1. art and entertainment
2. visual art and design
3. design

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ART BASICS
POWER GUIDE
I. WHAT IS A POWER GUIDE?.................................................... 2
II. AUTHOR’S NOTE ON USAGE..................................................3
III. CURRICULUM OVERVIEW........................................................ 4
IV. ELEMENTS OF ART.................................................................. 5
V. PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION................................................ 13
VI. TWO-DIMENSIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNIQUES.............. 18
VII. THREE-DIMENSIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNIQUES.............32
VIII.POWER LISTS.......................................................................... 47
IX. POWER TABLE.........................................................................64
X. BIBLIOGRAPHY........................................................................ 67
XI. ABOUT THE AUTHOR.............................................................. 68
BY
TAYLOR CLELAND
CANYON DEL ORO HIGH SCHOOL ‘09
FOR MARIE, BECAUSE SHE ASKED:
RAPTOR KITTEN, OXFORD COMMA, AND WIN.
© 2008 DEMIDEC RESOURCES
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WHAT IS A POWER GUIDE?
If this document has fallen into your hands, it is too late. Your life has already entered the swirling vortex of
Academic Decathlon. The only trace of your former existence is a single graphite pencil, which you will
sharpen hundreds upon thousands of times to counteract the unavoidable dulling induced by Scantron
answer sheets.
You may not be able to explain why, but—in all probability—this chaos has become your best friend,
perhaps because your real best friends don’t have access to your alternate dimension. But as Weezer
frontman Rivers Cuomo once opined, “If you don’t like it,/ You can shove it./ But you don’t like it,/ You love
it.” And, indeed, you do love it.
If you agree or identify with anything I just said, then you already understand intuitively why the Power
Guide exists and why, for the past three years, I have devoted my summers to reading more of them than I
would wish upon any sane individual.
The Power Guide understands the hectic yet irresistible nature of Decathlon and embraces it. It knows how
to prepare you for exams. It knows how to help you study. It knows what you need to know. It’s one talented
little machine. Heck—it’s probably even watching you right now and telling you to get to work.
But I guess I should stop being so rude and introduce the two of you. The Power Guide is the bulleted
brother of the DemiDec Resource—it’s sleeker, more efficient, and more geared toward testing, with
helpful tools like Power Lists, Tables, and Timelines. While Resources help you learn, Power Guides help
you review, refresh, and recycle—er, and reinforce. Every Power Guide writer scored at least 8,000 points
in competition, so he/she/study machine knows exactly what he/she/it is talking about. And you’d best listen,
lest the black hole of Decathlon swallow your pencil, too.
You don’t have to be a Michelangelo to ace the fundamentals portion of the art test. You just have to read
this guide. Unfortunately, the ten fundamentals questions can be extremely random, covering anything from
lines to balloon-frame construction. This portion of the curriculum isn’t about understanding art; it’s about
mastering a huge array of diverse terms.
A self-described doodler, animator, and drawer extraordinaire, Taylor Cleland can help you conquer art,
fundamentals, and, if you’re lucky, some art fundamentals along the way. Unfortunately, there is no way to fit
everything you ever needed to know about art fundamentals into any study guide, but, as an art goldmedalist at the state level, Taylor has done her best to help you get the most important points down.
Although this subject is essentially a huge glossary of terms, these terms build sequentially on one another.
It’s important, then, for you to read this guide from front to back rather than skipping around (unless you
have prior art knowledge). It might be hard to understand printmaking without learning about ink and lines
first.
As competition approaches, please remember: art fundamentals is about answering test questions. Doodling
in your test booklet will NOT help you, even if your pretty stick figures do illustrate the elements of art.
Sincerely,
DemiDec and The World Scholar’s Cup are registered trademarks of the DemiDec Corporation. Academic Decathlon and USAD are registered trademarks of the United States Academic Decathlon Association. DemiDec is not affiliated with the United States Academic Decathlon. ART BASICS POWER GUIDE
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AUTHOR’S NOTE ON USAGE
Power Guides set out to present “every testable fact” USAD could possibly muster in order to help
students swallow them in nicer, more bite-sized pieces than the original USAD Resource Guides. However,
because Art Fundamentals is a (semi-)Independent Research Topic and because there are people out there
with Ph.D.s in art theory who don’t know all there is to know, I can’t possibly fit everything there is to
know about art fundamentals into this guide. Instead, my aim is to give you a thorough understanding of the
art basics to help you with the regular art curriculum and to prepare you for the 10 art fundamentals
questions that will appear on each official competition test.
That said, all key techniques, processes, artists, developments, and terms have been bolded and defined.
You can find lists of these bolded terms and their definitions at the end of this guide in the Power Lists
section. As competition grows close, pay special attention to these lists—they make great flashcards and
self-quizzes.
As far as order goes, this guide roughly follows the outline presented by USAD’s Art Basics Guide.
However, I have occasionally rearranged topics and have almost always elaborated on them. While I highly
recommend that you read the USAD Basic Guide for this topic, USAD frequently tests information not
included in this guide. Consequently, this Power Guide contains more topics and terminology than the
USAD Art Basic Guide does.
Following the four main sections of the Power Guide are the aforementioned Power Lists and a Power
Table. Use these at your convenience as another way of absorbing the information or as review tools. The
use of “N/A” in a table means that the information that would be present there is irrelevant for our
purposes. If you’re crunched for time or want a quick review, I suggest that you use these lists and tables, as
USAD has a tendency to test straight definitions or facts.
Information that is interesting but will not be tested itself can be found at the bottom of the page as a
footnote. Amusing remarks can also be found as footnotes with the author’s name at the end (“ – Taylor”).
Best of luck to you all in this coming Academic Decathlon season! Study hard, eat often, and don’t forget to
sleep now and then!
– Taylor
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CURRICULUM OVERVIEW
The Art Fundamentals curriculum includes three basic sections: the Elements of Art, the Principles of
Composition, and Techniques and Process. I have divided this last section into Two-Dimensional and ThreeDimensional categories.
In the Elements of Art section, we will explore the most basic components of artwork. These include line,
shape, form, and color. In order to evaluate a piece of art effectively, we must first have an understanding of
its elements.
In the Principles of Composition section, we will discuss the ways in which artists combine and organize
the Elements of Art to create unique, engaging, and beautiful works of art. The Principles of Composition
include rhythm, movement, pattern, and emphasis. These techniques help us understand a piece of art
visually and interpret its meaning.
In the Techniques and Processes sections, we will investigate the media in which artists present their
visions to us. Two-dimensional forms include painting, drawing, printmaking, and photography. Threedimensional media include sculpture and architecture. To investigate these art forms, we must utilize our
knowledge of both the Elements of Art and the Principles of Composition.
Remember that Art Fundamentals questions form 20% (10 questions) of the Art event. The other 80% (40
questions) will come from the USAD Art of Latin America Resource Guide.
Art
Fundamentals
20%
The Art of
Latin America
80%
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ELEMENTS OF ART
POWER PREVIEW
The elements of art are the most basic means by which
artists create art. They include line, shape, form, space,
perspective, color, and texture. By combining these
properties, artists can create an infinite array of unique
images and pieces.
POWER NOTES
10 questions (20% of the test) will be on
art fundamentals
Questions 5 and 6 on the USAD
Practice Test were on the Elements of
Art
This section covers pages 3-5 of the
USAD Art Basic Guide
Elements of Art
Introduction
The elements of art are the most basic visual components of an artwork
Because these components are perceived through the senses, they are also referred to
as sensory properties
Line
Line is the most basic element of art
Strictly speaking, a line is the path a point takes as it moves through space
Lines can vary greatly in width, length, texture, boldness, etc.
Lines are not always complete
Implied lines are not continuous
They often consist of a series of interrupted dots or segments
For example, footprints on the beach or in the snow mark the path of the
walker, despite the absence of a clear-cut line
Despite the breaks, these paths still look like lines to the eye
The intersection of two objects can also form implied lines
For example, picture a red square overlapping a blue square
For this reason, most lines in the natural world are implied lines
Artists sometimes use organizational lines to set up a work
Artists use these light, usually sketchy lines to render their initial idea for a drawing
or painting
Essentially, this sketch provides the artist with a rough plan to follow while he
works on the piece
These lines are covered up or erased as the piece progresses to completion
Artists can use lines to elicit emotions from the viewer
Vertical and horizontal lines create a stable, static feeling
Vertical lines cause the eye to move upwards
Architects in the Middle Ages used vertical lines in cathedrals in order to
draw worshippers’ eyes to the heavens and promote a feeling of spiritual
awe1
Horizontal lines create feelings of peace and tranquility
1
If you ever visit Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, you’ll get what this is talking about. When I went, I nearly fell on my
face because I couldn’t take my eyes off the ceiling. – Taylor
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The most commonly used horizontal line is the horizon line
The horizon line is the implied line the eye creates where ground and sky
meet
Curved and jagged lines may be used to create feelings of activity—soothing
movement or chaotic energy, respectively
Line is prevalent in all art forms
However, line is especially essential in drawing and printmaking
Shape and form
Shape and form define the area an object occupies
Shape is to two dimensions as form2 is to three dimensions
Drawing, printmaking, and painting use shape, whereas architecture, sculpture,
and pottery use form
Shape and form may be geometric
Essentially, geometric figures are the shapes and forms you learned about in math
class3
Examples include squares/cubes, circles/spheres, and ovals/cylinders
These forms tend to convey a sense of order and stability
Shape and form may also be freeform
Freeform shapes are irregular
They are also referred to as organic because most shapes found in nature are
freeform
A third term for organic shapes is biomorphic4
These forms tend to convey a sense of movement and rhythm
Space
Space refers to the organization of forms and the area around them
Objects occupy the positive space of a work
These objects (either shapes or forms) are referred to as the figure
The unoccupied space is called negative space
Negative space can also be called the ground
In 3-D pieces, negative space may surround the forms
The artist may also create negative space with holes or openings in the forms
themselves
The illustration on the following page gives an example of the use of positive and
negative space
The white areas represent positive space, and the black areas represent negative
space
The continents occupy positive space in the image on the left
The continents occupy negative space in the image on the right
2
“Form” may also refer more generally to the overall shape of the content in any work of art, two-dimensional or
three-dimensional.
3
The one thing geometry class was good for: teaching you art terms. – Taylor
4
This makes me think of the Animorphs; when I was a little kid, there was nothing that seemed cooler than the ability
to turn into a giant grizzly bear at will. – Hari
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The arrangement of space in a work can contribute to its overall mood
Closed spaces and forms feel stable and solid
A closed space is a shape that has been entirely closed off within the image
In other words, the shape has definable borders present on all visible sides
A closed form is, likewise, completely closed off, such as a large metal sphere
Open spaces and forms feel lighter and airier
Open spaces are not entirely closed off
In the image above, the continents bleed into the background
Thus, the continents are open spaces
Similarly, open forms are not entirely closed off
A wire sculpture or box with a side missing are examples of open forms
Perspective
Perspective is the illusion of depth in an image
This technique is mostly important in two-dimensional works
It creates the illusion of a three-dimensional work
An artist can create the appearance of depth in several ways
One way is to shade and highlight the contours of an image
Contours are the visible borders of an object
The appearance of light shining on an object creates a sense of volume and space
The placement of objects on the picture plane can create a sense of distance
The picture plane is the imaginary plane represented by the physical surface of a
painting
Lower objects feel closer
Higher objects feel farther away
Size may create a sense of depth
Larger objects appear closer
Smaller objects appear farther away
Using the size of objects to imply depth is known as intuitive perspective
The amount of detail can affect the apparent closeness of an object
More detailed objects feel closer
Less detailed objects feel farther away
These techniques mimic the way we perceive objects—near or far—in real life
Aerial perspective is a technique that accounts for the visual distortions created by
fog, smoke, and airborne particles
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Objects appear differently at varying distances
Objects farther away look lighter and more neutral in color
They lack contrast of color or value
Distant mountain ranges tend to display this trait noticeably5
Aerial perspective is also known as atmospheric perspective
Linear perspective is a visual phenomenon based on lines which appear to recede
into the distance
This technique is very mathematical
It was developed during the Renaissance to create the illusion of space
Lines appear to converge at a point or points on the horizon
Converging (non-parallel) lines are called orthogonal lines
Convergence points are called vanishing points
Lines in one-point perspective converge at one point6
A checkerboard pattern on the floor is a good example of one-point perspective
In reality, the vertical and horizontal lines created by the floor tiles are all
parallel
However, only the horizontal lines are drawn parallel
The vertical lines appear to converge at the vanishing point (see illustration
below)
Lines in two-point perspective converge at two points
This technique is often used to depict street corners
All vertical edges are drawn without distortion
All horizontal lines must be pulled to one convergence point or the other
(see illustration below)
Lines in three-point perspective converge to three points
This technique is the most difficult of the three and not as commonly used7
Vertical lines converge to a point either above or below the horizon
Horizontal lines converge to one of two points on the horizon line
5
An example? Velasco’s piece in this year’s selected artworks.
Tricky, huh? – Lawrence
7
For this reason, I haven’t provided an illustration. You probably won’t come across it in USAD art pieces. – Taylor
6
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Linear perspective allows artists to achieve very precise, detailed, realistic depictions
of interior or exterior scenes
The development of perspective helped two-dimensional art achieve a much
higher level of realism than had been possible previously
In works with isometric perspective, all objects are drawn with the same relative
sizes, regardless of distance and depth
“Isometric” literally means “same size”
Iso- = same; -metric = size
Color
Color is the perception of light at varying wavelengths
While most humans can see all colors, they cannot see infrared or ultraviolet
light
Hue is the name of a color8
For example, “blue-green” is a hue
Subtractive Color Wheel
There are three primary colors
These are red, yellow, and blue9
These colors are mixed to produce the secondary colors
Red and blue make violet
Yellow and blue make green
Red and yellow make orange
Secondary colors may be mixed with adjacent primary colors to make
intermediate colors
8
If you have trouble remembering this like I did, just associate “hue” with “Hugh.” Hugh is a man’s name, and hue is a
color’s name. – Taylor
9
If you miss this fact on a competition test, my Art Fundamentals ninjas will come beat you up and then go complain to
your kindergarten teacher. – Taylor
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Red and violet make red-violet
Violet and blue make blue-violet
Blue and green make blue-green
Green and yellow make yellow-green
Yellow and orange make yellow-orange
Orange and red make red-orange10
Intermediate colors are also known as tertiary colors
These 12 basic hues are visually organized in the color wheel
Sir Isaac Newton developed the underlying concepts for the wheel in the 17th
century
Artists developed the actual color wheel in the 18th century
It is a useful tool for predicting the results of mixing hues
Most art texts include a depiction of a color wheel, as it is useful for studying color
theory
Color wheels may be either additive or subtractive
When all the hues on the color wheel mix to make white, the color wheel is
additive
For example, light is additive: all the colors of light mixed together form
white light
If all the hues on the color wheel mix to make black, the wheel is subtractive
For example, paint is subtractive: all the colors of paint mixed together form
an ugly black or brown color
Neutrals are colors that are not considered hues
Black and white are neutrals
When mixed together, black and white can create a continuum of grays
Neutrals are used to create value
Value refers to the lightness or darkness of a color or gray
Values in a piece may be all light, all dark, or a contrast of the two
A tint is a lighter version of a hue11
A tint is created by adding white to a hue or to gray
For example, pink is a tint of red
A shade is a darker version of a hue
It is created by adding black to a hue or to gray
An artist’s choice and arrangement of values contribute to the expressive quality of
the piece
The intensity of a color refers to its brightness or purity
Intensity is also called chroma or saturation
The unmixed primary colors are the most intense
Because they are unmixed, they are the most pure
As pure colors are mixed, they become less intense
This property holds true whether colors are mixed with other hues or with
neutrals
The more colors are mixed together, the more dull or neutral they become
In other words, they become more and more brown
Apparent intensity can be manipulated by the juxtaposition of colors
10
11
Note that the name of the primary color always comes first.
Beware tinted windows! Whoever came up with that name clearly wasn’t a Decathlete. – Dean
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A particular shade of red may look lighter or darker, purer or duller, depending
on the color or colors placed near it
When red is placed next to green, for example, it appears more intense
This concept is a basic idea of color theory
Consequently, colors do not have a fixed character or value—their appearance
often depends on their context
This variance is known as color relativity
A color scheme can be used to create a particular feeling or mood in a piece
A color scheme is the deliberate compilation or arrangement of colors in a piece
A complementary color scheme is composed of complementary colors
Complementary colors are those colors found opposite one another on the
color wheel
The three primary pairs of complementary colors are red and green, yellow
and violet, and blue and orange12,13
These schemes are very intense and very vibrant
They tend to catch and hold the viewer’s attention
A monochromatic color scheme employs only one hue
For example, the artist may use a particular blue, along with all its tints and
shades
These pieces appear harmonious, calm, and subtle
A monochromatic painting which features only shades of gray is referred to as
grisaille14,15
An analogous color scheme uses hues that are adjacent on the color wheel
These color schemes are usually limited to three or four hues
Red, red-orange, and orange could be used, for instance
This type of color scheme promotes a harmonious feeling
A triadic color scheme utilizes a combination of three evenly spaced hues on the
color wheel
These colors can be the primary colors, the secondary colors, or a set of
intermediate colors
Triadic color schemes are very lively
Color can be used to invoke feeling or depth
Warm colors include red, yellow, and orange
They convey high energy and appear closer to the viewer
Cool colors include blue, green, and violet
These colors convey lower energy and often appear to recede away from the
viewer
By using a contrast of warm and cool colors, an artist can create a sense of
movement
Artists may express colors in various ways
Local color is the “true” color of an object
This type of color neglects lighting and obstructions
A field of grass would appear green, whether it was noon, sunset, or midnight
12
Christmas colors, Lakers colors, and… you’re on your own. – Dean
These are all very common schemes, especially in sports. The Denver Broncos, Chicago Bears, Edmonton Oilers and
Sachse Mustangs all use blue and orange. Go Mustangs! – Brett
14
From the French “gris,” meaning gray.
15
On a philosophical note, the world features many shades of gray (grey)… – Lawrence
13
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The field would also stay green despite atmospheric perspective, which may
make it appear more blue in reality
Optical color is the way a color appears in specific lighting situations
A human face under a green light would, in fact, appear green
Arbitrary color ignores the confines of reality
Artists choose color as they wish, not as it is
These colors are sometimes chosen as symbols or for emotional appeal
Other times they are chosen solely for aesthetic impact
This type of color is becoming more popular with the 20th- and 21st-century shift
away from realism
Texture
Texture describes the way something feels or how you believe it would feel if you
were to touch it
By touching an ice cube, for example, you can tell that it is both smooth and cold
The next time you see an ice cube, you will be able to tell what it feels like from
memory without actually having to touch it again
When we see new textures, we can imagine what they feel like based on similar
objects we have encountered in the past
There are two types of texture: actual texture and visual texture
Actual texture is the texture you really feel
This type of texture is demonstrated in the ice cube example above
The amount of paint applied to a canvas (or other surface) can create actual
texture
Properties of the paint itself (thick, thin, clumped, runny, and so on) add to
actual texture
In mixed media pieces and collages, materials such as cloth or chicken wire
create actual texture
In three-dimensional art, the media used have actual texture
Visual texture is the illusion of surface texture created by the artist
Bright highlights, cool colors, and the white center of a painted ice-cube would
invoke the smooth, cool feel of real ice in viewers’ minds
Patterns of lines or shapes may also suggest textures
The contrast of light and dark on a surface simulates a rough texture
If placed next to each other, a volcanic rock would look rougher than an egg
due to the dark holes in the rock
The absence of contrast creates the appearance of smooth texture
The egg in the aforementioned example will appear smoother than the rock
due to its lack of contrast
Shiny surfaces appear to reflect light
Painters can achieve this effect by using very light highlights, very dark
shadows, and reflected light16 both on the object and the objects around it
Vincent Van Gogh used a combination of actual and visual textures in his work
His thick paint provided actual texture
His brush strokes and colors created visual texture
16
If you have a hard time understanding reflected light, take an apple or an orange (or any semi-reflective fruit or
vegetable) out of your fridge and place it on your counter. Look at the way the light interacts with both the fruit and
the counter where they meet. Now put the fruit on your kitchen table, in the sink, or on the floor (if you aren’t
planning on eating it later). Look different? That’s reflected light in action.
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PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION
POWER PREVIEW
The principles of composition are the means by which
artists organize the elements of art. They include rhythm,
balance, contrast, variety, emphasis, proportion, and unity.
By utilizing these different properties, artists create
originality and emphasis in their art.
POWER NOTES
10 questions (20% of the test) will be on
art fundamentals
Questions 4 and 7 on the USAD
Practice Test were on the Principles of
Composition
This section covers pages 5-7 of the
USAD Art Basic Guide
Principles of Composition
Introduction
The principles of composition are the ways in which artists organize the elements of
art
These principles are also sometimes referred to as formal properties because artists
use them to give form to their work
Rhythm
Rhythm17 is responsible for movement and pattern in art
Artists create rhythm through the repetition of elements such as line, shape, color,
and texture18
Artists use this repetition to direct the viewer’s eyes to important parts of their
pieces
Rhythm consists of motif and pattern
A motif is a single element of a pattern
In a quilt, one or more motifs repeat throughout the whole piece
On a white dress with red polka dots, for example, the red polka dot shape
would be the motif (see left, next page)
A pattern is the repetition of certain elements throughout a piece
A checkerboard is an example of a regular pattern
The same pattern is repeated unchangingly over the entire surface
Rhythm can be presented in several different forms
Random rhythm, as the name suggests, has no recognizable organization
If you were to drop a box of crayons on a poster board, they would fall in an
unorganized manner
While the pattern would be random, the motif (the crayon size and shape)
would be uniform
Alternating rhythm involves two or more motifs appearing alternately
Alternating rhythm also includes changing the spaces between motifs or changing
the positioning of the motifs
On our polka dot dress, if some of the dots were changed to blue, the dress
would exhibit alternating rhythm (see middle, next page)
17
18
Does anyone else have serious problems trying to spell the word “rhythm” or is that just me? – Taylor
Sound familiar? (If not you should probably review the last section. ☺) – Taylor
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Grouping some of the red dots more closely together would also create
alternating rhythm
A combination of both of these alterations would be a third example of
alternating rhythm (see right, below)
Typically, alternating rhythm is more interesting to look at than regular rhythm
As with the elements of art, artists use rhythm to convey meaning and mood
A “busy” pattern conveys energy
A flowing or simple pattern feels gentler and more soothing
A flowing pattern would be one that uses many curves and gentle colors
Wind-swept sand dunes are an excellent example of this type of pattern19
Balance
Balance is the distribution of visual weight in a work of art
A piece exhibits symmetrical balance when one side of the piece is reflected exactly
over a central axis
This central axis is the line of symmetry
If you had a perfect circle centered on a square piece of paper and folded that paper
down the middle, the image on the left side of the line would be identical to the
image on the right side of the line
If you folded the top half of the image over the bottom, you would still have
symmetrical balance
Symmetrical balance is very common in architecture
Pillars and windows placed equally on either side of an entryway display
symmetrical balance
This type of balance promotes a feeling of stability, dignity, and formality
Imagine the outside of a skyscraper
The symmetrical geometric shapes utilized in the design of skyscrapers
promote a stable, formal business atmosphere
In two-dimensional artwork, however, symmetrical balance often feels rigid and
monotonous
Artists can instead use approximate symmetry in their work
While the image is still reflected over a central axis, variations in color, position, or
details of the shapes create more interest
19
Most PCs come with a generic desktop called “Dunes” that illustrates flowing patterns. I’m sure, at one point or
another, you’ve seen it. – Taylor
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Approximate symmetry is very common in nature
The human face is a perfect example
While features are roughly the same on both sides of an individual’s face,
freckles, dimples, and other variations add visual interest
Artists can also achieve balance through the organization of unlike objects
This method of organization is called asymmetrical balance
While asymmetrical balance often appears less formal, it is a more complex
compositional task
Opposing visual ideas must balance one another
Artists can achieve this balance by carefully positioning the objects in their pieces
Think of two people of unequal weights on a seesaw20
To maintain balance, the lighter person must sit farther away from the center
while the heavier person must sit closer in
Similarly, an artist may place heavier, larger objects towards the center of a
composition and lighter, smaller objects towards the edges to create balance
Detail and complexity also create asymmetrical balance
A highly detailed, small shape will balance out a large, smooth shape
Artists also use areas of light and dark, bright and dull colors, and high texture
and low texture to create balance
By placing contrasting elements throughout the piece, an artist can guide the
viewer’s eye to areas of emphasis
For example, if an artist puts several red objects in a predominately blue
painting, the eye will drift among the red objects first
By utilizing this method of guiding the eye, artists can lead viewers to the
images and ideas they want to emphasize the most in their pieces
Contrast, emphasis, and variety
Contrast, emphasis, and variety are closely related principles that contribute to the
creation of interest in an artwork
Contrast is the juxtaposition of two opposing types of the same element
Red and green, for example, are highly contrasting colors
Without any contrast, a piece feels plain and monotonous
Contrast between light and dark shadows in a work of art is called chiaroscuro
Extreme chiaroscuro is called tenebrism
Sharp contrast creates a focal point
The focal point is the place in a piece on which the eye tends to focus
Artists can emphasize a certain aspect of a piece
Emphasis is often created through contrast
The part of the work the artist emphasizes is more dominant than the rest of the
piece
This emphasized part of the artwork becomes its focal point
Contrast and emphasis together create variety
If a piece utilizes these principles, it is not uniform and is unique
Because of this variety, the piece becomes more interesting to the viewer
Proportion
Proportion describes the relationship of size among the various parts of a composition
Proportion is based on the idea of scale
Scale is the dimensional relationship between a part of a work and the overall work
20
Or teeter-totter, if you’re cool like me. – Taylor
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Scale can also refer to the actual dimensions of the piece itself, relative to humans
The ceiling of the Sistine Chapel has an immense scale that was employed in
order to inspire awe
Delicate detail work on small objects is an example of equally impressive, but
much smaller, scale
In realistic art pieces, the scale of the work is close to that of real life
Artists typically strive to represent accurate proportions when representing the
human face and figure realistically
Standards for rendering human figures were established roughly 2500 years ago
during the period of Classical Greek sculpture
Because the Greeks believed that man was the measure of all things,21 all
structures were designed relative to human proportions
The human body itself was also depicted proportionally
A typical male figure is said to be seven and a half heads tall22
The corners of the eyes fall halfway between a line drawn at the bottom of
the chin and the top of the head
The bottom of the nose falls halfway between the corner of the eyes and the
chin
The bottom of the lips falls halfway between the bottom of the nose and the
chin
Different cultures and artists often alter these proportions to express personal
and changing ideas of beauty
21
22
If you don’t believe me, read Antigone. My English teacher, Ms. Caples, will be very happy if you do. – Taylor
Yay! I’m typical! Yay for conformity! – Lawrence
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Other times, particular aspects are intentionally distorted for an exaggerated or
expressive effect23
Ultimately, the Greeks applied a mathematical relationship called the golden mean
The golden mean is a ratio between the two dimensions of a plane figure or two
divisions of a line
According to the golden mean, the smaller is to the larger as the larger is to the
whole (the sum of the two)
This ratio is roughly 3:5
In ancient Greece, artists used this mean to organize parts within a composition
While lost for many centuries, this technique was revitalized in the Renaissance
period
Artists today sometimes use this method, but most artists prefer more informal
organization and proportion
In works in which realism is less of an objective, more important objects may be
depicted as larger to emphasize their worth and power24
This type of scale is known as hierarchical perspective
When asked to draw themselves with their families, young children often use
this type of proportion by representing themselves as the largest
This technique is common in some types of portrait painting which
commemorate the subject rather than objectively representing him or her
Unity
Unity is the overall harmony of a piece and its elements
Unity is achieved through manipulation of artistic elements through the principles of
composition
To establish unity, artists may employ proximity
Proximity is the placement of separate objects close together or in groups
This grouping allows movement of the eye through the piece
It also creates a unified, finished feeling
When using similarity to accomplish unity, artists utilize similar elements of art
throughout the piece
The viewer’s eye drifts across similar visual ideas, such as similar colors or textures
In a photo of flowers, for example, the eye will move naturally from the petals of
one flower to the next
Continuity is an artist’s attempt to draw the viewer’s eye across a certain visual
pathway
While all the elements of a piece can add to continuity, the artist may use implied or
actual lines to guide the eye literally
As with all principles of composition, unity may be achieved strictly through the means
mentioned or may be created in a way unique to the artist
In some cases, artists simply reject the ideas of formal composition altogether
Together, proximity, similarity, and continuity make up the Gestalt principles
23
Like anime eyes. The Japanese really, really like big eyes. – Taylor
This style is very common in Egyptian hieroglyphics, where the pharaoh is the largest figure, followed by the royal
family, etc.
24
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TWO-DIMENSIONAL PROCESSES
AND TECHNIQUES
POWER PREVIEW
POWER NOTES
Two-dimensional processes and techniques involve the
rendering of art on a two-dimensional plane. These
processes include drawing, painting, printmaking,
photography, and certain types of mixed media works.
10 questions (20% of the test) will be on
art fundamentals
Questions 2, 3, 8, and 9 on the USAD
Practice Test were on Two-Dimensional
Processes and Techniques
This section covers pages 7-10 of the
USAD Art Basic Guide
Two-Dimensional Processes and Techniques
Introduction
Two-dimensional refers to works created on a flat plane
These works have height and width but no significant depth25
Drawing
Introduction
Drawing is often considered the most basic process of art
Drawings can range from scribbles made by small children26 to fully rendered
professional pieces
Throughout history, drawing has been a means of record-keeping and scientific study
The earliest records of drawing are paintings found on the walls of caves
Today, most artists keep sketchbooks for drawing studies of real life objects to hone
their technical and observational skills
Media and techniques
Common drawing media include pencil, pen and ink, charcoal, crayon, and felt-tip pen
Drawing usually utilizes dry media
Pen and ink is considered the only wet drawing media due to the liquid state of
the ink
These media can be colored, black, or white, giving the artist a wide variety of choices
Paper properties also vary widely, giving the artist even more choice
Paper tooth is one property by which different types of paper differ
Tooth refers to the roughness or smoothness of the paper being used
Whether the paper was handmade or manufactured has a large effect on the
tooth of the paper
The production process also affects the paper’s weight
25
It should be noted that when artists use actual texture in a work, a two-dimensional piece may not be completely
flat. Engraved plates, for example, are considered two-dimensional—despite having three-dimensional cuts—because
the image is viewed on a plane (the metal surface) and cannot be viewed from all sides.
26
Or terribly bored teenagers with no art ability. :[ – Hari
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Artists using heavier drawing media—such as markers—will typically want
heavier paper than artists using lighter media, such as pencils
Sizing is another way paper properties can be altered
Sizing is a material applied during paper manufacturing that limits the paper’s
absorption of liquid through capillary action
Consequently, sizing keeps the ink on the surface of the paper, preventing
bleeding
This property is especially important in marker and pen and ink pieces
Two notable early paper types are parchment and vellum
Parchment is a thin material made from stretched sheep skin, often used in
manuscripts and codices27
It is usually stiff and yellowish
Vellum is higher quality, whiter parchment used for similar purposes
It is made from stretched calfskin
Today, modern versions of both papers are commercially available
Line is the primary factor in drawing
Because drawing is dependent on line, line type and weight dramatically impact the
piece
Artists consider line type and weight when choosing media
Hard pencils create thin, precise, light lines
Soft pencils create thicker, messier, darker lines
Charcoal is an extreme example of a soft pencil
It is so dark that, rather than using white for highlights, the underlying paper
is left blank to accomplish the illusion of lighter areas
When using drawing tools of varying hardness, such as pencils or charcoal, a change
in pressure will cause a change in value
Value refers to the lightness or darkness of the pencil lines
More pressure creates darker values
Charcoal usually creates values closer to black
Less pressure creates lighter values
Artists use shading techniques to create value and, in turn, the illusion of three
dimensions
Hatching and crosshatching are linear forms of shading (see illustration below)
In hatching, parallel lines are placed side by side at varying distances
Lines close together appear as darker patches
Lines far apart appear as lighter patches
Crosshatching involves crisscrossing lines to create shadow
The more densely packed the lines are, the darker the area appears
Hatching and crosshatching are especially prevalent in black and white works, though
they can be used in colored works as well
Comic book art often prominently features hatching and crosshatching
The typical lack of color—or large variety of color—requires artists to create
depth with lines alone
27
Just not the ones we’re studying this year >___>. – Hari
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Stippling creates varying values through the placement of dot patterns
Densely packed dots create the illusion of darker values
The size of the dots can affect the value as well
Larger dots will appear darker than smaller dots when placed the same distance
apart
Stippling with dots of more than one color can create interesting effects
Using contrasting colors will attract the viewer’s interest
Using colors that become either darker or lighter in value will increase the
realism of the shading
An artist may also employ blending to shade a work
This type of shading is much less linear than hatching or even stippling
In blending, two hues or black and white are mixed gradually within the piece to
create the illusion of depth
When drawing an apple, an artists may use yellow for the highlight, red for the apple,
and purple for the shadow
Rather than place these colors in bands next to each other, the artist will most
likely allow the colors to overlap in some places, thus blending the colors
Varying pressures and amounts of particular hues contribute to the effects of
blending
Harder pressure on a shaded area will make the object appear darker and bolder
Harder pressure on a highlighted area will make the object appear more vibrant
Blending warmer, more saturated colors typically creates the illusion of highlights
Cooler, less saturated colors tend to create shadows
But artists may also use altered color schemes and color theory to blend
unconventionally for personally stylized effects
When utilizing ink, artists obtain varying values by diluting the ink
These thinned, lighter values of ink are called washes
Washes are considered translucent
The underlying surface is partially visible under them
Washes can be applied, allowed to dry, and applied again to achieve darker
values
Undiluted ink is considered opaque
Opaque ink completely covers the underlying surface
It is not in any way transparent
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Artists also use color in drawing
Color techniques are very similar to black and white techniques
However, artists have to consider color theory and effects rather than just line
when utilizing colored media
Colored media include markers, colored pencils, and pastels
Pastels in particular became very popular in the 1700s
Pastels are soft, easily blended sticks of color
Because of this, pastels are very fragile and must be cared for gently
However, they are still particularly popular for use in portraiture
More durable colored pencils may also be used in drawing and blended to create
shading
Less common drawing media include Conté crayon and silverpoint
Conté crayon is made of compressed graphite and charcoal mixed with a binder
Conté crayons are similar to pastels
However, Conté crayon comes only in “natural” colors, usually black, white,
gray, and sanguine (reddish) tones
Conté crayon also creates harder lines than pastel, making it more applicable to
rough hatching than the soft portraiture of pastel
Silverpoint is a traditional drawing technique that uses a pointed piece of metal,
usually silver
Silverpoint dates back to the Middle Ages
It was initially used by scribes in manuscripts
Silverpoint drawings tend to very linear and use precise hatching
Drawings produced in soft, smeary media like charcoal or pastel are often sprayed with
a fixative to prevent distortion of the image28
Because drawing is such a diverse genre, it is still a very predominant art form today
Painting
Introduction
Painting is very similar to drawing but instead uses wet media
The obvious common medium utilized in painting is paint
Paint
Paint is formed from pigments, binders, and solvents
Pigments are finely ground materials that give paint its color
They may be natural or synthetic
Clays, gemstones, minerals, plant and insect materials are all powdered to be used as
natural pigments
Sienna is a form of limonite clay famous for its use in the production of oil paint
pigments
Today, artists can create pigment from a variety of synthetic materials
Acrylic29 is an example of synthetic paint
Pigments are mixed with binders
Binders are the substances that hold the paint pigment together and allow it to stick
to a surface
Common traditional binders are egg yolks, linseed oil, and wax
28
29
Hair spray is an awesome, cheap alternative to “real” fixatives. I keep several cans under my bed. – Taylor
See below for a more in-depth discussion of acrylic.
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Egg tempera paint utilizes an egg yolk binder30
This type of tempera was used in early Egypt, Greece, and Rome, as well as
during the Middle Ages
The Egyptians used a wax-based paint called encaustic for tomb painting
Egyptians fused this paint to a surface with hot irons
As a result, these paintings have lasted through the ages
Finally, a solvent can be added to the paint to change its properties
Solvents can thicken or thin paint
Solvents can also shorten or prolong the paint’s drying time
Common solvents include oil and water
Paint can be applied to virtually any surface with virtually any tool
Typically, artists paint on boards, paper, canvas, or plaster walls
Paintings can be either immobile—such as those applied directly to a wall—or
portable—such as those applied to a canvas
Artists may use any available, reasonably sized object to create a desired effect, but
fingers, sticks, palette knives and brushes tend to be more common than other tools
Brushes come in a variety of shapes, material, and sizes, giving artists a wide range
of selection
Bristles, for example, may be synthetic or natural
The material used in the bristles affects the way the brush holds and applies paint
Different brushes are better for different paints and effects
An artist sometimes uses a maulstick31 to support his brush hand
A maulstick is a stick with a padded head
Techniques
Fresco was an early form of painting
In this technique, the artist paints directly onto a wall or ceiling
Traditionally, the artist mixes powdered pigment with water and applies it directly
to wet plaster, binding it permanently
This type of fresco is called buon fresco, or “true” fresco
Because of this permanent binding, artists mix and apply only a small amount of
plaster at a time—only enough that they can paint on before it dries
This final layer of wet plaster is called intonaco32
The area of a wall that an artist can paint in one day is called giornata
Buon fresco requires artists to be very careful and precise, as the paint is
permanent once it interacts chemically with the plaster
Should an artist instead paint on dry plaster, the technique is called fresco secco,33
or just secco
Artists sometimes draw full-size sketches of their piece on the wall where the fresco
will be placed
This under-painting is called the sinopia
The sinopia is usually drawn in iron-oxide (rust)
Pompeii and Renaissance churches both feature the buon fresco technique
Diego Rivera used this fresco technique in his murals34
30
See below for a discussion of generic tempera.
This has always sounded like a deadly weapon to me. That, or a ridiculous nickname for Darth Maul’s double-sided
lightsaber in The Phantom Menace. – Hari
32
“Intonaco” is the Italian word for “final.”
33
“Secco” means “dry.”
34
Oh, my gosh. Get excited. This ACTUALLY pertains directly to this year’s curriculum. – Taylor
31
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Another popular early paint technique was the aforementioned tempera
Tempera paint is water-based and, therefore, easily thinned
Most of us have used tempera paint at some point in our lives, probably in
elementary school
Despite having been used frequently in the past, today tempera paint is often
bypassed for more convenient alternatives
Tempera colors are virtually impossible to mix, limiting an artist’s tonal range
Because of this difficulty, tempera prevents the artist from achieving a very high
level of realism
Also, because tempera dries very quickly, the paint must be applied in very thin
layers
Tempera’s vibrant, lasting color, however, is admired by artists and historians alike
Gouache is an opaque, water-based paint
Gouache is similar to tempera but is of higher quality
Gouache and tempera are both known for their bright colors
Gouache is also similar to watercolor, but it dries more quickly
Typically, artists employ gouache to create meticulous details in design and precise
artwork
Watercolor is the most common water-based paint
Watercolor’s most notable characteristic is its transparency
Because of this quality, artists use the white of the paper to make highlights
Rather than making tints by adding white paint, the artist dilutes the paint
(adds more water) to lighten hues and make tints
Diluted watercolors are called washes
To maintain the highlights of lighter areas, lighter colors are applied before
darker colors
Background is rendered before foreground
Broad, imprecise areas are painted before small, detailed areas
Because colors cannot be lightened once they have been applied, artists must be
very deliberate in the execution of a piece
Many watercolorists plan their pieces precisely and practice often, much
more so than with other types of painting
One of the most commonly used paints is oil
Oils replaced tempera as a popular paint in the 1400s largely due to their versatility
Oils mix easily to create varying hues, shades, and tints
Oil paint may also be thinned to create glazes
Artists apply these thin, transparent or semitransparent layers over existing
color to alter it slightly
Layering colors in this way allows for a sense of depth and realism that
tempera paint is unable to achieve
Turpentine is a common solvent used in oil painting
Scumble is a technique similar to glazing, except the layers of paint are opaque
rather than transparent
Scumbling involves applying lighter colors over darker colors
Thick or lumpy application of oils creates an impasto surface
Impasto refers to actual texture on the canvas created by thick layers of oil
paint
This technique gives the artist an expressive tool not available with thin,
flatly applied temperas
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Paintings created in one sitting with no under-painting or build-up of colors are
referred to as alla prima35
Oils dry very slowly, allowing an artist to work on a painting for a long period of
time
Tempera paints, on the other hand, dry quickly
Initially, artists had to mix oil paints inside their studios
This requirement prevented the artists from painting outside, or en plein
air36
In the late 19th century, this problem was solved by the invention of the paint
tube
Artists were now able to carry pre-mixed paint outside with them, allowing
them to paint on scene
As a result, this period saw many shifts in style and subject matter
The Impressionist movement (discussed more fully below) is a good
example of the effects of the paint tube on contemporary art
Today, however, the hand-mixing of oils can actually give another advantage to
artists
Artists can mix their own binders and pigments to achieve hues not
commercially available
Being able to create custom hues gives artists more freedom in their
work
Acrylic is the most recently developed paint type
Acrylics were developed shortly after World War II
Originally developed as house paints, acrylics were soon subject to
experimentation by artists wanting to employ them as an art medium
By the 1960s, art quality acrylics were available commercially
Unlike most other paints, acrylics consist of synthetic materials, plastics, and
polymers
Acrylics are very versatile and typically easy to use
Like watercolors, acrylics can also be diluted
Artists may also leave them undiluted as a substitute for oils
Acrylic dries quickly and does not require the meticulous, skilled application
of successive layers of paint that oils do
Acrylics offer an alternative to artists who have allergies to the turpentine
associated with the thinning of oils or to the oils themselves
Despite all of these advantages, acrylics cannot accomplish the same level of
subtlety as oils
While acrylics can be diluted with water, they are water resistant once dry
This property has made them popular for mural works, where durability is a
serious factor in selecting a medium
Some painting techniques are not specific to the type of paint used
A painterly style refers to a work that has obviously been painted
Brush strokes are very obvious
The style emphasizes color over line
Traditionally, this term was applied solely to oil paintings because the painterly
style also included a rough impasto surface
35
36
In Italian, literally “at once.”
Literally “in open air” in French.
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Today, however, “painterly” can describe any image that is obviously painted,
regardless of paint type
Digital illustrations, for example, are often referred to as painterly,
despite the absence of any actual paint37
This technique was particularly prominent in the Impressionist movement
The reappearance of the under-painting when upper layers of paint become
transparent due to aging is called pentimento
Important movements and styles
The tondo is a category of large, circular paintings
Derived from Greek painting, tondi were popular in Italy in the 15th and 16th
centuries
From the 16th to 19th centuries, the veduta was a popular painting style
The veduta38 is a highly detailed, large-scale cityscape painting
In the 16th and 17th centuries, the vanitas39 was popular in the Netherlands
“Vanitas” is the Latin word for emptiness
These paintings sought to depict the brevity of human life
They used still life depictions of objects such as human skulls, broken pottery,
and mirrors to symbolize this brevity
Fête galante40 was a transitional style in the 18th century
Before fête galante, history paintings were typically considered the dominant
genre of “acceptable” painting
History paintings strove to teach moral principles through representation of
historical and mythological characters and events
Fête galante paintings began the shift toward interest in the individual and in personal
pleasure
This shift in styles is characteristic of the Rococo period
This style often depicted upper-class, outdoor parties in paradisiacal settings
Impressionism was a 19th-century art movement based in Paris
Impressionism focuses on everyday subject matter
This approach differed greatly from the typical elevated subject matter that
dominated art at the time
Visible brush strokes, emphasis on the changing qualities of light, and the
investigation of movement as a part of human perception are all typical of
Impressionism
Pointillism was another 19th-century art movement
Rather than mixing paints on a palette, artists apply only the primary colors to the
canvas
Through the phenomenon of optical mixing, the human mind blends the primary
colors into secondary and tertiary colors
For this reason, Pointillism is seen as a predecessor to modern computer monitors,
as well as CMYK color
However, few artists actually practiced Pointillism
Minimalism was a modern art movement popular in the post-WWII era
Minimalism emphasizes monochromatic color schemes and simplicity
37
Except for Paint.™ Hoo-hah! – Dean
“Veduta” is the Italian word for “view.” The plural is “vedute.”
39
“Vanitas” is both the singular and plural form of this word.
40
In French, literally “gallant party.”
38
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Abstract expressionism is the direct presentation of feeling with emphasis on
dramatic color and sweeping brush strokes
Abstract expressionism was particularly popular in the 1960s
Trompe l’oeil is a popular technique that dates back the Greeks and Romans but is
still used commonly today
Literally “trick of the eye” in French, these paintings use extreme realism to make a
two-dimensional image seem three-dimensional
Typically, a part of the painting seems to emerge from image
An example would be a person climbing out of the painted frame of their
portrait
Color field painting is a type of abstract expressionism that utilizes large, flat
areas of color
Printmaking
Introduction
Printmaking includes a group of mechanically aided, two-dimensional processes that
allow for the production of multiple original artworks
Printmaking involves the use of a printing plate that holds the original image
Ink is applied to this plate, allowing the image to be transferred to paper or
another display material
Because a single original can produce multiple copies, printmaking is more efficient
than painting in terms of both time and cost
This efficiency makes printing a more attractive medium for mass production and
distribution
Printmaking has been used for illustrating both news-related media and books since
the invention of the printing press in the 15th century41
During the Mexican Revolution, for example, printmaking allowed the
production and distribution of images of social protest to large numbers of
people at a relatively low cost
Techniques
Relief printmaking involves the cutting away of a surface to create the template for
an image
The artist cuts directly into the plate, also known as the matrix
The plate can be wood, linoleum, or a synthetic material
Cuts are made with a variety of tools such as woodcarving or linoleum knives, as
well as gouges
The areas which are cut away become the white spaces of the final image
The parts not cut away stand out in relief relative to the rest of the plate
These areas of relief may be thin, precise lines or large spaces
Once inked, these areas are reproduced on paper to create the image
After making all the desired cuts, the artist rolls an ink-covered brayer over the
plate
Paper is then placed over the inked plate
This combination may be run through a press or rubbed with a burnisher to
produce the final image
Burnishers and presses both force the ink from the plate onto the paper
41
By Gutenberg, possibly the most influential person in history (or at least European history). – Alex
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Burnishers are handheld tools, whereas presses are larger mechanical
apparatuses42
Phototypes are metal relief plates which reproduce a photograph through printing
Phototypes often use halftone techniques
Halftone is a shading technique in which equally spaced dots of varying sizes
are printed in the same color to create the illusion of value43
Today, digital technology has rendered phototypes obsolete
Intaglio printmaking can be considered the inverse of relief printmaking
Cuts are made into the plate in a process called engraving
Plates are typically made of wood or a soft metal
Ink is then forced into these grooves, and excess ink is wiped from the plate
Because the ink in these cuts will ultimately be transferred over as the final
image, line is a vital element of design in intaglio printmaking
Finally, damp paper is placed on the plate, and the two are passed through a heavy
press
The pressure created by the press forces the paper into the grooves, where it
absorbs the ink
Etching is a slightly more complicated intaglio process
First, the artist covers a copper plate with a layer of wax or varnish
The artist then incises the design into the layer of wax, rather than the plate
itself
The plate is then immersed in acid
The areas where the wax has been cut away allow the acid to eat away—or
etch—the metal plate
Leaving the plate in the acid for a shorter time results in lighter lines
Leaving the plate in the acid for a longer time results in darker lines
Next, the artist warms the plate, forces ink into the etched grooves, and wipes
off the excess ink
The artist then places paper over the etching and runs the two through a heavy
press
The press forces the paper into the etched grooves, where it absorbs the ink
Because the paper is forced into the grooves, the ink of etching prints
actually rises above the surface of the paper
Aquatint is a process similar to etching
Like etching, aquatint uses acid to shape the plate
However, while etching uses incisions to create a line drawing, aquatint uses an
acid-resistant resin to create various shades of ink
For this reason, aquatint is considered a tonal process
Tonal refers to the presence of various tints and shades of the ink in the
final print
Mezzotint44 is another Intaglio tonal printmaking process
In mezzotint, the plate is rubbed with a toothed metal tool
The tool creates thousands of tiny dots on the plate’s surface
42
I never know when it comes to words like these. Hippopotamuses. Cacti. I give up. – Lawrence
A more complex version of halftone is used today to print most posters and magazines: CMYK color. Using a
subtractive color method, printers use only cyan, yellow, and magenta, along with halftone printing, to trick your eye
into thinking every possible color is present. It’s pretty nifty. – Taylor
44
“Mezzotint” is Italian for “half-tone.”
43
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Using other metal tools, the artist smoothes or partially smoothes areas he
wishes to keep lighter
The less pitted an area, the lighter the corresponding print
Lithography is a form of printmaking in which the image is drawn directly onto the
plate
Because it is created on a flat surface that has been neither raised nor incised,
lithography is considered a planographic (flat) printing technique
Artists use waxy crayon or pencil to draw on a stone, zinc, or aluminum plate
Once drawn, the waxy drawing is left to harden
After the drawing hardens, the artist saturates the plate with water and applies ink
Because oil resists water, the ink adheres only to the waxy areas of the plate
The artist places paper on the plate and runs them through a press, which transfers
the image to the paper
Later developments in technology led to multi-colored lithographs
To create multiple colors, a different plate is used for each color
Because keeping plates aligned is difficult, images produced this way tend to
have large, broad areas of color
Artists used this technique in the few-colored, simple designs of early posters
While lithography can be a slow, demanding process, it is easier than engraving and
etching on a technical level
Essentially, anyone who can draw can create a lithograph
In all plate printmaking techniques, the apparatus is said to be “in register” when the
plate, press, and paper are all aligned and ready to print
Monoprinting is any printmaking process that results in a unique image that cannot be
exactly reproduced
Monoprinting often involves hand-painted or hand-drawn additions, or specific types
of ink that cannot be precisely reproduced
However, the matrix can be reused
Lithography, woodcut relief, and etching are all considered forms of monoprinting
Monotyping is similar to monoprinting in that it results in a unique image
However, in monotyping, the artist applies and manipulates the ink on the plate
before printing
Thus only one “real” print can be made because additional prints lack the ink
set-up of the first
The matrix cannot be reused
Screen printing is a process commonly used in the production of T-shirts
Screen printing is also called silkscreening and serigraphy
This process involves the transfer of an image to a screen stretched across a frame
Screens are typically made of silk or, more commonly, polyester
Frames are made of wood or aluminum
Once the screen is stretched over the frame, the artist creates a stencil of the
design
This is a negative—or inverse—of the intended image
Stencils are typically created on a special material of double layered plastic
One layer is transparent, and the other is colored
The artist cuts away the thinner, colored plastic but leaves the transparent
plastic entirely intact
The artist then attaches this stencil to the screen with a non-permeable material
This material makes the colored plastic adhere to the screen
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As a result, ink may only pass through the areas originally cut away
The artist places the frame face-down on the material on which he wants to print
and places ink at the top of the frame
Using a squeegee,45 the artist pulls the ink down the length of the screen
This action forces ink onto the material below through the permeable areas of
the screen
The artist runs the squeegee up and down until the desired thickness of ink is
achieved46
Today, automated screen printing machinery speeds this process for large orders
Most printed T-shirts are still made through the screen printing process
Photography
The development of photography
Photography was originally a form of documentation that later developed into an art
process
Developed in the mid-19th century, photography was primarily used as a means of
presenting images objectively47
However, the use of photography as a cheaper alternative to formal, painted
portraits soon stimulated the demand for photography
Ultimately, photographers deviated from the objective ideas photography originally
embodied, instead pursuing artistic representation of real-world subjects
As a result, photography gradually became accepted as an art form
In more recent times, film and video have also entered the realm of
photographic art
The pictorialism movement of the late 19th century shows photography’s shift
toward gaining artistic acceptance
Photos attempted to imitate paintings
As a result, images were soft, often fuzzy, and highly stylized
However, this movement came to an end as artists sought to define a
uniquely photographical representation of the world
Processes and types of photography
In order to achieve various effects and print qualities, photographers often coat paper
with various materials
Paper is sometimes coated with egg whites to make the white of the print brighter
This technique produces albumen prints
In calotype photography, the paper is coated with silver iodide
This creates a paper negative, analogous to the typical film negative
Calotype is also called talbotype
The earliest photography process was the daguerreotype48
Daguerreotypes only produce one image and cannot be duplicated
The daguerreotype process produces a negative image
However, the image is displayed on a mirrored plate
Consequently, the final image appears to be a positive image
45
Who knew that gas stations had anything whatsoever to do with art? – Dean
If you're having trouble understanding how screen printing works, MAKE Magazine produced an excellent video
showing the process. You can find it here: http://youtube.com/watch?v=Ee_8IMx0uMo.
47
After all, Photoshopping is a lot harder when you have to play with chemicals. – Brett
48
I bet you didn’t know that “daguerreotype” can be used as a transitive verb.– Taylor
46
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The process involves exposure of a copper plate coated with silver iodide
The plate is developed using mercury vapors
The tintype or ferrotype was developed shortly after the daguerreotype
The tintype is considered a wet photographic process, as the plate is exposed while
wet
The tintype plate is made of iron and coated in a substance called collodion49
Because the plate is made of iron instead of glass, the tintype was much more
durable than other 19th-century forms of photography
The tintype produces a negative image that appears positive due to a dark
background
As a result, most tintype photos appear flipped, or reflected in a mirror
Nevertheless, their durability and low production cost brought them popularity
The first color photography process was invented by the Lumière brothers
This process is called autochrome
It saw great commercial success from 1907 to 1930
In this process, a glass plate is covered with a layer of potato starch
The starch is dyed blue-violet, red-orange, and green and arranged randomly on
the plate
The plate is then covered with an impermeable black-and-white emulsion
With exposure, the silver grains mask some of the grains of colored starch to a
greater or lesser degree
This step creates a negative of the image
The colors are then restored through an additive method
This step creates a positive image
Because the image is much like a slide, it must be viewed with light passing through it
Gum printing is a printing technique that utilizes ultraviolet rays
The artist coats the paper with gum50 and dichromate
The photographic negative is held up to an ultraviolet light source and a positive of
the image is transferred to the printing paper
Mixed Media
Introduction
When artists combine several two-dimensional or three-dimensional processes and
materials into a single work of art, the artwork is referred to as a mixed media piece
Many mixed media works employ the use of found objects, or everyday materials that
are used artistically
These materials can be anything from fabric to bottle caps to newspaper clippings to
broken pieces of glass
Appropriation is very common in mixed media
Appropriation is the borrowing and adapting of material for a new work
This borrowed material may be an image, a quote, or an idea, or a mix of all
three
Assemblage is a form of mixed media in which found objects are combined to create
art
49
50
Which, as we found out from USAD last year, is apparently very difficult to spell. – Taylor
Gum Arabic, not chewing gum. :P – Eddie
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Notable artists
Artist Robert Rauschenberg created mixed media pieces that combine silkscreen
images and paint
Joseph Cornell filled boxes with various items to make symbolic and metaphorical
statements51
The collage
The collage is a form of mixed media that deals with newspaper and magazine clippings,
fabric, and unusual paper—among other things—in order to create a work of art
In a collage, an artist may select a material for its aesthetic value—such as texture or
color—or for its symbolic meaning
Pablo Picasso and George Braque are credited with the introduction of the
collage as fine art in the early 1900s
51
Sounds like he just went through his garage and grabbed his junk boxes >____>. – Hari
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THREE-DIMENSIONAL PROCESSES
AND TECHNIQUES
POWER PREVIEW
This section provides an overview of the various threedimensional media used in art throughout time. This
section includes a description of the techniques that
artists use in sculpture, crafts, architecture, environmental
art, mixed media, and performance art.
POWER NOTES
10 questions (20% of the test) will be on
art fundamentals
Questions 1 and 10 on the USAD
Practice Test were on ThreeDimensional Processes and Techniques
This section covers pages 10-12 of the
USAD Art Basic Guide
Three-Dimensional Processes and Techniques
Introduction
Three-dimensional refers to works that exist in space rather than on a plane
These works have height, width, and depth
Sculpture
Overview
Sculpture typically refers to three-dimensional works of larger scale
“Sculpture” usually calls forth ideas of Rodin’s The Thinker or Michelangelo’s David
However, many other, less extravagant pieces qualify as sculpture
Doors, for example, can be considered sculpture
Sculpture can be freestanding, as in the examples above, or attached
Attached sculpture employs the use of relief to create form
Relief sculptures are pieces which are cut away from a base but remain attached
to it
High relief sculptures (see illustration on the following page, top left)
prominently protrude from their base
Low relief sculptures (see illustration on the following page, top right) protrude
only slightly
Low relief sculptures are also called bas relief52
Schiacciato53 is a form of low relief sculpture (see illustration on the
following page, bottom left)
The image seems painted rather than chiseled
Sunken relief refers to an image which is carved into a surface
It is essentially the inverse of bas relief (see illustration on the following
page, bottom right)
The highest point of a sunken relief work extends outward to the plane
of the medium
52
53
“Bas” means “low” in French.
Literally, “flattened out.”
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Relief sculptures are typically easier to view from close range
Freestanding sculptures can be seen from farther distances
Because freestanding sculpture can be viewed from all angles, the artist must
consider positive and negative space in and around the form
Consequently, freestanding sculptures are also known as in-the-round
Oftentimes the area around the sculpture is just as important as the area of
the sculpture itself to the aesthetics of the piece
In freestanding sculpture, the armature bears weight and supports the
sculpture
The armature is essentially an internal framework typically made of iron or
wood
Techniques
There are four major methods of sculpture, the first of which is carving
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Carving is a subtractive method
Subtractive methods employ the removal of material from a medium to create a
piece
Carving tools include chisels, hammers, and files
Artists use these materials on pieces of stone or wood
Carved sculptures range from tiny, handheld renditions of animals to the Sphinx in
Egypt
The second major method of sculpture is modeling
Modeling is an additive process
Additive processes involve the addition of materials to the base in order to
render the work
Modeling typically employs soft, workable materials
These materials include wax, clay, plaster, and papier-mâché
Modeling is typically done by hand, but simple tools are sometimes used
Unfired sculptures in wax or clay are sometimes used as the basis for a cast form
This original sculpture is encased in plaster
After the plaster hardens, the original sculpture is removed, leaving a mold
Plaster, metal, or synthetic materials such as plastics are then poured into the
mold to create a cast
Many casts can be made from the same plaster mold
A third form of sculpting is constructing
Construction involves the shaping and joining of materials or pieces of materials
Welding involves the adjoining of sheets of metal or wire using large amounts
of heat and filler material
Wire may also be bent and joined to create wire sculptures
Wood can be glued, nailed, or otherwise forced together to construct a
sculpture
Wood construction is often later decorated, such as by painting
A final form of sculpture involves moving parts
Mobiles are a good example
Alexander Calder made mobiles in which parts move via wind or air currents
Calder also pioneered the creation of stabiles
Stabiles are abstract, stationary constructions
They are essentially the non-moving (stable) counterpart to mobiles
Other types of moving sculpture utilize means such as pulleys, motors, and pumps
Crafts
Overview
Crafts are practical objects that have, over the ages, been beautified and adopted as art
forms
Pottery
Pottery is an art form based on natural materials
Pottery is also known as ceramics
Originally intended for storage, pottery has grown into a form of fine art
Clay—dug from the ground—is the traditional medium for pottery
Clay is soft and can be easily shaped by hand
Porcelain is a fine white clay that can withstand extremely high temperatures
When heated at these high temperatures, porcelain is translucent
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Terra cotta is a hard, red-brown clay often used in pottery, sculpture, and
architecture
Plasticine54 is a synthetic material sometimes substituted for clay, especially in
elementary schools55
A crude form of pot-making involves rolling clay into a ball and then shaping it into a pot
The artist places his thumb in the center of the ball
While he turns the ball, the artist pinches its walls until he has created the desired
shape and size
While simple, this technique—when executed properly—can produce beautiful,
shapely pots56
Accordingly, this type of pot is referred to as a pinch pot
Coils are another method of creating pottery
Using his hands, the artist rolls pieces of clay into long, cylindrical pieces
He attaches the coils to a base and, with the execution of specific techniques,
adheres them to the base and to each other
Eventually, the artist smoothes the coils out
Depending on the thickness of the coils, this technique can produce enormous pots
or tiny, delicate ones
Slabs can also be used in pottery-making
Artists carefully measure and cut specific pieces of clay
These pieces of clay are adjoined with the help of slip
Slip is a thin, watery clay mixed specifically for fortifying the adjoining pieces of a
ceramic piece
When mixed with particular minerals for pigment, slip is also a decorative paint
The invention of the potter’s wheel allowed for pots of greater size and symmetry
While used by many ancient cultures and throughout history, potter’s wheels are
still very popular today
A potter’s wheel allows the potter to manipulate the clay as it is turned
Pottery created on the wheel is referred to as thrown
Oftentimes, artists creating pottery for art’s sake will combine hand-constructed
pottery with thrown techniques to achieve unconventional shapes
After a ceramic piece has been formed and allowed to air-dry, it is usually fired in a kiln
Firing the clay hardens it permanently
After the first firing, artists may add decorative glazes and fire the pot a second time
Glazes are typically made of clay or minerals
The heat of the kiln causes the glazes to melt, creating a glassy, waterproof surface
that makes the pots better for storage
The vessel or glaze may succumb to crazing
Crazing is a network of hairline cracks inside a surface
Artists can purposefully use crazing to decorate ceramic surfaces
Jewelry
Jewelry was traditionally a practical means by which nomadic people carried their
wealth with them
54
Spelled as “plastecine” by USAD.
You may also recognize it from “Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds” by the Beatles: “Plasticine porters with lookingglass eyes.” – Dean
56
I produced a great many of these when I was a little kid, only to have my mom deem them too ugly to keep in the
house and chuck them out with the trash. Clearly, my technique was not executed properly… – Hari
55
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Over time, people strove to beautify this symbol of wealth
Simple pieces of jewelry consist of shell, bone, or stone strung together
While not very complex, these pieces of jewelry can be very elegant and beautiful
Many women still wear strings of pearls
More complex jewelry uses metals such as gold and silver
These metals may be cut, pounded, and shaped
In a more intricate process called lost-wax casting, or cire perdue, metals may be
cast in a mold
In this process, the artist creates a wax mold of the desired shape
The artist then encases the mold in a plaster-like material
Once the cast is made, the artist heats the wax, melting it out of the cast
The artist then fills the cast with molten silver or gold, which, once cooled, can
be detailed with various tools
Fibers
Cloth crafts are called fibers
Fiber works can be woven or non-woven
Weaving is traditionally used to make clothing, blankets, and other essential
household goods
Weaving is the interlacing of thread, yarn, or other fibers to create fabric
Some weavers use looms
Looms consist of a frame strung with taut thread or yarn
Looms range in size from handheld frames to large, industrial machines
Thick warp threads run vertically across the loom
These threads provide a secure backing for the textile
Thinner weft threads run horizontally back and forth through the warp
threads57
Tapestries are a type of woven textile
In tapestries, the warp threads are completely hidden
The tapestry usually depicts a brightly colored image, often to document an
important myth or moment in history
Other weavers rely on braiding, knitting, or crocheting
Braiding involves intertwining three or more strands of thread, yarn, or other
material into a long, narrow structure
Plaiting is a form of braiding in which knots are tied in a visible repeating
pattern
Knitting involves pulling loops through one another to transform thread or yarn
into cloth
Loops of cloth are also called stitches
Knitting needles hold active loops in place until another loop is passed through
them
Active loops are stitches that have not yet been secured by another stitch
Crocheting is very similar to knitting
The only major difference is that, in crocheting, only one loop may be active at a
time
Consequently, the crocheting needles may only hold one stitch at a time
Quilting was originally a form of folk art that is now accepted as a fine art
Quilting can be done by hand or with a sewing machine
57
A helpful mnemonic device: Weft threads move from “wight” to “weft.” (Get it? “Right to left.”) – Lawrence
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A quilt is type of bedcovering that is decorated with various pieces of cloth and
patterned stitch work
Quilts may also be hung as wall decorations
Quilts consist of three layers
The quilt top is the decorative layer of fabric on top
The quilt top is often decorated in the appliqué technique
Pieces of cloth and precise needlework depict patterns or scenes
The batting, or insulated material, makes up the middle layer
The final layer is called the backing
The creation of felted fibers is another fiber craft
Felted fibers differ from other fibers in that no yarn or string is woven or stitched
together to make the fabric
Instead, fibers are matted, condensed, and pressed
Felts and woven materials may be assembled into soft sculptures58
Soft sculptures are three-dimensional figures made from soft materials such as
fabrics and textiles
These sculptures often consist of an outer shell filled with stuffing
Stuffed animals are common soft sculptures
Leatherworking is the process of shaping and decorating leather to create art
Leather may be dyed, shaped, beaded, incised, painted, and carved
An awl is a pointed tool leatherworkers use to mark surfaces or punch small holes
in leather
Glass art
Glass has been produced since the third millennium BCE
Scholars believe that it originated in the Middle East
Glass is typically made of the compound silica
Silica can be found in sand, flint, or quartz
Artists add other minerals to the silica to give the glass various colors
Glassblowing59 is a popular form of glass art
Air is blown into molten glass as the vessel is spun on the end of a long, specialized
pole
Special tongs may also be used to help shape the glass
Glassblowers create vessels such as bottles, vases, and drinking glasses
More ornate, decorative sculptures may also be created this way
The glass dragons at Renaissance Festivals are an example of this art form
Stained glass is another popular form of glass art
Stained glass is particularly prominent in structures built during the Middle Ages
Cathedral windows were typically stained glass pieces
Even today, many churches have stained glass windows
In the 19th century, stained glass became a popular means of decorating lampshades
and windows in residential homes60
In stained glass windows, tracery is the stone or iron framework that supports the
glass
58
I sleep with art. – Lawrence
When I was little, I was convinced that I wanted to be either an Olympic figure skater or a glass blower. Sadly,
neither worked out. – Taylor
60
When I was little (apparently today’s a reminiscing day), Applebee’s was my favorite restaurant because it had the
pretty stained glass lampshades at every table. – Taylor
59
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Wood art
Wood is used to make functional pieces
These include furniture, boxes, boats, and even houses
With time, however, decoration has made its way into wood art
Northwest Coast Indians carve native designs into boxes and wooden boards
Carpenters may create intricate, highly detailed pieces such as chairs or desks that
qualify as fine art
Sometimes these pieces are so decorative that they are no longer functional
Parquetage is mosaic woodwork generally used in flooring
Parquetage is also known as parquetry
Wood artists use a variety of tools to aid in the production of their art
A hand vise is a clamp used to hold materials together while glue or another
adhesive is drying
The hand vise is also used to hold a material down while working on it with
another tool
A lathe is machine used for shaping wood
This tool may also be used in metalworking
An adze is a tool used for smoothing or squaring off pieces of wood, usually timber
Metal art
In metalworking, metal is arranged and decorated to create art
Repoussé and chasing are techniques for decorating metal
Repoussé is the process of ornamenting a piece of malleable metal from the
reverse side via hammering
Chasing is the refining of that design by hammering on the front side
A ball pein hammer is a tool used in metalworking that has both a flat and
hemispherical head
Patina is the of oxidation of metal, especially bronze, due to weathering, which
turns the metal greenish-blue
Artists can purposely incorporate patina into the original design of a work
Giving a metal table a patina may cause it to look more antique
The Statue of Liberty has a natural patina covering it
Architecture
Introduction
Architecture is the art of designing and constructing buildings and artificial
environments
Early architecture served very practical purposes
Buildings were constructed from readily available materials
The materials used depended on both location and climate
These materials included sticks, mud, grass, animal skins, ice,61 and wood
Eventually, those who designed and constructed buildings came to be known as
architects
Early architectural forms
One of the earliest architectural developments was the post-and-lintel method
In this method of design, a stone slab or wooden beam is laid horizontally across
vertical beams (see illustration below)
61
Igloos! I’ve always wanted to build one, but … I live in Arizona. – Hari
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The horizontal beam is the lintel
The vertical beam is the post
The Greek Parthenon uses post-and-lintel structure
Stonehenge in Britain also exhibits post-and-lintel structure
Stonehenge is also considered a cromlech
A cromlech is a circular arrangement of stones
Today, this method is still used with steel and wood as the preferred materials
Fireplaces are a good example of modern post-and-lintel structure
The Greeks were very fond of columns in their architectural design
All columns have several basic components in common
The base is the bottom support of the column
The flat foundation under the base is the stylobate
The body of the column is referred to as the shaft
Shafts may be decorated with fluting, vertical grooves that run from the
bottom to the top of the column
Greeks and Romans sometimes often made the center of the shaft wider than it
would be if it were perfectly straight
This technique is called entasis
Entasis combats the visual phenomenon of vertical pillars appearing to
bow inward from far away62
At the top of the shaft is a cap called the capital
The abacus is a slab that rests on top of the capital
A row of columns is called a colonnade
An arcade is a walkway covered by a series of arches that are supported by
columns
A blind arcade is a row of arches added to a building for decoration only
Pilasters are columns that an architect flattens against a wall
In his text De architectura (The Ten Books of Architecture), Vitruvius described
three Greek orders (types) of columns
The Doric order is the oldest and the simplest of these three
Doric columns are fluted and have no base
Doric columns also have simple capitals (see illustrations below)
Ionic columns are more slender than Doric columns
Ionic columns are also fluted
62
The Greeks and Romans valued geometric perfection in their art and architecture, which explains why the illusion of
uniformity was important to them.
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Ionic capitals are in the shape of symmetrical volutes
A volute is an architectural element that looks like a scroll
Ionic columns have bases
Corinthian columns are similar to Ionic columns63
Like Ionic columns, Corinthian columns are slender and fluted
The capital depicts an acanthus plant growing in a basket
The acanthus is a stiff, prickly-leafed plant indigenous to the
Mediterranean region
Adaptations of the Greek orders produced several other orders of columns
The Composite order combines the Ionic volute with the Corinthian acanthus
leaves in its capital
This order was developed much after Vitruvius’ lifetime
Some unique columns combine support with sculpture and depict a nude human
body as a building support
Atlantids are male columns
Caryatids64 are female columns
The Tuscan order is a Roman version of the Doric order
This order eliminates the typical Greek fluting
Tuscan columns are the simplest of the five orders
The Tuscan order was also developed long after Vitruvius wrote his text
In Greek and Roman temples, the entablature rests above the columns (see
illustrations below)65
The bottom of the entablature is a long beam called the architrave
The architrave is also known as the epistyle
The architrave rests on top of the abacuses of the columns
The center portion of the entablature is called the frieze
In Doric temples, the frieze is made up of triglyphs and metopes
Triglyphs are the small, decorative columns of the frieze
Between every two triglyphs is a metope, or square space
At the temple’s front and back, the frieze may instead be a solid, decorated slab
The top portion of the entablature is the cornice
The cornice is the elongated triangle at the top of a classical temple
Its edges usually project out, away from the rest of the building
The pediment is the triangular space formed between the sloping and
horizontal portions of the cornice
Most external decoration in Greek temples lies in the pediment
This space was often filled with elaborate sculptures depicting a
mythological scene
A column may be flattened and used as decoration on a structure
This type of column is called a pilaster
The pilaster retains all the properties of a normal column but becomes a low-relief
sculpture rather than a support structure
63
Want to know a trick for remembering the chronological order of development of the Dumb Irritating Columns?
Well now you do. – Taylor
64
My teammate Sam used to tell us to remember that Caryatids “Cary” columns. – Hari
65
TGFI: Thank Goodness for Illustrations. ☺ – Eddie
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Roman architectural contributions
Romans pioneered the use of the arch, vault, and dome
These advances allowed for greater height and interior space than previous methods
had
Arches span across a gap in order to support significant weight
An abutment is a structure that accepts the thrust of an arch, usually
supporting the ends
In other words, abutments support arches, and arches support structures
Imposts are wall brackets that support arches
Wall brackets are upside-down, L-shaped structures that overhang walls in
order to support weight
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Vaults are arched forms that provide either a ceiling or a roof to a given space
In other words, a vault is like an arch which extends backward from the front
(see illustration above)
The Coliseum utilizes vaulted construction
The barrel vault is the simplest kind of vault
The basic shape is a semicircle, but the top can be either pointed or rounded
Most tunnels exhibit barrel vault design
When built above ground, barrel vaults require very thick walls to support
the forces they create
Ring-shaped barrel vaults are described as annular66
The image below depicts a typical barrel vault
The arrows indicate the direction of forces exerted by the structure
The groin vault helps better distribute the thrust created by barrel vaults
Groin vaults consist of two barrel vaults of the same diameter crossed
perpendicularly
They are sometimes also referred to as double barrel vaults
The point where the two vaults intersect is called the groin
In other words, the groin is the place where the diagonal lines cross
66
“Annular” simply means “ring-shaped.”
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At right is an illustration of a groin vault as
seen from above
This model forces the stress to the four
corners of the cross formed by the
intersection
Pillars or walls placed under the four
corners of stress can then accept the thrust
Domes are structures that possess immense structural strength
A dome is essentially an evenly curved vault built over a circular, elliptical, or
polygonal base
Small domes may be constructed from masonry alone
Larger domes must be built as double domes with inner and outer shells
The geodesic dome, as depicted to the right,
is a specific type of dome which consists of an
interlocking pattern of triangles
Of any design, the geodesic dome has the
greatest ratio of enclosed space to
structural weight
The Epcot Center in Florida uses an
adaptation of the geodesic dome structure
Pendentives allow for the construction of domes on square or rectangular
bases
Pendentives consist of triangular segments added
to the base (see illustration to the right)
Pendentives accept the weight of the dome and
transfer it to the ground
The Hagia Sophia67 features a dome supported
by pendentives
The Romans also developed concrete
Concrete is made from a mixture of water, stone, gravel, and a binder (such as lime
or clay)
Concrete allowed the Romans to construct their famous aqueducts, baths, and
other public works projects
While it fell out of favor for several centuries, concrete is commonly used in
architecture and construction today
Other important Greek and Roman structures
Temples were very important in both Greek and Roman cultures
The entryway to a temple is called the peristyle
The inner chamber of a temple is known as the cella
A pantheon is a temple devoted to all the gods
“Pantheon” may also refer to a public building containing tombs or memorials of
distinguished dead people
In ancient Rome and other cites of the Empire, the domus was a type of aristocratic
house
Church and cathedral architecture
The long, central section of a church is called the nave
Public services take place in the nave
67
The Hagia Sophia is a former cathedral and mosque in Istanbul. Today, it serves as a museum.
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The narthex is the enclosed passage between the main entrance and nave of a church
It is also called the vestibule
The triforium is an arcaded gallery above the arches of the nave
The nave is flanked by aisles
Aisles are similar in structure to the nave, but they are usually shorter and narrower
Above the aisles is the clerestory
The clerestory is a row of windows located near the top of the wall or above the
aisles that allows light into the nave
In cruciform—or cross-shaped—churches, the “arms” of the cross are called the
transept
The cloister68 is an open space in a monastery surrounded by an arcaded, colonnaded
walkway
The predella is the narrow ledge on which an altarpiece rests
A reliquary is a container for the preservation of the relics of a saint
A triptych is a three paneled, carved work
The larger center panel is flanked by two smaller panels
This style is often used for the altarpiece in churches
A panel of an altarpiece is known as a wing
Below is a simplified diagram of the floor plan of a church
Medieval architectural contributions
Medieval architecture generally alternates between strong buttresses and thin walls
Buttresses are structures which project from walls in order to support them
The thin walls are typically decorated with stained glass windows
Flying buttresses allow for even higher structures and larger window openings
Flying buttresses are essentially external arches
They are used to counterbalance the outward thrust created by the high, vaulted
ceilings
Flying buttresses allowed for more light and color inside buildings
Recent innovations in architecture
The Industrial Revolution introduced new building materials and processes
68
No, it’s not a Pokémon. ☺ – Courtney
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The Crystal Palace,69 constructed in 1851, was constructed of large glass panes
and thin iron rods
The glass and rods were produced in modules
This structure was the first to utilize modular building on such a large scale
Furthermore, the Crystal Palace was assembled in just eight months, an
impressive engineering and management feat for the time
The Eiffel Tower is essentially a framework of wrought iron
This structure was innovative both for its extensive use of iron and for its solely
structural frame
In the late 1800s and early 1900s, architect Antoni Gaudi created cut stone buildings
in Spain
Due to their construction technique, these buildings were not typical in design
They lacked straight lines and smooth surfaces
For this reason, these buildings are considered biomorphic
“Biomorphic” refers to anything with an organic or natural shape
Gaudi led architects to deviate from the idea that buildings need to be geometric
and modular
Today, steel and concrete are the preferred materials for large public architecture
works, as well as for industrial structures such as offices and factories
Wood and brick are still preferred for homes
Other forms and techniques
Architects use haunches to strengthen beams
A haunch is the enlarged part of a beam near its supported ends
Haunches are typically visible as the curved or angled bottom edge of a beam
Balconies are platforms that typically project from a building
These platforms are normally supported by columns and enclosed with a railing
called a balustrade
Cantilevers are extended balconies that are not supported underneath
Balconies contributed to the development of belvederes
Belvederes are structures designed to take advantage of a scenic view
Similar to a balcony is the corbel
A corbel is a piece of stone jutting out of a wall to support overhanging weight
Environmental Art
Overview
Environmental art is site specific, non-permanent, large scale art
This art form began in the 1960s
The artwork may be either indoor or outdoor
Wherever it is, the art redefines the space it occupies
Environmental art often involves the viewer in the piece in some way
Specific artists and pieces
Robert Smithson constructed a spiral of rock and red algae in the Great Salt Lake
The creation eventually washed away, but drew much attention while it remained
viewable
Christo intrigued drivers by wrapping large public areas in fabric
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The Crystal Palace is probably my all time favorite piece of architecture, so I decided I was going to go visit it
someday. Then I found out that it burned down in 1936. – Taylor
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Christo wrapped 1170 of Florida’s Biscayne Bay islands in pink polyester mesh
He also wrapped the Pont Neuf in Paris in plastic
Andy Goldsworthy creates sculptures in ice and arrangements of flowers on water
His pieces, therefore, disappear as soon as the environment changes
Photographs preserve the pieces and allow us to view them even after they’ve
disappeared
These pieces come from the environment and fade back into the environment,
challenging viewers to consider their own position in nature
Performance Art
Overview
Performance art involves one or more performers and usually an audience
This type of art is not permanent
It can, however, be taped or otherwise recorded to be viewed again later
Performance art is a means by which artists hope to recover unique, original expression
of human experiences
Because performance art cannot be sold as an object, it is sometimes considered an
escape from the commercialized world of art
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The USAD Basic Guide says that Christo wrapped seven Florida islands. This figure is incorrect. He really wrapped
11 islands.
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POWER LISTS
ELEMENTS OF ART:
Actual texture
The real texture of an artwork that can be touched and felt; also
known as real texture
Additive color wheel
Aerial perspective
An organization of hues that, when combined, create white
The perspective technique that involves the use of elements in the
atmosphere such as smoke and dust to add realism and create the
illusion of distance; also known as atmospheric perspective
Analogous color scheme
Atmospheric perspective
A color scheme that features colors that are adjacent to one
another on the color wheel
Color that ignores the confines of reality; the artist chooses it
based on symbolism, emotional appeal, or personal preference
See aerial perspective
Biomorphic
See organic
Chroma
The brightness or purity of a color; also known as saturation and
intensity
Organization of space in which the objects are enclosed in barriers;
conveys solidity
Arbitrary color
Closed space
Color
The complex perception of visual light at different wavelengths
Color scheme
A planned combination of harmonious colors
Color temperature
The “warm” or “cool” feeling that is associated with a particular
color or set of colors
Color wheel
A tool used to organize all possible colors
Color-field painting
Form of painting that features broad areas of solid colors
Complementary color
scheme
A color scheme that features complementary colors
Complementary colors
Two colors that are directly across from one another on the color
wheel, e.g., red and green
Contours
Visible borders of the objects in an artwork
Cool color
A color that is associated with cool water and snow, e.g., blue,
green, violet, etc.
Most basic components of any art work; include line, shape, form,
space, perspective, color, and texture; also known as the sensory
properties of art
Elements of art
Figure
The space that the objects in an artwork fill; also known as positive
space
Form
A three-dimensional object with length, width, and depth
Freeform
See organic
Geometric
Object, either two or three-dimensional, that is a regular figure
taken from mathematics
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Gray scale
Grisaille
Ground (space)
Horizon line
Horizontal line
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A color spectrum created by combining varying amounts of white
and black
A color scheme that features only shades of gray
The area around the objects of an artwork; also known as negative
space
Implied line created where the sky and the ground meet
Hue
A line that mimics the horizon and divides a space into upper and
lower portions; incites a calm, static response
The name of a color71
Imagined texture
See visual texture
Impasto
A thick application of pigment that creates both actual and visual
texture
Implied line
A progression of shapes, objects, lines, or dots that appears to be
linear; there is no defined line
Intensity
See chroma
Intermediate color
See tertiary color
Isometric perspective
A form of perspective in which all objects are drawn with same
relative sizes, regardless of depth or distances
Line
Most basic element of art; created by following the path of a moving
point through space
Linear perspective
Media
A mathematical approach to perspective based on the visual effect
of receding lines
A color that does not portray the effects of distance, light, or
atmosphere; also known as true color
The materials used by the artist to render the final work
Monochromatic color
scheme
A color scheme that features multiple tints and shades of just one
hue
Negative space
See ground
Neutrals
White and black; used to create tints and shades, respectively
One-point linear perspective
A mathematical form of perspective in which orthogonal lines
recede to a single vanishing point
Open space
Organization of space in which the objects are unobstructed;
conveys a light, unrestrained feeling
Optical color
Color that portrays the effects of lighting, atmosphere, etc.
Organic
Irregular, nonlinear shapes and forms found in real life; also known
as freeform and biomorphic
Organizational lines
Light, sketchy lines used to render an artist’s initial design
Orthogonal lines
Converging lines that are essential to linear perspective
Perspective
The illusion of depth in an image
Picture plane
The imaginary plane represented by the physical surface of a
painting
Local color
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No, the color is not named Hugh. – Patrick
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Positive space
See figure
Primary colors
Real texture
The three colors (red, yellow, and blue) that can be mixed to make
all other colors
See actual texture
Saturation
See chroma
Secondary color
Color formed by the combination of two primary colors
Sensory properties of art
See elements of art
Shade
The result of adding black to a color
Shape
A two-dimensional object that possesses length and width but no
depth
Space
Formal organization of objects in a work of art
Subtractive color wheel
An organization of hues that, when combined, create black
Tertiary color
Texture
Color formed by combining a primary color and an adjacent
secondary color; also known as intermediate color
The tactile quality of an artwork
Three-point linear
perspective
Tint
A mathematical form of perspective in which lines recede to three
vanishing points
The result of adding white to a color
Triadic color scheme
A color scheme that features a combination of three primary,
secondary, or tertiary colors
See local color
True color
Two-point linear perspective
A mathematical form of perspective in which lines recede to two
vanishing points
Value
Vanishing point
A color’s lightness or darkness
A distant point on the horizon where orthogonal lines appear to
converge
Vertical line
A line that divides the space into left and right portions; causes the
eye to move upward
Visual texture
The illusion of texture an artist creates on the surface of an
artwork; also known as imagined texture
Warm color
A color that is associated with heat, fire, and the sun, e.g., red,
yellow, orange, etc.
PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION:
Alternating rhythm
A rhythmic technique that involves going back and forth between
two or more motifs
Approximate symmetry
A form of balance in which the elements of a composition are
almost but not exactly identical around a central vertical or
horizontal axis
Asymmetrical balance
Balance achieved through the complex arrangement of unlike
objects
Balance
The equal distribution of visual weight in an artwork
ART BASICS POWER GUIDE
Chiaroscuro
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Contrast
The contrast of light and dark in a painting used to create the
illusion of volume and texture
The existence of a visual pathway that leads the eye smoothly from
one part of the piece to the next without any stops or breaks
A technique that gets the viewer’s attention
Emphasis
A technique that creates dominant elements in an artwork
Focal point
A point where two or more elements contrast, attracting the
viewer’s eye
See principles of composition
Continuity
Formal properties of
composition
Gestalt principles
Principles of visual organization that occur naturally in the human
brain; include emphasis, contrast, and continuity
Golden mean
An ideal ratio in plane (2-D) figures; approximately 3:5
Hierarchical perspective
The manipulation of the sizes of figures to denote relative
importance; also known as hierarchal scale
Hierarchical scale
See hierarchal perspective
Human scale
Motif
An object’s size in comparison to the human body in both 2-D and
3-D art
A line that divides a shape or form into two halves that are mirror
images of one another
The repeated element of a pattern
Pattern
The repetition of a motif or motifs to create rhythm
Principles of composition
The tools necessary to utilize and organize the elements of art to
create an original artwork; also known as the formal properties of
composition
Proportion
The application of size within an artwork; related to scale
Proximity
A principle based on the fact that objects placed close together are
assumed to be in a group
Radial symmetry
The arrangement of objects in an artwork around a central point in
a circular manner
Random rhythm
A rhythmic technique involving no organization in the presentation
of repeated elements
A rhythmic technique that presents repeated motifs without any
variation
Line of symmetry
Regular rhythm
Rhythm
An organizational tool that encompasses movement in an artwork
based on repetition
Scale
The dimensional relationship that the parts of an artwork have to
one another and the artwork as a whole; can also refer to the size
of the artwork itself
Describes parts of an artwork that look alike; causes the logical
movement of the viewer’s eye amongst similar elements
A form of balance in which the elements of the composition are
identically arranged around a central horizontal or vertical axis
Similarity
Symmetrical balance
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Tenebrism
Unity
Variety
Visual pathway
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An extreme form of chiaroscuro that features a jarring contrast of
light and shadow
The harmonious nature of the components of an artwork
The combination of contrast and emphasis to create different visual
stimuli to interest the viewer
The path a viewer’s eye takes when following similar elements
DRAWING:
Blending
The gradual mixing of two hues or black and white to create the
illusion of depth within a piece
Colored pencil
A pencil that shares many of the colors and attributes of pastels
Conté crayon
A drawing medium made of clay, graphite, and natural pigment
Crosshatching
A shading technique that uses crisscrossing lines
Drawing
The most basic two-dimensional art process
Fixative
A chemical agent used to preserve works that employ fragile media,
such as pastels
Hatching
A shading technique that uses parallel lines placed side by side
Ink
Opaque
A drawing medium that allows the artist to change a color’s value
by adding water
Not allowing any light to show through
Parchment
A paper prepared from sheep skin
Pastel
A drawing medium consisting of a stick of color loosely bound with
gum
A drawing process used to change color value and create the
illusion of volume
A drawing medium that involves the use of a pointed rod of metal,
usually silver
Shading
Silverpoint
Sizing
A printmaking substance that stops the capillary action of paper
fibers
Stippling
A shading technique that uses patterns of dots
Tooth
The roughness or smoothness of paper; highly dependent on the
manufacturing process
Translucent
Allowing light or an underlying image to shine through
Vellum
A paper prepared from calfskin
Wash
A diluted, translucent ink; creates a tint
Weight
The “heaviness” of the paper; heavier paper is used for heavier
media, such as marker, to prevent bleeding
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PAINTING:
Abstract Expressionism
A popular art movement in the 1960s characterized by the direct
presentation of feeling with emphasis on dramatic color and
sweeping brush strokes
Acrylic
A new form of paint using all synthetic materials
Alla prima
An oil painting with no glazing or underpainting
Binder
A material that causes a powdered pigment to adhere to a surface
Buon (true) fresco
A fresco technique in which paint is applied directly to wet plaster;
the paint forms a chemical bond with the wall
Egg tempera
A form of tempera bound with egg yolks
En plein air
“Open air” paintings; made possible by the invention of the paint
tube; popular with Impressionists
A painting medium made of molten wax
Encaustic
Fête galante
Transitional painting style in the 18th century; usually depicted
upper-class, outdoor parties in paradisiacal settings; shift towards
individual and personal pleasure
Fresco
An important form of painting done on plaster
Fresco secco
A fresco technique in which the paint is applied to dry plaster
Giornata
Glaze
The amount of a fresco that an artist can paint in one day
A thin, transparent or semi-transparent layer used in oil painting to
change a color slightly
Gouache
A water-based paint similar to, but higher in quality than, tempera
Ground (painting)
The coating that an artist uses to prepare the painting surface
History painting
Strove to teach moral principles through the representation of
historical and mythological characters and events; considered an
“acceptable” genre of painting in Europe for several centuries
Impressionism
Intonaco
A movement that emphasized the artist’s personal “impression” of
what he saw directly
The final layer of plaster on which the artist paints the fresco
Maulstick
A padded stick used to support the artist’s brush hand
Minimalism
A modern art movement popular in the post-WWII era that
emphasized monochromatic color schemes and simplicity
A very significant painting medium generally bound in linseed oil;
more versatile and slower-drying than tempera paint
The phenomenon that occurs when the human eye combines colors
that are close to one another
Oil paint
Optical mixing
Overpainting
The application of a final layer of oil paint above any glazes or
scumbles
Paint brush
The most common painting tool used to apply paint to a surface
Paint tube
A collapsible vessel for paint that can be taken outside of the artist’s
studio; its invention coincided with and propelled the rise of
Impressionism
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Painterly
Painting
Palette
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A style of painting closely associated with Impressionism in which
the artist’s brush strokes are clearly visible
A diverse artistic technique that includes a wide array of media and
ground substances
A painting tool that helps an artist mix and organize the colors he
intends to use
Pentimento
The effect created when an underpainting reappears because the
upper layers of an oil painting have become transparent with age
Pigment
A material that an artist uses to make a color
Pointillism
A school of painting which developed out of Impressionism in late
19th-century France; painters employ small dots of primary colors,
which the viewer’s eye blends into additional hues
Period in which the stylistic shift toward interest in the individual
and in personal pleasure was common
A thin, light, and opaque layer of color applied on top of darker
colors in oil painting
Rococo
Scumble
Scumbling
An oil painting technique that involves applying light colors on top
of dark, opaque colors
Sienna
A yellow-brown oil paint pigment made of limonite clay, which is
rich in ferric oxides
Sinopia
An underpainting of reddish-brown pigment used to prepare the
fresco surface for the actual work
A substance that can change the value, thickness, and drying time of
paint
An important painting medium; requires precision; yields bright,
solid colors; pigments cannot be mixed; usually bound in egg yolk
Solvent
Tempera
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Triptych
Three-paneled work of art, often an altarpiece
Trompe l’oeil
Literally “trick of the eye”; describes paintings that are so realistic
they resemble photographs
Turpentine
A common solvent for oil paints
Underpainting
An oil painting technique that involves creating a preliminary
drawing to establish the basic design and tonal values of the artwork
Vanitas
Latin word for “emptiness”; a painting style that sought to depict
the brevity of human life using still life objects such as skulls and
broken pottery; popular in the Netherlands in the 16th and 17th
centuries
Veduta
Highly detailed, large-scale cityscape painting style popular in the
16th to 19th centuries; plural: vedute
Vedute
Plural of veduta
Wash
Diluted, translucent watercolors; create tints
Watercolor
The most common water-based paint bound with gum arabic
Wing
A panel of an altarpiece
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PRINTMAKING:
Aquatint
A special etching technique which utilizes several dips in acid and a
layer of resin over the printing plate
Brayer
A printmaking tool that inks the printing plate
Burnisher
A printmaking tool that helps transfer ink from the printing plate
onto the paper
Engraving
An intaglio printmaking process involving the direct carving of lines
on the printing plate
An intaglio printmaking process using wax or varnish and acid’s
corrosive properties
A shading technique in which equally spaced dots of varying sizes
are printed in the same color to create the illusion of value
Etching
Halftone
In register
When the printing plate and press are aligned with the paper and
ready to print
Intaglio printmaking
A technique using incised lines to create an original design
Lithography
A printmaking technique in which a waxy pencil or crayon draws
the image directly onto the printing plate
Matrix
The printing plate
Mezzotint
An engraving technique in which a printer uses a rocker and scraper
to create a design on the plate; capable of a wide range of grays
Monoprinting
Negative
A technique in which the printer alters the coloring and chemical
composition of the material and ink he uses
A printmaking technique in which the image is drawn directly onto
the printing plate by brushing the plate with ink
In screen printing, the inverse of an intended image
Phototype
A metal printing block specifically intended for etching
Planographic
Any of the various printmaking techniques in which a flat plate
without relief or incised lines is used
Printmaking
A set of two-dimensional techniques that use mechanical tools to
create multiple copies of an original artwork
Relief
An area that stands above its background surface
Relief printmaking
A printmaking process in which a printer cuts away parts of the
surface of the printing plate
Screen printing
Serigraphy
A printmaking technique in which the printer transfers or adheres
an image to a piece of stretched fabric with a squeegee; also known
as serigraphy and silkscreen printing
See screen printing
Silkscreen printing
See screen printing
Squeegee
A rubber blade with a handle; used to force ink through fabric in
screen printing
The simplest type of relief printmaking; a design is cut in relief into a
block of wood; the design is inked, and the piece of wood is pressed
directly to a piece of paper
Monotype printing
Woodblock printing
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PHOTOGRAPHY:
Albumen print
A technique in which a photographer coats the photograph paper
with egg whites to make the whites brighter
Autochrome
The first colored photography process; created by the Lumière
brothers; must be viewed like a slide
Calotype
The first negative-and-positive photographic process; involves the
use of photograph paper covered in iodide; also known as talbotype
A compound consisting of pyroxylin, ether, and alcohol that forms a
thin film
The earliest form of photography; creates a direct positive image
from a silver-coated copper plate
Collodion
Daguerreotype
Ferrotype
A technique that involves the use of small plates of tinned iron to
create a negative image; also known as tintype
Film
A paper coated with dry gel; invented by George Eastman
Pictorialism
A movement in which photographers attempted to imitate painting
Talbotype
See calotype
Tintype
See ferrotype
Wet collodion photography
A technique that involves the use of a glass plate coated with a
collodion solution, silver iodide, and iron iodide; the plate is
exposed to light to create a print; also known as the wet plate
process
See wet collodion photography
Wet plate process
MIXED MEDIA:
Appropriation
The borrowing and adapting of material for a new work; may be an
idea, quote, image, or anything else
Assemblage
A three-dimensional technique in which the work of art is put
together from found objects
Features a combination of specially selected materials to create
texture, color, and meaning
Objects found by an artist in various places that have applications in
mixed media art
Collage
Found objects
Mixed media
An art form that combines two or more media
SCULPTURE:
Additive
A process in which materials are combined to create a final product
Armature
The internal framework of a sculpture that provides a support
system
See low relief
Bas relief
Bracket
A flat, weight-bearing plate that projects from a wall and holds a
freestanding sculpture
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Carving
Cast form
Casting
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A subtractive method of sculpture in which original material is
removed from the medium of choice
The form taken in plaster that covers an original form and is
allowed to harden
A method of producing sculpture by allowing plaster to harden over
the original form and using the hardened plaster to create replicas
of the original
Chisel
Important carving tool for sculptors
Cire perdue
A method of producing sculpture by creating an original wax form
that is covered in plaster; the plaster hardens, the wax is melted
out, and the resulting plaster shell is used as a one-time mold for a
cast sculpture; also known as lost-wax casting process
Construction
A method of producing sculpture by bonding two or more separate
materials
Environmental sculpture
Sculpture that is somehow integrated into nature
File
Important carving tool for sculptors
Freestanding sculpture
A sculpture with no carrier surface that stands on its own and can
be viewed from all sides; described as sculpture “in the round”
Ground (sculpture)
The element of a sculpture that serves as its base
High relief
Projecting significantly from a carrier surface
In the round
See freestanding sculpture
Lost-wax casting process
See cire perdue
Low relief
Projecting slightly from a carrier surface; also known as bas relief
Mass
Mobile
The three-dimensional elements of a sculpture
A form of sculpture with moving parts; also known as movable
sculpture; the counterpart of a stabile
Modeling
A pliable material is taken and shaped to create a work of art; an
additive technique
Movable sculpture
See mobile
Patina
A green coloring or incrustation that occasionally forms on metal
(usually bronze) as it corrodes
Plinth (sculpture)
A square base that supports a sculpture and keeps it off the ground
Relief sculpture
A form of sculpture that projects from its carrier surface
Schiacciato
Employs very shallow carving to create an essentially flat sculpture
Stabile
A non-moving sculpture; the counterpart of a mobile
Subtractive
A process that involves removing parts of the original material to
create a final product
Sunken relief
Recedes into a carrier surface; the highest points of relief are even
with the carrier surface
An angle of viewing a sculpture that is halfway between a profile and
a head-on view; allows us to see sculpture’s front and side while
revealing its depth as well
Three-quarters view
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Welding
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The adjoining of sheets of metal or wire using large amounts of heat
and filler material
CRAFTS:
Active loop
A stitch that has not yet been secured by another stitch
Appliqué
A tapestry technique that employs layers of overlapping fabric to
create surface decoration
Appliqué
A fabric and needlework technique often used to decorate quilts
Awl
A pointed tool leatherworkers use to mark surfaces or punch small
holes in leather
Backing
The bottom layer of a quilt that holds the three layers together
Ball pein hammer
Batting
A tool used in metalworking that has both a flat and hemispherical
head
The insulated middle layer of a quilt
Braiding
A fiber art technique that involves the intertwining of threads
Cames
Lead strips used to support stained glass
Ceramics
Chasing
The art form in which naturally pliable materials are transformed
into a hard clay work; also known as pottery
The decoration of a metal surface; often coupled with repoussé
Coil
A pottery technique in which the clay is rolled into long coils
Crazing
A decorative pottery technique that involves the use of hairline
fractures along the work
A method of constructing fabric by interlocking loops of yarn using
hooked needles or machines
Crocheting
Embroidery
A decorative stitching technique done directly on the surface of a
fabric
Felted fiber
Fiber that a weaver mattes down under heat and pressure
Felting
The creation of felted fiber
Fiber art
Artwork based on the use of woven and non-woven fibers
Fire (verb)
Glassblowing
To bake ceramics in a kiln
A glass art technique that involves blowing gas bubbles into molten
glass and shaping the glass with tongs
Hand vise
Jewelry
A clamp used to hold materials together while glue or another
adhesive is drying; also used to hold a material down while working
on it with another tool
A portable form of wealth made of precious materials
Kiln
An oven used specifically for the baking of pottery
Knitting
A method of constructing fabric by interlocking loops of yarn using
eyeless needles or machines
A mechanical woodworking tool involving the rotation of a piece of
wood around a blade or other tool
Lathe
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Leaded glazing
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Leading
A process used to create a lead support system for stained glass;
also known as leading
See leaded glazing
Leatherworking
The process of shaping and decorating leather to create art
Loom
Loop
A machine or device for weaving thread or yarn into a textile
product
See stitch
Monogram
An embroidered design with a recognizable insignia
Overcast stitching
See overcasting
Overcasting
A stitching technique that secures and completes unsewn edges;
also known as overcast stitching
Mosaic woodwork generally used for flooring
Parquetage
Pinch
Plaiting
A pottery technique in which a ball of clay is formed, punched with
the thumb, and pinched between the thumb and fingers
Repeating knots that form a pattern
Plasticine
A synthetic material sometimes substituted for clay, especially in
elementary schools
Plinth (pottery)
A square base placed under pottery
Porcelain
A fine white clay that is capable of withstanding very high
temperatures; translucent at high temperatures
Potter’s wheel
A wheel that turns a plate of clay, allowing the clay to be shaped
smoothly and evenly
Pottery
See ceramics
Quilt top
The topmost layer of a quilt; the design is on this layer
Quilting
A fiber art technique that involves the use of looms and square,
repeated patterns
Repoussé
The decoration of metal from the reverse side; often coupled with
chasing
The compound glass is usually made from; may be found in sand,
flint, or quartz
A pottery technique in which one joins coils together with slip
Silica
Slab
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Slab-built pot
A form of pottery that is formed using the pinch, coil, and slab
techniques
Slip
Liquid clay that can serve an adhesive and/or decorative purpose
Slipware
A form of pottery that is assembled and/or decorated with slip
Soft sculpture
A form of fiber art in which sewn fibers are stuffed
Stitch
An individual loop created by bunching thread in knitting or
crocheting; stitches are secured together to create fabric; also
known as loop
Tapestry
A hand-woven fabric with a non-repetitive pattern
Tapestry weave
A fiber art process that creates a design on both the front and back
of a fabric
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Terra cotta
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Thrown pottery
A hard, red-brown clay often used in pottery, sculpture, and
architecture
Pottery that is formed using a potter’s wheel
Tracery
The stone support for elaborate window pattern-work
Urn
A form of pottery used to hold the ashes of a deceased person
Warp
A thick, vertically moving thread that provides a backing for thinner,
horizontally moving threads
A fiber art technique that employs a loom and braiding techniques
Weaving
Weft
A thin thread that moves horizontally along a backing of thicker
threads that move vertically
ARCHITECTURE:
Abacus
Architectural piece that rests on top of a column’s capital
Abutment
Structure that supports an arch at one of its ends
Acanthus
A stiff, prickly-leaved plant that is indigenous to the Mediterranean
region; featured in Corinthian column capitals
Aisles
Long, rectangular sections that flank the nave of a church
Annular
Describes an object that is semicircular in shape
Arcade
Arch
A walkway covered by series of arches supported by columns or
piers
A curved construction of blocks that supports weight evenly
Architecture
The art of designing and constructing a building
Architrave
Atlantid
The bottom part of the entablature; rests on top of the abacuses of
columns; also known as epistyle
Male nude that serves as a column or pillar
Balcony
A platform protruding from a building that is supported by columns
Balustrade
The railing that encloses a balcony
Barrel vault
A continuous, semicircular vault; also known as tunnel vault
Base
The bottom of a column; not present in Doric columns
Belvedere
An architectural structure designed to take advantage of a scenic
view
Blind arcade
A row of arches added to a building for decorative purposes only
Cantilever
An extended balcony with no supports; oftentimes decorative
Capital
Caryatid
Located above the shaft of a column; often decorative; topped by an
abacus
Female nude that serves as a column or pillar
Cella
The inner chamber of a temple
Clerestory
The uppermost row of supported windows in a church; allows light
into the nave
An open space in a monastery surrounded by an arcaded,
colonnaded walkway
Cloister
ART BASICS POWER GUIDE
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Coffering
A decorative technique in which sunken panels embellish a vault
Colonnade
A row of columns supporting an entablature or series of arches
Composite order
An order of architecture that combines the elements of the Ionic
and Corinthian orders
Concrete
A building material composed of water, stone, gravel, and a binder;
invented by the Romans
A piece of stone jutting out of a wall to support overhanging weight;
similar to a balcony
An order of architecture that features a capital that depicts an
acanthus plant growing in a basket
Corbel
Corinthian order
Cornice
The uppermost element of an entablature
Cromlech
A circular arrangement of stones
Cruciform
Cross-shaped; in architecture, used to describe the shape of a
church
Crystal Palace
An innovative structure constructed in 1851; made of large glass
panes and thin metal rods; first structure to use modular building on
such a large scale
Wedge-shaped bricks that form an arch; also known as voussoirs
Cunei
Dome
Domus
A form of vault that an architect constructs to cover a circular
opening
A type of house in the ancient Roman Empire that rich patrician
families owned
Doric order
The oldest order of architecture; employs columns with fluting and
no defined base
Double barrel vault
See groin vault
Eiffel Tower
An innovative structure famous for its framework design and use of
wrought iron as a primary building material
Entablature
An element of classical architecture; comprises the architrave,
frieze, and cornice
Swelling in the middle of a column to make it appear straight from
afar
See architrave
Entasis
Epistyle
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Ferroconcrete
Concrete reinforced with iron; used before steel became
prominent
Fluting
Vertical ribbing that runs along the shaft of a column
Flying buttress
Exterior arches that resist lateral thrust from the structure they
support
Frieze
The architectural element that is between the architrave and the
cornice; made up of metopes and triglyphs
Geodesic dome
A hemispheric covering for a circular opening that features a regular
pattern of triangles
ART BASICS POWER GUIDE
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Groin vault
Consists of two barrel vaults of the same diameter crossed
perpendicularly; helps better distribute the thrust created by barrel
vaults; also known as double barrel vault
Haunch
A technique architects use to strengthen beams by enlarging them
at their supporting ends
Imposts
Structures that help support an arch
Industrial Revolution
A cultural and architectural period of change in the late 18th and
early 19th centuries
Ionic order
An order of architecture that features slender columns with capitals
that are embellished with volutes
Lintel
A horizontal beam that supports a post
Metope
The square spaces between the columnar triglyphs of a frieze
Narthex
The enclosed passage between the main entrance and the nave of a
church; also known as a vestibule
The long, central section of a church where public services take
place
Distinct architectural style that features certain traits and
characteristics
Nave
Order
Pantheon
A temple devoted to all the gods; also a public building containing
tombs or memorials of distinguished dead people
Pediment
Triangular section of the cornice; often the location of decorative
sculpture
Pendentive
Peristyle
Triangular segment of a sphere placed on top of a rectangular or
square base; serves as a transition between a dome and its base
The entryway to a temple
Pilaster
A column that is flattened against a wall
Platform construction
A modern form of construction using dimensional lumber and nails
Post
A vertical beam; rests on one or more (usually two) lintels
Post-and-lintel method
An architectural technique that features a combination of vertical
(post) and horizontal (lintel) beams to support weight
Predella
The narrow ledge on which an altarpiece rests in a church
Reliquary
Shaft
A container for the preservation of the relics of a saint; oftentimes
kept in a church
The body, or long and straight portion, of a column
Stylobate
The flat surface on which a column stands
Transept
Triforium
“Arms” of the cross in a cruciform church; perpendicular section of
the church just past the nave
In a church, an arcaded gallery above the arches of the nave
Triglyph
The decorative columnar element of the frieze
Triumphal arch
Freestanding gateway that employs the arch form and decorative
sculpture
See barrel vault
Tunnel vault
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ART BASICS POWER GUIDE
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DEMIDEC RESOURCES © 2008
Tuscan order
A simplified Doric column without fluting
Vault
A combination of arches that covers an open space
Vestibule
See narthex
Volute
A scroll-like architectural element; modeled in Ionic capitals
Voussoirs
See cunei
PEOPLE:
Braque, George
Calder, Alexander
Christo
Cornell, Joseph
Dürer, Albrecht
Known for environmental art on an enormous scale; famous for
wrapping Pont Neuf (France) in plastic and wrapping 11 Florida
islands in pink polyester mesh
Known for his construction of boxes with objects inside that would
evoke a particular meaning
A prominent artist of the Northern Renaissance who gained his
international fame (and fortune) through intaglio printmaking; often
regarded as the most talented printmaker of all time
Eastman, George
An inventor who developed special film paper and the highly
affordable, easy-to-use Kodak camera
Gaudi, Antoni
Famous Spanish architect who integrated organic forms into
practical structures
Architect who employs warped and curved forms to create
extremely innovative structures
An important contributor to environmental art; known for his ice
sculptures and arrangements of natural objects such as twigs and
leaves
Gehry, Frank
Goldsworthy, Andy
Lumière brothers
Invented autochrome in the early 20th century
Michelangelo
A world renowned architect, sculptor, and painter of the
Renaissance; known for such famous works such as his David and his
Sistine Chapel frescoes
Contributed to the creation of the color wheel
Newton, Sir Isaac
Picasso, Pablo
Artist most remembered for his experimentation in new art forms
and styles such as Cubism; one of the main contributors to the
creation of the collage
Rauschenberg, Robert
Often cited as a forerunner to Pop Art, this artist used the
silkscreen process to transfer various images (namely photographs)
to canvas; prominent mixed media artist
Artist and social progressive of the 20th century who used his
famous frescoes to make political statements
Sculptor who often worked with bronze in the creation of such
memorable artworks as The Thinker
Rivera, Diego
Rodin
Worked together with Picasso in the development of both Cubism
and the collage
Sculptor who helped pioneer movable sculpture in the form of
mobiles; also produced stabiles
ART BASICS POWER GUIDE
Smithson, Robert
Van Gogh, Vincent
Vitruvius
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DEMIDEC RESOURCES © 2008
Artist in the field of environmental art; known for manipulating
nature to create impermanent works of art
Well-known for his use of the impasto technique to create actual
and visual texture; also pioneered the use of arbitrary color
Roman writer, architect, and engineer who devised a definitive
system of classification in architecture
WORKS:
David
De architectura
Michelangelo’s freestanding nude of the famous Israelite who killed
Goliath with his slingshot
Vitruvius’ text outlining the main principles of classical architecture;
also known as The Ten Books of Architecture
Guggenheim Museum
An important building designed by Frank Gehry; demonstrates a
departure from the box-like construction of residential architecture
Hagia Sophia
A monumental Byzantine structure built under the rule of Emperor
Justinian; one of the most famous uses of a pendentive in all of
architecture
A famous circular arrangement of stones in Britain that exhibits the
post-and-lintel style of architecture
Stonehenge
The Ten Books of Architecture
The Thinker
See De architectura
Rodin’s famous bronze statue representing intellectuality
ADDITIONAL TERMS:
Environmental art
Performance art
Pompeii
Three-dimensional art
Two-dimensional art
Based on the redefinition of the space around the artwork; known
for its impermanence
An impermanent art form based on the talents of the performer
An ancient Roman city that was destroyed during the eruption of
Mount Vesuvius; an important early site for fresco works
Art that has height, width, and significant depth
Art that exists on a flat plane with height, width, and negligible
depth
ART BASICS POWER GUIDE
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DEMIDEC RESOURCES © 2008
POWER TABLE
ART FORMS
Art Form
Architecture
Crafts
Drawing
Environmental
Art
Mixed Media
2-D or
3-D
Tools
Techniques &
Terms
Works
Notable
Artists
N/A
Cromlech; postand-lintel; haunch;
coffering; balloonframe
construction;
platform
construction
De
architectura;
Hagia Sophia;
Guggenheim
Museum; Walt
Disney Concert
Hall
Vitruvius;
Antonia Gaudi;
Frank Gehry
3-D
Clay; metal;
precious
jewels; stones;
shells; fibers;
fabrics; glass;
wood
Slip;
potter’s
wheel;
kiln;
tongs;
adze;
lathe;
hand vise
Slab-built pottery;
thrown pottery;
crazing; chasing;
weaving;
overcasting;
tapestry weaving;
quilting;
embroidery;
tapestry; appliqué;
braiding; plaiting;
felting; soft
sculpture;
glassblowing;
leaded glazing;
tracery; parquetage
N/A
N/A
2-D
Conté crayon;
crayon; felt-tip
pen;
silverpoint;
pencil; pastels;
charcoal;
colored
pencils; ink
N/A
Shading; hatching;
crosshatching;
stippling
N/A
N/A
3-D
Elements of
nature; the
space around
the art
N/A
N/A
N/A
Robert Smithson;
Christo; Andy
Goldsworthy
2-D or
3-D
fabrics;
newspapers;
shells; pieces
of glass; found
objects
N/A
Pablo Picasso;
George Braque;
Robert
Rauschenberg;
and Joseph
Cornell
3-D
Media
Concrete;
steel; iron;
wood
N/A
Collage;
assemblage; masks
ART BASICS POWER GUIDE
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DEMIDEC RESOURCES © 2008
ART FORMS
2-D or
3-D
Media
Tools
Techniques &
Terms
Works
Notable
Artists
Painting
2-D
Fresco; oil
paint; tempera;
egg tempera;
encaustic;
gouache;
watercolor;
acrylic
Paint
brush;
palette;
maulstick;
paint tube
Tondo; buon
fresco; fresco
secco; sinopia;
glazing; scumbling;
underpainting;
overpainting;
triptych
N/A
N/A
Performance
Art
3-D
Video; actual
performance
Talent
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Chemical
coating;
and paper
or film;
camera;
light
Daguerreotype;
albumen print;
calotype;
ferrotype; dry
collodion; wet
collodion; gum
print; pictorialism
N/A
N/A
Ink
Brayer;
burin;
burnisher;
rocker;
scraper;
squeegee;
printing
press
Relief; intaglio;
engraving;
mezzotint; etching;
drypoint; aquatint;
lithography;
monotype printing;
monoprinting;
photogravure;
serigraphy
N/A
Albrecht Dürer
Chisels;
files;
plaster
Carving; modeling;
casting; cire
perdue;
construction; high
relief; low (bass)
relief; sunken
relief; freestanding;
schiacciato; mobile;
stabile
David; The
Thinker
Michelangelo;
Rodin
Art Form
Photography
Printmaking
Sculpture
2-D
2-D
3-D
Stone; metal;
terracotta;
wax; wire;
paper; fabric;
wood
ART BASICS POWER GUIDE
PAGE 66 OF 71
DEMIDEC RESOURCES © 2008
PRACTICE TEST ANALYSIS
The Practice Test Analysis can be downloaded by coaches only. All the analyses are available
together as the 2008-2009 Practice Test Analysis Power Guide. Ask your coach for a copy.
ART BASICS POWER GUIDE
PAGE 67 OF 71
DEMIDEC RESOURCES © 2008
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS:
Clarke, Michael. Oxford Concise Dictionary of Art Terms. Ed. Deborah Clarke. Oxford: Oxford UP,
2001.
Lucie-Smith, Edward. The Thames and Hudson Dictionary of Art Terms. London: Thames and Hudson
Ltd, 2003.
Mayer, Ralph. The Harper Collins Dictionary of Art Terms and Techniques. Ed. Steven Sheehan. New
York: HarperCollins, 1991.
Murray, Peter, and Linda Murray. The Penguin Dictionary of Art and Artists. London: Penguin Group,
1997.
WEBSITE:
Church, Jok. “Christo and Jeanne-Claude: Surrounded Islands, Miami, Florida, 1980-83.” Christo and
Jeanne-Claude. 2007. 8 July 2008 <http://www.christojeanneclaude.net/si.shtml>.
ART BASICS POWER GUIDE
PAGE 68 OF 71
DEMIDEC RESOURCES © 2008
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Taylor Cleland wishes she could take this time to share with
you the secrets to making the perfect smoothie, but she’s
afraid that may waste too much paper, and she does love trees.
She can share with you, however, that she attends Canyon
Del Oro High School in Tucson, Arizona, and loves it the
nine months out of the year that the temperature is lower
than 100 degrees. Taylor first joined Decathlon the summer of
her junior year and proceeded to live at school (the pull-out
sofa was a definite plus). In that time, she learned the joys of
snakes, mangoes, cucumbers, Pocky sticks, school vans, and
smoke detectors. As an Honors category student, she is often
victim to the assumption that she has no life. However, Taylor
will argue against this very stubbornly, most likely in thirdperson.
When Taylor isn’t studying, she enjoys drawing and speaking in French. She’s rather sure that she
was an ancient Egyptian aristocrat in a past life and that bridges are, in fact, the most terrifying thing
on the planet. When she grows up, she hopes to be either a Korean or a fairy. If that doesn’t work
out, she’ll probably move to Paris and live in Notre Dame Cathedral with Quasimodo and the gang,
reading dense French literature and drinking strawberry juice in the bell towers.
Of course, when asked by her mother what she wants to be, Taylor will admit to being an aspiring
animator and novel author, but quickly switch the topic to hot air balloons and dragons.
Taylor is a very social creature and would love to hear what you have to say. If you ever want to
talk to her (about Decathlon or just in general), feel free to email her at tdcleland@gmail.com.
Vital Stats:
Competed with Canyon Del Oro High School at the Regional and State competitions in
2008
Team placed first at the Regional competition in 2008; individual score of 8,138
Team placed second at the Arizona competition in 2008; individual score of 8,206
Decathlon philosophy in a phrase: "Again, from the top.”
Joined DemiDec in May 2008
ART BASICS POWER GUIDE
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DEMIDEC RESOURCES © 2008
ABOUT THE EDITOR
Dean Schaffer has decided that the best—indeed, the only—
way to write his About the Editor page is in bullet-form.
Education
Dean currently attends Stanford University
He is majoring in American Studies, with a
concentration in American music
He is minoring in Classics
He just completed his sophomore year
“Sophomore year” is a fancy way of saying “less
fun than freshman year,” but Stanford is still
awesome, anyways
DemiDec career
Dean’s first project for DemiDec was the Renaissance
Music Power Guide in the 2005-2006 season
This year marks Dean’s third as Power Guide
Coordinator
In other words, Dean is much older (and nerdier) than he likes to admit
This position has mostly helped Dean organize his entire life and all of his thoughts
into a single, eloquent outline
Future plans
In the fall, Dean will journey to Oxford University for one quarter abroad
Dean is very excited to experience Oxford’s tutorial system
Afterward, he will travel through Italy for two weeks with his girlfriend
This expedition will mark Dean’s first visit to Continental Europe
If things go especially poorly, the excursion might turn into an incursion
He plans to return to the States with
A thick British accent
A penchant for Yorkshire pudding and foxhunting
Poor dental hygeine
He also looks forward to spelling “gray” as “grey,” “color” as “colour,” “theater” as
“theatre,” and, best of all, “bus” as “lorry”
Contact
If you have any questions, comments, or toothpaste suggestions, please spam Dean at
dean@demidec.com
Be forewarned: his response will probably not be in prose
Vital Stats:
Competed with Taft High School in Los Angeles, California
In 2005, team placed first at LA regionals and fifth at CA state with individual scores of 8792
and 8887, respectively
In 2006, team placed first at LA regionals, CA state, and nationals with individual scores of
9121, 8903, and 8962, respectively
Decathlon philosophy in a phrase: “Get back to work!”
Joined DemiDec in April 2005
ART BASICS POWER GUIDE
PAGE 70 OF 71
DEMIDEC RESOURCES © 2008
ABOUT THE BETA TESTERS
Keita DeCarlo is a third year Scholastic and overly critical captain of his
school’s Academic Decathlon team in Palos Verdes, California. If he isn’t
memorizing the parts of a Doric column or badgering his teammates to
study, he is probably eating. Or sleeping. He absolutely loves overseas
travel, and actually enjoys the 12-hour cubbyhole conditions that
accompany it. Other non-Academic Decathlon related activities of his
include drinking green tea or reading about Eugene Boudin. Or eating a
Boudin.
Courtney Svatek (minty_choco@yahoo.com) is four-foot-ten and
proud of it. Her Academic Decathlon team from Taylor High School in
Taylor, Texas, has won back-to-back small school state championships,
largely due to their coach’s magic lasagna. As a child, Courtney was called
weird because her favorite color was (and still is) yellow, but she defied
her detractors by growing up to become even weirder. She loves to draw
and is constantly doodling, and still looks for images in the clouds.
Brett Farrow is still living in the 1990s. Between Pokémon battles and
Weezer albums, he tries to come to terms with the new millennium by
watching entire seasons of Scrubs and The Office. After spending four years
in Sachse High School's Academic Decathlon program, he had some
trouble getting it out of his system. Fortunately, beta testing for the
second time has helped him come to grips with the fact that he has to
grow up and go to Charis Bible College in Colorado Springs in the fall.
However, he still plans to bring his Pikachu pillow with him.
Lawrence Lan doesn’t usually write about himself in the third person.
What he does do on a usual basis is sleep—anytime, anyplace. When he is
not sleeping irregularly, Lawrence finds satisfaction in good music, freezedried mango pieces, and The Office. He is an avid fan of green beans,
multiculturalism, and down pillows. Stars, words, and art—in no particular
order—are also among his interests. A graduate and ex-Decathlete from
Palos Verdes Peninsula High School in southern California, Lawrence
currently attends Cornell University in Snowyville, New York—known by
the locals as Ithaca.
ART BASICS POWER GUIDE
PAGE 71 OF 71
DEMIDEC RESOURCES © 2008
Alexandria Hall (ach_12@mit.edu), in a nutshell/paragraph, is a proud
nerd, avid tennis player, and pretty much just plain awesome! Alex isn’t
afraid to study obsessively, which is why she’s headed the studying capital
of the world, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. She also eats,
drinks, and breathes tennis, especially if Rafael Nadal is playing. Finally, she
is so cool because she would rather help out future and fellow Decathletes
than catch up on the sleep she lost during Decathlon. If you too are cool,
or simply want to chat, feel free to use that email address up there!
Hari Mohanraj is painfully aware that this biogaphy is somewhat late, but
he’s ferverntly hoping that it’ll be accepted anyways. When he’s not busy
being late for something, he attends Mountain Pointe High School in
Tempe, Arizona, and particularly enjoys taking naps in almost every
subject (short of Decathlon, that is). Hari first submitted to the cult that is
Decathlon in his freshman year and has risen through the ranks to become
a co-captain of his bizarre team. In his spare time when he is not dreaming
of illustrious Civil War battles and Aztec skull-duggery, he swims pseudocompetitively, enjoys Korean dramas, and obssessively reads Star Wars
novels.
Known just as well for his collection of bathrobes as for his library of
books, Shea Houlihan likes his small comforts. But that doesn’t stop him
from staying up ‘til the wee hours of the morning on a steady diet of
chocolate milk, cola, and other teeth-rotting beverages in the course of
preparing for one academic competition or another. Now a three-year
veteran in Academic Decathlon from Franklin High School in El Paso,
Texas, Shea knows the many benefits of late-night scholarship, just as he
knows the staying power of caffeine.
Other beta testers who reviewed this Power Guide:
Eddie Wu