhumanhair,ofhorsehair,goat's-hair,calves'and
cows' tails, of thread, silk, and mohair. They had scores of silly and meaningless names, such as
"gravefull-bottom,""giddyfeather-top,""long-tail,""fox-tail,""drop-wig,"etc.Theywereboundand
braidedwithpink,green,red,andpurpleribbons,sometimesallthesecolorsononewig.Theywere
veryheavy,andveryhot,andveryexpensive,oftencostingwhatwouldbeequaltoahundreddollars
to-day. The care of them was a great item, often ten pounds a year for a single wig, and some
gentlemen owned eight or ten wigs. Little children wore them. I have seen the bill for a wig for
WilliamFreeman,dated1754;hewasachildsevenyearsold.Hisfatherpaidninepoundsforit,and
the same for wigs for his other boys of nine and ten. Even servants wore them; I read in the
MassachusettsGazetteofarunawaynegroslavewho"woreoffacurlofhairtiedaroundhishead
with a string to imitate a wig," which must have been a comical sight. After wigs had become
unfashionable,thenaturalhairwaspowdered,andwastiedinaqueueintheback.Thiswasanuntidy,
troublesomefashion,whichruinedtheclothes;forthehairwassoakedwithoilorpomatumtomake
thepowderstick.
Comparativelylittlejewellerywasworn.Afewmenhadgoldorsilversleeve-buttons;afewwomen
hadbraceletsorlockets;nearlyallofanysocialstandinghadrings,whichwerechieflymourningrings.Asthesegloomyornamentsweregiventoallthechiefmournersatfunerals,itcanbeseenthat
amanoflargefamilyconnections,orofprominentsocialstanding,mightacquireagreatmanyof
them.Theministeranddoctorusuallyhadaringateveryfuneraltheyattended.Itistoldofanold
Salemdoctor,whodiedin1758,thathehadatankardfullofmourning-ringswhichhehadsecuredat
funerals. Men sometimes wore thumb-rings, which seems no queerer than the fact that they carried
muffs.OldDr.PrinceofBostoncarriedanenormousbearskinmuff.
Gloves also were gifts at funerals, sometimes in large numbers. At the funeral of the wife of
Governor Belcher, in 1738, over a thousand pairs were given away. Rev. Andrew Eliot, who was
pastoroftheNorthChurchinBoston,hadtwenty-ninehundredpairofglovesgivenhiminthirty-two
years;manyofthesehesold.Inallthecolonies,whethersettledbyDutch,English,French,German,
orSwedes,gloveswereuniversallygivenatfunerals.
Theearlywatcheswereclumsyaffairs,oftengloboseinshape,withadetachedoutercase.
To show how few of the first colonists owned either watches or clocks, we have the contemporary
evidence of Roger Williams. When he rowed thirty miles down the bay, and disputed with the
"Foxians"atNewportin1672,itwasagreedthateachpartyshouldbeheardinturnforaquarterofan
hour. But no clock was available in Newport; and among the whole population that flocked to the
debate,therewasnotasinglewatch.Williamssays,"unlesswehadClocksandWatchesandQuarter
Glasses(asinsomeShips)itwasimpossibletobeexactlypunctual,"sotheyguessedatthetime.
Sun-dialswereoftensetinthestreetinfrontofhouses;andnoon-marksonthethresholdofthefront
doororwindow-sillhelpedtoshowthehouroftheday.
CHAPTERXIII
JACK-KNIFEINDUSTRIES
ChepaRosewasoneofthoseold-timechap-menknownthroughoutNewEnglandas"trunkpedlers."
Bearingonhisbackbymeansofaharnessofstouthempenwebbingtwooblongtrunksofthinmetal,
—probablytin,—forforty-eightyearshehadappearedateveryconsiderablefarmhousethroughout
NarragansettandeasternConnecticut,atintervalsasregularastheactionandappearanceofthesun,
moon,andtides;andeverywherewashegreetedwithaneagerwelcome.
Chepawas,ashesaid,"halfInjun,halfFrench,andhalfYankee."FromhisIndianhalfhehadhislove
oftrampingwhichmadehimchoosethewanderingtradeoftrunkpedler;hisFrenchhalfmadehima
good trader and talker; while his Yankee half endowed him with a universal Yankee trait, a
"handiness," which showed in scores of gifts and accomplishments and knacks that made him as
warmlygreetedeverywhereaswerehisattractivetrunks.
Hewasafamousmedicine-brewer;fromtherootsandherbsandbarksthathegatheredashetramped
alongthecountryroadshemanufacturedacoughmedicinethatwastwiceaseffectiveandtwiceas
bitter as old Dr. Greene's; he made famous plasters, of two kinds,—plasters to stick and plasters to
crawl,thelattertofollowthecourseofthediseaseorpain;heconcoctedwonderfulink;heshowed
Jenny Greene how to bleach her new straw bonnet with sulphur fumes; he mended umbrellas,
harnesses, and tinware; he made glorious teetotums which the children looked for as eagerly and
unfailinglyastheydidforhistopsandmarbles,hisribbonsandGibraltars.
OnedayhecamethroughthewoodstoJohnHelme'shousecarryinginhishandastoutbirchenstaff
orsmalltree-trunk,whichhelaiddownontheflatmillstoneimbeddedinthegrassatthebackdoor,
whilehedisplayedandsoldhiswaresandhadhisdinner.Hethenwentouttothedooryardwithlittle
JohnnyHelme,satdownonthemillstone,lightedhispipe,openedhisjack-knife,anddiscoursedthus:
—
"Johnny, I'm going to tell you how to make an Injun broom. Fust, you must find a big birch-tree.
Thereain'tsomanybigonesnowofanykindasthereuseterbewhenwemadecanoesandplatesand
cradles,andwaterspouts,andtroughs,andfurnitooroutofthebark.ButyoumustgetayallowbirchtreeasstraightasHandedzactlyfiveinchacrost.Now,howkinyetellhowfuritisacrostatreeafore
yecutitoff?Ikintellbythelightofmyeye,butthat'sInjunlarnin'.Lemmetellyoubybook-larnin'.
Measureitround,andmakethestringinthreeparts,andonepart'llbewhatitisacrost.Ifit'snineinch
round, it'll be three inch acrost, and so on. Now don't you forgit that. Wal! you must get a straight
birch-treefiveinchacrostwhereyoucutitoff,justlikethisone.Thenmakethesticksixfootlong.
Thenonefootandtwoinchfromthebigendcutaringroundthebark;wal!saytwoinchwidejust
likethis.Thenyoutakeoffallthebarkbelowthatring.Thenyoubegina-sliveringwithasharpjackknife,leetleteenyflatsliverswayuptothebarkring.Whenit'sallsliveredupthinandflatthere'llbe
a leetle hard core left inside at the top, and you must cut it out careful. Then you take off the bark
abovetheringandbeginsliveringdown.Leaveastickjustbigenoughforahandle.Thentiethislast
lotofsliversdowntightovertheotherswithahard-twistedtowstring,andtrim'emoffeven.Then
whittleoffandscrapeoffagoodsmoothhandlewithaholeinthetoptoputaloopofcowhidein,to
hangitupbyorderly.
"Yes,Johnny,I'vegotjustenoughInjuninmetomakeagoodbroom;notenoughtobeashamedof
andnotenoughtobeproudof.Butyoumustn'tforgitthis;amoccasin'sthebestcoveramaneverhad
on his feet in the woods; the easiest to get stuff for, the easiest to make, the easiest to wear. And a
birch-barkcanoe'sthebestboatamancanhaveontheriver.It'stheeasiesttogetstufffor,easiestto
carry,thefastesttopaddle.Andasnowshoe'sthebesthelpamancanhaveinthewinter.It'stheeasiest
togetstufffor,theeasiesttowalkon,theeasiesttocarry.Andjustsoabirchbroomisthebestbroom
amanoratanyrateawomancanhave;fourbestthingsandallof'emisInjun.Nowyoujustslipin
and take that broom to Phillis. I see her the last time I was here a-using a mizrable store broom to
cleanheroven—andjustaskherifIcan'thaveamugofapple-jackaforeIgotobed."
IfthisscenehadbeenlaidinNewHampshireorVermontinsteadofNarragansett,theIndianbroom
would have been no novelty to any boy or house-servant. For in the northern New England states,
heavily wooded with yellow birch, every boy knew how to make the Indian brooms, and every
household in country or town had them. There was a constant demand in Boston for them, and
sometimescountrystoreshadseveralhundredofthebroomsatatime.ThroughoutVermontseventy
years ago the uniform price paid for making one of these brooms was six cents; and if the splints
were very fine and the handle scraped with glass, it took nearly three evenings to finish it. Indian
squaws peddled them throughout the country for ninepence apiece. Major Robert Randolph told in
fashionableLondoncirclesabouttheyear1750,thatwhenhewasaboyinNewHampshireheearned
hisonlyspending-moneybymakingthesebroomsandcarryingthemonhisbacktenmilestotownto
sellthem.Girlscouldwhittleaswellasboys,andoftenexchangedthebirchbroomstheymadefora
bitofribbonorlace.
Asimplerandlessdurablebroomwasmadeofhemlockbranches.Alocalrhymesaysofthem:—
"Drivingattwilightthewaitingcows,
Witharmsfull-ladenwithhemlockboughs,
Tobetracedonabroomerethecomingday
Fromitseasternchambersshoulddanceaway."
The hemlock broom was simply a bunch of close-growing, full-foliaged hemlock branches tied
tightly together and wound around with hempen twine, "traced," the rhyme says, with a sharply
pointed handle, which the boys had shaped and whittled, driven well into the bound portion. This
makingofbroomsfordomesticuseisbutanexampleofoneofthemanyscoreofusefuldomestic
and farm articles which were furnished by the natural resources of every wood-lot, adapted by the
Yankeejack-knifeandafewequallysimpletools,ofwhichthegimletmighttakethesecondplace.
Itwassoemphaticallyawoodenageincolonialdaysthatitseemedalmostthattherewerenohard
metalsusedforanyarticleswhichto-dayseemsonecessarilyofmetal.Ploughswereofwood,and
harrows;cart-wheelswereoftenwhollyofwoodwithouttires,thoughsometimesironplatescalled
strakes held the felloes together, being fastened to them by long clinch-pins. The dish-turner and
cooperwereartisansofimportanceinthosedays;piggins,noggins,runlets,keelers,firkins,buckets,
churns,dye-tubs,cowles,powdering-tubs,weremadewithcharyornouseofmetal.
The forests were the wealth of the colonies in more ways than one; and it may be said that they
furnishedbothdomesticwinteremploymentandtoysfortheboys.TheNewEnglandforestswerefull
of richly varied kinds of wood, suitable for varied uses, with varied qualities—pliability, stiffness,
durability,weight,strength;anditissurprisingtoseehowquicklythewoodswereassignedtofixed
uses, even for toys; in every state pop-guns were made from elder; bows and arrows of hemlock;
whistlesofchestnutorwillow.
TheRev.JohnPierpontwrotethusofthewhittlingofhischildhooddays:—
"TheYankeeboybeforehe'ssenttoschool
Wellknowsthemysteriesofthatmagictool—
Thepocket-knife.Tothathiswistfuleye
Turns,whilehehearshismother'slullaby.
Andintheeducationofthelad,
Nolittlepartthatimplementhathhad.
Hispocket-knifetotheyoungwhittlerbrings
Agrowingknowledgeofmaterialthings,
Projectiles,music,andthesculptor'sart.
Hischestnutwhistle,andhisshingledart,
Hiselderpop-gunwithitshickoryrod,
Itssharpexplosionandreboundingwad,
Hiscorn-stalkfiddle,andthedeepertone
Thatmurmursfromhispumpkin-leaftrombone
Conspiretoteachtheboy.Tothesesucceed
Hisbow,hisarrowofafeatheredreed,
Hiswindmillraisedthepassingbreezetowin,
Hiswater-wheelthatturnsuponapin.
Thusbyhisgeniusandhisjack-knifedriven
Erelonghe'llsolveyouanyproblemgiven;
Makeyoualocomotiveoraclock,
Cutacanalorbuildafloatingdock:
Makeanythinginshortforseaorshore,
Fromachild'srattletoaseventy-four.
Makeit,saidI—ay,whenheundertakesit,
He'llmakethethingandmakethethingthatmakesit."
Theboy'sjack-knifewasapossessionsohighlydesired,socloselytreasuredinthosedayswhenboys
had so few belongings, that it is pathetic to read of many a farm lad's struggles and long hours of
weary work to obtain a good knife. Barlow knives were the most highly prized for certainly sixty
years, and had, I am told, a vast popularity for over a century. May they forever rest in glorious
memory, as they lived the happiest of lots! To be the best beloved of a century of Yankee boys is
indeedanenviabledestiny.AfewbatteredoldsoldiersofthisvastarmyofBarlowjack-knivesstill
lingertoshowusthehomelyfeaturesbornebythecentury'swellbeloved:theSmithsonianInstitution
cherishessomeofcolonialdays;andfromDeerfieldMemorialHallareshownthreeBarlowknives
whosepictureshouldappeartoeveryAmericansomethingmorethanthepresentmentofdullbitsof
woodandrustedmetal.TheseYankeejack-kniveswere,saidDanielWebster,thedirectforerunnersof
thecotton-ginandthousandsofnobleAmericaninventions;theNewEnglandboy'swhittlingwashis
alphabetofmechanics.
In this connection, let us note the skilful and utilitarian adaptation not only of natural materials for
domestic and farm use, but also natural forms. The farmer and his wife both turned to Nature for
implements and utensils, or for parts adapted to shape readily into the implements and utensils of
every-day life. When we read of the first Boston settlers that "the dainty Indian maize was eat with
clam-shells out of wooden trays," we learn of a primitive spoon, a clam-shell set in a split stick,
which has been used till this century. Large flat clam-shells were used and highly esteemed by
housewives,asskimming-shellsinthedairy,toskimcreamfromthemilk.Gourd-shellsmadecapital
bowls, skimmers, dippers, and bottles; pumpkin-shells, good seed and grain holders. Turkey-wings
made an ever-ready hearth-brush. In the forests were many "crooked sticks" that were more useful
thananystraightonescouldbe.Whenthemowerwantedanewsnatheorsnead,ashecalledit,forhis
scythe, he found in the woods a deformed sapling that had grown under a log or twisted around a
rock in a double bend, which made it the exact shape desired. He then whittled it, dressed it with a
draw-shave, fastened the nebs with a neb-wedge, hung it with an iron ring, and was ready for the
mowing-field.
Sled-runnersweremadefromsaplingsbentattheroot.Thebestthillsforacartwerethosenaturally
shapedbygrowth.Thecurvedpiecesofwoodintheharnessofadraught-horse,calledthehames,to
whichthetracesarefastened,couldbefoundintwistedgrowths,ascouldalsoportionsofox-yokes.
Thegambrelsusedinslaughteringtimes,hay-hooks,long-handledpothooksforbrickovens,could
allbecutready-shaped.
Thesmallerunderbrushandsaplingshadmanyuses.Sledandcartstakeswerecutfromsome;long
bean-polesfromothers;speciallystraightcleansticksweresavedforwhip-stocks.Sectionsofbirch
barkcouldbebottomedandservedforbaskets,orforpotashcans,whilecapitalfeed-boxescouldbe
madeinthesamewayofsectionscutfromahollowhemlock.Elmrindandportionsof brown ash
buttswerenaturalmaterialsforchair-seatsandbaskets,aswereflagsfordoor-mats.Forkedbranches
madegeeseandhogyokes.Hogsthatranatlargehadtowearyokes.Itwasorderedthattheseyokes
shouldmeasureaslongastwiceandahalftimesthedepthoftheneck,whilethebottompiecewas
threetimesthewidthoftheneck.
In the shaping of heavy and large vessels such as salt-mortars, pig troughs, maple-sap troughs, the
jack-knife was abandoned and the methods of the Indians adopted. These vessels were burnt and
scrapedoutofasinglelog,andthushadaweightystabilityandpermanence.Woodenbreadtroughs
were also made from a single piece of wood. These were oblong, trencher-shaped bowls about
eighteen inches long; across the trough ran lengthwise a stick or rod on which rested the sieve,
searse, or temse, when flour was sifted into the trough. The saying "set the Thames (or temse) on
fire,"meantthathardworkandactivefrictionwouldsetthewoodentemseonfire.
Sometimesthemouldforanox-bowwasdugoutofalogofwood.Ofteneraplankofwoodwascut
into the desired shape as a frame or mould, and fastened to a heavy backboard. The ox-bow was
steamed,placedinthebow-mould,pinnedin,andthencarefullyseasoned.
The boys whittled cheese-ladders, cheese-hoops, and red-cherry butter-paddles for their mothers'
dairy; also many parts of cheese-presses and churns. To the toys enumerated by Rev. Mr. Pierpont,
theyaddedbox-trapsand"figure4"trapsofvarioussizesforcatchingvari-sizedanimals.
Manyfarmimplementsotherthanthosealreadynamedweremade,andmanyportionsoftoolsand
implements;amongthemwereshovels,swingling-knives,sled-neaps,stanchions,handlesforspades
andbill-hooks,rake-stales,fork-stales,flails.AgroupofoldfarmimplementsfromMemorialHall,
atDeerfield,isheregiven.Thehandlelessscythe-snatheissaidtohavecomeoverontheMayflower.
The making of flails was an important and useful work. Many were broken and worn out during a
greatthreshing.Bothparts,thestafforhandle,andtheswingleorswiple,werecarefullyshapedfrom
well-chosenwood,tobejoinedtogetherlaterbyaneelskinorleatherstrap.
Theflailislittleseenonfarmsto-day.Threshingandwinnowingmachineshavetakenitsplace.The
fatherofRobertBurnsdeclaredthreshingwithaflailtobetheonlydegradingandstultifyingwork
onafarm;butIneverknewanotherfarmerwhodeemeditso,thoughitwascertainlyhardwork.Last
autumn I visited the "Poor Farm" on Quonsett Point in old Narragansett. In the vast barn of that
beautifulandsparselyoccupiedcountryhome,twopowerfulmen,picturesqueinbluejeanstuckedin
heavyboots,inscarletshirtsandgreatstrawhats,werethreshingoutgrainwithflails.Bothmenwere
blind,onewholly,theotherpartiallyso—andwere"TownPoor."Theirstrong,barearmsswungthe
long flails in alternate strokes with the precision of clockwork, bringing each blow down on the
piled-up wheat-straw which covered the barn-floor, as they advanced, one stepping backward while
the other stepped forward, and then receded with mechanical and rhythmic regularity, a step and a
blow,fromoneendofthelongbarntotheother.Thehalf-blindthreshercouldseetheoutlineofthe
open door against the sunlight, and his steps and voice guided his sightless fellow-worker. Thus
healthful and useful employment was given to two stricken waifs through the use of primitive
methods, which no modern machine could ever have afforded; and the blue sky and bay, with
autumnalsunshineonthepiled-upgoldenwheatonfloorandinrack,idealizedandevenmadeofthe
threshers,paupersthoughtheywere,abeautifulpictureofold-timefarm-life.
Wood for axe-helves was carefully chosen, sawed, split, and whittled into shape. These were then
scraped as smooth as ivory with broken glass. Some men had a knack that was almost genius in
shapingtheseaxe-helvesandselectingthewoodforthem.Inacountrywherethebroad-axewasso
important an implement—used every day by every farmer; where lumbermen and loggers and
shipwrightsswungtheaxetheentiredayformanymonths,menwerereadytopaydoublepricefora
well-madehelve,soshapedastolettheheavyblowjaraslittleaspossiblethehandholdingthehelve.
OneMainefarmerboastedthathehadmadeandsoldfivehundredaxe-helves,andreceivedagood
price for them all; that some had gone five hundred miles out west, others a hundred miles "up
country";andofnooneofthemwhichhehadsethaditeverbeensaid,asoftheaxeinDeuteronomy,
"When a man goeth into the wood to hew wood, and his hand fetcheth a stroke with the axe to cut
downatree,thentheheadslippethfromthehelve."
A little money might be earned by cutting heel-pegs for shoemakers. These were made of a maple
trunk sawed across the grain, making the circular board thin enough—a half inch or so—for the
correct length of the pegs. The end was then marked in parallel lines, then grooved across at right
angles,thensplitasmarkedintopegswithknifeandmallet.AstoryistoldofafarmernamedMeigs,
who, on the winter ride to market in company with a score or more of his neighbors, stole out at
night from the tavern fireside where all were gathered to the barn where the horses were put up.
Therehetookanoat-bagoutofaneighbor'ssleighandpouredoutagoodfeedforhisownhorse.In
the morning it was found that his horse had not relished the shoe-pegs that had been put in his
manger;andtheirtelltalepresenceplainlypointedoutthethief.Theseshoe-pegswereaventureof
twofarmerboyswhichtheirfatherwastakingtotowntosellforthem,andinindignationtheboys
thrustonthethiefthenameofShoe-pegsMeigs,whichhecarriedtotheendofhislife.
Whentheboyshadlearnedtouseafewothertoolsbesidestheirjack-knives,astheyquicklydid,they
couldgetsawedstavesfromthesawmillsandmakeupshooksofstavesboundwithhoopsofredoak,
formolasseshogsheads.ThesewouldbeshippedtotheWestIndies,andformanimportantlinkinthe
profitable rum and slave round of traffic that bound Africa, New England, and the West Indies so
closelytogetherinthosedays.Aconstantoccupationformenandboyswasmakingrivedorshaved
shingles. They were split with a beetle and wedge. A smart workman could by sharp work make a
thousand a day. There may still be occasionally found in what were well-wooded pine regions, in
shedorbarn-lofts,orinoldwood-houses,astoutoakenframeorracksuchaswasatonetimefound
innearlyeveryhouse.Itwasknownasabundling-mouldorshingling-mould.Atthebottomofthis
strongframewerelaidstraightsticksandtwistedwitheswhichextendedupthesides.Uponthesewere
evenly packed the shingles, two hundred and fifty in number, known as a "quarter." The withes or
"binders" were twisted strongly around when the number was full. The mould held them firmly in
place while being tied. These were sealed by law and shipped. Cullers of staves were regularly
appointedtownofficers.Thedimensionsoftheshinglesweregivenbylawandrule;fifteeninches
wasthelengthforoneperiodoftime,andthebundling-mouldconformedtoit.
Daniel Leake of Salisbury, New Hampshire, made during his lifetime and was paid for a million
shingles.Duringtheyearshewasaccomplishingthiscolossalworkheclearedthreehundredacresof
land, tapped for twenty years at least six hundred maple-trees, making sometimes four thousand
poundsofsugarayear.Hecouldmowsixacresaday,givingninetonsofhay;hisstrong,longarms
cut a swath twelve feet wide. In his spare time he worked as a cooper, and he was a famous drummaker. Truly there were giants in those days. I love to read of such vigorous, powerful lives; they
seemtobeofaraceentirelydifferentfromourown.Still,amongourNewEnglandforbearsIdoubt
notmanyofushadsomesuchgiants,whoconqueredforustheearthandforests.
Onemarktheshinglingindustryleftonthehousehold.Inthesawingofblockstherewouldalwaysbe
sometooknottyorgnarledtosplitintoshingles.Thesewerewhatwereknowninthevernacularas
"on-marchantable shingle-bolts." They formed in many a pioneer's home and in many a pioneer
school-house good solid seats for children and even grown people to sit on. And even in pioneer
meeting-housestheseblockscouldsometimesbeseen.
Otherfittingsforthehousewerewhittledout.Long,heavy,woodenhingeswerecutfromhorn-beam
forcupboardandclosetdoors;evensheddoorswerehungonwoodenhingesaswerehousedoorsin
theearliestcolonialdays.Door-latchesweremadeofwood,alsooblongbuttonstofastenchamber
andcupboarddoors.
NewEnglandhousekeepersprizedthesmooth,close-grainedbowlswhichtheIndiansmadefromthe
veined and mottled knots of maple-wood. They were valued at what seems high prices for wooden
utensilsandwereoftennamedandbequeathedinwills.Maple-woodhasbeenusedandesteemedby
manynationsforcupsandbowls.TheoldEnglishandGermanvesselknownasamazerwasmadeof
maple-wood, often bound and tipped with silver. Spenser speaks in his Shepheard's Calendar of "a
mazeryroughtofthemaplewood."Awell-knownspecimeninEnglandbearsthelegendinGothic
text:—
"IntheNameoftheTrinitie
Fillethekupanddrinketome."
SometimesaspeciallyskilfulYankeewouldrivaltheIndiansinshapingandwhittlingoutthesebowls.
Ihaveseentworeallybeautifulonescarvedwithdoubleinitials,andonewithaScripturalreference,
said to be the work of a lover for his bride. Another token of affection and skill from the whittler
werecarvedbusks,whichwerethebroadandstrongstripsofwoodplacedincorsetsorstaystohelp
to form and preserve the long-waisted, stiff figure then fashionable. One carved busk bears initials
andanappropriatelysentimentaldesignofarrowsandhearts.
On the rim of spinning-wheels, on shuttles, swifts, and on niddy-noddys or hand-reels I have seen
letteringbythehandsofrusticlovers.Afinelycarvedlegendonahand-reelreads:—
"POLLYGREENE,HERREEL.
Countyourthreadsright
Ifyoureelinthenight
WhenIamfaraway.
June,1777."
PerhapssomeRevolutionarysoldiergavethisasapartinggifttohissweetheartontheeveofbattle.
Onhispowder-horntherusticcarverbestowedhisbestanddaintiestwork.Emblembothofwarand
of sport, it seemed worthy of being shaped into the highest expression of his artistic longing. A
chapter, even a book, might be filled with the romantic history and representations of American
powder-horns;patriotism,sentiment,andadventureshedequalhalosoverthem.Monthsofthepatient
work of every spare moment was spent in beautifying them, and their quaintness, variety, and
individuality are a never-ceasing delight to the antiquary. Maps, plans, legends, verses, portraits,
landscapes,familyhistory,crests,datesofbirths,marriages,anddeaths,listsofbattles,patrioticand
religioussentiments,allmaybefoundonpowder-horns.Theyhaveinmanycasesprovedvaluable
historical records, and have sometimes been the only records of events. Mr. Rufus A. Grider, of
Canajoharie, has made colored drawings of about five hundred of these powder-horns, and of
canteensordrinking-horns.Itisunfortunatethattheordinaryprocessesofbook-illustrationgivetoo
scantsuggestionofthevariety,beauty,anddelicacyoftheirdecoration,topermitthereproductionof
someofthesepowder-hornsinthesepages.
These habits of employing the spare moments of farm-life in the manufacture from wood of farm
implements and various aids to domestic comfort, were not peculiar to New England farmers, nor
inventedbythem.TheoldEnglishfarmer-author,ThomasTusser,inhisrhymedbook,FiveHundred
PointsofGoodHusbandry,writteninthesixteenthcentury(whichSoutheydeclaredtobeoneofthe
most curious and formerly one of the most popular books in our language), was careful to give
instructions in his "remembrances" and "doings" as to similar industries on the English farm and
manorhouse.Hesays:—
"Yokes,forks,andsuchotherletbailiespyout
Andgatherthesameashewalkethabout;
Andafter,atleisure,letthisbehishire,
Tobeaththemandtrimthemathomebythefire."
Tobeathistoheatunseasonedwoodtohardenandstraightenit.
"Ifhop-yardororchardyemeanfortohave,
Forhop-polesandcrotchesinloppinggosave.
"Saveelm,ash,andcrabtreeforcartandforplow,
Savestepforastileofthecrotchofabough;
Savehazelforforks,savesallowforrake:
Savehulverandthorn,thereofflailfortomake."
The Massachusetts Bay settlers came chiefly from the vicinity, many from the same county, where
Tusserlivedandfarmed,andwherehispointsofgoodhusbandrywerehouseholdwords;sotheyhad
intheirEnglishhomesashadtheirgrandfathersbeforethem,theknowledgeandhabitofsavingand
utilizingthevariouswoodsonthefarm,andofoccupyingeveryspareminutewiththeuseful jackknife.ThevariedandbountifultreesoftheNewWorldstimulatedandemphasizedthewhittlinghabit
untilitbecameuniversallyacceptedasadistinguishingNewEnglandcharacteristic,aYankeetrait.
This constant employment of every moment of the waking hours contributed to impart to New
Englandersaregardandmethodoflifewhichisspokenofbymanyoutsiderswithcontempt,namely,
acloselygirdedandinvariablehabitofeconomy.Childrenbroughtupinthiswayknewthevalueof
everythinginthehousehold,knewthetimeittooktoproduceit,fortheyhadlaboredthemselves,and
theygrewtotakecareofsmallthings,nottosquanderandwastewhattheyhadbeensolongatwork
on.This,insteadofbeingathingtosneerat,isoneoftheverybestelementsinacommunity,oneof
the best securities of character. For sudden leaps to fortune are given to but few, and are seldom
lasting,andtheresultsofsuddeninflationsaremoredisastrouseventoacommunitythantoisolated
individuals,asmaybeabundantlyprovedbytheearlyhistoryofVirginia.Itwasnotmeannessthat
madethewiryNewEnglandfarmersocautiousandexactingintrade,whenthepennieshesavedsent
his son through college. It was not meanness which made him refuse to spend money; he had no
money to spend, and it was a high sense of honor that kept him from running in debt. It was not
meannesswhichsojustlyorderedconditionsandcaredfortheunfortunatethateveninthosedaysof
horribledrunkennessoftentherewouldnotbeapauperintheentirevillage.Ithasbeenareproach
thatinsometownsthefewtownpoorwerevenduedouttobecaredfor;themodewasharshinits
wording,andunfeelinginmethod,butinrealitythepauperfoundahome.Ihaveknowncaseswhere
thepauperwasnotonlysupportedbutcherishedinthefamiliestowhoselotshefell.
CHAPTERXIV
TRAVEL,TRANSPORTATION,ANDTAVERNS
WherevertheearliestcolonistssettledinAmerica,theyhadtoadoptthemodesoftravelandtheways
ofgettingfromplacetoplaceoftheirpredecessorsandnewneighbors,theIndians.Thesewerefirst
—and generally—to walk on their own stout legs; second, to go wherever they could by water, in
boats.InMarylandandVirginia,whereforalongtimenearlyallsettlerstriedtobuildtheirhomeson
thebanksoftheriversandbays,thetravelwasalmostentirelybyboats;asitwasbetweensettlements
onallthegreatrivers,theHudson,Connecticut,andMerrimac.
Between the large settlements in Massachusetts—Boston, Salem, and Plymouth—travel was
preferably,whentheweatherpermitted,inboats.Thecolonistswentincanoes,orpinnaces,shaped
and made exactly like the birch-bark canoes of the Canadian Indians to-day; and in dugouts, which
were formed from hollowed pine-logs, usually about twenty feet long and two or three feet wide;
bothoftheseweremadeforthembytheIndians.ItwassaidthatoneIndian,workingalone,fellingthe
pine-treebytheprimitivewayofburningandscrapingoffthecharredpartswithastonetoolcalleda
celt (for the Indians had no iron or steel axes), then cutting off the top in the same manner, then
burningoutpartoftheinterior,thenburningandscrapingandshapingitwithoutandwithin,could
makeoneofthesedugoutsinthreeweeks.TheIndiansatOnondagastillmakethewoodenmortars
theyuseinthesametediousway.
WhenthewhitemencametoAmericaingreatships,theIndiansmarvelledmuchatthesize,thinking
theywerehollowedoutoftree-trunksaswerethedugouts,andwonderedwheresuchvasttreesgrew.
The Swedish scientific traveller, Kalm, who was in America in 1748, was delighted with the Indian
canoesanddugouts.HefoundtheSwedesettlersusingthemconstantlytogolongdistancestomarket.
Hesaid:—
"Theyusuallycarrysixpersonswhohoweverbynomeansmustbeunruly,butsitatthebottomofthe
canoeinthequietestmannerpossiblelesttheboatupset.Theyarenarrow,roundbelow,havenokeel
andmaybeeasilyoverset.Sowhenthewindisbriskthepeoplemakefor the land. Larger dugouts
weremadeforwar-canoeswhichwouldcarrythirtyorfortysavages."
Theseboatsusuallykeptclosetotheshore,bothincalmandwindyweather,thoughthenativeswere
notafraidtogomanymilesouttoseainthedugouts.
The lightness of the birch-bark canoe made it specially desirable where there were such frequent
overland transfers. It was and is a beautiful and perfect expression of natural and wild life; as
Longfellowwrote:—
"...theforest'slifewasinit,
Allitsmysteryandmagic,
Allthelightnessofthebirchtree,
Allthetoughnessofthecedar,
Allthelarch'ssupplesinews,
Anditfloatedontheriver
Likeayellowleafinautumn."
The French governor and missionaries all saw and admired these birch-bark canoes. Father
Charlevoixwroteabeautifulandvividdescriptionofthem.Alltheearlytravellersnotedtheirticklish
balance. Wood, writing in 1634, said, "In these cockling fly-boats an Englishman can scarce sit
withoutafearfultottering,"andMadamKnightsacenturylatersaidinhervividEnglishofatripin
one:—
"The Cannoo was very small and shallow, which greatly terrify'd me and caused me to be very
circumspect,sittingwithmyhandsfastoneachside,myeyessteady,notdaringsomuchastolodge
mytongueahair'sbredthmoreononesideofmymouththantother,norsomuchasthinkonLott's
wife,foraverythoughtwouldhaveoversettourwherry."
Whenboatsandvesselswerebuiltbythecolonists,theywereinformsorhadnamesbutlittleusedtoday. Shallop, ketch, pink, and snow are rarely heard. Sloops were early built, but schooner is a
modernterm.Batteauandperiaguastillareused;andthegundalow,picturesquewithitslateensail,
stillisfoundonournorthernNewEnglandshores.
The Indians had narrow foot-paths in many places through the woods. On them foot-travel was
possible, though many estuaries and rivers intersected the coast; for the narrow streams could be
crossed on natural ford-ways, or on rude bridges of fallen trees, which the English government
orderedtobeputinplace.
Aslateas1631GovernorEndicottwouldnotgofromSalemtoBostontovisitGovernorWinthrop
because he was not strong enough to wade across the fords. He might have done as Governor
WinthropdidthenextyearwhenhewenttoPlymouthtovisitGovernorBradford(andittookhim
twodaystogetthere);hemighthavebeencarriedacrossthefordspickabackbyanIndianguide.
TheIndianpathsweregood,thoughonlytwoorthreefeetwide,andinmanyplacesthesavageskept
thewoodsclearfromunderbrushbyburningoverlargetracts.WhenKingPhilip'sWartookplace,
all the land around the Indian settlements in Narragansett and eastern Massachusetts was so free of
brush that horsemen could ride everywhere freely through the woods. Some of the old paths are
famous in our history. The most so was the Bay Path, which ran from Cambridge through
Marlborough, Worcester, Oxford, Brookfield, and on to Springfield and the Connecticut River.
Holland'sbeautifulstorycalledbythenameofthepathgivesitshistory,itssentiment,andmuchthat
happenedonitinoldentimes.
When new paths were cut through the forests, the settlers "blazed" the trees, that is, they chopped a
pieceofthebarkofftreeaftertreestandingonthesideoftheway.Thusthe"blazes"stoodoutclear
andwhiteinthedarkshadowsoftheforests,likewelcomeguide-posts,showingthetravellerhisway.
InMarylandroadsturningofftoachurchweremarkedbyslipsorblazescutneartheground.
In Maryland and Virginia what were known as, and indeed are still called, rolling-roads were cut
through the forest. They were narrow roads adown which hogsheads of tobacco, fitted with axles,
couldbedrawnorrolledfrominlandplantationstotheriverorbayside;sometimesthehogsheads
weresimplyrolledbyhumanpropulsion,notdraggedontheseroads.
Thebroaderriverssoonhadcanoe-ferries.ThefirstregularMassachusettsferryfromCharlestown
to Boston was in 1639. It carried passengers for threepence apiece. From Chelsea to Boston was
fourpence.In1636theCambridgeferrymanchargedbuthalfapenny,assomanywishedtoattendthe
ThursdaylectureintheBostonchurches.WelearnfromtheMassachusettsLawsthatoftenariderhad
tolethishorsecrossbyswimmingover,beingguidedfromtheferry-boat;hethenpaidnoferriage
forthehorse.Afterwheeledvehicleswereused,theseferrieswerenotlargeenoughtocarrythem
properly.Oftenthecarriagehadtobetakenapart,ortowedover,whilethehorsehadhisforefeetin
one canoe-ferry and his hind feet in another, the two canoes being lashed together. The rope-ferry
lingeredtillourownday,andwaseverapicturesquesightontheriver.Assoonasroadswerebuilt
there were, of course, bridges and cart-ways, but these were only between the closely neighboring
towns.Usuallythebridgesweremerely"horse-bridges"witharailingonbutoneside.
Aftertheperiodofwalkingandcanoe-ridinghadhaditsday,nearlyalllandtravelforacenturywas
onhorseback,justasitwasinEnglandatthatdate.In1672therewereonlysixstage-coachesinthe
wholeofGreatBritain;andamanwroteapamphletprotestingthattheyencouragedtoomuchtravel.
Boston then had one private coach. Women and children usually rode seated on a pillion behind a
man.Apillionwasapaddedcushionwithstrapswhichsometimeshadononesideasortofplatformstirrup.Onewayofprogresswhichwouldhelpfourpersonsridepartoftheirjourneywaswhatwas
calledtheride-and-tiesystem.Twoofthefourpersonswhoweretravellingstartedontheirroadon
foot; two mounted on the saddle and pillion, rode about a mile, dismounted, tied the horse, and
walkedon.Whenthetwowhohadstartedonfootreachedthewaitinghorse,theymounted,rodeon
past the other couple for a mile or so, dismounted, tied, and walked on; and so on. It was also a
universalandcourteousasitwasapleasantcustomforfriendstorideoutontheroadafewmiles
withanydepartingguestorfriend,andthenbidthemGodspeedagatewards.
In 1704 a Boston schoolmistress named Madam Knights rode from Boston to New York on
horseback. She was probably the first woman to make the journey, and it was a great and daring
undertaking. She had as a companion the "post." This was the mail-carrier, who also rode on
horseback. One of his duties was to assist and be kind to all persons who cared to journey in his
company.ThefirstregularmailstartedfromNewYorktoBostononJanuary1,1673.Thepostman
carriedtwo"portmantles,"whichwerecrammedwithlettersandparcels.Hedidnotchangehorsestill
he reached Hartford. He was ordered to look out and report the condition of all ferries, fords, and
roads.Hehadtobe"active,stout,indefatigable,andhonest."Whenhedeliveredhismailitwaslaid
onatableataninn,andanyonewhowishedlookedoveralltheletters,thentookandpaidthepostage
(whichwasveryhigh)onanyaddressedtohimself.Itwasusuallyaboutamonthfromthissettingout
of"thepost"inwinter,tillhisreturn.Aslatecertainlyas1730themailwascarriedfromNewYorkto
Albanyinthewinterbya"foot-post."HewentuptheHudsonRiver,andlonelyenoughitmusthave
been;probablyheskatedupwhentheicewasgood.Thismailwasonlysentatirregularintervals.
In1760therewerebuteightmailsayearfromPhiladelphiatothePotomacRiver,andeventhenthe
post-riderneednotstarttillhehadreceivedenoughletterstopaytheexpensesofthetrip.Itwasnot
till postal affairs were placed in the capable and responsible hands of Benjamin Franklin that there
wereanyregularortrustworthymails.
The journal and report of Hugh Finlay, a post-office surveyor in 1773 of the mail service from
QuebectoSt.Augustine,Florida,tellsofthevicissitudesofmail-matterevenatthatlaterday.Insome
placesthedeputy,asthepostmasterwascalled,hadnooffice,sohisfamilyroomswereconstantly
invaded.Occasionallyatavernservedaspost-office;letterswerethrowndownonatableandifthe
weatherwasbad,orsmallpoxraged,orthedeputywerecareless,theywerenotforwardedformany
days.Lettersthatarrivedmightlieonthetableorbar-counterfordaysforanyonetopullover,until
the owner chanced to arrive and claim them. Good service could scarcely be expected from any
deputy,forhissalarywaspaidaccordingtothenumberofletterscomingtohisoffice;andasprivate
mail-carriage constantly went on, though forbidden by British law, the deputy suffered. "If an
informationwerelodg'dbutaninformerwou'dgettar'dandfeather'd,nojurywou'dfindthefact."
The government-riders were in truth the chief offenders. Any ship's captain, or wagon-driver, or
post-ridercouldcarrymerchandise;thereforesmallshambundlesofpaper,straw,orchipswouldbe
tiedtoalargesealedpacketofletter,andbothbeexemptfrompostagepaidtotheCrown.
Thepost-riderbetweenBostonandNewportloadedhiscarriagewithbundlesrealandsham,which
delayedhimlongindelivery.Heboughtandsoldoncommissionalongthisroad;andinviolationof
lawhecarriedmanyletterstohisownprofit.Hetooktwenty-sixhourstogoeightymiles.Hadthe
Newportdeputydaredtocomplain,hewouldhaveincurredmuchodiumandbeendeclareda"friend
ofslaveryandoppression."
"OldHerd,"theriderfromSaybrooktoNewYork,hadbeenintheserviceforty-sixyearsandhad
madeagoodestate.Hecoollytookpostageofallway-lettersashisperquisite;wasamoneycarrier
andtransferrer,alladvantagetohisownpocket;carriedmerchandise;returnedhorsesfortravellers;
and when Finlay saw him he was waiting for a yoke of oxen he was paid for fetching along some
miles. A Pennsylvania post-rider, an aged man, occupied himself as he slowly jogged along by
knitting mittens and stockings. Not always were mail portmanteaux properly locked; hence many
letterswerelostandthepullinginandoutofbundlesdefacedtheletters.
Of course so much horseback riding made it necessary to have horse-blocks in front of nearly all
houses.Incourseoftimestoneswereseteverymileontheprincipalroadstotellthedistancefrom
town to town. Benjamin Franklin set milestones the entire way on the post-road from Boston to
Philadelphia.Herodeinachaiseovertheroad;andamachinewhichhehadinventedwasattachedto
the chaise; and it was certainly the first cyclometer that went on that road, over which so many
cyclometershavepassedduringthelastfiveyears.Itmeasuredthemilesashetravelled.Whenhehad
riddenamilehestopped;fromaheavycartloadedwithmilestones,whichkeptalongsidethechaise,
astonewasdroppedwhichwasafterwardssetbyagangofmen.
Anumberofoldcolonialmilestonesarestillstanding.ThereisoneinWorcester,onwhatwasthe
"New Connecticut Path"; one in Springfield on the "Bay Path," and there are several of Benjamin
Franklin'ssetting,onebeingatStratford,Connecticut.
The inland transportation of freight was carried on in the colonies just as it was in Europe, on the
backsofpack-horses.Veryinterestinghistoricalevidenceinrelationtothemethodsoftransportation
inthemiddleoftheeighteenthcenturymaybefoundintheingeniousadvertisementandaddresswith
whichBenjaminFranklinraisedtransportationfacilitiesforBraddock'sarmyin1755.Thisisoneof
his most characteristic literary productions. Braddock's appeals to the Philadelphia Assembly for a
roughwagon-roadandwagonsforthearmysucceededinraisingonlytwenty-fivewagons.Franklin
visitedhiminhisdesolateplightandagreedtoassisthim,andappealedtothepublictosendtohim
for the use of the army a hundred and fifty wagons and fifteen hundred pack-horses; for the latter
Franklin offered to pay two shillings a day each, as long as used, if provided with a pack-saddle.
TwentyhorsesweresentwiththeirloadstothecampasgiftstotheBritishofficers.Asagoodand
definitelistoftheloadoneofthesepack-horseswasexpectedtocarry(aswellasarecordofthekind
ofprovisionsgratefultoanofficerofthatday)letmegiveaninventory:—
Sixpoundsloaf-sugar,
Sixpoundsmuscovadosugar,
Onepoundgreentea,
Onepoundboheatea,
Sixpoundsgroundcoffee,
Sixpoundschocolate,
One-halfchestbestwhitebiscuit,
One-halfpoundpepper,
Onequartwhitevinegar,
TwodozenbottlesoldMadeirawine,
TwogallonsJamaicaspirits,
Onebottleflourofmustard,
Twowell-curedhams,
One-halfdozencuredtongues,
Sixpoundsrice,
Sixpoundsraisins,
OneGloucestercheese,
Onekegcontaining20lbs.bestbutter.
The wagons and horses were all lost after Braddock's defeat, or were seized by the French and
Indians,andFranklinhadmanyanxiousmonthsofresponsibilityfordamagesfromtheowners;butI
amconfidenttheofficersgotalltheprovisions.FranklingatheredthewagonsinYorkandLancaster;
notwoEnglishshirescouldhavedonebetteratthattimethandidthesePennsylvaniacounties.
In Pennsylvania, western Virginia, and Ohio, pack-horses long were used, and a pretty picture is
drawn by Doddridge and many other local historians of the trains of these horses with their gay
collars and stuffed bells, as, laden with furs, ginseng, and snakeroot, they filed down the mountain
roadstothetowns,andcamehomeladenwithsalt,nails,tea,pewterplates,etc.Atnightthehorses
werehobbled,andtheclappersoftheirbellswereloosened;theringingpreventedthehorsesbeing
lost. The animals started on their journey with two hundred pounds' burden, of which part was
provenderforhorseandman,whichwasleftatconvenientrelaystobetakenuponthewayhome.
Twomencouldmanagefifteenpack-horses,whichweretetheredsuccessivelyeachtothepack-saddle
oftheoneinfrontofhim.Onemanledtheforemosthorse,andthedriverfollowedthefiletowatch
thepacksandurgeonthelaggards.Theirnumberswerevast;fivehundredwerecountedatonetime
inCarlisle,Pennsylvania,goingwestward.Itwasacostlymethodoftransportation.Mr.Howlandsays
that in 1784 the expense of carrying a ton's weight from Philadelphia to Erie by pack-horses was
$249. It is interesting to note that the routes taken by those men, skilled only in humble woodcraft,
werethesameonesfollowedinlateryearsbytheengineersoftheturnpikesandrailroads.
AstheroadsweresomewhatbetterinPennsylvaniathaninsomeotherprovinces,andmoreneeded,
sowagonssoonwerefargreaterinnumber;indeed,duringtheRevolutionnearlyallthewagonsand
horsesusedbythearmycamefromthatstate.TherewasdevelopedinPennsylvaniabythesoftsoilof
these many roads, as well as by various topographical conditions, a splendid example of a true
Americanvehicle,onewhichwasforalongtimethehighesttypeofacommodiousfreight-carrierin
thisoranyothercountry—theConestogawagon,"thefinestwagontheworldhaseverknown."They
werefirstusedinanyconsiderablenumberabout1760.Theyhadbroadwheel-tires,andoneofthe
peculiaritieswasadecidedcurveinthebottom,analogoustothatofagalleyorcanoe,whichmadeit
speciallyfittedfortraversingmountainroads;forthiscurvedbottompreventedfreightfromslipping
toofarateitherendwhengoingupordownhill.Thisbodywasuniversallypaintedabrightblue,and
furnished with sideboards of an equally vivid red. The wagon-bodies were arched over with six or
eightstatelybows,ofwhichthemiddleoneswerethelowest,andtheothersrosegraduallytofront
andreartilltheendbowswerenearlyofequalheight.Overthemallwasstretchedastrong,white,
hempencover,wellcordeddownatthesidesandends.Thesewagonscouldbeloadeduptothebows,
andcouldcarryfourtosixtonsinweight.TheratesbetweenPhiladelphiaandPittsburghwereabout
twodollarsahundredpounds.Thehorses,fourtoseveninnumber,weremagnificent,oftenmatched
throughout;somewerealldapple-gray,orallbay.Theharnesses,ofbestmaterialsandappearance,
werecostly;eachhorsehadalargehousingofdeerskinorheavybearskintrimmedwithdeepscarlet
fringe; while the head-stall was tied with bunches of gay ribbons. Bell-teams were common; each
horseexceptthesaddle-horsethenhadafullsetofbellstiedwithhigh-coloredribbons.
The horses were highly fed; and when the driver, seated on the saddle-horse, drew rein on the
prancingleaderandflourishedhisfinebull-hideLondonwhip,makingthesilksnapandtingleround
the leader's ears, every horse started off with the ponderous load with a grace and ease that was
beautifultosee.
ThewagonswerefirstusedintheConestogavalley,andmostextensivelyusedthere;andthesleek
powerful draught-horses known as the Conestoga breed were attached to them, hence their name.
Theseteamswereobjectsofpridetotheirowners,objectsofadmirationandattentionwhereverthey
appeared,andareobjectsofhistoricalinterestandsatisfactionto-day.
Often a prosperous teamster would own several Conestoga wagons, and driving the leading and
handsomest team himself would start off his proud procession. From twenty to a hundred would
follow in close row. Large numbers were constantly passing. At one time ten thousand ran from
Philadelphiatoothertowns.JosiahQuincytoldoftheroadatLancasterbeinglinedwiththem.The
sceneontheroadbetweentheCumberlandvalleyandGreensburg,wheretherearefivedistinctand
noblemountainranges,—Tuscarora,RaysHill,Alleghany,LaurelHills,andChestnutRidge,—when
alongtrainofwhite-toppedConestogawagonsappearedandwoundalongthemountainsides,was
picturesqueandbeautifulwithacharmunparalleledto-day.
"——Manyafleetofthem
Inonelongupwardwindingrow.
Iteverwasanoblesight
Asfromthedistantmountainheight
Orquietvalleyfarbelow,
Theirsnow-whitecoverslookedlikesail."
There were two classes of Conestoga wagons and wagoners. The "Regulars," or men who made it
theirconstantandonlybusiness;and"Militia."Alocalpoetthusdescribestheseoutfits:—
"Militia-mendrovenarrowtreads,
FourhorsesandplainredDutchbeds,
Andalwayscarriedgrubandfeed."
Theywerefarmersorcommonteamsterswhomadeoccasionaltrips,usuallyinwintertime,anddid
some carriage for others, and drove but four horses with their wagons. The "Regulars" had broad
tires,carriednofeedforhorsesnorfoodforthemselves,butbothclassesofteamsterscarriedcoarse
mattressesandblankets,whichtheyspreadsidebyside,androwafterrow,onthebar-roomfloorof
thetavernatwhichthey"putup."Theirhorseswhenunharnessedfedfromlongtroughshitchedtothe
wagon-pole.ThewagonsthatpliedbetweentheDelawareandthesmallcityofPittsburghwerecalled
Pitt-teams.
ThelifeoftheConestogawagondidnotendevenwiththeestablishmentofrailroadsintheEastern
states;fartherandfartherwestitpenetrated,everchosenbyemigrantsandtravellerstothefrontiers;
andatlastinitsoldageithadanequalcareerofusefulnessasthe"prairie-schooner,"inwhichvast
numbers of families safely crossed the prairies of our far West. The white tilts of the wagons thus
passedandrepassedtillourownday.
Four-wheeled wagons were but little used in New England till after the War of 1812. Two-wheeled
cartsandsledscarriedinlandfreight,whichwaschieflytransportedoverthesnowinthewinter.
TheConestogawagonofthepastcenturywasfaraheadofanythinginEnglandatthatdate;indeed
Mr.C.W.Ernst,thebestauthorityIknowonthesubject,sayswehadineverywayfarbettertraffic
facilitiesatthattimethanEngland.Inotherwaysweexcelled.ThoughFinlayfoundmanydefectsin
the postal service in 1773, he also found the Stavers mail-coach plying between Boston and
Portsmouth long before England had such a thing. Mr. Ernst says: "The Stavers mail-coach was
stunning; used six horses when roads were bad, and never was late. They had no mail-coaches in
EnglandtillaftertheRevolution,andIbelieveMassachusettsmenintroducedtheideainEngland."
We are apt to grow retrospectively sentimental over the delights, æsthetic and physical, of ancient
stage-coach days. Those days are not so ancient as many fancy. The first stage-coach which ran
directly from Philadelphia to New York in 1766—and primitive enough it was—was called "the
flying-machine,agoodstage-wagonsetonsprings."Itsswifttripoccupiedtwodaysingoodweather.
Itwasbutayearlaterthantheoriginalstage-coachbetweenEdinburghandGlasgow.Atthattime,in
favorable weather, the coach between London and Edinburgh made the trip in thirteen days. The
Londonmail-coachinitspalmiestdayscouldmakethistripinforty-threehoursandahalf.Asearly
as 1718 Jonathan Wardwell advertised that he would run a stage to Rhode Island. In 1767 a stagecoach was run during the summer months between Boston and Providence; in 1770 a stage-chaise
started between Salem and Boston and a post-chaise between Boston and Portsmouth the following
year.Asearlyas1732somecommon-carrierlineshadwagonswhichwouldcarryafewpassengers.
Let us hear the testimony of some travellers as to the glorious pleasure of stage-coach travelling.
DescribingatripbetweenBostonandNewYorktowardstheendofthelastcenturyPresidentQuincy
ofHarvardCollegesaid:—
"Thecarriageswereoldandtheshacklingandmuchoftheharnessmadeofropes.Onepairofhorses
carried us eighteen miles. We generally reached our resting-place for the night if no accident
intervened,atteno'clock,andafterafrugalsupperwenttobed,withanoticethatweshouldbecalled
at three next morning, which generally proved to be half-past two, and then, whether it snowed or
rained,thetravellermustriseandmakeready,bythehelpofahorn-lanternandafarthingcandle,and
proceedonhiswayoverbadroads,sometimesgettingouttohelpthecoachmanliftthecoachoutofa
quagmireorrut,andarrivedinNewYorkafteraweek'shardtravelling,wonderingattheeaseaswell
astheexpeditionwithwhichourjourneywaseffected."
The Columbia Centinel of April 24, 1793, advertised a new line of "small genteel and easy stagecarriages" from Boston to New York with four inside passengers, and smart horses. Many of the
announcementsofthedayhavepicturesofthecoaches.Theyusuallyresemblemarketwagonswith
round,canvas-coveredtops,andthedriverisseatedoutsidethebodyofthewagonwithhisfeetonthe
foot-board.Trunksweresmall,coveredwithdeerskinorpigskin,studdedwithbrassnails;andeach
travellertookhistrunkunderhisseatandfeet.
Thepoet,Moore,givesinrhymehistestimonyofVirginiaroadsin1800:—
"DearGeorge,thougheveryboneisaching
Aftertheshaking
I'vehadthisweekoverrutsandridges,
Andbridges
Madeofafewuneasyplanks,
Inopenranks,
Overriversofmudwhosenamesalone
Wouldmakeknockthekneesofstoutestman."
ThetravellerWeld,in1795,gavetestimonythatthebridgesweresopoorthatthedriverhadalways
tostopandarrangethelooseplankserehedaredcross,andheadds:—
"Thedriverfrequentlyhadtocalltothepassengersinthestagetoleanoutofthecarriagefirstonone
sidethenontheother,topreventitfromoversettinginthedeeproadswithwhichtheroadabounds.
'Now,gentlemen,totheright,'uponwhichthepassengersallstretchedtheirbodieshalf-wayoutofthe
carriagetobalanceonthatside.'Now,gentlemen,totheleft,'andsoon."
Thecoachinwhichthispleasuretripwastakenisshownintheillustrationentitled"AmericanStagewagon."ItiscopiedfromafirsteditionofWeld'sTravels.
Ann Warder, in her journey from Philadelphia to New York in 1759, notes two overturned and
abandonedstage-wagonsatPerthAmboy;andmanyothertravellersgivesimilartestimony.In1796
thetripfromPhiladelphiatoBaltimoretookfivedays.
The growth in stage-coaches and travel came with the turnpike at the beginning of this century. In
transportationandtravel,improvementofroadwaysiseverassociatedwithimprovementofvehicles.
The first extensive turnpike was the one between Philadelphia and Lancaster, built in 1792. The
growthandthecostoftheseroadsmaybebrieflymentionedbyquotingastatementfromtheannual
messageofthegovernorofPennsylvaniain1838,thatthatcommonwealththenhadtwothousandfive
hundredmilesofturnpikeswhichhadcost$37,000,000.
Many of these turnpikes were beautiful and splendid roads; for instance, the "Mohawk and Hudson
Turnpike,"whichraninastraightlinefromAlbanytoSchenectady,wasornamentedandshadedwith
tworowsofthequicklygrowingandfashionablepoplar-treesandthicklypunctuatedwithtaverns.On
oneturnpikethereweresixty-fivetavernsinsixtymiles.Thedashingstage-coachaccordedwellwith
thisfinethoroughfare.
With the splendid turnpikes came the glorious coaching days. In 1827 the Traveller's Register
reported eight hundred stage-coaches arriving, and as many leaving Boston each week. The fortymileroadfromBostontoProvidencesometimessawtwentycoachesgoingeachway.Theeditorof
the Providence Gazette wrote: "We were rattled from Boston to Providence in four hours and fifty
minutes—if any one wants to go faster he may go to Kentucky and charter a streak of lightning."
TherewerefourrivallinesontheCumberlandroad,—theNational,GoodIntent,Pioneer,andJune
Bug. Some spirited races the old stage-road witnessed between the rival lines. The distance from
WheelingtoCumberland,onehundredandthirty-twomiles,wasregularlyaccomplishedintwentyfour hours. No heavy luggage was carried and but nine passengers; fourteen coaches rolled off
together—one was a mail-coach with a horn. Relays were every ten miles; teams were changed
beforethecoachceasedrocking;onedriverboastedofchangingandharnessinghisfourhorsesin
four minutes. Lady travellers were quickly thrust in the open door and their bandboxes after them.
Scant time was there for refreshment, save by uncorking of bottles. The keen test and acute rivalry
between drivers came in the delivery of the President's Message. Dan Gordon carried the message
thirty-twomilesintwohoursandthirtyminutes,changinghorsesthreetimes.BillNoblecarriedthe
messagefromWheelingtoHagerstown,ahundredandeighty-fivemiles,infifteenandahalfhours.
In1818theEasternStageCompanywascharteredinthestateofNewHampshire.Theroutewasthis:
astagestartedfromPortsmouthat9A.M.;passengersdinedatTopsfield;thencethroughDanversand
Salem; back the following day, dining at Newburyport. The capital stock was four hundred and
twenty-fivesharesatahundreddollarspar.In1834thestockwasworthtwohundreddollarsashare.
Thecompanyownedseveralhundredhorses.ItwasonacoachofthislinethatHenryClayrodefrom
PleasantStreet,Salem,toTremontHouse,Boston,inexactlyanhour;andontherouteextendedto
Portland, Daniel Webster was carried at the rate of sixteen English miles an hour from Boston to
PortlandtosigntheAshburtonTreaty.
The middle of the century saw the beginning of the end of coaching in all the states that had been
colonies. Further west the old stage-coach had to trundle in order to exist at all: Ohio, Indiana,
Missouri,acrosstheplains,andthenovertheRockyMountainstoSaltLake.TheroadfromCarson
to Plainville gave the crack ride, and the driver wore yellow kid gloves. The coach known as the
Concordwagon,drawnbysixhorses,stillmakescheerfultheout-of-the-wayroadsofourWestern
states, and recalls the life of olden times. The story of spirited and gay life still exists in the Wells
Fargo Express. The usefulness of the Concord coach is not limited to the western nor the northern
portionofourcontinent;inSouthAmericaitflourishes,banishingallrivals.
Canaltravelandtransportationwereproposedatthecloseofprovincialdays,andafewshortcanals
were built. Benjamin Franklin was early awake to their practicability and value. Among the stockowners of the Dismal Swamp Canal was George Washington, and he was equally interested in the
PotomacCanal.
The Erie Canal, first proposed to the New York legislature in 1768, was completed in 1825. There
wasconsiderablepassengertravelonthiscanalat"acentandahalfamile,amileandahalfanhour."
Horace Greeley has given an excellent picture of this leisurely travel; it was asserted by some that
stage-coachesweredoomedbythecanal-boat,buttheycontinuedtoexisttilltheyencounteredamore
formidablerival.
Until turnpike days all small carriages were two-wheeled; chaises, chairs, and sulkies were those
generally used. The chaise and harness used by Jonathan Trumbull—"Brother Jonathan"—are here
shown. With regard to private conveyances, whether coaches, chaises, or chairs, the colonies kept
closestepfromearliestdayswiththemother-countries.RandolphnotedwithenvytheBostoncoaches
oftheseventeenthcentury.ParsonThatcherwasaccusedandreprehendedin1675formakingvisits
withacoachandfour.CoachesweretaxedbothinEnglandandAmerica;soweknowexactlyhow
plentiful they were. There were as many in Massachusetts in 1750 in proportion to the number of
inhabitantsastherewereinEnglandin1830.JudgeSewall'sdiaryoftenreferstoprivatecoaches;and
one of the most amusing scenes it depicts is his continued and ingenious argument when wooing
MadamWinthropforhisthirdwife,whenshestipulatedthatheshouldkeepacoach,andhisfrugal
minddisposedhimnottodoit.
Coach-building prospered in the colonies; Lucas and Paddock in Boston, Ross in New York, made
beautifulandrichcoaches.MaterialswereampleandvariedintheNewWorldforcarriage-building;
horseflesh—notover-choice,tobesure—becameover-plentiful;itwassaidthatnomaneverwalked
inAmericasaveavagabondorafool.AcoachmadeforMadamAngelicaCampbellofSchenectady,
NewYork,bycoach-builderRoss,in1790,ishereshown.ItisnowownedbyMr.JohnD.Campbell
ofRotterdam,NewYork.
SleighswerecommoninNewYorkahalf-centurybeforetheywereinBoston.MadamKnightsnoted
thefastracinginsleighsinNewYorkwhenshewastherein1704.
One other curious conveyance of colonial days should be spoken of,—a sedan-chair. This was a
strongcoveredchairfastenedontwobarswithhandleslikealitter,andmightbecarriedbytwoor
fourpersons.Whensedan-chairsweresomuchusedinEngland,theyweresuretobesomewhatused
incitiesinAmerica.OnewaspresentedtoGovernorWinthropasearlyas1646,portionofacapture
fromaSpanishgalleon.JudgeSewallwrotein1706,"FiveIndianscarriedMr.Bromfieldinachair."
Thiswasinthecountry,downonCapeCod,anddoubtlessfourIndianscarriedhimwhileonerested.
Aslateas1789ElizaQuincysawDr.Franklinridinginasedan-chairinPhiladelphia.
The establishment and building of roads, bridges, and opening of inns show that mutual interest
whichmarkscivilization,andseparatesusfromthelonely,selfishlifeofasavage.Sooninnswere
foundeverywhereintheNortherncolonies.InNewEngland,NewYork,andPennsylvaniaaninnwas
calledanordinary,avictualling,acook-shop,oratavernbeforewehadourmodernwordhotel.
Boardwasnotveryhighatearlyinns;thepriceswereregulatedbythedifferenttowns.In1633the
Saleminnkeepercouldonlyhavesixpenceforameal.ThiswasatthefamousAnchorTavern,which
waskeptasahostelryfornearlytwocenturies.AttheShipTavern,board,lodging,wineatdinner,
andbeerbetweenmealscostthreeshillingsaday.Greatcarewastakenbythemagistratestochoose
responsible men and women to keep taverns, and they would not permit too many taverns in one
town. At first the tavern-keeper could not sell sack (which was sherry), nor stronger intoxicating
liquortotravellers,buthecouldsellbeer,provideditwasgood,forapennyaquart.Norcouldhe
sellcakesorbunsexceptataweddingorfuneral.Hecouldnotallowgamestobeplayed,norsinging
ordancingtotakeplace.
WeknowfromShakespeare'splaysthatthedifferentroomsinEnglishinnshadnames.Thiswasalso
the custom in New England. The Star Chamber, Rose and Sun Chamber, Blue Chamber, Jerusalem
Chamber,weresomeofthem.ManyofthetavernsofRevolutionarydaysandsomeofcolonialtimes
arestillstanding.Afewhaveevenbeentavernssincefirstbuilt;othershaveservedmanyotheruses.
Awell-preservedoldhouse,builtin1690inSudbury,Massachusetts,wasoriginallyknownastheRed
HorseTavern,buthasacquiredgreaterfameastheWaysideInnofLongfellow'sTales.Itstap-room
with raftered ceiling and cage-like bar with swinging gate is a picturesque room, and is one of the
fewoldtap-roomsleftunalteredinNewEngland.
Every inn had a name, usually painted on its swinging sign-board, with some significant emblem.
These names were simply repetitions of old English tavern-signs until Revolutionary days, when
patrioticlandlordseagerlyinventedandadoptednamessignificantofthenewnation.Thescarletcoat
ofKingGeorgebecametheblueandbuffofGeorgeWashington;andtheeagleoftheUnitedStates
tooktheplaceoftheBritishlion.
Thesign-boardwasaninterestingsurvivaloffeudaltimes,andwithitsold-timecarvedandforged
companions,suchasvanesandweathercocks,doorknockersandfigureheads,formedapicturesque
elementofdecorationandsymbolism.Manychaptersmightbewrittenonhistoric,commemorative,
emblematic, heraldic, biblical, humorous, or significant signs, nearly all of which have vanished
from public gaze, as has disappeared also the general incapacity to read, which made pictorial
devicesanecessity.Gilders,painter-stainers,smiths,andjoinersallhelpedtomakethetavern-signa
thing of varied workmanship if not of art. It is said that Philadelphia excelled in the quantity and
quality of her sign-boards. With fair roads for colonial days, the best and amplest system of
transportation,andthesplendidConestogawagons,greatinnsmultipliedthroughoutPennsylvania.In
Baltimorebothtavernsandsignsweremanyandvaried,fromtheThreeLoggerheadstotheIndian
Queen with its "two hundred guest-rooms with a bell in every room," and the Fountain Inn built
aroundashadycourt,withgalleriesoneverystory,liketheTabardInnatSouthwark.
Theswingingsign-boardofJohnNash'sTavernatAmherst,Massachusetts,isherereproducedfrom
theHistoryofAmherst.Itisagoodtypeoftheordinarysign-boardwhichwasfoundhanginginfront
ofeverytavernacenturyago.
InVirginiaandtheCarolinastavernswerenotsoplentifulnorsonecessary;foratravellermightride
from Maryland to Georgia, and be sure of a welcome at every private house on the way. Some
planters,eagerforcompanyandnews,stationednegroesatthegatetoinvitepassers-byonthepostroadtocomeintothehouseandbeentertained.Berkeley,inhisHistoryofVirginia,wrote:—
"The inhabitants are very courteous to travellers, who need no other recommendation than being
humancreatures.Astrangerhasnomoretodobuttoinquireupontheroadwhereanygentlemanor
good housekeeper lives, and then he may depend upon being received with hospitality. This goodnatureissogeneralamongtheirpeople,thatthegentry,whentheygoabroad,ordertheirprincipal
servants to entertain all visitors with everything the plantation affords; and the poor planters who
havebutonebed,willoftensitup,orlieuponaformorcouchallnight,tomakeroomforaweary
travellertoreposehimselfafterhisjourney."
SouniversalwasthiscustomoffreeentertainmentthatitwasalawinVirginiathatunlesstherehad
beenadistinctagreementtopayforboardandshelter,nopaycouldbeclaimedfromanyguest,no
matter how long he remained. In the few taverns that existed prices were low, about a shilling a
dinner;anditwasorderedthatthemealmustbewholesomeandgood.
ThegovernorofNewNetherlandsatfirstentertainedallvisitorstoNewAmsterdamathishousein
thefort.Butascommerceincreasedhefoundthishospitalityburdensome,andaHarbergortavern
wasbuilt;itwaslaterusedasacityhall.
InEnglandthroughouttheseventeenthcentury,andindeedmuchlater,traversingthegreatcitiesby
nightwasamatterofsomedanger.Thestreetswereill-lighted,werefullofholesandmudandfilth,
andwereinfestedwiththieves.Worsestill,groupsofdrunkenanddissipatedyoungmenofwealth,
callingthemselvesMohocks,Scourers,andothernames,roamedthedarkstreetsarmedwithswords
andbludgeons,assaulting,tormenting,andinjuringeveryonewhomtheymet,whohadtheillfortune
tobeabroadatnight.
There was nothing of that sort known in American cities; there was little noise or roistering, no
highwayrobbery,comparativelylittlepettystealing.Thestreetswereill-pavedanddirty,butnotfoul
withtheaccumulateddirtofcenturiesasinLondon.Thestreetsinnearlyallcitieswereunlighted.In
1697NewYorkerswereorderedtohavealanternandcandlehungoutonapolefromeveryseventh
house.Andasthewatchmanwalkedaroundhecalledout,"Lanthorn,andawholecandell-light.Hang
outyourlights."Thewatchmanwascalledarattle-watch,andcarriedalongstaffandalanternanda
largerattleorklopper,whichhestrucktofrightenawaythieves.Andallnightlonghecalledouteach
hour,andtoldtheweather.Forinstance,hecalledout,"Pastmidnight,andall'swell";"Oneo'clock
andfairwinds,"or"Fiveo'clockandcloudyskies."Thusonecouldliesafeinbedandifhechanced
towakencouldknowthatthefriendlyrattle-watchwasnearathand,andwhatwastheweatherandthe
timeofnight.In1658NewYorkhadinalltenwatchmen,whowerelikeourmodernpolice;to-dayit
hasmanythousands.
In New England the constables and watch were all carefully appointed by law. They carried black
stavessixfeetlong,tippedwithbrass,andhencewerecalledtipstaves.Thenightwatchwascalleda
bell-man.Helookedoutforfireandthievesandotherdisorders,andcalledthetimeofthenight,and
theweather.Thepaywassmall,oftenbutashillinganight,andoccasionallya"coatofkersey."In
large towns, as Boston and Salem, thirteen "sober, honest men and householders" were the night
watch. The highest in the community, even the magistrates, took their turn at the watch, and were
orderedtowalktwotogether,ayoungmanwith"oneofthesoberersort."
CHAPTERXV
SUNDAYINTHECOLONIES
ThefirstbuildingusedasachurchatthePlymouthcolonywasthefort,andtoitthePilgrimfathers
and mothers and children walked on Sunday reverently and gravely, three in a row, the men fully
armed with swords and guns, till they built a meeting-house in 1648. In other New England
settlements,thefirstserviceswereheldintents,undertrees,orunderanyshelter.Thesettlerwhohad
aroomyhouseoftenhadalsothemeeting.ThefirstBostonmeeting-househadmudwalls,athatched
roof, and earthen floor. It was used till 1640, and some very thrilling and inspiring scenes were
enactedwithinitshumblewalls.Usuallytheearliestmeeting-houseswereloghouses,withclay-filled
chinks, and roofs thatched with reeds and long grass, like the dwelling-houses. At Salem is still
preservedoneoftheearlychurches.ThesecondandmoredignifiedformofNewEnglandmeetinghousewasusuallyasquarewoodenbuildingwithatruncatedpyramidalroof,surmountedoftenwith
abelfry,whichservedasalookoutstationandheldabell,fromwhichthebell-ropehungdowntothe
floorinthecentreofthechurchaisle.TheoldchurchatHingham,Massachusetts,stillstandingand
stillused,isagoodspecimenofthisshape.Itwasbuiltin1681,andisknownasthe"OldShip,"andis
a comely and dignified building. As more elegant and costly dwelling-houses were built, so were
better meeting-houses; and the third form with lofty wooden steeple at one end, in the style of
architecture invented by Sir Christopher Wren, after the great fire of London, multiplied and
increased until every town was graced with an example. In all these the main body of the edifice
remainedasbare,prosaic,andundecoratedasweretheprecedingchurches,whilealltheambitionof
both builders and congregation spent itself in the steeple. These were so varied and at times so
beautifulthatachaptermightbewrittenonNewEnglandsteeples.TheOldSouthChurchofBostonis
agoodexampleofthisschoolofecclesiasticalarchitecture,andisawell-knownhistoricbuildingas
well.
Theearliestmeeting-houseshadoiledpaperinthewindows,andwhenglasscameitwasnotsetwith
putty,butwasnailedin.Thewindowshadwhatweretermed"heavycurrentside-shutters."Theoutside
ofthemeeting-housewasnot"colored,"or"stained"asitwasthentermed,butwaslefttoturngray
and weather-stained, and sometimes moss-covered with the dampness of the great shadowing
hemlockandfirtreeswhichwereusuallyplantedaroundNewEnglandchurches.Thefirstmeetinghouseswereoftendecoratedinaverysingularandgrotesquemanner.Rewardswerepaidbyallthe
earlytownsforkillingwolves;andanypersonwhokilledawolfbroughttheheadtothe meetinghouseandnailedittotheouterwall;thefiercegrinningheadsandsplashesofbloodmadeagrimand
horribledecoration.Allkindsofnoticeswerealsonailedtothemeeting-housedoorwhereallofthe
congregationmightreadilyseethem,—noticesoftown-meetings,ofsalesofcattleorfarms,listsof
town-officers,prohibitionsfromsellinggunstotheIndians,noticesofintendedmarriages,vendues,
etc. It was the only meeting-place, the only method of advertisement. In front of the church was
usuallyarowofstepping-stonesorhorse-blocks,fornearlyallcameonhorseback;andoftenonthe
meeting-housegreenstoodthestocks,pillory,andwhipping-post.
Aversefromanold-fashionedhymnreadsthus:
"NewEngland'sSabbathday
Isheaven-like,still,andpure,
WhenIsraelwalkstheway
Uptothetemple'sdoor.
Thetimewetell
Whentheretocome,
Bybeatofdrum,
Orsoundingshell."
The first church at Jamestown, Virginia, gathered the congregation by beat of drum; but while
attendantsoftheEpiscopal,RomanCatholic,andDutchReformedchurchesintheNewWorldwerein
generalbeingsummonedtodivineservicebytheringingofabellhungeitheroverthechurchorin
the branches of a tree by its side, New England Puritans were summoned, as the hymn relates, by
drum, or horn, or shell. The shell was a great conch-shell, and a man was hired to blow it—a
mournfulsound—atthepropertime,whichwasusuallynineo'clockinthemorning.InStockbridge,
Massachusetts, the church-shell was afterwards used for many years as a signal to begin and stop
workinthehayingfield.InWindsor,Connecticut,amanwalkedupanddownonaplatformonthe
topofthemeeting-houseandblewatrumpettosummonworshippers.Manychurcheshadachurch
drummer,whostoodontherooforinthebelfryanddrummed;afewraisedaflagasasummons,or
firedagun.
Within the meeting-house all was simple enough: raftered walls, puncheon and sanded or earthen
floors, rows of benches, a few pews, all of unpainted wood, and a pulpit which was usually a high
desk overhung by a heavy sounding-board, which was fastened to the roof by a slender metal rod.
The pulpit was sometimes called a scaffold. When pews were built they were square, with high
partitionwalls,andhadnarrow,uncomfortableseatsroundthreesides.Thewordwasalwaysspelled
"pue"; and they were sometimes called "pits." A little girl in the middle of this century attended a
serviceinanoldchurchwhichstillretainedtheold-fashionedsquarepews;sheexclaimed,inaloud
voice,"What!mustIbeshutinaclosetandsitonashelf?"Thesenarrow,shelf-likeseatswereusually
hung on hinges and could be turned up against the pew-walls during the long psalm-tunes and
prayers; so the members of the congregation could lean against the pew-walls for support as they
stood.Whentheseatswereletdown,theyfellwithaheavyslamthatcouldbeheardhalfamileaway
in the summer time, when the windows of the meeting-house were open. Lines from an old poem
read:—
"AndwhenatlasttheloudAmen
Fellfromaloft,howquicklythen
Theseatscamedownwithheavyrattle,
Likemusketryinfiercestbattle."
Afewoftheold-timemeeting-houses,withhighpulpit,squarepews,anddeacons'seats,stillremain
in New England. The interior of the Rocky Hill meeting-house at Salisbury, Massachusetts, is here
shown.Itfullyillustratesthewordsofthepoet:—
"OldhouseofPuritanicwood
Throughwhoseunpaintedwindowsstreamed
Onseatsasprimitiveandrude
AsJacob'spillowwhenhedreamed,
Thewhiteandundilutedday—"
The seats were carefully and thoughtfully assigned by a church committee called the Seating
Committee,thebestseatsbeinggiventoolderpersonsofwealthanddignitywhoattendedthechurch.
Whittierwroteofthiscustom:—
"Inthegoodlyhouseofworship,whereinorderdueandfit,
Asbypublicvotedirected,classedandrankedthepeoplesit.
Mistressfirstandgoodwifeafter,clerklysquirebeforetheclown,
Fromthebravecoatlace-embroideredtothegraycoatshadingdown."
Manyoftheplansfor"seatingthemeeting-house"havebeenpreserved;thepewsandtheirassigned
occupantsareclearlydesignated.AcopyisshownofonenowinDeerfieldMemorialHall.
Intheearlymeeting-housesmenandwomensatonseparatesidesofthemeeting-house,asinQuaker
meetingstillourowntime.Sometimesagroupofyoungwomenorofyoungmenwerepermittedto
sit in the gallery together. Little girls sat beside their mothers or on footstools at their feet, or
sometimesonthegallerystairs;andIhaveheardofalittlecageorframetoholdPuritanbabiesin
meeting.Boysdidnotsitwiththeirfamilies,butwereingroupsbythemselves,usuallyonthepulpit
and gallery stairs, where tithing-men watched over them. In Salem, in 1676, it was ordered by the
townthat"allyeboyesofyetowneareappointedtosittuponyethreepaireofstairsinyemeetinghouse,andWm.Lordisappointedtolookafteryeboysuponyepulpittstairs."
InStratfordthetithing-manwasorderedto"watchoveryouthsofdisorderlycarriage,andseethey
behavethemselvescomelie,andusesuchrapsandblowsasisinhisdiscretionmeet."InDurhamany
misbehavingboywaspunishedpubliclyaftertheservicewasover.Wewouldnowadaysscarcelyseat
twenty or thirty active boys together in church if we wished them to be models of attention and
dignifiedbehavior;butaftertheboys'seatswereremovedfromthepulpitstairstheywereallturned
intogetherina"boys'pew"inthegallery.Therewasaboys'pewinWindsor,Connecticut,aslateas
1845, and pretty noisy it usually was. A certain small boy in Connecticut misbehaved himself on
Sunday,andhiswickednesswasspecifiedbythejusticeofpeaceasfollows:—
"ARudeandIdelBehaverinthemeetinghous.SuchasSmilingandLarfingandIntiseingotherstothe
SameEvil.SuchasLarfingorSmilingorpulingthehairofhisnayberBenoniSimkinsinthetimeof
PublickWorship.SuchasthrowingSisterPenticostPerkinsontheIce,itbeingSabothday,between
themeetinghousandhisplaesofabode."
I can picture well the wicked scene; poor, meek little Benoni Simpkins trying to behave well in
meeting,andnotcryoutwhentheyoung"wantongospeller"pulledherhair,andunfortunateSister
Perkinstrippedupontheicebytheyoungrascal.
Another vain youth in Andover, Massachusetts, was brought up before the magistrate, and it was
charged that he "sported and played, and by Indecent gestures and wry faces caused laughter and
misbehavior in the beholders." The girls were just as wicked; they slammed down the pew-seats.
Tabatha Morgus of Norwich "prophaned the Lord's daye" by her "rude and indecent behavior in
Laughing and playing in ye tyme of service." On Long Island godless boys "ran raesses" on the
Sabbath and "talked of vane things," and as for Albany children, they played hookey and coasted
downhillonSundaytothescandalofeveryoneevidently,excepttheirparents.Whentheboyswere
separatedandfamiliessatinpewstogether,allbecameorderlyinmeeting.
Thedeaconssatina"Deacons'Pue"justinfrontofthepulpit;sometimesalsotherewasa"DeafPue"
in front for those who were hard of hearing. After choirs were established the singers' seats were
usuallyinthegallery;andhighupunderthebeamsinaloftsatthenegroesandIndians.
Ifanypersonseatedhimselfinanyplacewhichwasnotassignedtohim,hehadtopayafine,usually
of several shillings, for each offence. But in old Newbury men were fined as high as twenty-seven
poundseachforpersistentandunrulysittinginseatsbelongingtoothermembers.
Thechurcheswereallunheated.Fewhadstovesuntilthemiddleofthiscentury.Thechillofthedamp
buildings,neverheatedfromautumntospring,andclosedanddarkthroughouttheweek,washard
for every one to bear. In some of the early log-built meeting-houses, fur bags made of wolfskins
werenailedtotheseats;andinwinterchurchattendantsthrusttheirfeetintothem.Dogs,too,were
permittedtoenterthemeeting-houseandlieontheirmasters'feet.Dog-whippersordog-pelterswere
appointed to control and expel them when they became unruly or unbearable. Women and children
usuallycarriedfoot-stoves,whichwerelittlepiercedmetalboxesthatstoodonwoodenlegs,andheld
hot coals. During the noon intermission the half-frozen church attendants went to a neighboring
houseortavern,ortoanoon-housetogetwarm.Anoon-houseor"Sabba-dayhouse,"asitwasoften
called, was a long low building built near the meeting-house, with horse-stalls at one end and a
chimneyattheother.Initthefarmerskept,saysonechurchrecord,"theirdudsandhorses."Agreat
fireoflogswasbuiltthereeachSunday,andbeforeitscheerfulblazenoondayluncheonsof brown
bread, doughnuts, or gingerbread were eaten, and foot-stoves were filled. Boys and girls were not
permittedtoindulgeinidletalkinthosenoon-houses,muchlesstoplay.Oftentwoorthreefamilies
built a noon-house together, or the church built a "Society-house," and there the children had a
sermonreadtothembyadeaconduringthe"nooning";sometimesthechildrenhadtoexplainaloud
thenotestheyhadtakenduringthesermoninthemorning.Thustheythrove,asaministerwrote,on
the"GoodFareofbrownBreadandtheGospel."TherewasnonearerapproachtoaSunday-school
untilthiscentury.
Theserviceswerenotshortenedbecausethechurcheswereuncomfortable.Bythesideofthepulpit
stoodabrass-boundhour-glasswhichwasturnedbythetithing-manorclerk,butitdidnothastenthe
closingofthesermon.Sermonstwoorthreehourslongwerecustomary,andprayersfromoneto
twohoursinlength.WhenthefirstchurchinWoburnwasdedicated,theministerpreachedasermon
nearly five hours long. A Dutch traveller recorded a prayer four hours long on a Fast Day. Many
prayersweretwohourslong.Thedoorswereclosedandwatchedbythetithing-man,andnonecould
leave even if tired or restless unless with good excuse. The singing of the psalms was tedious and
unmusical,justasitwasinchurchesofalldenominationsbothinAmericaandEnglandatthatdate.
Singingwasbyearandveryuncertain,andthecongregationhadnonotes,andmanyhadno psalmbooks,andhencenowords.Sothepsalmswere"lined"or"deaconed";thatis,alinewasreadbythe
deacon,andthensungbythecongregation.Somepsalmswhenlinedandsungoccupiedhalfanhour,
during which the congregation stood. There were but eight or nine tunes in general use, and even
thesewereoftensungincorrectly.Therewerenochurchorganstohelpkeepthesingerstogether,but
sometimespitch-pipeswereusedtosetthekey.Bass-viols,clarionets,andfluteswereplayeduponat
alaterdateinmeetingtohelpthesinging.Violinsweretooassociatedwithdancemusictobethought
decorousforchurchmusic.StilltheNewEnglandchurchesclungtoandlovedtheirpoorconfused
psalm-singingasoneoftheirfewdelights,andwheneveraPuritan,eveninroadorfield,heardthe
distantsoundofapsalm-tuneheremovedhishatandbowedhisheadinprayer.
Contributionsatfirstwerenotcollectedbythedeacons,buttheentirecongregation,oneafteranother,
walkeduptothedeacons'seatandplacedgiftsofmoney,goods,wampum,orpromissorynotesina
box. When the services were ended, all remained in the pews until the minister and his wife had
walkeduptheaisleandoutofthechurch.
The strict observance of Sunday as a holy day was one of the characteristics of the Puritans. Any
profanation of the day was severely punished by fine or whipping. Citizens were forbidden to fish,
shoot,sail,row,dance,jump,orride,savetoandfromchurch,ortoperformanyworkonthefarm.
Aninfinitenumberofexamplesmightbegiventoshowhowrigidlythelawswereenforced.Theuse
of tobacco was forbidden near the meeting-house. These laws were held to extend from sunset on
SaturdaytosunsetonSunday;forinthefirstinstructionsgiventoGovernorEndicottbythecompany
in England, it was ordered that all in the colony cease work at three o'clock in the afternoon on
Saturday. The Puritans found support of this belief in the Scriptural words, "The evening and the
morningwerethefirstday."
ASabbathdayinthefamilyofRev.JohnCottonwasthusdescribedbyoneofhisfellow-ministers:—
"He began the Sabbath at evening, therefore then performed family duty after supper, being longer
thanordinaryinexposition.Afterwhichhecatechizedhischildrenandservants,andthenreturnedto
hisstudy.Themorningfollowing,familyworshipbeingended,heretiredintohisstudyuntilthebell
calledhimaway.Uponhisreturnfrommeeting(wherehehadpreachedandprayedsomehours),he
returned again into his study (the place of his labor and prayer), unto his favorite devotion; where
having a small repast carried him up for his dinner, he continued until the tolling of the bell. The
publicserviceoftheafternoonbeingover,hewithdrewforaspacetohispre-mentionedoratoryfor
hissacredaddressestoGod,asintheforenoon,thencamedown,repeatedthesermoninthefamily,
prayed,aftersuppersangaPsalm,andtowardbedtimebetakinghimselfagaintohisstudyheclosed
thedaywithprayer.ThushespenttheSabbathcontinually."
TheVirginiaCavalierswerestrictChurchofEnglandmenandthefirstwhocametothecolonywere
strictSunday-keepers.RuleswerelaiddowntoenforceSundayobservance.Journeyswereforbidden,
boat-ladingwasprohibited,alsoallprofanationofthedaybysports,suchasshooting,fishing,gameplaying,etc.TheoffenderwhobroketheSabbathlawshadtopayafineandbesetinthestocks.When
that sturdy watch-dog of religion and government—Sir Thomas Dale—came over, he declared
absencefromchurchshouldbepunishablebydeath;butthisseverityneverwasexecuted.Thecaptain
ofthewatchwasmadetoplaythesamepartastheNewEnglandtithing-man.EverySunday,halfan
hourbeforeservice-time,atthelasttollingofthebell,thecaptainstationedsentinels,thensearched
allthehousesandcommandedandforcedall(exceptthesick)togotochurch.Then,whenallwere
drivenchurchwardsbeforehim,hewentwithhisguardstochurchhimself.
Captain John Smith, in his Pathway to erect a Plantation, thus vividly described the first places of
divineworshipinVirginia:—
"Weedidhanganawning,whichisanoldsaile,tothreeorfouretreestoshadowusfromtheSunne;
ourwallswererailesofwood;ourseatsunhewedtreestillwecutplankes;ourPulpitabarofwood
nailedtotwoneighbouringtrees.Infoulweatherweshiftedintoanoldrottentent;thiscamebyway
of adventure for new. This was our Church till we built a homely thing like a barne set upon
Cratchets,coveredwithrafts,sedge,andearth;soalsowasthewalls;thebestofourhouseswereof
likecuriosity,thatcouldneitherwelldefendfromwindnorrain.
"YetwehaddailyCommonPrayermorningandevening;everySundaytwosermons;andeverythree
monthsaholyCommuniontillourMinisterdied:butourPrayersdailywithanHomilyonSundays
wecontinuedtwoorthreeyearsafter,tillmorePreacherscame."
A timber church sixty feet long took the place of this mud and clay chapel, and this was in turn
replaced by the brick one whose ruined arches are still standing. The wooden church saw the most
pompousceremonyofthedaywhenthegovernor,DeLaWarre,orDelawareaswenowcallit,infull
dress, attended by all his councillors and officers and fifty halbert-bearers in scarlet cloaks, filed
withinitsflower-deckedwalls.
This decoration of flowers was significant of the difference between the church edifices of the
Puritans and of the Cavaliers. The churches of the Southern colonies were, as a rule, much more
richlyfurnished.ManyweremodelledinshapeaftertheoldEnglishchurchesandwerebuiltofstone,
though Jonathan Boucher, the colonial clergyman, could write that the greater number of the
Southernchurcheswere,atthetimeoftheRevolution,"composedofwood,withoutspires,ortowers
orsteeplesorbells,placedinretiredandsolitaryspotsandcontiguoustospringsorwells."Manyof
the churches and the chapels-of-ease stood by the waterside, and to the services came the church
attendantsincanoes,periaugers,dugouts,etc.Itmadeananimatedsceneuponthewater,astheboats
camerowinginandastheydepartedaftertheservice.
Sometimestheseatswerecomfortablycushioned,andtheywerecarefullyassignedasinthePuritan
meetings.InsomeVirginiachurchesseatsinthegalleriesweredeemedthemostdignified.Therewas
apewforthemagistrates,anotherforthemagistrates'ladies;pewsfortherepresentativesandchurchwardens,vestrymen,etc.Personscrowdedintopewsabovetheirstations,justasinNewEngland,and
were promptly displaced. Groups of men built pews together, and there were schoolboys' galleries
andpews.
ThefirstclergymaninVirginia,RobertHunt,atruemanofGod,cameasamissionary,andheand
othersweremenofmarkedintellectandreligion,butintheeighteenthcenturythepaywastoosmall
anduncertaintoattractanygreatmenfromtheChurchofEngland,andchurchattendancedwindled
and became irregular. For in Virginia the parish was expected to receive any clergyman sent them
from England, a rule which often proved unsatisfactory; and deservedly so, since some very
disreputableoffshootsofEnglishfamilieswerethrustupontheVirginiachurches.IntheCarolinas,
wherethechurchchoseitsownclergyman,harmonyandaffectionprevailedintheparishesasitdid
amongtheNewEnglandPuritans.ThoughtheVirginiansdidnotalwayslovetheirclergymen,still
theywereeversteadfastintheiraffectiontotheirchurch,andregardeditastheonlychurch.
SundaywasnotobservedwithasmuchrigidityinNewNetherlandasinNewEngland,butstrictrules
and laws were made for enforcing quiet during service-time. Fishing, gathering berries or nuts,
playinginthestreets,working,goingonpleasuretrips,allwereforbidden.OnLongIslandshooting
of wild fowl, carting of grain, travelling for pleasure, all were punished. In Revolutionary times a
cage was set up in City Hall Park, near the present New York Post-office, in which boys were
confinedwhodidnotproperlyregardtheSabbath.
Before the Dutch settlers had any churches or domines, as they called their ministers, they had
krankbesoeckers, or visitors of the sick, who read sermons to an assembled congregation every
Sunday.ThefirstchurchatAlbanywasmuchlikethePlymouthfort,simplyablockhousewithloopholesthroughwhichgunscouldbefired.Theroofwasmountedwiththreecannon.Ithadaseatfor
themagistratesandoneforthedeacons,andahandsomeoctagonalpulpitwhichhadbeensentfrom
Holland,andwhichstillexists.Theedificehadachandelierandcandlesconcesandtwolowgalleries.
ThefirstchurchinNewAmsterdamwasofstone,andwasseventy-twofeetlong.
AfavoriteformoftheDutchchurcheswassixoreightsided,withahighpyramidalroof,toppedwith
a belfry and a weather-vane. Usually the windows were so small and of glass so opaque that the
church was very dark. A few of the churches were poorly heated with high stoves perched up on
pillars,theAlbanyandSchenectadychurchesamongthem,butallthewomencarriedfoot-stoves,and
someofthemencarriedmuffs.
Almostasimportantasthedominewasthevoorleezerorchorister,whowasalsogenerallythebellringer,sexton,grave-digger,funeralinviter,schoolmaster,andsometimestownclerk.He"tunedthe
psalm";turnedthehour-glass;gaveoutthepsalmsonahangingboardtothecongregation;readthe
Bible;gaveupnoticestothedominebystickingthepapersintheendofacleftstickandholdingitup
tothehighpulpit.
The deacons had control of all the church money. In the middle of the sermon they collected
contributionsbypassingsacjes.Theseweresmallclothorvelvetbagshungontheendofapolesix
oreightfeetlong.AFrenchtravellertoldthattheDutchdeaconspassedround"theoldsquarehatof
thepreacher"ontheendofastickforthecontributions.Usuallytherewasalittlebellonthesacje
whichrungwhenacoinwasdroppedin.
InmanyDutchchurchesthemensatinarowofpewsaroundthewallwhilethewomenwereseated
onchairsinthecentreofthechurch.Therewerealsoafewbenchesorpewsforpersonsofspecial
dignity,orfortheminister'swife.
Thereweremanyothercolonistsofotherreligiousfaiths:theRomanCatholicsinMarylandandthe
extremeSoutherncolonies;theQuakersinPennsylvania;theBaptistsinRhodeIsland;theHuguenots,
Lutherans, Moravians; but all enjoined an orderly observance of the Sabbath day. And it may be
counted as one of the great blessings of the settlement of America, one of the most ennobling
conditionsofitscolonization,thatitwasmadeatatimewhenthedeepestreligiousfeelingprevailed
throughoutEurope,whendevotiontosomereligionwasfoundineveryone,whentheBiblewasa
newly found and deeply loved treasure; when the very differences of religious belief and the
formationofnewsectsmadeeachclingmorelovinglyandmoreearnestlytohisownfaith.
CHAPTERXVI
COLONIALNEIGHBORLINESS
If the first foundation of New England's strength and growth was godliness, its next was
neighborliness,andafirmrockitprovedtobuildupon.Itmayseemanomaloustoassertthatwhile
therewasinoldentimesinfinitelygreaterindependenceineachhouseholdthanatpresent,yetthere
wasalsogreaterinterdependencewithsurroundinghouseholds.
Itiscurioustoseehowcompletelysocialethicsandrelationshavechangedsinceoldendays.Aidin
ourfamiliesintimesofstressandneedisnotgiventousnowbykindlyneighborsasofyore;we
have well-arranged systems by which we can buy all that assistance, and pay for it, not with
affectionateregard,butwithcurrentcoin.Thecolonistturnedtoanyandallwholivedaroundhim,
andneverturnedinvainforhelpinsickness,oratthetimeofdeathofmembersofhishousehold;for
friendlyadvice;forculinaryaidstoahaltingappetite;forthepreparationforfeastinganexceptional
numberofpersons;inshort,inanyunusualemergency,aswellasinfrequentevery-daycoöperation
in log-rolling, stone-piling, stump-pulling, wall-building, house-raising, etc.,—all the hard and
exhaustinglaboronthefarm.
The word "coöperation" is modern, but the thing itself is as old as civilization. In a new country
where there was much work to be done which one man or one family could not do, under the
mechanicalconditionswhichthenexisted,aworkingtogether,orunionoflaborwasnecessaryfor
progress,indeed,almostforobtainingafoothold.
Theterm"log-rolling"isfrequentlyemployedinitsmetaphoricalsenseinpolitics,bothbyEnglish
andAmericanwriterswhohavevagueknowledgeoftheoriginalmeaningoftheword.Alog-rolling
inearlypioneerdays,intheNortherncoloniesandinwesternVirginiaandthecentralstates,wasa
nobleexampleofgenerouscoöperation,whereeachgaveofhisbest—histime,strength,andgood
will; and where all worked to clear the ground in the forest for a home-farm for a neighbor who
might be newly come and an entire stranger, but who in turn would just as cheerfully and
energeticallygivehisworkforotherswhenitwasneeded.
With the vanishing of the log-rolling, and a score of similar kindly usages and customs, has gone
fromourcommunitiesalltracesoftheold-timeexaltedtypeofneighborliness.Wenowadayshave
generalizedoursentiments;wehavemorephilanthropyandlessneighborliness;wehavemorelove
formankindandlessformen.Weareindependentofourneighbors,butinfinitelymoredependenton
theworldatlarge.Thepersonalelementhasbeenremovedtoalargeextentfromoursocialethics.
We buy nursing and catering just as we hire our houses built and buy our corn ready ground.
Doubtlesseverythingwebuyisinfinitelybetter;nevertheless,ourlossinaffectionatezealisgreat.
TheplantationwastheunitinVirginia;inNewEnglanditwasthetown.Theneighborlyhelpfulness
oftheNewEnglandsettlersextendedfromsmalltogreatmatters;itformedcommunalprivilegesand
entered into every department of town life. For instance, the town of Gloucester in 1663 granted a
righttoacitizenforrunningasmallsawmillfortwenty-oneyears.Inreturnforthisrightthegrantee
wastosellboardstoGloucestermenat"oneshillingperhundredbettercheapethantostrangers"—
and was to receive pay "raised in the towne." Saco and Biddeford, in Maine, ordered that fellowtownsmenshouldhavepreferenceineveryemployment.Othertownsorderedcertainpersonstobuy
provisions"ofthetowns-meninpreference."Readingwouldnotsellanyofitsfelledtimberoutof
thetown.Thusthesocialcompactcalledatownextendeditselfalsointoallthesmalldoingsofdaily
life,andthemutualhelpfulnessmademutualintereststhatprovednosmallelementoftheforcewhich
boundalltogetherin1776inasuccessfulstruggleforindependence.
In outlying settlements and districts this feeling of mutual dependence and assistance was strong
enoughtogiveanamewhichsometimeslingeredlong."TheLoomisNeighborhood,""TheMason
Neighborhood," "The Robinson Neighborhood" were names distinctive for half a century, and far
more distinguishing and individual than the Greenville, Masontown, and Longwood that succeeded
them.
There was one curious and contradictory aspect of this neighborliness, this kindliness, this thought
formutualwelfare,andthatwasitsnarrowness,especiallyinNewEngland,asregardsthelimitations
ofspaceandlocality.Itisimpossibletojudgewhatcausedthisrestraintofvision,butitiscertainthat
ingeneralityandalmostinuniversality,justassoonasanygroupofsettlerscouldcallthemselvesa
town, these colonists' notions of kindliness and thoughtfulness for others became distinctly and
rigidly limited to their own townspeople. The town was their whole world. Without doubt this was
partlytheresultofthelackoftravellingfacilitiesandamplecommunication,whichmadetownships
far more separated and remote from each other than states are to-day, and made difficult the
possibilityofspeedyorfullknowledgeofstrangers.
Thiscausedaconstantsuspicionofallnewcomers,especiallythosewhochancedtoenterwithscant
introduction,andmadeuniversalacustomof"warningout"allstrangerswhoarrivedinanytown.
This formality was gone through with by the sheriff or tithing-man. Thereafter should the warned
onesproveincapableorunsuccessfulorvicious,theycouldnotbecomeachargeuponthetown,but
couldbereturnedwhencetheycamewithdespatchandviolenceifnecessary.Bythismeans,andby
various attempts to restrict the powers of citizens to sell property to newcomers, the town kept a
jealouswatchovertherightofentryintothecorporation.
Dorchesterin1634enactedthat"nomanwithinthePlantationshallsellhishouseorlotttoanyman
withoutthePlantationwhometheyshalldislikeoff."Providencewouldnotpermitaproprietortosell
toany"buttoanInhabitant"withoutconsentofthetown.NewHavenwouldneithersellnorletground
toastranger.Hadleywouldsellnolandtoanyuntilafterthreeyears'occupation,andthenonlywith
approvalofthe"Town'sMind."In1637theGeneralCourtveryreasonablyquestionedwhethertowns
could legally restrain individuals from disposal of their own property, but the custom was so
established, so in touch with the narrow exclusiveness of the colonists, that it still prevailed. The
expression of the town of Watertown when it would sell lots only to freemen of the congregation,
becauseitwishednostrangeneighbors,butonly"tosittdownthereclosetogither,"wasthesentiment
ofallthetowns.OneJohnStebbins,whohadtwiceservedasasoldierofWatertownandlivedthere
sevenyears,couldnotgetatownlot.
Thelegalprocessofwarningoutoftownhadanelementoftheabsurdinit,andinonecasethatof
mystery,namely:asheriffappearedbeforethewoebegoneintruder,andsaid,halflaughing,"Iwarn
youoffthefaceoftheearth.""LetmegetmyhatbeforeIgo,"stammeredtheterrifiedwanderer,who
ran into the house for his hat and was never seen by any mortal eye in that town afterwards. It has
becomeatraditionoflocalfolk-lorethatheliterallyvanishedfromtheearthatthecommandofthe
officerofthelaw.
Theharboringofstrangers,evenofrelativeswhowerenotlocalresidents,wasafrequentsourceof
bickeringbetweencitizensandmagistrates,aswellasaconstantcauseofarbitrationbetweentowns.A
widowinDorchesterwasnotpermittedtoentertainherownson-in-lawfromanothertown,andher
neighborwasfinedin1671"underdistress"forhousinghisowndaughter.Shewasamarriedwoman,
andallegedshecouldnotreturntoherhusbandonaccountoftheinclementweather.
As time passed on and immigration continued, freemen clung closely to their right to keep out
strangersandoutsiders.FromtheBostonTownRecordsof1714wefindcitizensstillprohibitedfrom
entertainingastrangerwithoutgivingnoticetothetownauthorities,andadescriptionofthestranger
andhiscircumstances.BostonrequiredthatallcomingfromIrelandshouldberegistered"lestthey
becomechargeable."Warningsandwhippingsoutoftownstillcontinued.Allthiswassocontraryto
the methods of colonies in other countries, such as the Barbadoes, Honduras, etc., where
extraordinary privileges were offered settlers, free and large grants of land, absolvment from past
debts, etc., that it makes an early example of the curious absorbing and assimilating power of
Americannationality,whichevergrewandgrewevenagainstsuchclogsandhamperingrestrictions.
IntheSoutherncoloniesthesamekindlinessexistedasintheNorth,buttheconditionsdiffered.John
Hammond,ofVirginia,wrotein1656,inhisLeahandRachel:—
"The Country is not only plentifull, but pleasant and profitable, pleasant in regard of the
extraordinarygoodneighbourhoodandlovingconversationtheyhaveonewithanother.
"Theinhabitantsaregenerallyaffable,courteous,andveryassistanttoStrangers(forwhatbutplenty
makeshospitalityandgoodneighbourhood)andnosooneraretheysettled,buttheywillbevisiting,
presenting and advising the strangers how to improve what they have, how to better their way of
livelihood."
In summer when fresh meat was killed, the neighbors shared the luxury, and in turn gave of their
slaughter.Hammondadds:—
"If any fall sick and cannot compass to follow his crops which would soon be lost, the adjoining
neighbour, or upon request more joyn together and work it by spells, until he recovers; and that
gratis,sothatnomanmaybysicknesslooseanypartofhisyear'swork.
"Letanytravell,itiswithoutchargeandateveryhouseisentertainmentasinahostelry."
ItwasthesameintheCarolinas.Ramsay,theearlyhistorianofSouthCarolina,saidthathospitality
wassuchavirtuethatinnkeeperscomplainedthattheirbusinesswasnotworthcarryingon.Thedoors
ofcitizenswereopentoalldecenttravellers,andshuttonone.
Theplantationswereinmanycountiestoofarapartforanycoöperativelabor,andtheplanterswere
not men of such vast strength or so great personal industry, even in their own affairs, as were the
Yankees.Therewereslavesoneachplantationtodoallthehardworkoflifting,etc.Butinout-of-theway settlements the Virginia planters' kindliness was shown in a vast and unbounded hospitality, a
hospitality so insatiable that it watched for and waylaid travellers to expend a welcome and lavish
attentions upon. Negroes were stationed at the planter's gate where it opened on the post-road or
turnpike, to hail travellers and assure them of a hearty welcome at the "big house up yonder." One
writersaysoftheplanters:—
"Theirmanneroflivingismostgenerousandopen:strangersaresoughtafterwithGreedinesstobe
invited."
TheLondonMagazineoftheyear1743publishedaseriesofpapersentitledItinerantObservationsin
America. It was written with a spirited pen which thus pleasantly describes simple Maryland
hospitality,notofmenofvastwealthbutofverypoorfolk:—
"WiththemeanerSortyoufindlittleelsetodrinkbutWateramongstthemwhentheirCyderisspent,
but the Water is presented you by one of the barefooted Family in a copious Calabash, with an
innocentStrainofgoodBreedingandHeartiness,theCakebakingontheHearth,andtheprodigious
CleanlinessofeverythingaroundyoumustneedsputyouinMindoftheGoldenAge,theTimesof
ancientFrugalityandPurity.AllovertheColonyauniversalHospitalityreigns,fullTablesandopen
Doors; the kind Salute, the generous Detention speak somewhat like the roast-Beef Ages of our
Forefathers."
TherecameatimewhenthisSouthernhospitalitybecameburdensome.Withtheexhaustionofthesoil
andcompetitionintobacco-raising,thegreatwealthoftheVirginianswasgone.Butvisitorsdidnot
cease; in fact, they increased. The generous welcome offered to kinsmen, friends, and occasional
travellers was sought by curiosity-hunters and tourists who wanted to save a tavern-bill. Nothing
could be more pathetic than the impoverishment of Thomas Jefferson through these impositions.
Timesandconditionshadchanged,butJeffersonfeltboundinhonortohimselfandhisstatetokeep
thesameopenhandandreadywelcomeasofyore.Hisoverseerdescribeshisownhopelesseffortsto
keepthesetravellingfriendsandadmirersfromeatinghismasteroutofhouseandhome:—
"Theyweretherealltimesoftheyear;butaboutthemiddleofJunethetravelwouldcommencefrom
the lower part of the State to the Springs, and then there was a perfect throng of visitors. They
travelledintheirowncarriagesandcameingangs,thewholefamilywithcarriageandridinghorses
and servants, sometimes three or four such gangs at a time. We had thirty-six stalls for horses and
onlyusedtenofthemforthestockwekeptthere.Veryoftenalltherestwerefull,andIhadtosend
horses off to another place. I have often sent a wagon-load of hay up to the stable, and the next
morningtherewouldnotbeenoughlefttomakeabird'snest.Ihavekilledafinebeef,anditwould
allbeeatenupinadayortwo."
Thefinalextinctionofold-timehospitalityinVirginiacamenotfromadeathofhospitableintent,but
fromanentirevanishingofthemeanstofurnishentertainment.AndtheCivilWardroveawayeven
thelingeringghost.
Many general customs existed in the early colonies which were simply exemplifications of
neighborlinessputinlegalform.Suchwerethesystemsofcommonlandsandherding.Thiswasan
old Aryan custom which existed many centuries ago, and has ever been one of the best ways of
uniting any settlement of people, especially a new settlement; for it makes the interest of one the
interestofall,andpromotesunionratherthanselfishness.Commonlandsweresetoffandcommon
herdsexistedinmanyoftheNortherncolonies;cowherdsor"cow-keeps"wereappointedandpaidby
the town to care throughout the summer for all the cattle owned by the inhabitants. This was an
intelligentprovision;foritsavedmuchworkofindividualsduringthemonthswhenfarmershadso
muchhardworktodo,andsoshortatimetodoitin.InAlbanyandNewYorkthecowherdand"a
chosen proper youngster"—in other words, a good, steady boy—went through the town at sunrise
soundingahorn,whichthecattleheardandknew;andtheyquicklyfollowedhimtogreenpastures
outsidethetown.Theretheylingeredtillnearlysunset,whentheywerebroughthometothechurch,
andtheownerswereagainwarnedbythehornofthesafereturnoftheircattle,andthatitwasmilking
time. Sometimes the cowherd received part of his pay in butter or cheese. In Cambridge,
Massachusetts,CowherdRice,in1635,agreedtotakechargeofonehundredcowsforthreemonths
fortenpounds.Thetownalsopaidtwomenorboystohelphimthefirsttwoweeks,andonemana
weeklonger;hekeptthecowsaloneafterthat,fortheintelligentcattlehadfallenintohabitsoforder
andobediencetohishorn.Hehadtopaythreepencefineeachtimehefailedtobringinallthecattleat
night.
OnLongIslandandinConnecticuttherewerecowherds,calf-keepers,andpound-keepers.Thecalfkeepers'dutiesweretokeepthecalvesawayfromthecows,waterthem,protectthem,etc.InVirginia
andMarylandtherewerecow-pensinearlydays,andcowherds;butintheSouththecattlegenerally
roamed wild through the forests, and were known to their owners by earmarks. In all communities
earmarksandotherbrandsofownershiponcattle,horses,sheep,andswinewereveryimportant,and
rigidlyregardedwheresomuchvaluewaskeptindomesticcattle.Theseearmarkswereregisteredby
thetownclerkinthetownrecords,andwereusuallydescribedbothinwordsandrudedrawings.One
ofmygreat-great-grandfather'searmarksforhiscowswasa"swallow-forkslitinbothears";another
was a slit under the ear and a "half-penny mark on the foreside of the near ear." This custom of
herdingcattleincommonlastedinsomeout-of-the-wayplacestothiscentury,andevenlingeredlong
inlargecitiessuchasBoston,wherecowswereallowedtofeedonBostonCommontillabout1840.
InPhiladelphiauntiltheyear1795acowherdstoodeverymorningatthecornerofDockandSecond
streets,blewhishorn,trampedofftoadistantpasturefollowedbyallthecowsofhisneighborhood,
whohadrunouttohimassoonastheyheardthefamiliarsound.Heledthembacktothesameplace
atnight,wheneachreturnedalonetoherownhome.
Sheep-herds or shepherds in colonial days also took charge of the sheep of many owners in herdwalks,orranges,byday,andbynightinsheep-foldsbuiltwithfencesandgates.
Fence-viewers were men who were appointed by the town for common benefit to take charge of
building and keeping in repair the fences that surrounded the "great lotts" or commons; that is, the
enclosed fields which were the common property of each town, in which all farmers living near
couldplacetheircattle.Thefence-viewerssawthateachmanworkedacertainamounteachyearon
these"pales"asthefenceswerecalled,orpaidhissharefortheworkofothers.Eachfarmerorcowownerusuallybuiltabouttwentyfeetoffenceforeachcowwhichhepasturedinthe"greatlotts."The
fence-viewersalsoexaminedtheconditionoffencesaroundprivatelands;notedbreaksandordered
repairs.Forifcattlebrokethroughapoorlymadefence,anddiddamagetocrops,thefence-owner
had to stand the loss, while if the fences were good and strong, proving the cattle unruly and
destructive,theownerofthecattlehadtopay.Allthecolonieswerewatchfuloverthesafe-keepingof
fences. In 1659 the Dutch rulers of New Amsterdam (now New York) ordered that for "stripping
fencesofrailsandposts"theoffendershouldbewhippedandbranded,andforasecondoffencehe
could be punished by death. This seems cruelly severe, but that year there was a great scarcity of
grainandotherfood,andifthefenceswerepulleddown,cattlecouldgetintofieldsandeatupthe
growingcrops,andfamineanddeathmightresult.
SometimesacommonfieldwasfencedinandplantedwithIndiancorn.Inthiscasethefenceservedto
keepthecattleout,notin.ThiswasalwaysthecaseinVirginia.
Hay-wardswere,asthenameindicates,mentokeepwatchfulcareoverthegrowinghay.Forinstance,
inHadley,Massachusetts,in1661,GoodmanMontaguewaschosenhay-wardbythetown.Hewasto
havetwelvepenceforeachcoworhog,twoshillingsforeachhorse,andtwentypenceforeachtwenty
sheep that he found loose in any field or meadow, and successfully turned out. The owner of the
animal was to pay the fine. At a later date these hay-wards were called field-drivers. They are still
appointedinmanytownsandcities,amongthemBoston.
Hog-reeves were men appointed by the citizens to look after their hogs that roamed the roads and
streets, to see that all those swine had rings in their noses, were properly marked, and did not do
damagetocrops.Manytownshadhog-reevestillthiscentury;foruntilseventyyearsagohogsran
freely everywhere, even in the streets of our great cities. It was a favorite jest to appoint a newly
married man hog-reeve. When Ralph Waldo Emerson was married and became a householder in
Concord, the young philosopher was appointed to that office. Sometimes a single swineherd was
hiredtotakecareoftherovingswine.ThetwoSalemswineherdsorswine-keepersin1640wereto
have sixpence for each hog they drove daily to pasture from April to November. These and many
otherpublicofficesweresimplyaformoflegalizedcoöperation;ajoiningtogetherofneighborsfor
publicgood.
Theneighborlyassistancegiventonewsettlersbeganwiththeclearingofthegroundforoccupancy.
Thegirdlingoftreeswaseasyandspeedy,butitwasdiscountenancedasdangerousandhideous,and
was not frequently practised. A chopping-bee was a universal method among pioneers of clearing
groundinnewlysettleddistricts,oreveninoldertownshipsinVermont,NewHampshire,andMaine,
wheregreattractsoflandwereleftformanyyearsintheoriginalgrowth.Sometimesthisbeewas
heldtoclearlandforanewlymarriedman,oranewneighbor,oronewhohadhadbadluck;butit
wasjustasfreelygiventoaprosperousfarmer,thoughplentifulthanksandplentifulrumwerethe
onlyrewardsofthewillingworkers.
All the strong men of the township repaired at an early hour to the tract to be cleared, and with
powerful blows attacked the great trees. A favorite way of bringing the day's work and the day's
excitement to a climax was by a "drive." This was made by chopping half-way into the trunks of a
great group or circle of trees—under-cutting it was called—so that by a few powerful and welldriven blows at the monarch of the group, and perhaps a few well-concerted pulls on a rope, the
entire group could be felled together, the leader bringing down with his spreading branches in his
mightyfallhisfellowsinfrontofhim,andtheyinturntheirneighbors,withacrashthatshookthe
earthandmadethemountainsring.Itwasdangerouswork;accidentswerefrequent;therecordsof
deathatlog-rollingsarepathetictoreadandtothinkof,inacountrywherethelossofasturdyman
meantsomuchtosomestrugglinghousehold.Aheavyandsuddengustofwindmightblowdowna
small tree, which had been carelessly "under-cut," and thus give an unexpected and premature
collapseofthesimplemachineryofthegrandfinale.
A century ago a New Hampshire woman and her husband went out into the forest primeval; he cut
downafewtrees,madealittleclearingtermedacut-downwhereinatinypatchofskyandcloudand
scant sunlight could be seen overhead, but no sunrise or sunset, and built a log house of a single
room—a home. With the opening spring came one day a group of kindly settlers from distant
clearingsandsettlements,someridingfromtenmilesawaythepreviousday.Infrontoftheloghouse
theychoppedallthemorninglongwithsturdyarmsandswingingblows,yetfellednothing,tillinthe
afternoonwhenallwasreadyforthefinalblowatthetoweringleader,whichbyitsfallshouldlay
lowagreatslopingtractforadooryardandhomefield.Asthenobletreesfellatlasttotheearthwith
a resounding crash, lo! in the opening there appeared to the startled eyes of the settler's wife, as if
rising out of heaven, a neighbor in her loneliness—Mount Kearsage, grand, serene, and beautiful,
crownedwiththegloriesofthesettingsun,standingguardoverasmilinglakeatitsfoot.Andevery
daythroughherlongandhappylifetillninety-sixyearsold,asshelookedatthesplendidmountain,
standing as it will till time shall be no more, did she thank God for His gift, for that noble
companionship which came so suddenly, so inspiringly, upon the cramped horizon of her lonely
foresthome.
After the trees were all felled, it was no longer a "cut-down" but an "opening." This was made
preferablyinthespring.Thefallentreeswereleftsomemonthsonthegroundtodryinthesummer
sun,whilethefarmerturnedtootherworkonhisfarm,or,ifhewerestartinginlife,hiredoutforthe
summer.Intheautumnthetopsweresetonfire,andthelighterlimbsusuallyburnedout,leavingthe
great charred tree-trunks. Then came what was known as a piling-bee, a perfect riot of hard work,
cinders, and dirt. Usually the half-burned tree-trunks were "niggered off" in Indian fashion, by
burningacrosswithasmallerstickofwoodtillthelonglogwasinlengthswhichcouldbedragged
bythefarmerswiththeiroxenandhorsesintovastpilesandagainsetonfire.Anothertreatofrum
accompanied this day's work. The word "log-rolling" was often applied to the latter bee, and
occasionallythefellingoftreesanddraggingintopilesforfiringwasdoneinasinglelog-rolling.
Sometimesbeforetheopeningwascleareditwasplanted.Thespringrainsandmeltingsnowscarried
thefertilizingashesdeepintothesoil.Cornwasplantedand"dugin";ryewassowedand"hackedin."
Thecropswereastonishing;thegraingrewamongthefallenlogsandstumpsinriotingluxuriance.A
stump-pullingwasanotheroccasionforafriendlybee,toclearoffandputintocomelyshapethenew
field.
Anotherexhibitionofcoöperationwasinastone-haulingorastone-bee.Someoftherockyfieldsof
hard New England would defy a lifetime of work of one man and a single yoke of oxen. With
judiciousblasting,manyoxen,strongarms,andwillingheartsthebouldersandledgesweretamed.
Stonewallseightfeetwide,suchasmaybeseeninHopkinton,NewHampshire,standasmonuments
ofthepatience,strength,skill,andcoöperationofourforbears.
Toshowthestruggleandhardworkwillinglydoneforahome,letmegivethestatementin1870ofa
respected citizen, the historian of Norridgewock, Maine, when he was over ninety years old. He
servedanapprenticeshipofeightyearstillhewastwenty-one,thenboughtoncreditatractoffifty
acres in the primeval woods. On eight acres he felled the trees and left them through the winter. In
April, 1801, he spent three weeks in burning off the logs and clearing as well as possible by
handworkthreeacres.Thesehesowedwithwheatandrye,buyingtheseedoncredit.Hehiredayoke
ofoxenforonedayanddidwhatharrowinghecouldinthatshorttime,grubbingaroundthestumps
withahoefortwomoredays.Thecropgrew,asdidallothersonsimilarsoil,amazingly.Thetwo
bushels of seed-wheat yielded fifty-two bushels, the bushel of rye thirty bushels. On his other five
acresamongthefallentreesheplantedcorn,andraisedahundredandtwenty-eightbushels.Headds:
—
"WhenIcouldleavemyworkonmynewlandIworkedouthayingandotherwork.Imadeshoesin
the Fall, taught school in the Winter, paid for my board and some clothing, but husbanded my
resources to pay for my land. At the end of the year found myself worth two hundred dollars. I
continued to clear up four acres each year till I had cleared the fifty acres, planted an orchard and
erectedsuitablefarmbuildingsandfences."
Six years later he married and prospered. In eleven years he was worth two thousand dollars; he
filled, during his long life, many, positions of trust and of profit, and did many and varied good
deeds; he continued in active life till he was ninety years old. At his death he left a considerable
fortune. It is an interesting picture of the value of honorable economy and thrift; a typical New
Englandpicture,withacertainvigorandstimulusaboutitthatmakesitpleasing.
A "raising" might be of a church or a school-house, or of a house or barn for a neighbor. All the
strongmenfarandnearturnedouttohelp,toolswerelent,andmanystronghandsandarmsmade
quickwork.Oftentheframeofawholesideofahouse—thebroadside—wasfastenedtogetheronthe
ground.Afteritwaslaidoutandpinnedtogether,shoresoflongpoleswereattachedtotheplateswith
ox-chains, and it was literally lifted into place by the united strength of the entire band of men and
boys.Sometimeswomenpulledontheropetoexpresstheirgoodwillandhelpfulness.Thentheother
sides were put up, and the cross-beams, braces, and studding all pinned and nailed into place.
Afterwardsthehugerafterswereraisedfortheroof.Eachmanwasassignedinthebeginningtohis
placeandwork,andworkedfaithfullywhenhisturncame.Whentheridge-polewasputinplace,the
building was christened, as it was called, by breaking over it a bottle of rum. Often the house was
literallygivenaname.Sittingastridetheridge-pole,onepoetsang:—
"Here'samightyfineframe
Whichdesarvesagoodname,
Saywhatshallwecallit?
Thetimbersallstraight,
Andwashewedfustrate,
Theframeiswellputtogether.
Itisagoodframe
Thatdesarvesagoodname,
Say!whatshallwenameit?"
Another,aRochester,NewHampshire,framewascelebratedinversewhichclosedthus:—
"TheFlowerofthePlainisthenameofthisFrame,
We'vehadexceedinggoodLuckinraisingtheSame."
It was not luck that made these raisings a success, it was skill and strength; skill and powers of
endurance which could overcome and surmount even the quantity of vile New England rum with
whichtheworkmenwerepliedthroughouttheday.Accidentswerefrequent,andoftenfatal.Agreat
frame of a meeting-house, or a vast barn with forty or fifty men at work on it, could not collapse
withoutlossoflifeandmuchinjuryoflimb.
Intheworkoftheseraisingsthehighestaswellasthehumblestcitizenstookpart.Trulyamancould
glow with the warmth of home even in a bare and scantily furnished house, at the thought that the
wallsandrafterswereheldinplacebythekindwishesanddeedsofallhisfriendsandneighbors.
Thereisnothinginnaturesounnatural,sosingularinquality,astheglitteringartificialityoftheearly
morninginthecountrythedayafteraheavy,drifting,NewEnglandsnowstorm.Foradayandanight
the wildly whirling snow that "driving o'er the fields seems nowhere to alight" has restrained the
outlook, and every one has turned depressed from that outside life of loneliness and gloom. The
followingmorningalwaysopenswithanexcessivelybrightanddazzlingsunshinewhichisnotlike
anyothersunshineinanyplaceorseason,butiswhollyartificial,likethelime-lightofatheatre.We
always run eagerly to the window to greet once more the signs of life and cheerfulness; but the
landscape is more devoid of life and reality than during any storm of wind and snow and sleet, no
matterhowdarkandlowering.Thereisachangedaspectineverything;itismetallic,andeverything
ismadeofthesamehorriblewhitemetal.Nothingseemsfamiliar;notonlyarethewontedformsand
outlines vanished, and all their varied textures and materials and beautiful diversity of color gone
also,butthereisasteelyimmobilityrestrainingeverythingwhichissocompletethatitseemsasifit
wereashellthatcouldneverbebroken.
"Welookuponaworldunknown,
Onnothingwecancallourown."
Itisnolongerareallandscapebutanartificialencirclingdioramaofmeaninglessobjectsmadeof
vast unshaded sheets of white glazed Bristol-board, painted with white enamel, warranted not to
crack; with the garish high-lights put in crystallized alum or possibly powdered glass. It is without
life,oratmosphere,orreality;ithasnothingbutthemillionreflectionsofthatartificialandrepellent
sunshine.Inaquarterofanhour,eveninafewminutes,itisagonizinglymonotonoustothespiritas
it is painful to the eye; then, like a veritable oasis of color and motion in an unmovable glittering
whitedesert,asoundandsightofbeautifulandactivelifeappears.Aroundthebendoftheroadcomes
slowandstrainingdownthehill,ashascomethroughtheglaringartificialsunlightaftereveryheavy
snowstormforoveracenturypast,alongtrainofoxenwithasnow-plough"breakingout"theold
post-road. Beautiful emblems of patient and docile strength, these splendid creatures are never so
grateful to the sight as now. Their slow progress down the hill has many elements to make it
interesting;itishistoric.Eversincethetownshipwasthicklysettledenoughforfamiliestohaveany
winter communication with each other, whether for school, church, mail, or doctor, this road has
beenbrokenoutinpreciselythissameway.
InnearlyallscatteredtownshipsinNewEnglandthecustomprevailsto-dayjustasitdidacentury
andmoreagoeveninlargetowns,andadescriptionofthepresent"breakingout"isthatofthepast
also.Theworkisnowusuallydoneinchargeofroad-surveyorsortheroad-masters,whoareoften
appointedfromtheremotepointsofthetownship.Thereis,therefore,muchfriendlyrivalrytosee
whichsurveyorwillfirstreachthecentreofthetown—andthetavern.Beginningatsunrisewithhis
ownyokeofoxenhitchedtoasnow-plough,eachroad-masterbreaksthroughthedrifttothenearest
neighbor,whoaddshisyoketotheother,andsofromneighbortoneighbortillsometimesfifteenor
twentyyokeofoxenarehitchedinalonglinetotheplough.Sometimesapairofwildyoungsteers
are hitched, plunging and kicking, with the sober elders. By this time the first yoke often begins to
showsignsofdistressbylollingoutthetongue,asuresymptomofoverworkinoxen,andtheyare
leftatsomefarmer'sbarntocooldown.
WhittierthusdescribesthesceneofbreakingoutthewinterroadsinhisSnow-Bound:—
"Nextmornwewakenedwiththeshout
Ofmerryvoiceshighandclear;
Andsawtheteamstersdrawingnear
Tobreakthedriftedhighwaysout.
Downthelonghillsidetreadingslow
Wesawthehalf-buriedoxengo,
Shakingthesnowfromheadsuptost,
Theirstrainingnostrilswhitewithfrost.
Beforeourdoorthestragglingtrain
Drewup,anaddedteamtogain.
Theeldersthreshedtheirhandsa-cold,
Passed,withthecidermug,theirjokes
Fromliptolip."
Thusarethewhitesnow-wasteandthedriftedroadsturnedbycheerfulcoöperationintoamidwinter
visitingwhereeveryneighborcanexchangegreetingswiththeother,youngandold.Forofcourse
schooldoesnotkeep,andtheboyscrowdonthesnow-ploughortrytheirnewsnowshoes,andthe
menofthevariousfamilieswhodonotgowiththeoxenhitchupthesleighs,pods,andpungsand
followthesnow-plough,andtheyoungmensendavolleyofsnowballsagainsteveryhousewhere
anyfairmaidlives.Andatthetavernintheafternoonisagreatsight,greaterinante-temperancedays
thannow:scoresofyokeofoxenatthedoor,thehorse-shedsfullofhorsesandsleighs,allthelads
andmenofthetownshipwithin.Thereisrivalryinthemethodofbreaking.Oneroad-masteralways
usedasnow-plough;anotherlashedanordinaryploughoneithersideofanarrowox-sled;athird
used a coarse harrow weighted down with a group of standing boys. This broke up the drifts in a
wonderfulmanner.Thedeeperdriftsoftenhavetobeshovelledoutpartlybyhand.Aftertheroadto
the tavern is broken, the road to the school-house, the doctor's house, and the meeting-house come
next.
The roads thus made were not permitted in former days to be cut up idly by careless use; many
townshipsforbadebylawtheuseofnarrowsledsandsleighs.Theroadswerenarrowatbest;often
whentwosleighsmetthehorseshadtobeunharnessed,andthesleighsliftedpastovereachother.On
lonelyhill-roadsorstraightturnpikes,whereteamsterscouldseesomedistanceahead,turnoutswere
madewhereonesleighcouldwaitforanothertopass.
Aftertherehadbeenaheavyfallofsnowandtheroadswerewellbroken,thetimewasalwayschosen
where any logging was done to haul logs to the sawmill on ox-sleds. An interesting sled was used
whichhadaninterestingname,—chebobbin.Onewritercalleditacrossbetweenatreeandabobsled.
It was made by a close and ingenious adaptation of natural forms of wood, which made excellent
runners,cross-bars,etc.;theywerefastenedtogethersolooselythattheyreadilyadjustedthemselves
to the inequalities of the wood-roads. The word and article are now almost obsolete. In some
localitieschebobbinbecametebobbinandtarboggin,allthreebeingadaptationsinnomenclature,as
theywereinform,oftheIndiantobogganormoose-sled,—asledgewithrunnersorflatbottomof
wood or bark, upon which the red men drew heavy loads over the snow. This sledge has become
familiar to us in the light and strong Canadian form now used for the delightful winter sport of
tobogganing.
Onthesechebobbinsgreatlogswerehitchedtogetherbychains,anddraggeddownfromtheupland
wood-lots. Under these mighty loads the snow-tracks got an almost icy polish, prime sledding for
countrysleighingparties.Sometimesalogging-beewasmadetoclearaspeciallotforaneighbor,
andabandofwood-choppersworkedalldaytogether.Itwascheerfulwork,thoughthemenhadto
standalldayinthesnow,andthethermometerwasbelowzero.Buttherewasnocuttingwindinthe
forest,andtheexercisekeptthebloodwarm.Manyatimeaheartymanwoulddrophisaxetowipe
thesweatfromhisbrow.Loosewoollenfrocks,orlong-shorts,twoorthreeovereachother,were
warm as are the overlapping feathers of a bird; a few had buckskin or sheepskin waistcoats; their
handswerewarmlycoveredwithhome-knitmittens.Inlaterdaysallhadheavywell-greasedboots,
butintheearlyyearsofsuchpioneersettlements,asthetownsofNewHampshireandVermont, all
couldnotaffordtowearboots.Theirplacewaswellsuppliedbyheavywoollenstockings,shoes,and
an over-covering of old stockings, or cloth soaked in neat's-foot oil; this was deemed a positive
preventiveoffrozenfeet.
It was the custom both among men and women to join forces on a smaller scale and have a little
neighborly visiting by what was called "change-work." For instance, if two neighbors both were to
make soap, or both to make apple-butter, or both to make up a rag carpet, instead of each woman
sittingathomealonesewingandfittingthecarpet,onewouldtakeherthimbleandgotospendthe
day,andthetwowouldsewalldaylong,finishandlaythecarpetatonehouse.Inafewdaysthevisit
would be returned, and the second carpet be finished. Sometimes the work was easier when two
worked together. One man could load logs and sled them down to the sawmill alone, but two by
"change-work"couldaccomplishthetaskmuchmorerapidlyandwithlessstrain.
EventhoseevildaysofNewEnglandhouseholds,theannualhouse-cleaning,wererobbedofsomeof
theirdismalterrorsbywhatwasknownasa"whang,"agatheringofafewfriendlywomenneighbors
toassistoneanotherinthatdiretime,andthusspeedandshortenthehoursofmisery.
For any details of domestic life of colonial days the reader has ever to turn to the diary of Judge
Samuel Sewall of Boston, just as the student of English life of the same date turns to the diary of
SamuelPepys.SewallwasaPuritanofthenarrowtypeofthelaterdaysofPuritanism;andthereis
littleofwarmthorbeautyinhispages,savethatthroughoutthemthereshineswithgentleradiancethe
unconsciousrecordofapureandnever-dyingneighborliness,theneighborlinessofanuprightand
reserved but deeply tender Christian. No thoughtful person can read the simple and meagre, but
whollyself-forgetfulentrieswhichrevealthistraitofcharacterwithoutafeelingofprofoundrespect
and even affection for Sewall. He was the richest man in town, and one of the most dignified of
citizens,abusymanfullofmanycaresandplans.Buthewatchedbythebedsideofhissickanddying
neighbors,thoseofhumblestationaswellashisfriendsandkinsfolk,nursingthemwithtendercare,
praying with them, bringing appetizing gifts, and also giving pecuniary aid to the household. He
affordedevenmorehomelyexamplesofneighborlyfeeling;hesent"tastesofhisdinner"manytimes
tofriendsandneighbors.ThispleasantcustomlingeredtillthepresentdayinNewEngland;Isawlast
summer,severaltimes,coveredtreasuresofhousewiferybeingcarriedinpettyamounts,literally"a
taste,"totempttiredappetitesorlonelydiners.Thegiftofaportionoftheover-bountifulsupplyfor
thesupperofawedding,areception,etc.,wentbytheexpressivenameof"coldparty."
In rural Pennsylvania a charming and friendly custom prevailed among country folk of all
nationalities—the "metzel-soup," the "taste" of sausage-making. This is the anglicized form of
Metzelsuppe;metzelnmeanstokillandcuttopieces—especiallyforsausagemeat.Wheneachfarmer
butcheredandmadesausage,agreatdishheapedwitheightortenpoundsofthenewsausageswas
senttoeachintimatefriend.Therecipientwouldinturnsendmetzel-soupwhenhisfamilykilledand
made sausage. If the metzel-soup were not returned, the minister promptly learned of it and set at
work to effect a reconciliation between the offended parties. The custom is dying out, and in many
townsiswhollyvanished.
Sewallseemedtoregarditasaduty,anddoubtlessitwasalsoapleasure,toprayforandwithdying
friends.Hisisnottheonlyold-timediarythatIhavereadinwhichthoselongprayersarerecorded,
norarehissurprisedoccasionalrecordsoftheimpatienceofdyingfriendstheonlyonesIhaveseen.
Averysickman,eventhoughhewereaPuritan,mightoccasionallytireoftheprayersoflaymen.
Sewallwaseverreadytosignifyhisgoodwillandinterestinhisneighbors'advancingfortunes,by
drivinganailataship-buildingorapinatahouse-raising,bylayingastoneinawallorafoundation
of a house, the latter, apparently, in the case of some very humble homes. He, the Judge of the
SupremeCourt,servedonthewatch,walkingandguardingthestreetsandhisneighbors'safetyjustas
faithfullyasdidthehumblestcitizen.
CHAPTERXVII
OLD-TIMEFLOWERGARDENS
Adjoining the street through which I always, in my childhood, walked slowly each Sunday, on my
way to and from church, was a spot to detain lingering footsteps—a beautiful garden laid out and
tenanted like the gardens of colonial days, and serene with the atmosphere of a worthy old age; a
garden which had been tended for over half a century by a withered old man and his wife, whose
goldenweddingwasspentinthehousetheyhadbuilt,andinthegardentheyhadplantedwhenthey
were bride and groom. His back was permanently bowed with constant weeding and pruning and
plantingandhoeing,andhishandsandfacewerebrownasthesoilhecultivated.The"hot-glowing"
crimsonpeonies,seedlingswhichthewifehadsowninheryouth,hadbecomegreatshrubs,fifteenor
twenty feet in circumference. The flowering shrubs were trees. Vigorous borders of box crowded
across the paths and towered on either side, till one could scarcely walk through them. There were
beautiful fairy groves of fox gloves "gloriously freckled, purple, and white," and tall Canterbury
bells; and at stiffly regular intervals were set flowering almonds, St. Peter's wreath, Persian lilacs,
"Moses in the burning bush," which shrub was rare in our town, and "laburnums rich in streaming
gold, syringas ivory pure." At the lower ends of the flower borders were rows of "honey-blob"
gooseberries, and aged currant bushes, gray with years, overhung by a few patriarchal quince and
crab-appletrees,inwhoselow-spreadinggnarledbranchesIspentmanyasummerafternoon,ahappy
visitor,thoughmyownhomegardenwasjustasbeautiful,old-fashioned,andflower-filled.
Thevaryinggradesofcitystreetshadgraduallyrisenaroundthegardenuntilitlaydepressedseveral
feetbelowtheleveloftheadjoiningstreets,apleasantvalley,—likeAvalon,—
"Deep-meadowed,happy,fair,withorchardlawns,
Andboweryhollowscrown'dwithsummerseas."
Aflightofstonestepsleddowntoit,—stepsverysteep,narrow,andslipperywithgreenmoss,and
ladies'-delights that crowded and blossomed in every crack and crevice of the stones. On each side
arose terraces to the street, and in the spring these terraces flushed a mass of vivid, glowing rosecolorfrombloomingmoss-pink,formingsuchaglorythatpiouschurch-goingfolkfromtheother
endofthetowndidnotthinkitwickedtowalkthither,onaSundaymorninMay,tolookattherosy
banksthatslopedtothevalleyedgarden,astheyhadwalkedthereinFebruaryorMarchtosee
"Winter,slumberingintheopenair,
Wearonhissmilingfaceadreamofspring,"
intheshapeofthefirstcrocusesandsnowdropsthatopenedbesideasnow-driftstilllingeringona
shadedbank;andtowatchthefirstbenumbedhoney-beeswhogreetedeveryflowerthatbloomedin
thatcherishedspot,andwhobuzzedinbleakMarchwindsoverthepurplecrocusand"blueflushing"
grape-hyacinthascheerfullyasthoughtheyweresippingthescarletpoppiesinsunnyAugust.
Thegardenedgesandthestreetwereoverhungbygracefullarchesandbythornyhoney-locusttrees
that bore on their trunks great clusters of powerful spines and sheltered in their branches an
exceedinglyunpleasantspeciesoffat,fuzzycaterpillars,whichalwayschoseSundaytodroponmy
garmentsasIwalkedtochurch,andtogowithmetomeeting,andinthemiddleofthelongprayerto
parade on my neck, to my startled disgust and agitated whisking away, and consequent reproof for
beingnoisyinmeeting.
What fragrances arose from that old garden, and were wafted out to passers-by! The ever-present,
pungent,dryaromaofboxwasovercomeortempered,throughthesummermonths,byasuccession
ofdelicateflower-scentsthathungoverthegarden-valelikeanimperceptiblemist;perhapsthemost
perfectandclearamongmemory'sretrospectivetreasureswasthatofthepalefringed"snow-pink,"
and later, "sweet william with its homely cottage smell." Phlox and ten-weeks stock were there, as
everywhere,thelastsweet-scentedflowersofautumn.
Atnotimewasthisoldgardensweeterthaninthetwilight,theeventide,whenallthegreatclumpsof
snowyphlox,night-rockets,andluminouseveningprimrose,andallthetanglesofpaleyellowand
whitehoneysuckleshoneirradiated;when,
"Inpuffsofbalmthenightairblows
Theburdenwhichthedayforegoes,"
and scents far richer than any of the day—the "spiced air of night"—floated out in the dusky
gloaming.
Thoughtheoldgardenhadmanyfragrantleavesandflowers,theirdelicateperfumewassometimes
fairly deadened by an almost mephitic aroma that came from an ancient blossom, a favorite in
Shakespeare'sday—thejewelledbellofthenoxiouscrown-imperial.Thisstatelyflower,withitsrich
colorandpearlydrops,hasthroughitsevilscentbeenfirmlybanishedfromourgardenborders.
Oneofthemostcheerfulflowersofthisandofmymother'sgardenwasthehappy-facedlittlepansy
thatundervariousfancifulfolk-nameshaseverbeenloved.LikeMontgomery'sdaisy,it"blossomed
everywhere."ItsItaliannamemeans"idlethoughts";theGerman,"littlestepmother."Spensercalledit
"pawnce."Shakespearesaidmaidenscalledit"love-in-idleness,"andDraytonnamedit "heartsease."
Dr.Priorgivesthesenames—"HerbTrinity,ThreeFacesunderaHood,FancyFlamy,KissMe,Pull
Me,CuddleMeuntoYou,TicklemyFancy,KissMeereIRise,JumpUpandKissMe,KissMeatthe
Garden Gate, Pink of my Joan." To these let me add the New England folk-names—bird's-eye,
garden-gate,johnny-jump-up,kit-run-about,none-so-pretty,andladies'-delight.Allthesetestifytothe
affectionateandintimatefriendshipfeltforthislaughingandfairlyspeakinglittlegardenface,notthe
least of whose endearing qualities was that, after a half-warm, snow-melting week in January or
February,thisbright-somelittle"delight"oftenopenedatinyblossomtogreetandcheerus—atrue
"jump-up-and-kiss-me,"andprovedbyitsbloomingthetruthofthegracefulChineseverse,—
"Eremanisaware
Thatthespringishere
Theplantshavefounditout."
Anotherdearlylovedspringflowerwasthedaffodil,thefavoritealsoofoldEnglishdramatistsand
poets,andofmodernauthorsaswell,whenwefindthatKeatsnamesadaffodilas,thethingofbeauty
that is a joy forever. Perhaps the happiest and most poetic picture of daffodils is that of Dora
Wordsworth,whenshespeaksofthemas"gayandglancing,andlaughingwiththewind."Perdita,in
The Winter's Tale, thus describes them in her ever-quoted list: "Daffodils that come before the
swallowdaresandtakethewindsofMarchwithbeauty."Mostcheerfulandsunnyofallourspring
flowers,theyhaveneverlosttheirold-timepopularity,andtheystilllaughatourbleakMarchwinds.
Bouncing-betandhercomelyheartycousinsofthepinkfamilymadedelightsomemanyacornerof
ourhomegarden.ThepinkswereJove'sownflowers,andthecarthusianpink,chinapink,clovepink,
snow pink, plumed pink, mullein pink, sweet william, maltese cross, ragged robin, catch-fly, and
campion,allmadegayandsweetthesummer.Theclovepinkwastheancestorofallthecarnations.
The richest autumnal glory came from the cheerful marigold, the "golde" of Chaucer, and "marybud" of Shakespeare. This flower, beloved of all the old writers, as deeply suggestive and
emblematic,hasbeencoldlyneglectedbymodernpoets,asforawhileitwasbanishedfrommodern
towngardens;butitmayregainitspopularityinverseasithasincultivation.Infarmgardensithas
alwaysflourished,andeveryautumnhas"gonetobedwiththesunandwithhimrisenweeping,"and
has given forth in the autumn air its acrid odor, which to me is not disagreeable, though my old
herbalcallsits"averynaughtysmell."
A favorite shrub in our garden, as in every country dooryard, was southernwood, or lad's-love. A
sprig of it was carried to meeting each summer Sunday by many old ladies, and with its finely
dissected,bluish-greenfoliage,andcleanpungentscent,itwaspleasanttoseeinthemeeting-house,
and pleasant to sniff at. The "virtues of flowers" took a prominent place in the descriptions in oldtimebotanies.Thesouthernwoodhadstrongmedicinalqualities,andwasusedtocure"vanityesofthe
head."
"TakeaquantityeofSuthernwoodandputituponkindledcoalestoburnandbeingmadeintopowder
mixitwiththeoyleofradishesandanoyntabaldeplaceandyoushallseegreatexperiences."
Itwasofpowerasalovecharm.Ifyouplacedasprigineachshoeandworeitthroughthedaywhen
youwereinlove,youwouldthenalsoinsomeway"seegreatexperiences."
In the tender glamour of happy association, all flowers in the old garden seem to have been loved
savethegarishpetunias,whosesickishodorgrewmoreoffensiveandmorepowerfulatnightfalland
mademelongtotearthemawayfromtheirdaintygarden-fellows,andtheportulacawithitsfleshy,
worm-likestemsandleaves,anditsaggressivelypushinghabits,"neverwouldbemissed."Perhapsits
closerelationtothe"pusley,"mosthatedofweeds,makesuseyeitaskance.
Therewasoneattributeoftheold-timegarden,onepartofnature'seconomy,whichaddedmuchtoits
charm—it was the crowding abundance, the over-fulness of leaf, bud, and blossom. Nature there
displayed no bare expanses of naked soil, as in some too-carefully-kept modern parterres; the dull
earthwascoveredwithatangleofready-growing,self-sowing,lowlyflowers,thatfilledeveryspace
left unoccupied by statelier garden favorites, and crowded every corner with cheerful, though
unostentatious, bloom. And the close juxtaposition, and even intermingling, of flowers with herbs,
vegetables,andfruitsgaveasenseofhomelysimplicityandusefulness,aswellasofbeauty.Thesoft,
purple eyes of the mourning-bride were no less lovely to us in "our garden" because they opened
undertheshadeofcurrantandgooseberrybushes;andthesweetalyssumandcandytuftwerenoless
honey-sweet. The delicate, pinky-purple hues of the sweet peas were not dimmed by their vivid
neighborsattheendoftherowofpoles—thescarletrunners.Theadlumia,ormountainfringe,wasa
special vine of our own and known by a special name—virgin's bower. With its delicate leaves,
almostasbeautifulasamaidenhairfern,anditsdaintypinkflower,itfestoonedtheripeningcornas
wantonlyandluxuriantlyasitencircledthesnowballandlilacbushes.
Though "colored herbs" were cultivated in England in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries as
carefullyaswereflowers,—stripedhollies,variegatedmyrtles,andbaysbeingthegardener'spride,
—yet in our old American gardens few plants were grown for their variegated or odd-colored
foliage. The familiar and ever-present ribbon-grass, also called striped grass, canary grass, and
gardener'sgarters,—whoseprettyexpandedpaniclesformedanalmosttropicaleffectatthebaseof
thegardenhedge;thevariegatedwanderingjew,thestripedleavesofsomevarietiesofday-lilies;the
dusty-miller,withits"frostypow"(whichwasproperlyahouseplant),filltheshortlist.Theboxwas
thesoleevergreen.
AndmayInotenterhereapleaforthepreservationofthebox-edgingsofouroldgardenborders?I
know they are almost obsolete—have been winter-killed and sunburned—and are even in sorry
disrepute as having a graveyard association, and as being harborers of unpleasant and unwelcome
gardenvisitors.Oneloverofoldwaysthusindignantlymournstheirpassing:—
"I spoke of box-edgings. We used to see them in little country gardens, with paths of crude earth.
Nowadays,ithasbeendiscoveredthatboxharboursslugs,andwearebeginningtohavebedswith
tiledborders,whilethewalksareofasphalt.Forapleasure-groundinDante'sInfernosuchmaterials
mightbesuitable."
Foritsbeautyinwinteralone,theboxshouldstillfindaplaceinourgardens.Itgrowstogreatsize.
BushesofboxinthedesertedgardenatVaucluseinNewport,RhodeIsland,arefifteenfeetinheight,
andoverthemspreadthebranchesofforesttreesthathavesprungupinthegardenbedssincethat
neglected pleasaunce was planted, over a century ago. The beautiful border and hedges of box at
MountVernon,thehomeofWashington,pleadforfreshpopularityforthisold-timefavorite.
Ourmothersandgrandmotherscamehonestlybytheirloveofgardens.Theyinheritedthisaffection
from their Puritan, Quaker, or Dutch forbears, perhaps from the days when the famous hanging
gardensofBabylonweremadeforawoman.Baconsays:"Agardenisthepurestofhumanpleasures,
itisthegreatestrefreshmenttothespiritsofman."Agardenwascertainlythegreatestrefreshmentto
thespiritsofawomanintheearlycolonialdays,andthepurestofherpleasures—toooftenheronly
pleasure.
Quickly, in tender memory of her fair English home, the homesick goodwife, trying to create a
semblanceofthebirthplaceshestillloved,plantedtheseedsandrootsofhomelyEnglishflowersand
herbsthatgrewandblossomedunderbleakNewEnglandskies,andonrockyNewEnglandshores,as
sturdilyandcheerfullyastheyhadsprungupandbloomedbythegreenhedgerowsanddoor-sidesin
thehomebeyondthesea.
In the year 1638, and again in 1663, an English gentleman named John Josselyn came to New
England.Hepublished,in1672,anaccountofthesetwovisits.Hewasamanofpolitereadingandof
culture,andaswasthehighfashionforgentlemenofhisday,hadatasteforgardeningandbotany.He
madeinterestinglistsofplantswhichhenotedinAmericaundertheseheads:—
"1.SuchplantsasarecommonwithusinEngland.
"2.Suchplantsasarepropertothecountry.
"3.Suchplantsasarepropertothecountryandhavenonames.
"4.SuchplantsashavesprungupsincetheEnglishplantedandkeptcattleinNewEngland.
"5.SuchGarden-Herbsamongusasdothrivethereandofsuchasdonot."
Thislastdivisionistheonethatspeciallyinterestsus,sinceitistheearliestandthefullestaccountof
thegardensofourforefathers,aftertheyhadtamedtheruggedshoresoftheNewWorld,andmade
them obey the rule of English husbandry. They had "good store of garden vegetables and herbs;
lettuce,sorrel,parsley,mallows,chevril,burnet,summersavory,wintersavory,thyme,sage,carrots,
parsnips,beets,radishes,purslain,beans";"cabbidgegrowingexceedingwell;peaseofallsortsand
the best in the world; sparagus thrives exceedingly, musk mellons, cucumbers, and pompions." For
grains there were wheat, rye, barley, and oats. There were other garden herbs and garden flowers:
spearmint, pennyroyal, ground-ivy, coriander, dill, tansy; "feverfew prospereth exceedingly; white
sattingrowethprettywell,andsodothlavender-cotton;gillyflowerswillcontinuetwoyears;horseleekprosperethnotably;hollyhocks;comferiewithwhiteflowers;clarylastsbutonesummer;sweetbryeroreglantine;celandinebutslowly;blood-wortbutsorrily,butpatienceandEnglishrosesvery
pleasantly."
Patience and English roses very pleasantly in truth must have shown their fair English faces to
Englishwomeninthestrangeland.Dearlylovedhadthesebrier-rosesordog-rosesbeeninEngland,
where,saystheoldherbalist,Gerard,"childrenwithdelightmakechainsandprettygewgawesofthe
fruit;andcookesandgentlewomenmaketartsandsuchlikedishesforpleasurethereof."Hollyhocks,
feverfew,andgillyflowersmusthavemadeasunshineintheshadyplacesinthenewhome.Manyof
thesegardenherbsarenowcommonweedsorroadsideblossoms.Celandine,evenacenturyago,was
"commonbyfencesandamongrubbish."Tansyandelecampanegroweverywhere.Sweet-brierisat
home in New England pastures and roadsides. Spearmint edges our brooks. Ground-ivy is a
naturalized citizen. It is easy to note that the flowers and herbs beloved in gardens and medicinal
watersandkitchens"athome"weretheonestransplantedhere."Clary-water"wasafavoritetonicof
Englishmenofthatday.
Thelistof"suchplantsashavesprungupsincetheEnglishplanted"shouldbeofinteresttoeveryone
who has any sense of the sentiment of association, or interest in laws of succession. The Spanish
proverbsays:—
"Moreinthegardengrows
Thanthegardenersows."
Theplantainhasahistoryfullofromance;itsoldNorthernnames—WegetrittinGerman,Weegbree
in Dutch, Viebred in Danish, and Weybred in Old English, all indicating its presence in the muchtroddenpathsofman—werenotlostinitsnewhome,norwereitscharacteristicsoverlookedbythe
nature-noting and plant-knowing red man. It was called by the Indian "the Englishman's foot," says
Josselyn,andbyKalmalso,alatertravellerin1740;"fortheysaywhereanEnglishmantrod,there
grew a plantain in each footstep." Not less closely did such old garden weeds as motherwort,
groundsel,chickweed,andwildmustardclingtothewhiteman.Theyareoldcolonists,broughtover
by the first settlers, and still thrive and triumph in every kitchen garden and back yard in the land.
Mulleinandnettle,henbaneandwormwood,allareEnglishemigrants.
The Puritans were not the only flower-lovers in the new land. The Pennsylvania Quakers and
Mennonites were quick to plant gardens. Pastorius encouraged all the Germantown settlers to raise
flowersaswellasfruit.WhittiersaysofhiminhisPennsylvaniaPilgrim:—
"Theflowershisboyhoodknew
Smiledathisdoor,thesameinformandhue,
AndonhisvinestheRhenishclustersgrew."
ItgivesoneapleasantnotionoftheoldQuaker,GeorgeFox,toreadhisbequestbywillofatractof
landnearPhiladelphia"foraplaygroundforthechildrenofthetowntoplayonandforagardento
plantwithphysicalplants,forladsandlassiestoknowsimples,andlearntomakeoilsandointments."
AmongPennsylvanianstheartofgardeningreachedthehighestpoint.Thelandscapegardeningwasa
reproduction of the best in England. Our modern country places cannot equal in this respect the
colonial country seats near Philadelphia. Woodlands and Bush Hill, the homes of the Hamiltons,
Cliveden, of Chief Justice Chew, Fair Hill, Belmont, the estate of Judge Peters, were splendid
examples.Anecstaticaccountofthegloriesandwondersofsomeofthemwaswrittenjustafterthe
Revolution by a visitor who fully understood their treasures, the Rev. Manasseh Cutler, the
clergyman,statesman,andbotanist.
In Newport, Rhode Island, where flowers ever seem to thrive with extraordinary luxuriance, there
were handsome gardens in the eighteenth century. A description of Mr. Bowler's garden during the
Revolutionreadsthus:—
"Itcontainsfouracresandhasagrandaisleinthemiddle.Nearthemiddleisanovalsurroundedwith
espaliersoffruit-trees,inthecentreofwhichisapedestal,onwhichisanarmillaryspherewithan
equatorial dial. On one side of the front is a hot-house containing orange-trees, some ripe, some
green,someblooms,andvariousotherfruit-treesoftheexotickindandcuriousflowers.Atthelower
end of the aisle is a large summer-house, a long square containing three rooms, the middle paved
with marble and hung with landscapes. On the right is a large private library adorned with curious
carvings.Thereareespaliersoffruit-treesateachendofthegardenandcuriousfloweringshrubs.
Theroomontheleftisbeautifullydesignedformusicandcontainsaspinnet.Butthewholegarden
discoveredthedesolationsofwar."
In the Southern colonies men of wealth soon had beautiful gardens. In an early account of South
Carolina,writtenin1682,wefind:—
"TheirGardensaresuppliedwithsuchEuropeanPlantsandHerbsasarenecessaryfortheKitchen,
andtheybegintobebeautifulandadornedwithsuchFlowersastotheSmellorEyearepleasingor
agreeable,viz.:theRose,Tulip,Carnation,Lilly,etc."
BythemiddleofthecenturymanyexquisitegardenscouldbeseeninCharleston,andtheywerethe
pride of Southern colonial dames. Those of Mrs. Lamboll, Mrs. Hopton, and Mrs. Logan were the
largest. The latter flower-lover in 1779, when seventy years old, wrote a treatise on flower-raising
calledTheGardener'sKalendar,whichwasreadandusedformanyyears.Mrs.Laurenshadanother
splendidgarden.ThoseSouthernladiesandtheirgardenersconstantlysentspecimenstoEngland,and
received others in return. The letters of the day, especially those of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, ever
interestedinfloricultureandarboriculture,showaconstantexchangewithEnglishflower-lovers.
BeverleywroteofVirginia,in1720:"Agardenisnowheresoonermadethanthere."WilliamByrd
andothertravellers,afewyearslater,sawmanybeautifulterracedgardensinVirginianhomes.Mrs.
AnneGrantwritesatlengthoftheloveandcaretheDutchwomenofthepastcenturyhadforflowers:
—
"Thecareofplantssuchasneededpeculiarcareorskilltorearthem,wasthefemaleprovince.Every
oneintownorcountryhadagarden.Intothegardennofootofmanintrudedafteritwasduginthe
spring.IthinkIseeyetwhatIhavesooftenbeheld—arespectablemistressofafamilygoingoutto
hergarden,inanAprilmorning,withhergreatcalash,herlittlepaintedbasketofseeds,andherrake
over her shoulders, to her garden of labours. A woman in very easy circumstances and abundantly
gentleinformandmannerswouldsowandplantandrakeincessantly."
InNewYork,beforetheRevolution,weremanybeautifulgardens,suchasthatofMadamAlexander
onBroadStreet,whereintheirproperseasongrew"pausbloemenofallhues,laylocksandtallMay
rosesandsnowballsintermixedwithchoicevegetablesandherbsallboundedandhemmedinbyhuge
rows of neatly clipped box edgings." We have a pretty picture also, in the letters of Catharine
Rutherfurd,ofanentirecompanygatheringrose-leavesinJuneinMadamClark'sgarden,andsetting
therose-stillatworktoturntheirsweet-scentedspoilsintorose-water.
Atradeinflowerandvegetableseedsformedalucrativeandpopularmeansbywhichwomencould
earn a livelihood in colonial days. I have seen in one of the dingy little newspaper sheets of those
days,inthelargetotalofnineadvertisements,containedtherein,theannouncements,byfiveBoston
seedswomen,oflistsoftheirwares.
The earliest list of names of flower-seeds which I have chanced to note was in the Boston Evening
PostofMarch,1760,andisofmuchinterestasshowingtouswithexactnesstheflowersbelovedand
soughtforatthattime.Theywere"holly-hook,purpleStock,whiteLewpins,Africans,blewLewpins,
candy-tuff,cyanus,pink,wall-flower,doublelarkin-spur,venusnavelwort,bromptonflock,princess
feather, balsam, sweet-scented pease, carnation, sweet williams, annual stock, sweet feabus, yellow
lewpins, sunflower, convolus minor, catch-fly, ten week stock, globe thistle, globe amaranthus,
nigella, love-lies-bleeding, casent hamen, polianthus, canterbury bells, carnation poppy, india pink,
convolusmajor,QueenMargrets."Thisiscertainlyaveryprettylistofflowers,nearlyallofwhich
arestillloved,thoughsometimesunderothernames—thustheQueenMargretsareourasters.And
thehomelyoldEnglishnamesseemtobringtheflowerstoourverysight,forwedonotseemtobe
onveryfriendlyintimacy,onverysociabletermswithflowers,unlesstheyhavewhatMissMitford
calls "decent, well-wearing English names"; we can have no flower memories, no affections that
cling to botanical nomenclature. Yet nothing is more fatal to an exact flower knowledge, to an
acquaintancethatshalleverbemorethanlocal,thanatooconfidentdependenceonthefolk-namesof
flowers. Our bachelor's-buttons are ragged sailors in a neighboring state; they are corn-pinks in
Plymouth, ragged ladies in another town, blue bottles in England, but cyanus everywhere. Ragged
robin is, in the garden of one friend, a pink, in another it flaunts as London-pride, while the true
glowingLondon-pridehashalfadozenpseudonymsinasmanydifferentlocalities,andonlyreally
recognizes itself in the botany. An American cowslip is not an English cowslip, an American
primroseisnoEnglishprimrose,andtheEnglishdaisyisnocountryfriendofoursinAmerica.
Whatcheerfulandappropriatefurnishingstheold-timegardenshad;benchesfullofstrawbeeskepes
andwoodenbeehives,thosehomelikeandbusydwelling-places;frequently,also,awell-filleddovecote.Sometimeswasseenasun-dial—oncetheevery-dayfriendandsuggestivemonitorofallwho
wanderedamongtheflowersofanhour;nowknown,alas!onlytotheantiquary.Sentimentandeven
spiritualityseemsuggestedbythesun-dial,yetfewremaintocasttheirinstructiveshadowbeforeour
sight.
One stood for years in the old box-bordered garden at Homogansett Farm, at Wickford, in old
Narragansett. Governor Endicott's dial is in the Essex Institute, at Salem; and my forbear, Jacob
Fairbanks, had one dated 1650, which is now in the rooms of the Dedham Historical Society. Dr.
Bowditch,ofBoston,hadasun-dialwhichwasthusinscribed:—
"WithwarninghandImarkTimesrapidflight
Fromlife'sgladmorningtoitssolemnnight.
AndlikeGod'sloveIalsoshow
Thereslightaboveme,bytheshadebelow."
Anothergardendialthusgives,"inlong,leanletters,"itswarningword:—
"You'llmendyourWaysTo-morrow
WhenbloomsthatbuddedFlour?
Mortall!LerntoyourSorrow
DeathmaycreepwithhisArrow
Andpierceyo'rvitallMarrow
LongeremywarningShadow
CanmarkthatHour."
Thesedialsareallofheavymetal,usuallylead;sometimeswithgnomonofbrass.ButIhaveheardof
onewhichwasunique;itwascutinbox.
Attheedgeofthefarmgardenoftenstoodthewell-sweep,oneofthemostpicturesqueadjunctsofthe
countrydooryard.Itssuccessor,theroofedwellwithbucket,stone,andchain,andeventhehomely
long-handledpump,hadacertainappropriatenessaspartofthegardenfurnishings.
Somanythoughtscrowduponusinregardtotheoldgarden;oneistheageofitsflowers.Wehave
noolderinhabitantsthanthesegardenplants;theyareoldsettlers.Clumpsofflower-de-luce,double
buttercups, peonies, yellow day-lilies, are certainly seventy-five years old. Many lilac bushes a
centuryoldstillbloominNewEngland,andsyringasandfloweringcurrantsareasoldastheelms
andlocuststhatshadethem.
Thisestablishedconstancyandyearlyrecurrenceofbloomisoneofthegarden'smanycharms.To
thosewhohaveknownandlovedanoldgardeninwhich,
"Theregrownostrangeflowerseveryyear,
Butwhenspringwindsblowo'erthepleasantplaces,
Thesamedearthingsliftupthesamefairfaces,"
andfaithfullytellandretellthestoryofthechangingseasonsbytheirgrowth,blossom,anddecay,
nothingcanseemmoreartificialthanthemodernshow-bedsoffull-grownplantswhichareremoved
byassiduousgardenersassoonastheyhaveflowered,tobereplacedbyothers,onlyinturntobloom
and disappear. These seem to form a real garden no more than does a child's posy-bed stuck with
short-stemmedflowerstowitherinamorning.
Andthetiresome,tastelessribbon-bedsofourdaywereprecededinearliercenturiesbyfiguredbeds
of diverse-colored earths—and of both we can say with Bacon, "they be but toys, you may see as
goodsightsmanytimesintarts."
ThepromisetoNoah,"whiletheearthremainethseed-timeandharvestshallnotcease,"whenheeded
inthegarden,bringsvariousinterests.Theseed-time,thespringing-upoffamiliarfavorites,andthe
cherishingofthesefavoritesthroughtheirin-gatheringofseedsorbulbsorrootsforanotheryear,
bringpleasureasmuchasdoestheirinflorescence.
Another pathetic trait of many of the old-time flowers should not be overlooked—their persistent
clingingtolifeaftertheyhadbeenexiledfromthetrimgardenborderswheretheyfirstsawthechill
sunofaNewEnglandspring.Youseethemgrowingandbloomingoutsidethegardenfence,against
oldstonewalls,wheretheirup-tornrootshavebeenthrowntomakeplacesfornewandmorepopular
favorites. You find them cheerfully spreading, pushing along the foot-paths, turning into vagrants,
becoming flaunting weeds. You see them climbing here and there, trying to hide the deserted
chimneysoftheirearlyhomes,orwanderingoverandhidingtheuntroddenfoot-pathsofotherdays.
A vivid imagination can shape many a story of their life in the interval between their first careful
plantingincolonialgardensandtheirneglectedexiletohighwaysandbyways,wherethepoorbitsof
depauperatedearthcangrownomorelucrativeharvest.
Thesitesofcolonialhouseswhicharenowdestroyed,thetrend,almosttheexactlineofoldroads,
can be traced by the cheerful faces of these garden-strays. The situation of old Fort Nassau, in
Pennsylvania, so long a matter of uncertainty, is said to have been definitely determined by the
familiargardenflowersfoundgrowingononeofthesedisputedsites.Itisatenderthoughtthatthis
indeliblemarkisleftuponthefaceofournativelandthroughtheaffectionofourforbearsfortheir
gardens.
The botany tells us that bouncing-bet has "escaped from cultivation"—she has been thrust out, but
unresentfully lives and smiles; opening her tender pinky-opalescent flowers adown the dusty
roadsides,andevenonbarrengravel-bedsinrailroadcuts.Butter-and-eggs,tansy,chamomile,spiked
loosestrife, velvet-leaf, bladder-campion, cypress spurge, live-for-ever, star of Bethlehem, moneyvine,—allhaveseenbetterdays,butnowareflower-tramps.Eventhelarkspur,belovedofchildren,
themoss-pink,andthegrape-hyacinthmaysometimesbeseengrowingincountryfieldsandbyways.
The homely and cheerful blossoms of the orange-tawny ephemeral lily, and the spotted tiger-lily,
whosegaudycolorsglowwiththewarmthoffarCathay—theirearlyhome—nowmakegaymanyof
our roadsides and crowd upon the sweet cinnamon roses of our grandmothers, which also are
undauntedgardenexiles.
Drivingoncealongacountryroad,Isawontheedgeofafieldanexpanseofyellowbloomwhich
seemedtobeanunfamiliarfield-tint.Itprovedtobeavastbedofcoreopsis,self-sownfromyearto
year;andtheblackenedoutlinesofanoldcellarwallinitsmidstshowedthatinthatfieldoncestooda
home,oncethereagardensmiled.
I am always sure when I see bouncing-bet, butter-and-eggs, and tawny lilies growing in a tangle
together that in their midst may be found an untrodden door-stone, a fallen chimney, or a filled-in
well.
Still broader field expanses are filled with old-country plants. In June a golden glory of bud and
blossomcoversthehillsandfieldsofEssexCountyinMassachusettsfromLynntoDanvers,andRyal
Side to Beverly; it is the English gorse or woad-wax, and by tradition it was first brought to this
countryinsprayandseedasapackingforsomeofthehouseholdbelongingsofGovernorEndicott.
Thrown out in friendly soil, the seeds took root and there remain in the vicinity of their first
Americanhomes.Itisastubbornsquatter,yieldingonlytoscythe,plough,andhoecombined.
Chicoryorblueweedwas,itissaid,broughtfromEnglandbyGovernorBowdoinasfoodforhis
sheep. It has spread till its extended presence has been a startling surprise to all English visiting
botanists.Ithurtsnoone'sfields,foritinvadeschieflywasteandneglectedland—the"dearcommon
flower"—andithasredeemedmanyacitysuburbofvacantlots,manyarailroadashheapfromthe
abominationofdesolation.
Whiteweedorox-eyedaisy,afargreaterpestthangorseorchicory,hasbeencarriedintentionallyto
manyatownshipbyhomesicksettlerswhosedescendantsto-dayruethesentimentoftheirancestors.
Whilethevalliedgardenofouroldneighborswassweetwithblossoms,mymother'sgardenborea
stillfresherfragrance—thatofgreengrowingthings;of"posies,"lemon-balm,rosegeranium,mint,
andsage.Ialwaysassociatewithitinspringthescentofthestrawberrybush,orcalycanthus,andin
summer of the fraxinella, which, with its tall stem of larkspur-like flowers, its still more graceful
seed-vessels and its shining ash-like leaves, grew there in rich profusion and gave forth from leaf,
stem,blossom,andseedapure,amemory-sweetperfumehalflikelavender,halflikeanise.
Truly,muchofourtenderestloveofflowerscomesfromassociation,andmanyarelovinglyrecalled
solely by their odors. Balmier breath than was ever borne by blossom is to me the pure pungent
perfume of ambrosia, rightly named, as fit for the gods. Not the miserable weed ambrosia of the
botany,butalowlyherbthatgrewthroughouttheentiresummereverywherein"ourgarden";sowing
itsseedsbroadcastfromyeartoyear;springingupuncheckedineveryunoccupiedcorner,andunder
everyshrubandbushyplant;givingoutfromserratedleafandirregularracemeoftinypale-green
flowers, a spicy aromatic fragrance if we brushed past it, or pulled a weed from amongst it as we
strolleddownthegardenwalk.Anditisourveryown—Ihaveneverseenitelsewherethanatmyold
home,andinthegardensofneighborstowhomitsseedsweregivenbythegentlehandthatplanted
"ourgarden"andmadeitadelight.Goethesays,"Someflowersarelovelytotheeye,butothersare
lovelytotheheart."Ambrosiaislovelytomyheart,foritwasmymother'sfavorite.
Andaseach"springcomesslowlyuptheway,"IsayinthewordsofSolomon,"Awake,Onorthwind;
andcome,thousouth;blowuponmygarden,thatthespicesthereofmayflowout"—thatthebalmand
mint, the thyme and southernwood, the sweetbrier and ambrosia, may spring afresh and shed their
tenderincensetothememoryofmymother,whoplantedthemandlovedtheirpurefragrance,andat
whosepresence,asatthatofEve,flowerseversprung—
"Andtouchedbyherfairtendancegladliergrew."
Index
Abington,churchvotein,286.
Acrelius,Dr.,quoted,146.
Adams,Abigail,gardenof,435.
Adams,John,quoted,71,160;
Sundaydinnerof,159–160;
cider-drinkingof,161.
Adams,JohnQuincy,Mrs.,strawbonnetof,261.
Adamsfamily,homesof,22.
Albany,housesat,9;
deerin,109;
beerat,161;
badboysin,374–375;
firstchurchin,385;
cow-herdingin,399.
Alchymy,88.
Alewives,inNewEnglandwaters,120.
Ambrosia,aflower,450.
Ames,quoted,136.
Amherst,sign-boardat,360.
Andirons,62.
Andover,churchvotein,286;
badboyin,373.
Annapolis,dressin,293.
Apostlespoons,90.
Apples,cultureof,145;
plentyinMaryland,145;
modesofcooking,146;
inpies,146.
Apple-butter,146–147.
Apple-paring,146–147.
Apple-sauce,146–147.
Architecture,ofchurches,364etseq.,385etseq.
Arkamy,88.
Axe-helves,314–315.
Back-baroffireplace,description,53.
Bacon,quoted,431.
Bagging,fromcoarseflax,172.
Bake-kettle,66.
Bake-shops,147.
Ballots,ofcornandbeans,141.
Balsam,asdye,194.
Baltimore,dressin,293;
tavernsin,359.
Banyan,294.
Barberry,rootasdye,194.
Basins,106.
Bass,inNewEnglandwaters,120–121.
Bass-viols,inmeeting,378.
Batesofflax,169.
Batteau,329.
Batten,ofloom,220–221.
Baxter,187.
Bayberry,description,39;
candlesof,39;
waxof,40;
lawsabout,40;
soapfrom,255.
Beadbags,263.
Beam.SeeWarp-beam.
Beaming,inweaving,218.
Beans,asballots,141;
modeofcooking,145.
Bedcoverlet.SeeCoverlet.
Bedstead,alcove,55;
turn-up,55–56.
Beer,amongDutch,161.
Bees,calledEnglishflies,111.
Beehives,442.
Beetlingofflax,172.
Bell,assummonstomeeting,368.
Belt-loom.SeeTape-loom.
Bennet,quoted,123.
Berkeley,Gov.,quoted,111,360–361.
Berries,145.
Bettylamps,43–44.
Beverages.SeeDrinks.
Bible,referencestoflaxin,177.
Biddeford,communalprivilegesin,390.
Bier,inweaving,220.
Birch-bark,doorsof,6;
platesof,83;
basketsof,cansof,253,310.
Birchbroom,makingof,301–303;
priceof,302.
Blackjacks,95–96.
Blazing,oftrees,330.
Bleaching,offlaxthread,175;
oflinen,234;
ofstrawbonnets,261.
Bleeding-basins,86.
Block-houses,26.
Boards,scarcityof,76.
Boardcloth,76–77.
BoardmanHillHouse,22.
Bobbins,forweaving.SeeQuills.
Bobs,offlax,168.
Bombards,96.
Booksofetiquette,79.
Bore-staffofloom,224.
Boston,fire-enginein,19;
earlyhousesof,19,27;
firstforkin,77;
pigeonsin,110;
fishin,123;
teain,164–165;
coffeein,165;
chocolatein,165;
spinningschoolsin,180;
fulling-millin,187;
dressin,292–294;
coachin,331;
stage-travelfrom,350–351;
nightwatchin,363;
meeting-housesin,364,366;
restrictionsofsettlementin,394;
cowsin,400.
Bottles,ofwood,82;
ofpewter,85;
ofglass,92–93;
ofleather,95.
Boucher,Jonathan,quoted,382.
Bouncing-bet,427,447.
Bountycoats,248.
Bouts,inweaving,218.
Box-borders,apleafor,430–431.
Boxing,ofmapletrees,112.
Boylston,Nicholas,banyanof,294.
Boys,clothingof,287–288;
wigsof,297;
seatsinmeetingfor,372etseq.;
misbehaviorof,372–373;
inchurch,384.
Braid-loom.SeeTape-loom.
Bradford,Governor,quoted,129–130.
Bread,white,147;
ryeandIndian,147
Bread-peel,67.
Breadtrough,311.
Breakfast,orbreadandmilk,148.
Breaking,offlax,169–170;
ofhemp,170.
Breakingoutthewinterroads,412etseq.
Breweries,inNewYork,161.
Brewster,Elder,quoted,117.
Brick,imported,21.
Britishspinningandweavingschool,186.
Broach,198.
Brooklyn,oystersin,118–119;
saltingshadin,124–125.
Brooms,ofbroom-corn,256–257;
ofbirch,301–304;
ofhemlock,304–305.
Broom-corn,256–257.
BrownUniversity,dressoffirstgraduatingclass,183.
Bucking,offlaxthread,175;
oflinen,234.
Bull's-eyelamp,45.
Bun,offlax,169.
Bunch-thread,251.
Bundling-mould.SeeShingling-mould.
Burlers,inweaving,252.
Bushnell,Horace,quoted,246.
Busks,carved,320.
Butter,priceof,149.
Buttermilk,forbleaching,175.
Caches,forcorn,138.
Cage,forbabies,372;
forbadboys,385.
Calash,289.
Calf-keeper,dutiesof,400.
Cambridge,cow-herdingin,399.
Campbell,MadamAngelica,coachof,335.
Candles,costof,34;
makingof,35–37;
materialsfor,38–39,42.
Candle-arms,42.
Candle-beams,42.
Candle-box,38.
Candle-dipping,36.
Candle-moulds,36–37.
Candle-prongs,42.
Candle-rods,36.
Candle-sticks,42.
Candle-wood,32.
Canoes,323–327.
Canteens,ofhorn,321.
Captainofthewatch,dutiesof,380.
Cards.SeeWool-cards.
Cardingdescribed,194–196.
Carding-machines,206.
Card-setting.SeeWool-cards.
Capuchins,295.
Carolinas,sweetpotatoesin,145;
hand-weavingin,249–251;
gardensin,438–439.
Carpet.SeeRagcarpet.
Carrots,145.
Carving,termsin,104–105;
ofwood,320;
ofhorn,321–322.
Caves,descriptionof,2;
forcorn,138.
Cave-dwellers,1.
Cedartops,fordyeing,251.
CellarofDutchhouses,10.
Chaininweaving,250.
Chair-seats,310–311.
ChaiseofBrotherJonathan,353.
"Change-work,"417.
Chap-men,300.
Chargers,80,84.
Charleston,flaxmanufacturein,182–183;
dressin,293;
gardensin,438–439.
Charlevoix,Father,oncanoes,327.
Chaucer,quoted,onspinning,179.
Chebobbin,415.
Cheese,makingof,150.
Cheese-basket,150–151.
Cheese-hoop,312.
Cheese-ladder,150–151,312.
Cheese-press,150–151,312.
Chesapeake,turkeyson,109;
wildfowlon,125.
Chicory,introductionof,449.
Children,attable,101–102;
occupationsof,179–180,182,188–189,203–204,261–262;
dressof,287;
inmeeting,372etseq.;
innoon-house,376.
Chimney,catted,15,53;
sizeof,52,68;
description,53;
inDutchhouses,55.
China,earlyuseof,100;
importationof,100–101.
Chinesestuffs,294.
Chinkingwalls,5.
Chopping-bee,403etseq.
Chorister,inDutchchurches,386.
Churches,inVirginia,381–383;
inAlbany,385.
SeealsoMeeting-house.
Churns,fewinNewEngland,149;
examplesof,149–150;
whittlingof,312.
Cider,usebychildren,148–149,161;
usebystudents,161;
priceof,161;
manufactureof,161–162;
generoususeof,161–163.
Clam-shells,useof,308–309.
Clarionets,inmeeting,378.
Clavell-piece,54.
Clay,fordyeing,241.
Clergymen,inVirginia,384.
Clocks,299.
Clock-jack,65.
Clock-reel,174–175;
priceof,177;
foryarn,200.
Clogs,295.
Cloth,finishingof,231–233.
Clothbar,224.
Clothes,durabilityof,281;
extravagancein,281;
lawsabout,281etseq.;
ofMassachusettssettlers,286–287;
ofVirginiaplanters,287;
ofchildren,288etseq.
Coaches,inBoston,331,353–354;
inEngland,354;
JudgeSewallon,354;
inNewYork,354–355.
SeealsoStage-coach.
Coat-of-arms,onsampler,267.
Coatroll,248.
Cobirons,62.
Cocoanut-cups,96–97.
Codfish,earlydiscovererson,115–116;
plentyof,115;
inNewEnglandwaters,120–121;
varietiesof,121;
forSaturdaydinner,122;
priceinBoston,123.
SeeFishandFishing.
Coffee,substitutesfor,159;
earlyuseof,165;
queermodeofcooking,165.
Colchester,girls'lifein,253.
Coldhouses,70–71.
Coldparty,419.
Coloredherbs,430.
Coloring,23.
Combing,descriptionof,196.
Combingmachine,230.
Combs.SeeWool-combs.
Comfortier,69.
Commoncrops,130.
Commonherds.SeeHerding.
Commonlands,398.
Communalprivileges,390etseq.
Conch-shell,assummonstomeeting,367–368.
Concordcoaches,352–353.
Concordance,33.
Conestogawagon,339–343;
shapeof,339;
rateson,340;
greatnumberof,340.
Connecticut,tar-makingin,33;
pumpkinbreadin,143;
flaxculturein,179;
strawmanufacturein,260.
ContributionsinNewEnglandmeetings,378;
inDutchchurches,386–387.
Cooking,influenceofIndianmethods,131–136;
Englishmodesof,151;
spicesusedin,152;
limitationsin,158–159.
Coöperationinoldentimes,389etseq.
Corbelroof,9.
Coreopsis,persistenceof,448.
Corn,influenceoncolonists'lives,126;
inVirginia,127–128;
priceof,128,138;
scarcityof,129;
modeofcultivating,130–131;
Indianfoodsfrom,131;
Indianmodesofpreparing,131;
modesofcooking,133–136;
ascurrency,138;
profitsonraising,139;
gameswith,139;
shellingof,139–140;
asballots,141;
asnationalflower,141.
Corn-cobs,useof,141,209.
Corndances,138.
Corn-husking,descriptionof,136.
Corn-sheller,140–141.
Cotton,earlyuseof,206–207;
cultivationof,207;
rarityof,207–208;
domesticmanufacture,209–210;
GoldenAgeof,230.
Cotton-gin,208.
Cotton,John,quoted,148,285.
Coverlets,inPennsylvania,190;
inNarragansett,242–246.
Cows,herdingof,399–401.
Cowherds,dutiesof,399–400;
payof,399.
Cowkeeps,399.
Cow-pens,400.
Crabs,inVirginia,118.
Crane,53.
Creepers,62.
Crocus,237.
Crofting,oflinen,234.
Crown-imperial,425.
Cups,85,90,93–96.
Currency,cornas,138.
"Cut-down,"oftrees,405.
Cutler,Dr.,quoted,159.
Cut-tails,122–123.
Daffodils,426–427.
Dale,SirThomas,oncorn-growing,127;
onSundayobservance,380.
Danvers,Mass.,housein,30.
Daubingwalls,5.
DaughtersofLiberty,183–184.
Day'sworkinspinning,185.
Deacons,inDutchchurches,386–387.
Deacons'pew,374.
"Deaconing"thepsalm,378.
Deafpew,374.
Dedham,Mass.,housein,22–23.
Deer,abundanceof,108–109;
descriptionof,108.
Deerskin,clothingof,288–289.
DeLaWarre,churchattendanceof,382.
Delaware,housepiein,146.
Delftware,100.
Dents,ofsley,219–220.
Designs,forweaving,243–244,250–251;
ofancientGauls,242;
forquilts,272–273;
forpaper-cutting,278–289.
Dew-retting,169.
Dimity,250.
Dinner,servingof,104;
primitiveforms,105–106;
forSaturday,122;
inNewYork,159;
atJohnAdams'home,159–160.
Discomfortsoftemperature,70–71.
Distaff,inIndia,178.
Dogs,inmeeting,374.
Dog-pelter,374.
Dog-whipper,374.
Donnisonfamily,firebucketsof,18.
Doorlatch,11,318.
Dorchester,windmillat,133;
corporation,lawsin,392,394.
Doublestring-roaster,64.
Drawing,inweaving,219.
Drawingabore,224.
Dress.SeeClothes.
Dresser,68.
Drinking-cups,85–96,98.
Drinks,fromcuriousmaterials,163.
Drinkinghabits,93–94,161,164.
Drinking-horns,321.
Driver,198.
Drugget,250.
Drum,assummonstomeeting,367,368.
Duck.SeeWildfowl.
Duer,Colonel,dinnerof,159.
Dugouts,326.
Dunfish,121–122.
AlsoseeCodfish.
Durabilityofhomespun,238–239.
Durham,churchdisciplinein,372.
Dutchmodeofservingmeals,106.
Dutchoven,65.
Dyes,domestic,155,193–194,250–251.
Dye-flower,251.
Earmarks,400.
EasternStageCompany,351.
Economyofcolonists,42,185,321–324;
ofMarthaWashington,237–238.
Eddis,quoted,118.
Eels,methodofcatching,117.
Egypt,flaxin,177–178;linenin,178.
Embroidery.SeeNeedlework.
Emerson,R.W.,appointedhog-reeve,403.
Endicott,Governor,sun-dialof,443;
hisintroductionofwoad-wax,448.
Entering,inweaving.SeeDrawing.
Ernst,C.W.,quoted,343,345.
Etiquetteforchildren,100–102;
ofcarving,104–105.
Eye,ofharness,218.
Fairbanks,Jacob,houseof,22–23;
sun-dialof,443.
Fairs,institutedbyPenn,190;
encouragedbyFranklin,191.
Faneuil,Miss,dressof,292.
Fences,differentvarietiesof,25;
commonbuildingof,401–402;
lawsabout,401–402.
Fence-viewers,401.
Ferries,bycanoe,330–331.
Finlay,Hugh,postalreportof,333–335.
Fireback,54.
Fire-buckets,description,16;
useof,17;
ofDonnison's,18;
ofQuincy's,18;
ofOliver's,19.
Fire-dogs,62.
Fire-engine,firstinBoston,19;
firstinBrooklyn,19.
Fire-hunting,108–109.
Firelanes,16.
Firelaws,15.
Fireplaceofourfathers,53.
Fire-plate,54–55.
Fire-room,7.
Fire-wardens,15.
Fish,plentyof,115–125;
varietiesof,inNewEnglandwaters,117;
inVirginiawaters,119;
inNewYorkwaters,120;
salted,124–125;
asfertilizer,130;
poisonedbyflax,169.
Fishing,KingJameson,116;
ill-successin,117;
suppliesfor,117;
inVirginia,119–120;
encouragementof,121;
lawson,121;
divisionofprofit,122,123.
Fish-weirs,121.
Flag,assummonstomeeting,368.
Flails,makingof,312;useof,313–314.
Flannelsheets,238.
Flax,patchof,167;
blossomof,167;
growthof,168;
weedingof,168;
ripeningof,168;
pullingof,168;
spreadingof,168;
ripplingof,168–169;
wateringof,169;
stackingof,169;
breakingof,169–170;
tenacityof,171;
swinglingof,171–172;
beetlingof,172;
hetchelingof,172–173;
spreadinganddrawing,173;
manymanipulationsof,173;
spinningof,174;
inBible,177;
inEgypt,177–178;
inNewEngland,179–181,186;
inPennsylvania,181;
inVirginia,181,182;
inSouthCarolina,182–183;
inIreland,186;
inCourtrai,186;
inEngland,186.
Flaxbasket,173.
Flax-brake,169–170.
Flaxhetchels,172.
Flaxseed,howsown,167;
howgathered,168,176;
howstored,176.
Flax-thread,spinningof,174;
knottingof,175;
reelingof,175;
bleachingof,175;
backingof,175.
Flax-wheel,revivalof,167;
useof,174;
priceof,177.
Flintandsteel,48.
Flower,anational,141.
Flowers,inchurches,383;
old-time,421etseq.;
folk-namesof,448;
ageof,443–445;
persistencyof,447;
escapedfromcultivation,448.
Flower-seeds,soldbywomen,440–441;
oldlistof,441.
Flutes,inmeeting,378.
Flying-machine,345.
Fly-shuttle,228.
Food,fromforests,108–114;
fromseaandriver,114–125;
transportationof,143;
entirelyfromfarm,158;
substitutes,158–159.
Foot-mantle,295.
Foot-paths,329.
Foot-stoves,375,385.
Foot-treadle,ofloom,219.
Foot-wheel.SeeFlax-wheel.
Foote,Abigail,diaryof,253.
Forefathers'Dinner,129.
Forests,destructionof,52;
richesof,108–114.
Forms,101.
Forks,useof,77;
first,77.
Forts,aschurches,365,385.
Fox,George,bequestof,437.
Franklin,quoted,53,181;
fairsencouragedby,191;
advertisementof,292–293;
aspostmaster,333;
setmilestones,335;
cyclometerof,335–336;
oncanals,353;
insedan-chair,356.
Franklinstove,70.
Fraxinella,449.
Fringe-loom,227.
Frocking,striped,237.
Fulling-mill,inBoston,188.
Fulling-stocks,232.
Fulhamjugs,98.
Funerals,ringsat,298;
glovesat,298–299.
Furs,searchfor,115.
Fustian,inAmerica,237;
inEurope,237.
Gallows-balke,53.
Gallows-crooks,53.
Gallows-frame.SeeTape-loom.
Gambrels,310.
Gambrelroof,description,22.
Games,withcorn,139.
Garden,anold-time,419etseq.;
inNewEngland,419etseq.;
insoutherncolonies,438–439;
inNewYork,439–440.
Garnishofpewter,85.
Garrisonhouse,26.
Garter-loom.SeeTape-loom.
Geese,raisingof,257–258;
pickingsof,257–259;
noiseof,258.
Georgia,deerin,109;
turkeysin,110;
hand-weavingin,249–251.
GeorgiusRexjug,99.
Germantown,flax-raisingat,181;
flax-workersat,181;
sealof,181;
woolmanufactureat,190.
Gibcrokes,53.
Gimlet,305.
Giotto,loomof,213.
Girdling,oftrees,403.
Girls,dressof,289–292;
seatsinmeetingfor,372.
Giskins,96.
Glass,inwindows,23,366;
nailedin,366;
forlamps,46;
earlyuseof,92.
Gloucester,oldhouseat,70;
fishingat,122–123;
communalprivilegesin,390.
Gloves,givenatfunerals,298–299.
Goinga-leafing,67.
Goldenrod,asdye,193.
Goloe-shoes,295.
Gookin,quoted,137.
Goose-basket,258.
Goose-neckandirons,62.
Gooseyoke,258.
Gorse.SeeWoad-wax.
Gourds,cupsof,96;
utensilsof,309.
Grant,Mrs.Anne,onDutchgardens,439.
Grapes,145.
Grassing,oflinen,234.
Greeley,Horace,oncanal-travel,353.
Gridirons,61.
Grist-mill,earliest,133.
Guineawheat,129.SeeCorn.
Gun,assummonstomeeting,368.
Gundalow,329.
Guttersofhouses,9.
Hackling.SeeHetcheling.
Hadley,shadin,123–124;
potatoesin,144;
broom-makingin,256–257;
restrictionsofsettlementin,392–393;
hay-wardin,402.
Hakes,53.
Half-facedcamp,3.
Hammond,John,quoted,395.
Hamor,Ralph,quoted,143.
HancockHouse,knockerof,28;
onsampler,268.
Hancock,John,hatredofpewter,85;
drinkingcupof,97;
dressof,293.
Hand-distaff.SeeDistaff.
Hand-loom.SeeLoom.
Hand-reel.SeeNiddy-noddy.
Hap-harlot,242.
Harness.SeeHeddle.
HarvardCollege,standingsaltof,78–79;
trenchersat,81.
Hastypudding,135.
Hats,worninmeeting,285;
churchvotesabout,286.
Hay-wards,402.
Heddleofloom,219.
Heddle-frame.SeeTape-loom.
Heel-pegs.SeeShoe-pegs.
Hemlock,broomsof,304–305;
boxesof,310.
Hemp,blossomof,167;
breakingof,169.
Herding,ofcows,399–401;
ofsheep,401;
ofswine,403.
Hetchelingofflax,172.
Hexe,offlax,169.
Hides,useof,109;
taxon,109.
Higginson,quoted,33,35,117,148.
Hind's-foothandle,90.
Hinges,materialof,9,318.
Hingham,churchat,365.
Hogarth,loomof,213–214.
Hogs,asscavengers,125;
yokesof,311;
lawsabout,402–403.
Hog-reeves,402–403.
Homespunindustries,167;
beneficenteffectof,179;
foundationofliberty,189.
Hominy,131.
Honey,plentyof,111.
Honey-locust,163.
Horn,spoonsof,88;
cupsof,96;
assummonstomeeting,368.
Horse-blocks,infrontofchurches,367.
Horse-bridges,331.
Horse-laurel,asdye,194.
Hose.SeeStockings.
Hospitality,inSoutherncolonies,395etseq.
Houndhandle,100.
Hour-glass,inmeeting,376.
Housekeeper,qualificationsof,252–253.
Housepie,146.
House-raising.SeeRaising.
Hyperiontea,165.
Indiachina,100.
Indians,housesof,3–4;
cavesof,138;
corndancesof,138;
cultivationofcornby,126–131;
enduranceof,137;
modeofcookingcorn,131–135;
namesofcornfoods,131–137;
modeofdryingpumpkins,143;
spoonsof,88;
modeofcookingbeans,145;
broomsof,301–304;
fourbestthings,304;
modesoftravelof,325;
boatsof,325;
pathsof,329–330.
Indiancorn.SeeCorn.
Indianpudding,135.
Indigo,asdye,193.
Inns.SeeTaverns.
Invention,ofcotton-gin,208;
offly-shuttle,228;
ofspinning-jenny,229;
ofthrostle-spunyarn,229;
ofcombing-machine,230;
offlax-spinningmachine,230–231.
Ipswich,grist-millat,133.
Iris,asdye,193.
Itineracies,old-time,176,300–301.
Jack-knife,307–308.
Jacks,64.
JamesI.onfishing,116.
Jamestown,spinning-schoolsat,182;
summonstomeetingat,367.
Jeans,250.
Jefferson,Thomas,quoted,207,256;
hospitalityof,397;
impoverishmentof,397–398.
Jewellery,slightwearof,297.
Johnson,quoted,143,145,188.
Johnson,Governor,babyclothesof,265.
Johnny-cakes,135.
Josselyn,quoted,117;
hislistofplantsinNewEngland,432etseq.
Judd,Sylvester,quoted,216,237.
Jugs,ofstoneware,98.
Jumel,Madame,cavehouseof,3.
Kalm,quoted,39–40;
onsquirrels,110;
onbees,111;
onmaizebread,134;
oncanoes,326–327;
ontheplantain,436.
Kearsarge,Mount,romanceof,405.
Kentucky,hand-weavingin,249.
Ketch,328.
Kill-devil.SeeRum.
Killingtime,153.
KingHooperhouse,30.
Kitchen,description,52;
inrhyme,73–75.
Knife.SeeJack-knife.
Knife-racks,68.
Knights,Madame,quoted,8;
oncanoes,327–328;
journeyof,332;
onsleighs,355.
Knitting,190;
yarnfor,201;
bychildren,261–262;
elaboratedesigns,262.
Knittingmachine,190.
Knives,offlaxbrake,170.
Knocker,Hancockhouse,28;
Winslowhouse,29.
Knots,offlaxthread,175.
Krankbesoeckers,385.
Labadistmissionaries,quoted,118–119.
Lad'slore,428.
Lamps,43–45.
Lathe.SeeBatten.
Lattenware,58.
Laws,aboutflaxculture,179–180;
aboutdress,282–284;
aboutferries,330–331;
aboutmail,334;
abouttaverns,357;
onobservanceofSunday,378–379;
ofwarningout,392etseq.;
aboutfences,401–402.
Lay,ofloom.SeeBatten.
Layingafire,74.
Lays,offlaxthread,175.
Lean-to,description,22.
Leashes,ofheddle,219.
Leather,utensilsof,95–96.
Letters.SeePost.
LibertyTea,165.
Lincoln,Abraham,earlyhomeof,4;
rail-splitting,25.
Linden,fibrefrom,211.
Linen,manipulationsof,234;
clothingof,234;
sentimentof,234;
priceof,234;
checked,238.
Liningthepsalm,378.
Litster,187.
Livingstone,John,clothingof,288.
Loaf-sugar.SeeSugar-cones.
Lobsters,plentyof,117;
vastsizeof,118.
Logan,Mrs.,onflower-raising,438.
Logcabin,formsof,5.
Logging-bee,416,417.
Log-rolling,389,404,406.
Longfellow,quoted,327.
LongIsland,bayberrieson,40;
samp-mortarson,133;
woolraisingon,191;
badboyson,373;
Sundayobservanceon,385;
cow-herdingon,400.
Long-short,236–237.
Loom,antiquityof,213–214;
ofGiotto,213;
ofHogarth,213–214;
descriptionof,214.
SeePower-loom,Tape-loom.
Loom-room,212.
Louisiana,cornin,128;
petticoatrebellionin,128;
hand-weavingin,250.
Lowell,quoted,73.
Lucas,Governor,quoted,182–183.
Lug-pole,53.
Luxury,aftertheRevolution,159–160.
Lye,makingof,254.
MacMaster,quoted,207.
Madison,Dolly,dressof,290.
Mail,ofheddle,219.
Mail.SeePost.
Mailcoaches,344,350.
Maine,windowsin,23;
candle-woodin,32;
chumsin,149;
axe-makingin,315.
Maize.SeeCorn.
Mandillion,287.
Manhattan,barkhouseson,4;
palisadoson,24.
Manners.SeeEtiquette.
Maplesugar,olddescriptionof,111;
manufactureof,111–112.
Maple-wood,bowlsof,82,318–320.
Marblehead,fishingat,122–123.
Marigolds,427.
Marmalades,152.
Maryland,housesin,11;
wildfowlin,125;
applesin,145;
hospitalityin,396–397.
Masks,290.
Massachusetts,cavedwellingsin,1;
palisadosin,24;
venisonin,109;
fishin,123;
flaxculturein,179–180;
wool-raisingin,188;
bountyin,205;
sumptuarylawsin,281–284;
outfitforsettlers,286–287;
ferriesin,330–331.
Matches,first,50–51.
Mazer,319.
Mead,163.
Meeting-house,inBoston,364,366;
inSalem,364;
inHingham,365;
descriptionsof,364,366–369.
Metheglin,163.
Metheglincups,85.
Metzel-soup,419.
Milestones,335–336.
Milford,Conn.,palisadosin,24.
Milk,priceof,148;useasfood,148.
Milkpitchers,namesof,106.
Milkweed,forcandlewicks,35,211.
Mill,Indian,132.
Mince-pies,pioneer,159.
Ministers,encouragefisheries,121.
Mittens,fineknittingof,262;
quickknittingof,262.
Modesty-piece,270–271.
Molasses,forNewEnglandslave-trade,163.
Monkeyspoons,90.
Moore,Thomas,quoted,348.
Mortar,Indian,132.
Morton,quoted,120–121.
Moss-pink,423.
MountVernon,descriptionof,13;
weavingat,237;
gardenat,431.
Mourningrings.SeeRings.
Mourningsamplers,268–269.
Muffs,wornbymen,298,386.
Mutton,itsdisuseprevioustoRevolution,189,191.
Nails,scarcityof,11.
Napkins,useof,77.
Narragansett,hand-weavingin,241–244;
shiftmarriagesin,241–242;
oldquiltin,275–276;
threshingin,313–314.
Needlework,stitchesin,264–265;
delicacyof,265;
rulesfor,265.
Neighborhood,titleofsettlement,391.
Neighbors,old-time,388etseq.,395etseq.
Netting,263–264.
Nettles,fibrespun,211.
NewAmsterdam,firstchurchin,385;
lawsaboutfencesin,401–402.
Newman,Rev.Mr.,mannerofwork,33.
Newburyport,houseat,27;
strawbleachingat,261;
sumptuarylawsin,283;
finesin,374.
NewEngland,housesin,15;
candle-woodin,32;
lobstersin,117;
fisheriesin,117–124;
Indiancornin,127–136;
millsin,131–133;
pumpkinsin,142–143;
potatoesin,144;
squashesin,144;
milkandministersin,148;
churnsin,149;
ciderin,161–162;
rumin,163–164;
slaveryin,164;
wool-raisingin,188–189;
tavernsin,356–357;
watchmenin,363;
meeting-housesin,365etseq.;
summonstomeetingin,368;
Sundayobservancein,378etseq.;
"tasteofdinnerin,"418;
old-timegardensin,421etseq.
NewHampshire,candle-woodin,32;
potatoesin,144;
pioneermince-piesin,159;
wheelwrightsin,176;
flaxmanufacturein,180,236;
fineknittingin,269;
birchbroomsin,304.
NewHaven,restrictionsin,392.
NewLondon,millat,133.
Newport,boxplantsat,430;
gardenin,437–438.
NewYork,housesin,8;
candle-woodin,32;
firstforkin,78;
venisonin,109;
lobstersat,118;
fishin,120;
saltingshadin,124–125;
suppawnin,133;
aleandbeerin,161;
wool-raisingin,191;
dressin,292;
turnpikesin,349–350;
coachesin,354–355;
sleighsin,355;
streetlightingin,362;
watchin,363;
Sundayobservancein,384;
cow-herdingin,399;
gardensin,439–440.
Niddy-noddy,200–201;carved,320.
Nightgowns,294.
Nocake,descriptionof,137;
useof,137;
Eliot'suseofword,137–138.
Noggins,82.
Noil,196.
Nokick.SeeNocake.
Noon-houses,374–375.
Noon-marks,299.
Norridgewock,life-workofacitizenof,407–408.
Northampton,sumptuarylawsin,283–284.
Northboro,spinningmatchat,184.
NorthSaugus,housein,21.
Norwich,naughtygirlin,373.
Notices,nailedonchurchdoors,367.
Nott,President,storyofboyhood,202–203.
Occamy,88.
Occupations,ofchildren,179,180,182,186,437;
ofwomen,187.
Oiledpaperforwindows,23,366.
OldSouthChurch,onsampler,268.
OldShip,365.
OldSouth,366.
Openinginland,clearing,406.
Ordinary,namefortavern,356.
Osenbrigs,288.
Otis,Hannah,samplerof,268.
Overhang,inwalls,19–20.
Ovens,67.
Ox-bows,311.
Oxen,signofdistressin,413.
Oysters,inBrooklyn,118–119;
inVirginia,119;
vastsizeof,119.
Pace-weight,ofloom,224.
Pack-horses,useof,336–339;
payfor,337;
loadof,337–338.
Pails,early,58.
Paint,notused,23.
Pales.SeeFences.
Palfrey,quoted,122.
Palisado,descriptionof,24.
Pansy,folk-namesof,425–426.
Paper-cutting.SeePapyrotamia.
Papyrotamia,277–278.
Parley,Peter,reminiscenceof,140.
Parsnips,145.
Pastorius,Father,hischoiceforseal,181;
hisencouragementofgardening,436.
Patchwork.SeeQuilt-piecing.
Patent,firsttoAmericans,138–139,260.
Pattens,295.
Paupers,inNarragansett,313;
treatmentof,inNewEngland,324.
Pawn,55.
Pawtucket,cottonthreadin,207.
Pay,forspinning,185;
forweaving,230,250;
forcow-herding,399;
ofswineherds,403.
Peabody,Francis,houseof,31.
Peachy,163.
Peas,145.
Peel,67.
Pegging,262.
Pelisses,295.
Penn,William,fairsinstitutedby,190.
Pennsylvania,cave-dwellersin,2;
stovesin,69;
squirrelsin,110;
woolmanufacturein,190;
dressin,292–293;
mailin,333;
post-rider,335;
transportationin,335–344;
roadsin,339;
turnpikesin,349;
coachingin,350–351;
metzel-soupin,419;
gardensin,436–437.
Peonies,421.
Perfumes,incooking,152;
ofoldgardenflowers,424;
ofsweet-scentedleaves,449etseq.
Periagua,329.
Perry,163.
Peter,Hugh,encouragesfisheries,121.
Petticoatrebellion,128.
Petunias,428.
Pews,described,368etseq.
Pewter,forlamps,44–45;
forutensils,84–85;
ondresser,68;
lidsof,100.
Phœbe-lamps,44.
Philadelphia,earlyhousesin,15;
luxuriousdinnersin,160;
strawmanufacturein,260;
travelfrom,347–350;
tavernsin,359;
cow-herdingin,400–401.
Pickling,old-time,152.
PierceGarrisonHouse,26.
Pierpont,Rev.John,versesof,306–307.
Pies,146.
Pigeons,plentyof,110;
priceof,110.
Pilgrims,starvationof,129.
Piling-bee,406.
Pillions,331–332.
Pillory,locationof,367.
Pinckney,Mrs.,exchangeofflowersof,439.
Pinehurst,hand-weavingin,250–251.
Pine-knots,useof,32–33.
Pink,nameofvessel,328.
Pinks,varietiesof,427.
Pipeshelves,68.
Pipe-tongs,68–69.
Pitch-pipes,inmeeting,378.
Plantain,romanceof,435–436.
Plate-racks,68.
Plate-warmer,61.
Plymouth,vacantfieldsat,130;
samplerat,266.
Pokeberry,asdye,193.
Pompion.SeePumpkin.
Pones,134.
Pop-corn,135.
Poplarwood,useof,81–82.
Porcelain.SeeChina.
Porringers,85–86.
Porter'sfluid,45.
Portsmouth,oldhouseat,21.
Portulaca,429.
Posnet,87.
Possing,oflinen,234.
Post,first,332;dutiesof,332–333;
inVirginia,333;
reportabout,333–335.
Potatoes,inNewEngland,144;
queermodesofcooking,144–145.
SeeSweetpotatoes.
Potato-boiler,57.
Pot-brakes,53.
Pot-clips,53.
Pot-crooks,53.
Pot-hangers,53.
Pothooks,53.
Pots,costof,56;
sizeof,56.
Pound-keepers,400.
Powder-horns,320–321.
Powderingofhair,297.
Powderingtub,153.
Power-loom,230.
Powhatan,teachescorn-planting,127.
Prairie-schooner.SeeConestogawagon.
Prayers,lengthof,376;
withthesick,419.
Preserving,old-time,152.
Printer,dressof,293.
Providence,strawmanufacturein,260;
restrictionsin,392.
Psalm-singing,376etseq.
Puddings,ofcorn,135.
Pudding-time,104,160.
Pue.SeePews.
Pullingofflax,168.
Pulpits,368,385.
Pumpkin,tributesto,143;
modesofcooking,143;
theirplenty,143;
shellsof,309.
Puncheonfloor,6.
Quakers,dressof,258,292.
Quarels,ofglass,9.
Quarnes,133.
Quiddonies,152.
Quills,forweaving,216;
fromgeese,259.
Quilling-wheel,216,229.
Quilts,piecingof,270–275;
materialsfor,272–274;
patternsfor,272–275;
quiltingof,273–274.
Quincedrink,96.
Quincyfamily,fire-bucketsof,18;
samplersof,266–267.
Quincy,Josiah,quoted,341–342,346.
Raddle,ofloom,219.
Ragcarpet,239–240.
Rail-fence,25.
Raising,ofahouse,408etseq.
Rake.SeeRaddle.
Ramsay,quoted,395–396.
Randolph,John,quoted,205.
Raspberryleavesfortea,158,165.
Rattle-watch,362.
Ravel.SeeRaddle.
Reading,communalprivilegesin,391.
Recons,53.
Reed.SeeSley.
Reed-hook.SeeSley-hook.
Reel,triple,200.
SeeClock-reelandNiddy-noddy.
Revolution,influencestowardssuccess,166–167,189.
RhodeIsland,stage-coachin,346.
RhodeIslandCollege.SeeBrownUniversity.
Ribbon-beds,445.
Ribbon-grass,430.
Ride-and-tiesystem,332.
Rings,wearingof,297;
atfunerals,298.
Ripplingofflax,168–169;
ofhemp,169.
Rippling-comb,168;
ofEgyptians,178.
Roastingears,134.
Roasting-kitchens,65.
Rockforspinning,inEgypt,178;
inIndia,178;
inNewEngland,179.
Rock-candy,157.
Rocking-tree,ofloom,220.
Rochester,house-raisingat,410.
Rolliches,154.
Rolling-roads,330.
Rolling-upahouse,6.
Roof,ofDutchhouses,10;
gambrel,22.
Roquelaure,295.
Rosselini,quoted,178.
Roving,ofyarn,201.
Rowley,spinningmatchat,184.
Rufflerforflax,172.
Rum,manufactureof,163;
inNewEngland,163;
inslave-trade,163–164;
athouse-raisings,410.
Rush,forscouring,85.
Rushlight,38.
Rutland,cave-dwellersin,3.
Sabba-dayhouse.SeeNoon-house.
SabinHall,14.
Sack,lawofsale,357.
Sacjes,386–387.
Saco,communalprivilegesin,390.
Safeguards,295.
Salem,coloringhousesat,23;
lobstersat,117;
fisheriesat,121;
milkin,148;
sumptuarylawsin,283;
tavernsat,356–357;
night-watchin,363;
meeting-housein,364;
seatsforboysatmeetingin,372;
swineherdsin,403.
Saler,78.
Salisbury,meeting-houseat,369.
Salmon,priceinBoston,123;
lowregardof,123;
fishingfor,124.
Salt-cellar,78–79.
Saltingoffish,124;
ofmeat,153.
Samp,modeofpreparing,131–132,134;
porridgeof,134.
Samplers,265–268.
Samp-mills,133.
Samp-mortars,133.
Sap-buckets,112.
Sap-yoke,113.
Sassafras,asdye,194;
forsoap,255.
Sausages,makingof,154–155.
Sausage-gun,154.
Save-alls,42.
Scaffold,nameforpulpit,368.
Scarne.SeeSkarne.
Sconces,42.
Scouring-rush,85.
Scutching.SeeSwingling.
Scythesnathe,309–312.
SealofGermantown,181.
Seatingthemeeting,370–371.
Seats,attable,101;
inNewEnglandmeetings,369;
inVirginiachurches,383–384;
inDutchchurches,386–387.
Section.SeeBout.
Sedan-chairs,356.
Sermons,lengthof,376.
Sewall,Samuel,quoted,354–356;
characterof,418.
Shad,lowregardof,123–124;
priceof,124;
fishingfor,124;
saltingof,124.
Shallop,328.
Shed,inweaving,221.
Sheep,inMassachusetts,188;
lawsabout,188,189;
herdingof,409.
Sheep-folds,401.
Sheep-herds,401.
Sheep-ranges,401.
Shelburne,girlsworkin,262.
Shepster,187.
Sherry-vallies,296.
Shingles,makingof,316–317.
Shingle-bolts,318.
Shingle-mould,317.
Shoe-pegs,315–316.
Shuttles,forloom,224–225.
Sign-boards,nameon,358–359;
historicalvalueof,359;
ofPhiladelphia,359;
ofBaltimore,359.
Sigourney,Mrs.,quoted,277–278.
Silk-grass,211.
Silver,useof,89–92.
Skarne,216–217.
Skeins,offlaxthread,175.
Skillet,50.
Skilts,236.
Slave-kitchen,54.
Slavequarters,14.
Slavery,inNewEngland,163;
inVirginia,164.
Sleds,343.
Sleighs,inNewYork,355.
Sley,ofloom,219–220;
priceof,224.
Slice,67.
Slippings,offlaxthread,175.
Smith,John,quoted,115–116;
plantscorn,127;
descriptionoffirstVirginiachurch,381–382.
Smoke-house,153.
Smoke-jack,65.
Smokingtongs,68–69.
Snake-fence,25.
Sneak-cups,106.
Snow,nameofvessel,328.
Snowstorm,inNewEngland,410etseq.
Snuffers,42.
Snufferstray,42.
Soap,makingof,253–255.
Societyhouse,396.
Sorrel,asdye,194.
SouthCarolina.SeeCarolinas.
Southernwood,428.
Spatter-dashes,296.
Spelling,varied,ofsquashes,144.
Spenser,quoted,319.
Spermaceti,42.
Spices,incooking,153;
groundathome,158.
Spice-mills,158.
Spice-mortars,158.
Spinning,offlax,174,230;
payfor,175;
inEgypt,178;
inIndia,178;
inNewEngland,179–180;
inPennsylvania,181;
inFrance,230–231;
day'sworkin,185;
inmoderntimes,186;
ofwool,196–198,229–230;
newmaterialsfor,211;
racebetweenweavingand,228–229;
aby-industry,228.
Spinningclasses,180.
Spinning-cup,174.
Spinning-jenny,229.
Spinning-matches,184–185.
Spinning-school,180,182.
Spinning-wheel.SeeFlax-wheelandWool-wheel.
Spinster,legaltitleofwomen,187.
Splintbrooms.SeeBirchbrooms.
Spool-holder.SeeSkarne.
Spoons,useof,87;
materialof,87–88;
typesof,89–90.
Spoon-moulds,87–88.
Spoon-racks,68.
Spreadingofflax,168.
Spunks,50.
Squadrons,ofspinners,189.
Squanto,teachesfishing,117;
teachescorn-planting,130.
Squashes,variednamesof,144.
Squirrels,abundanceof,110;
premiumon,110.
Stage-coach,inGreatBritain,331,345–346;
inAmerica,345–346.
Stage-wagon,345.
Staircases,27.
Standingsalt,78–79.
Standish,Lorea,samplerof,266.
Startingafire,48–50.
Starvingtimes,inVirginia,127;
inNewEngland,129.
Staves,316.
Stays,291.
Steeples,366.
Steep-pool,forflax,169.
Stepping-stones.SeeHorse-blocks.
Stitches,namesof,264–265.
St.-John's-wort,asdye,194.
Stockings,knittingof,190,262–263;
weavingof,190.
Stocks,locationof,367.
Stone-bee,407.
Stone-hauling,407.
Stonewalls,407.
Stoves,first,69;
inDutchchurches,385.
Strachey,quoted,119.
Strangers,harboringof,forbiddeninNewEngland,393–394.
Stratford,tithing-manin,372.
Strawmanufacture,259–261.
Streets,conditionof,362;
lightingof,362;
washingof,363.
Strikes,offlax,172.
Strikingalight,47.
Stump-pulling,407.
Sturgeon,greatcatchof,120;
inNewYork,120.
Substitutesforimportedfoods,158–159.
Succotash,134.
Sudbury,tavernat,357–358.
Sugar,substitutesfor,110,111,147,157,158;
cuttingof,155–156.
Sugar-bowls,namesfor,106.
Sugar-cones,155.
Sugar-cutters,155–156.
Summer-piece,8.
Sunday,observanceof,byPuritans,378etseq.;
byRev.JohnCotton,379;
byVirginians,380;
bytheDutch,384;
durationof,379.
Sun-dials,299,442–443;
inscriptionson,443;
materialsof,443.
Suppawn,useof,133.
Sweepandmortarmill,132.
Sweetpotatoes,modesofcooking,145.
Swifts,215–216.
Swineherds.SeeHog-reeves.
Swinglingofflax,171–172.
Swinglingblock,171.
Swinglingknives,171,312.
Swingle-treehurds,172.
Swinglingtow,bonfiresof,177.
Swing-sign.SeeSign-board.
Table,descriptionof,76.
Table-board,76,81.
Table-cloths,77.
Tallow,lackof,34.
Tambourwork,269.
Tankards,originalmeaning,83;
ofwood,83–84;
ofsilver,99.
Tapping-gauge,112.
Tape-loom,variousnamesof,225;
described,225–227.
Tap-room,ofWaysideInn,357–358.
Tarboggin.SeeChebobbin.
Tar-making,33.
Tasteofadinner,418.
Tasters,86–87.
Taverns,establishmentof,356;
titlesfor,356;
pricesat,357;
valuesabout,357;
namesofroomsat,357;
insoutherncolonies,360;
inNewNetherland,361.
Tea,substitutesfor,158–159;
firstsalesof,164;
queermodeofcooking,165.
Teazels,232.
Teazeling,ofcloth,232.
Temperature,ofhouses,70–71;
ofchurches,374.
Temple,ofloom,223.
Tennessee,hand-weavingin,249.
Tenting,ofcloth,232.
Terbobbin.SeeChebobbin.
Terrapin,120.
Thatch,forroofs,15.
Threshing,313–314.
Thumbing,inweaving,218.
Thumb-rings,298.
Tin,slightuseof,58.
Tinder,48.
Tinder-box,48.
Tinder-mill,50.
Tinder-wheel,49.
Tithing-men,372,373.
Titles,old-time,forwomen,187.
Toasting-forks,60.
Tobacco,ascurrency,189;
useforbiddennearmeeting-house,379.
Tomble.SeeTemple.
Tongs,236.
Tow,garmentsof,235–236.
Town,unitinNewEngland,390;
narrowfeelingof,391.
Townsend,revolutionarystoryof,203.
Toys,ofwood,306.
Trammels,53.
Transportation,onhorseback,176,336etseq.;
bywagons,339etseq.
Trees,girdlingof,403;
driveof,404;
under-cuttingof,404.
Trenchers,description,80;
material,82.
Trivets,60.
Troughs,makingof,311.
Trumbull,Jonathan,chaiseof,353.
Trunks,348.
Trunkpedler,300.
Tumble.SeeTemple.
Tummings,195.
Turkeys,wild,109;
sizeof,109–110;
priceof,110.
Turkeywheat,129.
SeeCorn.
Turkey-wings,309.
Turnips,145.
Turnpikes,349–350.
Turnspitdog,65.
Tusser,Thomas,quoted,35,168,255,321–322.
Twifflers,106.
VanderDonck,quoted,118,119,120.
VanTienhoven,quoted,2.
Veils,interferenceabout,285.
Venison.SeeDeer.
Vermont,candle-woodin,32;
broom-makingin,303.
Victualling,namefortavern,356.
Violins,inmeeting,378.
Virginia,earlyhousesin,11;
palisadosin,24;
candle-woodin,32;
firstforkin,78;
silverin,91;
tablefurnishingsin,104;
deerin,108–109;
birdsandfowlin,110;
lobstersin,118;
crabsin,118;
oystersin,119;
plentyoffishin,118–119;
cornin,127;
massacrein,127;
windmillsin,133;
tollin,133;
starvationin,127,144;
pumpkinsin,143;
locustgrovesin,163;
flaxculturein,181–182;
woolculturein,189–190;
clothsin,237;
broom-cornin,256;
sumptuarylawsin,285;
outfitofsettlers,289;
roadsin,331;
tavernsin,361;
Sundayobservancein,380;
churchesin,381–382;
cowsin,400;
fencesin,402.
Virginiafence,25.
Voiders,106–107.
Voorleezer,dutiesof,386.
Waffle-irons,61.
Wagon.SeeConestogawagon.
Warming-pans,72.
Warningout,392;
amysteryin,393.
Warp,218.
Warp-beam,214.
Warping,217–218.
Warping-bars,217–218.
Warping-needle,219.
Warp-threads.SeeWarp.
Washing,domestic,255.
Washington,George,homeof,13;
outfitofhisstepdaughter,291;
dressof,293;
ascanalpromoter,353.
Washington,Martha,thriftof,237–238;
nettingof,265.
Watches,299.
Watch-chains,263.
Water,asbeverage,147.
Wateringofflax,169.
Water-fowl,plentyof,125;
enumerated,125.
Watertown,windmillat,133;
restrictionsofsettlementin,393.
Wax,candlesof,37;bayberry,39–40.
Waynesville,hand-weavingin,250.
WaysideInn,357–358.
Weather-skirt,295.
Weavers,statusof,212–213;
seatof,221;
working-hoursof,228;
inNarragansett,241–244.
Weaving,noiseof,212,220;
threemotionsin,221–222;
disappearanceof,227;
ontape-looms,225–227;
racebetweenspinningand,228–230;
oflinens,230–231;
ofragcarpet,239–240;
ofcoverlets,242–246;
duringCivilWar,249.
SeeLoom.
Weaving-room.SeeLoom-room.
Webster,187.
Weeds,oncegardenflowers,435–436,447–449.
Weight-timbers,11.
Weld,quoted,348–349.
Well-sweep,443–444.
WestmorelandRevival,227.
Whale-fishing,41.
"Whang,"417.
Wheat,plantingof,147.
Wheel.SeeFlax-wheelandWool-wheel.
Wheel-peg,198.
Wheelwrights,earlyuseofwood,176.
Whipping-post,locationof,367.
White-ElleryHouse,19.
Whiteweed,inAmerica,449.
Whitney,Eli,inventionof,208.
Whittemore,Amos,inventionof,205.
Whittier,quoted,73–74,181,370,413,436;
homespunattireof,248.
Whittling,321–323.
Wicksforcandles,34,45.
Wigs,wearingof,296–297;
denounced,296;
namesof,296–299;
costof,297.
Wigwams,3.
WilliamandMaryCollege,taxfor,109.
Williams,Roger,quoted,134,137,285.
Windmills,Indianfearof,130;
firsterected,133;
ofJohnWinthrop,133;
inVirginia,133.
Windows,ofglass,23;
ofoiledpaper,23.
Windsor,boys'pewsin,372.
Wine-taster,87.
Winslowhouse,knockerof,29.
Winthrop,John,forkof,77;
jugof,98;
hisuseofwaterasbeverage,148;
pick-a-back,329;
sedan-chairof,356.
Winthrop,John,Jr.,quoted,32;millof,133.
Woad-wax,inMassachusetts,448.
Woburn,longservicesat,376.
Wolfskinbagsinmeeting,374.
Wolves'heads,nailedonmeeting-houses,364–365.
Wood,trenchersof,80–81;
utensilsof,82;
spoonsof,88;
forshuttles,225;
unusualusesof,305;
toysof,306;
naturalshapesin,308–311.
Wood,quoted,32–33,137.
Wool,anancientindustry,187;
earlycultureof,187–193;
manufactureof,187–193;
restraintsonmanufacture,191–192;
inEngland,192;
preparationof,193;
dyeingof,193–194;
cardingof,194–195;
combingof,196;
spinningof,196–198.
SeeYarn.
Wool-cards,described,194–195;
historyof,204–206.
Wool-combs,196.
Wool-wheel,priceof,177.
Wordsworth,quoted,onspinning,179.
Worstedstuffs,233.
Wrathe.SeeRaddle.
Yarn,spinningof,197–198,201,229;
windingof,198;
skeiningof,199;
cleansingof,202;
water-twist,229.
Yarnbeam.SeeWarp-beam.