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MCSER Publishing, Rome-Italy
Journal of Educational and Social Research
Special Edition
Vol. 5, No. 1, Supplement 1, April 2015
Rome, Italy 2015
Journal of Educational and Social Research
Editor in Chief
Prof. Gianluca Senatore
Executive Director, MCSER
Prof. Francesco Tarsia
Scientific Coordinator
Prof.ssa Bidzina Savaneli
Editorial Assistant
Dr. Michela Gallo
Graphic Design
Dr. Elisabetta Tarsia
Editorial Managing
Dr. Marco Pontrelli
Editing
Dr. Lisa Licata
Copyright © 2015 Mediterranean Center of Social and Educational Research
ISSN: 2239-978X (Print) ISSN: 2240-0524 (Online)
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2015.v5n1s1
Global Impact Factor: 0.507
Vol. 5, No. 1, Supplement 1, April 2015
Publisher
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Journal of Educational and Social Research
Vol. 5, No. 1, Supplement 1, April 2015
ISSN: 2239-978X (print) ISSN: 2240-0524 (online)
About the Journal
The "Journal of Educational and Social Research", published by MCSER, is a
professional, double-blind, peer-reviewed, open-access journal publishing high-quality
scientific articles. The journal has a distinguished editorial board with extensive
academic qualifications, ensuring that the journal will maintain high scientific
standards and have a broad international coverage. Articles related to all branches of
education are published The editorial board intends to publish papers which cover
applied and theoretical approaches to the study of education and its related
disciplines. The purpose of the journal is to serve as a forum for researchers around
the world to present and discuss common concerns in local, national, global,
international and transnational issues in social studies education. The journal is an
invaluable resource for teachers, counselors, supervisors, administrators, curriculum
planners, and educational researchers as they consider the structure of tomorrow's
curricula. Special issues examine major education issues in depth. Topics of recent
themes include methodology, motivation, and literacy. The Journal of Educational
and Social Research publishes original empirical and theoretical studies and analyses
in education that constitute significant contributions to the understanding and/or
improvement of educational processes and outcomes. The Journal focuses on
significant political, cultural, social, economic, and organizational issues in education,
and explores the processes and outcomes of teaching, learning, and human
development at all educational levels and in both formal and informal setting.
Although the JESR does not publish validation studies, the editors welcome many
varieties of research--experiments, evaluations, ethnographies, narrative research,
replications, and so forth. JESR publish research that representing a wide range of
academic disciplines and using a wide range of research methods.
Editor in Chief,
Prof. Gianluca Senatore
Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
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Journal of Educational and Social Research
Editor in chief Gianluca Senatore
Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
International Editorial Board
Timm Albers,
University of Education Karlsruhe, Germany
Peter M. Miller,
University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA
Nerissa Albon, Monash
University, Australia
Pigga Keskitalo,
Saami University College Kautokeino,
Norway
Paul Joseph Pace,
University of Malta, Msida, Malta / Centre
for Environmental Education and Research
Marcel Pikhart,
University Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
Sandro Caruana,
University of Malta, Malta
William J. Hunter,
University of Ontario Institute of Technology,
Canada
Peter Mayo,
University of Malta, Malta
Adriana Piga,
Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
Alba Dumi,
University of Vlore, Albania
Waqar Un Nisa Faizi,
Jinnah Univerity for Women, Karachi,
Pakistan
Maria Nogues,
Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
Rusul Alrubail,
Seneca College, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Pilar Robles G.,
Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
Merja Paksuniemi,
Saari School, Rovaniemi, Finland
Rajakumar Chelladurai,
V.S.B.Engineering College,
Karur, Tamilnadu,India
Shobana Nelasco,
Fatima College, Madurai-India
Nkasiobi S.Oguzor,
Federal College of
Education(Technical),Omoku- Nigeria
Jacinta A. Opara,
Universidad Azteca, Mexico
Fernando A. Ferreira
Polytechnic Institute of Santarem, Portugal
Alice Kagoda,
Makerere University, Kampala-Uganda
B.V. Toshev,
University of Sofia, Bulgaria
Sodienye A. Abere,
Rivers State University of Science and
Technology, Port Harcourt, Nigeria
Eddie Blass,
Swinburne University of Technology,Australia
Hanna David,
Tel Aviv University, Jerusalem-Israel
Oby Cordelia Okonkwor,
Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka-Nigeria
Asoluka C. Njoku,
Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education,
Owerri-Nigeria
Azubuike Cypril Nwokocha, Michael
Okpara University of Agriculture,UmuahiaNigeria
Kinikanwo A. Anele
University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria
Peter Ugochukwu Akanwa,
Imo State University, Owerri-Nigeria
Birol Topuz,
Qafqaz University, Azerbaijan
Addison Mark Wokocha,
Teachers Registration Council, Abuja-Nigeria
Hassan Danial Aslam,
Human Resource Management Research
Society, Pakistan
M.O.N. Obagah,
Rivers State University of Education, Nigeria
Austin N. Nosike,
The Granada Management Institute, Spain
Gerhard Berchtold,
Universidad Azteca, Mexico
Samir Mohamed Alredaisy,
University of Khartoum, Sudan
Lawrence Ogbo Ugwuanyi,
University of Abuja, Abuja-Nigeria
Pamba Stephen,
Youth Alive Developmet Foundation, Uganda
Anthonia U. Ejifugha,
Alvan Ikoku Federal College of
Education,Owerri-Nigeria
Alessandro Pistecchia,
Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
Sokol Pacukaj,
Aleksander Moisiu University, Albania
Ugochukwu P.N. Amadi
School of Agriculture and Home Economics,
Federal College of Education (Technical)
Umunze, Anambra State, Nigeria
Felice Corona,
University of Salerno, Italy
Abbas Khakpour,
Malayeru University, Iran
Fouzia Naeem Khan,
Shaheed Zulfikar Ali Bhutto Institute of
Science and Technology, Pakistan
Lazarus Ndiku Makewa,
University of Eastern Africa, Kenya
Suleyman Davut Goker,
Girne American University, North Cyprus
Ramona Simut,
Emanuel University of Oradea, Romania
Nongnapas Kuvarunyu Thiengkamol,
Mahasarakham University, Thailand
Iqbal Ahmad,
University of Malakand, Pakistan
Asif Jamil,
Institute of Education and Research, Gomal
University, DIKHan KPK, Pakistan
Eja Iwara Eja,
University of Calabar, Nigeria
Francisco Javier Ramos,
University of Castilla, La Mancha, Spain
Kalaly Chu,
University Kristen Satya Wacana, Indonesia
Anne Cross,
Metropolitan State University,USA
Tutku Akter,
Girne American University, Northern Cyprus
Hosé Sánchez-Santamaría,
University of Castilla, La Mancha, Spain
Ogundele Michael Olarewaju,
National Teachers’ Institute, Nigeria
Wan Edura Wan Rashid,
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia
Zohreh Ramin,
University of Tehran, Iran
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Articles
A Qualitative Study on the Application of Problem-Based Teaching Theory on Music Education:
The Example of Artvin Çoruh University
Ömür Bütev Dolğun
The Influence of Holistic Scoring of Students’ Assignments on Their Motivation and
Second Language Acquirement
Ajsha Rexhep, Hava Rexhep
Children and Theory of Mind; Comparison between Children's Ability to Understand Trying Actions and
Pretend Actions in a Behavior Model Analysis
Besjona Dede
Age as a Determining Factor in L1 and L2 Acquisition
Antonija Šarić, Lidija Obad
Chemical Dimensions of Plastic Wastes and Their Recycling in Environmental Education
Bahattin Aydinli, Çağrı Avan
Educational Research Projects as New Form of Educational Methodology
Bekim Fetaji, Majlinda Fetaji, Alajdin Abazi, Mirlinda Ebibi
Efficiency in the Criminal Procedure for Juveniles and the Protection of the Dignity of Juveniles
Hashim Çollaku, Mentor Çollaku
Formation of Linguistic Culture of Pupils by Working with Vocabulary
Kledi Satka (Shegani), Albana Deda (Ndoja)
The Understandings of Genetics Concepts and Learning Approach of Pre-Service Science Teachers
Bahattin Deniz Altunoğlu, Metin Şeker
Educational Media Tools and Lifelong Education
Dritan Ceka, Anila Jaku, Vjosa Imeri, Shkendije Jashari, Fitore Haliti
Science Teachers Self Perception about Metacognition
Mohammed Yousef Mai
Education Challenges and Developments in Foreign Language Teaching in
Croatian Law Schools Education Challenges and Development for the Future
Ljubica Kordić
Organizing of Physical Education Teaching Classes and Methods to be
Used to Achieve the Intended Objectives
Rovena Elmazi, Ledina Koci
Information Literacy Primary School Students in the Czech Republic in International Comparison
Zuzana Horváthová, Josef Abrhám
Educating Rita: The Muted Woman Raises Her Voice
Seval Arslan
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Field Base Teaching: A Malaysian Experience
Raman Mariyappan
Linguistics and Women’s Speech
Meli Shopi
Is Mr. Pickwick a Gentleman or a Comic Character?
Mahmut Terci
Role of Education in Development in and after the Transitional Period in Kosovo
Vjollca Dibra
Student Engagement in Fostering Quality Teaching in Higher Education
Dražena Gašpar, Mirela Mabić
Communicative Language Teaching and Its Impact on Students’ Performance
Hysen Kasumi
Investigating the Influence of Distributed Leadership on School Effectiveness:
A Mediating Role of Teachers’ Commitment
Hairuddin Mohd Ali, Salisu Abba Yangaiya
Pedagogical Content Knowledge among the Teachers of Special Classes of
Reading and Memorizing the Qur’an (KKQ) in Kuala Lumpur
Azmil Hashim
Evaluation of Prophet Muhammad’s Techniques in Managing Misbehaviors:
Application in Primary School Classrooms
Wan Mazwati Wan Yusoff, Asyraff Hafdzan Abdullah
Preferred Strategies for Female and Male Initiators İn Romantic Relationship Initiation:
The Role of Stereotypes Related to Romantic Relationships, Rejection Sensitivity and Relationship Anxiety
Mediha Ömur Barhana, Ayda Büyükşahin-Sunal
Teacher’s Suggestions for Recycling and Sustainable Environment: Reflections on Diaries
Dilek Erduran Avci, Huriye Deniş Çeliker
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A Qualitative Study on the Application of Problem-Based Teaching Theory on
Music Education: The Example of Artvin Çoruh University
Prof. Dr. Ömür Bütev Dolğun
Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Design
omurdolgun@gmail.com
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2015.v5n1s1p9
Abstract
The understanding of education where student participates in the classes actively has taken place of the traditional teacherbased understanding in the student-centered education understanding which is one of the changes put forward by modern
education view. What is important here is to assure that learning is more effective, efficient and permanent through the active
participation of the student in the learning process. One of the modern learning methods developed for this purpose is
Problem-based Learning. This theory can be summarized as giving the student a problem and having him/her on the problem;
searching solution; forming the solutions in the most appropriate way by analyzing them; and finally presenting them to the
teacher. In addition to the arts and music education generally given in the traditional way, the application of modern learning
theories onto these fields may be of significance in terms of reaching new and extraordinary results. The application of
Problem-based Learning method which is one of these learning theories is quite recent. In this study, a problem related to
music education for children has been presented to the teacher candidates, who are sophomores in Class Teaching, in
accordance with the Problem-based Learning theory and they have been expected to gather information on the subject, to
reach a synthesis and to find a solution. Later, the results reached by the candidates who work as groups are examined by the
qualitative research method.
Keywords: Problem-based Learning, Music Education, Modern Education.
1. Introduction
1.1 Problem-Based Learning
It can be said that technological and scientific developments bring together the developments and innovations in
education. The World sees increasingly developing innovations; it is even at such a degree that it becomes difficult to
adapt to these innovations. The innovations in communication increase together with technology. Education, which can
be considered a branch of communication, changes rapidly with these innovations. The traditional teacher-based
education system is being replaced by a new system where students participate in the learning process actively. Here
the student is not in a passive situation; in contract, s/he is in an active position. Modern learning theories get renewed by
changing at the same rate as parallel to this condition.
Problem-based Learning Theory is one of the mentioned modern learning theories; and, as every modern learning
theory, it has a wide area of application in terms of its being applicable to every field. It can be mentioned that it involves
creativity and the infiniteness of the imagination power like many modern learning theory. It may be said that memorizing
information is left aside, that the individual questions every information s/he gets and establishes new ideas by
incorporating information into experiences.
“PBL’is used to cover an amazing diversity of educational practices, ranging from problem-oriented lectures to
completely open experiential learning environments aimed at improving interpersonal relations. ” ( Graaff and Kolmos,
2003: 657)
PBL Theory is separated from traditional learning theories in terms of several points: students make research on a
specific subject on their own, they work in a group by cooperating with others, they reach a conclusion by synthesizing
the information they gathered.
“…the ‘Seven Step’ method was developed to help student analyse the problem:
1. clarify the concepts;
2. define the problem;
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3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
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analyse the problem;
find the explanation;
formulate the learning objective;
search for further information; and
report and test new information. ” (Graaff and Kolmos, 2003: 659)
1.2 The importance of teaching songs in music education for children
It is known that music is useful and effective in both music courses and other courses by starting from the pre-primary
period. The lyrics and expressions that take place in music exist in the children’s minds, who are at early ages, longer
and in a more effective way and the children can easily adapt information, which they get in this way, to their future lives
more easily. Therefore, the use of songs suitable for children in other courses as well as in music courses will provide
that the learnt information will be long-lasting and will not be forgotten.
2. Method
2.1 The Research Method
In this study, an example developed by a researcher in order to apply Problem-based Learning, which is one of the
modern learning theories, to music education is presented. In the study, Content Analysis method, one of Qualitative
Research Methods, is used. “Content analysis method aims at reaching some conclusions beyond the pyschological,
sociological, historical, economic, etc. information gathered from the message by evaluating some qualitative or
quantitative signifiers”. (Bilgin, 2014: 14)
2.2 Data Gathering and The Instruments of Data Gathering
In the study, an example of a research made within the context of “Music Teaching” course of the sophomore of class
teaching. As sample, total 36 teacher candidates, 22 of whom are female and 14 of whom are male, who are the
students of Class Teaching Main Branch of the Primary Education Department at Artvin Çoruh University. First, the views
of the teacher candidates on the music education regarding teaching songs are taken by open-ended questions and their
answers for these questions are examined through content analysis method. Besides, according to PBL theory, the
candidates are required to compose a song for children at 6-10 age groups by dividing into groups. The theme of the
song is determined as the nature love.
2.3 Data Gathering Period and Process
The teacher candidates are divided into nine groups composed of four people for this study and they are required to
present the most suitable and the most beautiful song (s) that they composed as a group. The candidates are given twoweek-period for this purpose. At the end of this period, the solution ways are presented by examining the songs
composed by the candidates.
3. Findings
Primarily, a music education is given to the candidates of Class Teaching for about three and a half months.
1st week: General information on music, sound and rhythm concepts and their characteristics
2nd week: Notation, basic elements of notation, explanation of note and es values
3rd week: Series and tonality concepts, examples and analysis
4th week: Modality concept, examples and analysis
5th week: Tune concept, examples and analysis
6th week: Intervals (Intervalle); consonance and dissonance concept, examples and analysis
7th week: General Review
8th week: Examination
9th week: Music speed terms, examples and analysis
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10th week: Music nuance terms, examples and analysis
11th week: Figuration, explanation through examples, the characteristics of children’s songs
12th week: The analysis of children’s songs
13th week: General Review
After the given music education, the importance of songs in the music education for children is asked to the
teacher candidates, and they are required to compose a song for children in the light of the gathered data in accordance
with PBL theory.
3.1 The importance of songs in music education
After this education, the teacher candidates’ views on whether songs are important in music education for children were
asked. Only two students mentioned that they thought songs are not important in music education. According to one of
these candidates, “The children’s understanding music is more difficult compared to adults. Therefore, they may have
difficulty in perceiving both lyrics and songs. Music may be long lasting but it may be difficult to keep the lyrics in mind”
(C22). The other teacher candidates mentioned that “children are more interested in the music they hear rather than the
song they learn at school” (C23). It is worth attention that these candidates are female. The views of the teacher
candidates who claim that songs are important in music education can be examined under the following headings.
Table 1.
Views
It is important in child development
Female
Male
Total
Female
Male
Total
Female
Male
Total
Female
Male
Total
Female
Male
Total
Female
Male
Total
It contributes to learning
It is both entertaining and educative.
It arises interest because it is for children.
It increases the interest and love for music course.
It contributes to behaviour development.
f
5
3
8
11
4
15
0
5
5
2
2
4
1
0
1
1
0
1
%
62,5
37,5
100
73,34
26,66
100
0
100
100
50
50
100
100
0
100
100
0
100
The ratio of the teacher candidates who say “It is important in child’s development” to the total candidates is 23. 5%.
The following examples can be given for these candidates’ views.
“S/he can express her/himself through songs” (C24)
“It contributes to the psychological and physical needs of children” ( C18)
“Because music is effective in the mental development of children” ( C29)
“It contributes to emotional development” (C1)
“Music affects the development of children” (C31)
The ratio of the teacher candidates who say “It provides contribution in learning” to the total candidates is 44. 1%.
The following examples can be given for these candidates’ views.
“It provides that it stays longer in the minds of children and it motivates them” (C7 and C8)
“It makes it easier that children learn more effectively” (C14).
“We can teach the basic information that they must learn” (C35)
“Children take songs as model” (C12)
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“I think it will be effective because vocalization of lyrics by a rhythm includes audial learning as well” (C11).
The ratio of the teacher candidates who say “It is both entertaining and educative” to the total candidates is 14. 7%. The
following examples can be given for these candidates’ views.
“…I think it will be more entertaining to explain them a subject” (C27)
“The child shows interest in music because songs are entertaining” (C36)
“ Songs are sources of entertainment for children. ” (C34)
The ratio of the teacher candidates who say “It arises interest because it is for children” to the total candidates is
11. 8%. The following examples can be given for these candidates’ views.
“It reflects children’s World” (C9)
“ Music is the nutrition for spirit. ” (C25)
The ratio of the teacher candidates who say “It increases interest and love for music education” to the total
candidates is 2. 95%. This candidate expressed him/herself as saying “It provides that the child loves music course more
and takes pleasure” (C3).
The ratio of the teacher candidates who say “It contributes to behaviour development” to the total candidates is 2.
95%. This candidate expressed him/herself as saying “It may form a new behaviour or change it” (C6).
3.2 Determining whether the given music education is sufficient for song composition
32 candidates mentioned that it is sufficient and 4 candidates mentioned that it is insufficient as response to this
question. What takes attention in the explanations of candidates that express that it is insufficient is that they do not feel
themselves sufficient in this matter. 3 of these candidates are female and 1 is male. The answers to the question why
they feel in this way are as following:
“I cannot make word harmony” (C12)
“I think that I cannot adapt similar intervals and rhythms and that I cannot make the harmony between lyrics and music”
(C15)
“I cannot make the harmony between lyrics and music. I cannot compose a good song” (C16)
“ I cannot escape from excessive skipping” (C28)
3.3 Determining the views about which characteristic of a chilren’s song is important
On this matter, 23 of the candidates give the answer that “song lyrics are suitable” (13 female,10 male), six give the
answer that “voice width is suitable” (5 female,1 male), six give the answer that “it is suitable for subjects or units to be
explained” (3 female,3 male), a female candidate gives the answer that “it is composed of same or similar intervals”. That
is, while the ratio of female candidates who mention “song lyrics are suitable” is 56. 5%, the ratio of male candidates is
43. 5%. It is seen that there is almost an equality in this point”. Regarding the point “Voice width’s being suitable”, the
ratio of female candidates is 83% while that of male candidates is 17% In the other view, there is an equality. Despite
this, the view “it is composed of same or similar intervals” is seen significant only by a female student. The points “it is
composed of same or similar rhythms” and “escaping from excessive skipping” are not marked by any candidate.
3.4 Determining their views about whether they are sufficient while composing a children’s song.
23 candidates answered that they thought they were not sufficient and 13 mentioned that they were sufficient. Of the
candidates who mentioned they were not sufficient and therefore would experience difficulty, 14 were female and 9 were
male. Of the candidates who mentioned they were sufficient and therefore would experience no difficulty, 9 were female
and 4 were male.
As seen here, the ratio of female candidates who thought they were not sufficient and would have difficulty in the
composition step is 60% while the ratio of male candidates is 40%; the ratio of female candidates who thought they were
sufficient and would have no difficulty in the composition step is 69% while the ratio of male candidates is 31%.
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3.5 Determining the reason behind teacher candidates’ experiencing difficulty, who thought they would have difficulty in
composing a children’s song
As a result of the answers given on the questionnaire, it is observed that the ratio of the teacher candidates who think
they will experience difficulty if they are required to compose a children’s song is 23 candidates from 36 candidates in
total. 14 of these candidates are female and 9 of them are male. It is seen that the class gave negative answer to this
questions and the reasons are asked to the candidates.
As a result of this, the points that the teacher candidates who think composing a suitable song for children will
force them are those: “the song’s lyrics being suitable for children” and “sound width’s being suitable for children”. It is
seen that both conditions take the first rank as a result of the answers of 8 candidates. It takes attention that “the song’s
lyrics being suitable for children” is at a high rate as 8 in female candidates while male candidates do not mention this
point. On the other hand, “sound width’s being suitable for children” is equal in male and female candidates. In the
following answers, “escaping from excessive skipping” and “its being suitable for subject or units to be explained” are
marked as 4 candidates as the subject that they will have difficulty most at the stage of composing a children’s song.
Another interesting point is that the candidates who marked both choices are males. The point that the song to be
composed is “made of same or similar rhythms” is mentioned by two candidates (one male, one female). Finally, a
female teacher candidate marked the point that “it is composed of same or similar intervals”.
3.6 The evaluation made after the stage of composing a children’s song
The field where they experience most difficulty at the stage of composing a children’s song is asked to 36 teacher
candidates. The following conclusions are made as a result of their answers:
1) 10 (5 female, 5 male) of teacher candidates mentioned that the field where they had most difficulty resulted
from the fact that song lyrics should be suitable for children. The ratio of these candidates to the total is 27.
78%.
2) 9 (6 female, 3 male) of teacher candidates mentioned that the field where they had most difficulty resulted
from the fact that the sound width should be suitable for children. The ratio of these candidates to the total is
25%.
3) 10 (4 female, 6 male) of teacher candidates mentioned that the field where they had most difficulty resulted
from the fact that it should be composed of same or similar rhythms. The ratio of these candidates to the total
is 27. 78%.
4) 2 (2 female) of teacher candidates mentioned that the field where they had most difficulty resulted from the
fact that it should be composed of same or similar intervals. The ratio of these candidates to the total is 5.
55%.
5) 3 (3 female) of teacher candidates mentioned that the field where they had most difficulty resulted from the
fact that it is necessary not to make excessive skipping. The ratio of these candidates to the total is 8. 34%.
6) 2 (2 female) of teacher candidates mentioned that the field where they had most difficulty resulted from the
fact that it should be suitable for the subject or unites to be explained. The ratio of these candidates to the
total is 5. 55%.
4. Conclusion and Discussion
Within the framework of these answers given to questions in the questionnaire, the task of composing a song which has
lyrics that children can easily understand, which is composed of same or similar rhythms and intervals, the sound width
of which is suitable for children, which escapes from excessive skipping and which is suitable for subject or units to be
explained.
With the questionnaire applied after the given music education, it is aimed that the awareness of the teacher
candidates and their focus on the subject increase.
The results reached by the teacher candidates through working in groups composed of four people can be
summarized as following:
1) The children’s songs composed by teacher candidates are melodic and can easily be sung by the children at
the age group of 6-10. (According to the results in the questionnaire, the teacher candidates mentioned that
they had most difficulty on this point)
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2) The lyrics of children’s songs composed by teacher candidates can easily be understood by the children at
the age group of 6-10. (In this respect, the point which takes place among the top concerns that lyrics are not
suitable for the mentioned age group is inappropriate. According to the results in the questionnaire, the
teacher candidates mentioned that they had most difficulty on this point)
3) The concern about skipping from the same or similar intervals is mentioned by 1 candidate at the beginning of
the study; and it did not come true, relatively. Songs are quite successful in this respect.
4) The point about escaping from same or similar rhythms is mentioned by only two candidates at the beginning
of the study; however, it is marked by 10 candidates in the evaluation questionnaire made at the end of the
study. The conclusion made here is that the views can change when one starts practice.
5) The problem of escaping from excessive skipping between the notes—which is one of the subject which is
feared most—is mentioned only by two teacher candidates, three candidates mark as the point where they
had most difficulty.
6) The problem of composing a song suitable for subject or units to be explained is marked only by two
candidates according to the results obtained from the questionnaire made at the beginning of the study; again,
two candidates mark it as the point where they had most difficulty.
5. Suggestions
Among the modern learning theories, one theory on which researchers study most is “Problem based Learning”. In this
theory, a problem, which is quite possible that they may face in their lives, is presented to students; they are required to
make research; students reach a synthesis through information they gathered; and a common solution way is
determined. Apart from the information given during the lesson, it is possible to benefit from this theory in music
education which is expected to be based on creativity and the power of imagination. Indeed, some situations experienced
in life are not actually problems. It can be said that it is the humankind itself who turn some situations into problem. This
point can be realized in the field of education and the problem can be handled creatively. If music education is given as
example, it can be said that the subject, which is told in a more suitable way for children, can be understood more easily.
In this study, a situation chosen in accordance with the Problem Based Learning Theory is presented to the teacher
candidates and authentic works which candidates can easily use are obtained. It can be said that such kind of creative
studies should spread over more fields and that encouraging teacher candidates in such area will contribute to the
enrichment of the future education life.
References
Bacanlı,H. ,Çeliköz,N. ,Erişen,Y. ,Şahin,M. ,Eyyam,R. ,Doğruer,N. ,Meneviş,İ. ,Özerbaş,M. A. ,Özü,Ö. ,Çakmak,M. ,Kılıç,D.
Gündoğdu,K. ,Kayabaşı,Y. ,Silman,F. ,Baysen,E. , Erişti,B. ,Akdeniz,C. ,Tok,H. ,Sünbül,A. M. ,Kurnaz,A. ,Karataş,E. ,Karataş,S.
Yalın,H. İ. Editör: Kaya,Z. (2012). Öğrenme ve Öğretme Kuramlar, Yaklaşımlar, Modeller. Ankara: Pegem Akademi.
Bilgin,N. (2014),Sosyal Bilimlerde İçerik Analizi,Teknikler ve Örnek Çalışmalar (Genişletilmiş 3. Baskı),Ankara: Siyasal Kitabevi.
Fer,S. ,Cırık,İ. , Altun,. S. ,Çolak,E. ,Özkılıç,R. ,Şahin,E. ,Avcı,S. , Yüksel,S. , Turan, H. Editör: Fer,S. (2011). Öğrenme Öğretme Kuram
ve Yaklaşımları. Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık.
Graaff,E. ,Kolmos,A. ( 2003). Characteristics of Problem-Based Learning. Int. J. Engng Ed. ,19 (5),657-662. http: //citeseerx. ist. psu.
edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10. 1. 1. 455. 3467&rep=rep1&type=pdf
(Erişim tarihi: 28. 02. 2015)
Kılınç,A. (2007). Probleme Dayalı Öğrenme. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi,15 (2),561-578.
http: //www. kefdergi. com/pdf/15_2/akilinc. pdf
(Erişim Tarihi: 28. 02. 2015)
Koçakoğlu,M. (2010). Probleme Dayalı Öğrenme: Yapılandırmacılığın özü. Milli Eğitim Sayı: 188,68-82.
http: //www. vizyon21yy. com/documan/Egitim_Ogretim/Egitim/Ogretim_Yont_Teknikl/Probleme_Dayali_Ogrenme. pdf
(Erişim Tarihi: 28. 02. 2015)
Yıldırım,A. ,Şimşek,H. (2013). Sosyal Bilimlerde Nitel Araştırma Yöntemleri. (Genişletilmiş 9. Baskı) Ankara: Seçkin Yayıncılık.
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Journal of Educational and Social Research
MCSER Publishing, Rome-Italy
ISSN 2239-978X
ISSN 2240-0524
Vol. 5 No.1 S1
April 2015
The Influence of Holistic Scoring of Students’ Assignments on
Their Motivation and Second Language Acquirement
Ajsha Rexhep
MsC Candidate in English language methodology, English Lecturer in International University of Struga
a.salkoska@eust.edu.mk
PhD Hava Rexhep
Ministry of labor and social policy, Ohrid
hava_r@live.com
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2015.v5n1s1p15
Abstract
‘The process of writing is a process of thinking and discovering things. Writing is the result of employing strategies to manage
the composing process, which is one gradually developing a text. (Pedagogical writing course reader, pg. 302)’We as teachers
should pay attention to all of the aspects of language acquiring and we should try to use many methods and strategies in order
to help the learners as much as possible to acquire the language and to be always high motivated to do it. Evaluation is the
most difficult and complicated part which the teachers should involve successfully in their teaching. Keeping in mind this
importance I decided to make this research proposal in order to search for the most appropriate methods of evaluation and
also to support my believes that holistic scoring is a very motivating and helpful method which helps students to acquire the
language easily and more effectively. ‘Holistic scoring is a method by which trained readers evaluate a piece of writing for its
overall quality. It requires readers to evaluate the work as a whole, while considering four elements: focus, organization,
support, and conventions. The holistic scoring method is based on the theory that a whole piece of writing is greater than the
sum of its parts. With this method, essays are read for the total impression they create, rather than for individual aspects. 1The
aim of this research is to confirm that this is one of the best ways of scoring which has positive and encouraging effects on
learners’ language progress; and it would help me to know better the advantages and disadvantages of its use which will help
me to know precisely when and how to use it in my teaching.
1. Introduction
Second language learning and teaching is a process that needs special attention and planning. Developing all the
aspects of the language as speaking, reading, listening and writing is the most difficult and important part of acquiring the
second language successfully. All the aspects are very important and all of them have a significant role in the process of
learning. As I have mentioned before and according to the author of the Pedagogical Grammar course reader ‘the
process of writing is a process of thinking and discovering things. Writing is the result of employing strategies to manage
the composing process, which is one gradually developing a text. It involves the number of activities: setting goals,
generating ideas, organizing information, selecting appropriate language, making a draft, reading and reviewing it, then
revising and editing. It is a complex process which is neither easy nor spontaneous for many second language learners.
(Pedagogical writing course reader, pg. 302)’
In order to teach writing as effective as possible, we as teachers must pay a great attention to using the best
methods and strategies to succeed. Evaluation is a very important part of the language teaching and learning. The
measurement of how much and on what way the students develop their skills is one of the most important factor which
influence the second language learning. According to the author of the course reader, the primary objectives of
evaluation should be ‘long-term improvement and cognitive change’ of the students. Also, the author emphasizes the
dilemma about what to evaluate in the written work, should that be the accuracy or fluency of the expressed thoughts.
(Pedagogical writing course reader, pg. 302)’
1 (http://www.ets.org/portal/site/ets/menuitem.c988ba0e5dd572bada20bc47c3921509/?vgnextoid=ef5caf5e44df4010VgnVCM100
022f95 190RCRD&vgnextchannel=2b167f95494f4010VgnVCM10000022f95190RCRD)
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The holistic scoring is a very motivational and helpful method of evaluation, because it is a kind of slight criticism of
the writing assignment, concentrating the critics on the overall text quality and not stuck at each mistake individually.
"Since, in holistic scoring, the entire written text is evaluated as a whole, it is important to establish the specific
criteria upon which the evaluation is to be based prior to undertaking the evaluation. This does not mean establishing a
catalogue of precise individual errors that might appear, but rather deciding what impact the errors that are present have
on the overall tone, structure, and comprehensibility of the writing sample" (Terry 1989: 49).
‘Holistic scoring is a method by which trained readers evaluate a piece of writing for its overall quality. It requires
readers to evaluate the work as a whole, while considering four elements: focus, organization, support, and conventions.
This method is sometimes called focused holistic scoring. In this type of scoring, readers are trained not to become
overly concerned with any one aspect of writing but to look at a response as a whole. The focus of it refers to how clearly
the paper presents and maintains a main idea, theme, or unifying point. Papers representing the higher end of the point
scale demonstrate a consistent awareness of the topic and do not contain extraneous information. Organization refers to
the structure or plan of development (beginning, middle, and end) and whether the points logically relate to one another.
Organization refers to (1) the use of transitional devices to signal the relationship of the supporting ideas to the main
idea, theme, or unifying point and (2) the evidence of a connection between sentences. Papers representing the higher
end of the point scale use transitions to signal the plan or text structure and end with summary or concluding statements.
Support refers to the quality of the details used to explain, clarify, or define. The quality of support depends on word
choice, specificity, depth, credibility, and thoroughness. Papers representing the higher end of the point scale provide
fully developed examples and illustrations in which the relationship between the supporting ideas and the topic is clear.
Conventions refer to punctuation, capitalization, spelling, and variation in sentence used in the paper. These conventions
are basic writing skills included in Florida's Minimum Student Performance Standards and the Uniform Student
Performance Standards for Language Arts. Papers representing the higher end of the scale follow, with few exceptions,
the conventions of punctuation, capitalization, and spelling and use a variety of sentence structures to present ideas. ’
(http: //www. flboe. org/asp/fw/fwaphols. asp)
The main aim of this research proposal is to show the positive effects of the holistic scoring to the students’
language acquisition and to their motivation. Also, the results of the investigation will encourage the teachers and
facilitate the whole teaching learning process.
2. Research Methodology
This action research is done at International University of Struga. I am teaching three different levels: pre-intermediate,
intermediate and upper-intermediate level. The students are mostly 18-19 years old, first and second year university
studies. These students are the experimental groups from whom will be taken the information about how much the
methods used were successful or not, what are their effects into their writing and language skills. I collect the data for this
research in accordance with the advices given in the course reader and also my own methods in order to get a clear idea
of what to use in my teaching, and how often and for which purposes to use holistic scoring into my teaching classes.
In order to gather information about how the holistic scoring affects the students writing and language acquisition
in general I make a few experimental exercises with the students. As a first exercise in my writing class I ask my
intermediate group students to write an essay on the topic ‘If I were the president of the country I would…’ Then I collect
their writings and evaluated them holistically. At the end of each paper I wrote my general view over the essay and gave
them some useful advices how to rewrite it. The next class, I asked them to read the evaluation and to try to rewrite it. At
the end of the class I develop a class discussion about how much this kind of scoring help them when they were rewriting
the text.
Another activity that I made in order to make my research was that I asked my pre-intermediate group to write an
essay on the topic ‘A person that I admire to’ for 54 minutes of the class. After that I mixed up the writings and share the
students’ work with their friends. I gave to each student a list of characteristics of holistic scoring and asked them to
evaluate their friends’ paper regarding their overall view of the paper as relevance of the sentences, incoherence,
whether it is well organized and developed, whether it is detailed enough. After that the students were supposed to
rewrite the paper and to send me the final draft on e-mail. I checked and evaluated their final drafts. The next class we
were discussing the effects of the holistic scoring peer feedback.
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3. Research Results and Discussions
The results of the holistic scoring effect were nearly the same as I was expected them to be. The results of the first
activity that I did with the intermediate class, comparing the second draft of the students with the first one show that the
second one was really different from the first one. My holistic scoring and the advices given there resulted to be very
helpful for the students to gather and structure the information to the essay. They were more careful on the grammar and
spelling mistakes, they were really careful when choosing the vocabulary in order to be well understood, they were more
careful when structuring the essay, they were using more details when explaining or supporting their positions and ect. I
might say that these effects and influence on the writing were noticed at the 80% of the second drafts. This was claimed
by the students also, when we were doing the class discussions. They told me that they were feeling more confident and
they were highly motivated when reading the holistic scoring notes. On this way they said they feel that the teacher has
figure out their weaknesses and he\she found a way how they can improve it by giving the advices. According to their
class discussion, they emphasized that the scoring was really helpful and highly motivational for them.
On the second activity where they were supposed to check their friends work by following some holistic scoring
characteristics, the students get a clear idea of what that means by thinking what to evaluate, what kind of advice they
could give to their friends and ect. This activity raised the communication in the class as well as the student-student
cooperation. So, at the same time the students were improving and developing their writing, speaking and reading skills.
They were developing all other aspects of the language learning by writing, which of course is the main aim of the
teacher, also.
4. Reflection
As I said before the main aim of this research proposal is to show the positive effects of the holistic scoring to the
students’ language acquisition and to their motivation. The activities done in the research helped me to get a general
idea of where and how to use the holistic scoring in my teaching. What the author of the Pedagogical Grammar course
reader book mentions, and with which I totally agree, is that the second language learners make accuracy mistakes while
writing. The teachers should take them positively, because according to the author, the students are making these kinds
of mistakes influenced by the native language transfer, overgeneralization, and difficulty level. The students are trying
hard to learn the second language, and that is why they make mistakes.
What I really like and use in my teaching is combination of the most of these ideas given in the book. I consider the
holistic type of grading as a very effective and encouraging way of evaluating. I really accept the idea which says it is
normally for the second language learners to make accuracy mistakes-which I don’t think that should be ignored, but I
think they should be taught slowly but effectively. By grading generally the whole idea, the students will be more
motivated to write, but having in mind that they must pay more attention to accuracy for the next time. I also think that the
type of evaluation depends on what are we teaching, depends on the level of students, and some other important factors.
I prefer and use holistic type of grading especially for the pre-intermediate and intermediate level second language
learners. The students are really making a good progress in their writing, by emphasizing the communicative purpose of
the ideas, added with the hidden idea of raising the attention to accuracy. Their English language level makes them to
have difficulties while expressing their ideas, so that is why I used the holistic type to motivate and support them. By the
time I start to put some correction of grammar nature, so they would start to think of how to express their idea more
clearly.
As a conclusion I might say that I would recommend to all the teachers to use the holistic scoring writing
assignments, keeping in mind the positive effects of it to the students’ learning progress, explained in my research.
References
Course reader Pedagogical Writing, pg. 238, 302,
http://www.ets.org/portal/site/ets/menuitem.c988ba0e5dd572bada20bc47c3921509/?vgnextoid=ef5caf5e44df4010VgnVCM10000022f9
5190RCRD&vgnextchannel=2b167f95494f4010VgnVCM10000022f95190RCRD)
http: //www. flboe.org/asp/fw/fwaphols.asp)
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Journal of Educational and Social Research
MCSER Publishing, Rome-Italy
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Children and Theory of Mind; Comparison between Children's Ability to
Understand Trying Actions and Pretend Actions in a Behavior Model Analysis
Besjona Dede
Doctoral Student, Department of Psychology and Pedagogy, Faculty of Social Sciences University of Tirana
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2015.v5n1s1p19
Abstract
Children who have just reached 2 years old do engage in activities with symbolic elements. Developmental psychologist argue
that this is a cognitive developmental feature connected to mind processes development. Some of them discuss about using
indented/pretended activities as fact of child’ understanding. The research involved 20 children 18 to 25 months old and 25
children 25-36 months old. Children were applied the behavioral protocol of imaginary and intentional behavior. Children's
reactions to these actions is observed, measured and assessed using behavioral protocol activities. The purpose of this study
is to explore the ability of children 20 to 36 months to understand the intentional actions against symbolic/pretended actions.
This study is theoretically based on cognitive development theories in early childhood, focusing on the use of symbolic
functions that enable children involvement in the play. Certain elements of the study were stimulated by new theories on the
cognitive functioning of representative schemes, ToM and comprehension skills during early childhood. The results of the study
show a tendency of children to understand the purpose of the two behavioral structures answered in accordance with the
typology behavior: after the demonstration of intentional models children react intentionally and after the demonstration of
pretend actions children reacted with imaginative / symbolic actions. The results over the ability to distinguish intention from
pretend is then discussed in the Theory of Mind perspective.
Keywords: Theory of Mind (ToM), cognitive structures, pretend play, early childhood development, intentional models, pretend models.
1. Introduction
The "behave if" play is such a common activity for children who pass in the second year of life that it is not impossible to
be noticed by adults. Their commitment to this form of play is made possible by a set of features associated with motor
development, physical, social and emotional. Ability to act, distinguish, claime are necessarily influenced by the level of
development of cognitive features of this age.
The term "theory of mind" is used to refer to the development of concepts of mental activity in children. However,
theory of mind is more than just a collection of concepts. The theory includes a coherent framework to organize the facts
and to make predictions. Theory of mind (Bjorklund, 2005,p.255) includes recognition of different categories in mind as
dreams, memories, imagination, and other beliefs that have a frame of causal explanation about the actions of other
people.
One aspect of theory of mind in early childhood is related to knowledge of child development; aspects of thinking
and implementation of actions and other issues related to cognition as metacognition and representation (Flavell, Green,
& Flavell, 1998; Schwanenflugel, Henderson, & Fabricius, 1998 cit. by Bjorklund, 2005 p.256).
Generally there are two groups of researchers discussing about the theory of mind (Wellman et.al, 200, p. 659).
Members of the first group argue that children 3 years old (and probably younger) have the same basic abilities as older
children but the demands of tasks, issues and complex information processing limitations prevent them from displaying
these abilities in many situations.
Members of the second group suggest that there is a real conceptual change during the preschool years and there
are age-related differences in the performance of actions "false belief". So, they are the result of "real change in the
concept of children on the individual" (Wellmanet. al., 2001 p. 671)
Cognitive development is part of the holistic development of the individual. Basically it is believed that cognitive
development processes are a potential combination of genetic and environmental stimuli. There are two different
approaches to cognitive development during the last decade: The first is the increasing emphasis on the biological basis
of development and the second position is the increasing emphasis on the social construct of cognition; perspective that
the way children learn to think is run by the culture.
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Socialcultural psychologists believe that the way we develop, especially the way we think is the primary function of
the social and cultural environment in which we grow. This view emphasizes the fact that people think in different ways
about the fact that all we have in common the fact we're human being. The universal point of view on cognitive
development of Jean Piaget emphasize the cognitive features, the aspects of development that characterize the
development in every child. In this attitudes’ discussion the conclusion is that cognitive skills are defined by innate traits
but the environment determines the development potential of these features.
Thus, according Piaget, the cognitive development passes through several stages. At the age of 2-7 years old
children are in the stage of operational thinking. During this stage, children learn symbols that represent objects, play
with dolls,develop imagination, imitate the actions of adults (Orhan, 2005, p. 61). The main principle is related to the
child, not as a human being that simply imitate itself (J. Piaget, 1976, p. 14). Studies in recent years on child
development support the idea of association between cognitive development and symbolic game during early childhood.
Based on the classical theory of Piaget, on cognitive development in early childhood children begin using symbolic
functions. Thus, according to Harris and Kavanaugh, (2006 cit. Rakoczy ,Tomasello, p.558), after the implementation of
some experiments proved that around the age of 2 years children begin to understand and follow the pretend actions by
presenting them in a pretend scenario. As related to cognitive ability, Liliard (1998, p.20) has noticed that pretend play
involves negotiation between parties with different views, the representation of objects in two ways (real and pretend),
role play, all actions that suggest that children who engage in these activities mental representation skills. In the study of
Rakoczy & Tomasello, (2006 p.557-564) children 22 months made similar general patterns reaction, although in a much
easier way: Generally these children responded significantly to both types of models, revealed by the fact that each type
of conclusive answers was performed significantly more often in the same conditions compared with the opposite
conditions.
The concept of theory of mind is developed based on the theory explaining the development of the mind. The
theory presented by Simon Baron-Cohen (1995 cit by Bjorklund, 2005, p. 255) relates to the interaction of four separate
modules from each other that include reading the mind and development during infancy and early childhood. The earlier
module is intentional investigator (ID) that interprets moving objects based on aim or purpose. The second module is of
the direction of the eyes (EDD) has three functions related to each other: the presence of visibility investigating to
determine the presence of viewing or viewing as a stimulus to determine whether visually refers to the individual or
another and interferes thought that when the eye sees something, then that individual is seeing that. These two modules
zhvilllohen from birth until the 9th month of life. Module tretëështë divided attention mechanism (SAM) which includes
three modes of interaction and representation (achievement of deduction) Simon Baron-Cohen (1995 cit by Bjorklund,
2005, p. 257). This module takes place in the month of 9 to 18 of life. And the last module of the Theory of Mind (Tomm)
qëështë substantially similar to real-desire reasoning and takes place between the ages of 18-48 months.
Rakoczy, Tomasello and Striano (2004, f.388-399) have challenged the theory of behavior as in the claim that
children under four years of age do not understand the claim as a form of targeted action. They pretend that younger
children already understand the claim as a form of action with specific purpose demeanor as different from other forms of
behavior as though they do not understand the epistemic structure of claim, although difficult to accomplish tasks
complex.
In a set of experiments conducted by Rakoczy and Tomasello, (2006, p. 557-564 ) children 36 months showed
very clearly that they understand the claim and effort in such models: models attempt after they performed actions to
realize real trying often commented (eg, "I can not do this ") but after models claim they did not care about the real
consequences of their actions (p.sh if there tis water in the holder). Children 26 months showed the same patterns, most
models attempt to realize real action or behavior, attempts have and rarely showed by the pretneder. Following models
claim they generally performed feedback and trying that claim could lead to the conclusion that the effort may be
impossible action at this age. One more important case is that after trying models in children 26 months more answers
fail to meet the criteria to be trying and pretending.
In a third study Racoczy et.al (2009, p.61-69) similar patterns were presented to children 3 years old but not in a
conditional imitation game. For encroached upon the practical conditions of the situation are determined to encourage
more productive and decisive response by introducing additional objects as working tools and toys that can be used in
operations and true claimant. So in this study and 3 years old children performed significantly more correct than incorrect
answers after any kind of model.
These findings were also added to the credibility of the data field of the development of claim: Harris and
Kavanaugh (1993) for example found consistently that around the age of 2 years children start to become proficient in
understanding and pursuing the pretendurs scenarios undetected. An additional explanation could be that children may
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understand what an adult might have done in this model but failed to show sufficient signals in their reactions to achieve
the behavior rating scale claimant.
In their theory Nichols. S & Stich.S (2000) claimed representations are kept in a separate mental work, a Possible
World Box, that is part of the architecture of the human mind. Representations in the Possible World Box is likely to have
the same content as beliefs. Mental representations have the same "code" representation as beliefs and representations
in Possible World Box processed from the same update mechanisms and setting (conclusion) that operate on real
beliefs. This model also sets a scenario processor included in the decoration of the facts that were there. The authors
assert that the behavior seen in pretend play is motivated not by a "desire claim" but from a real desire to act in a way
that fits the description built by the Possible World Box. The authors defend the idea that this structure can accommodate
the central features of the actions shown in the pretend examples and that alternative structures or can not
accommodate or fail to address some pretend features.
Thus, the pretend episodes typically begin with an initial condition or set of conditions which are basic principles on
that will be pretend. Pretended behavior is initiated by the pretender in a initiator condition (if he / she who initiates) and
must indicate which is the initial condition and decide on the succession if the is other condition or pretender that initiates
the pretend action. If the pretender decides to countinue, the his / her cognitive system should begin to generate
thoughts and actions appropriate to the authenticity of the pretended condition.
Then the determination often plays an important role in meeting the details of what happens during the pretend
action. Starting from the initial conditions and then the perceptions, existing knowledge, the memory of what happened in
the episode and no doubt from many other sources the pretender is able to chart definitions on what is happening in the
claim.
Beyond determining processing in children and adults process and claim scenarios in ways that are not definitive.
In some circumstances it is a matter of filling in history by the scenario. Perhaps the most visible evidence on the claim is
that the claimant makes the actions that are appropriate for the claim.
Episodes can last claim in different time periods. When an episode is finished claimant typically not claiming
implementing activities and events that have occurred in the context of the claim and are a limited effect on the mental
state post claimant. One obvious way in which they appear nIn limited form is when claimants do not believe that the
alleged events are happening in reality. Moreover, as Leslie (1987) noted, even the youngest children do not believe that
bananas are mobile. And as more adults. For even more during the course of themselves claim, the claimant believes it
really is typically distinct from what he believes in the case of claiming episodes context. The belief system of contenders
is not completely isolated from the content of the claim. After an episode people typically claim individuals typically have
accurate beliefs about what happens in the episode pretender; they remember the case of claim.
2. Methodology
2.1 Research question
The research question of the study is : Does children 18 to 36 months have the ability to distinguish actions as
intentional or symbolic?
2.2 Participants
The sample consisted of 20 children 18 -24 months old and 25 children 25-36 months old; The children selected
attend public day care and education institutions (crèches in Tirana city). The Groups of children were selected at
random at 3 day care centers. The selection criteria were age and gender. The selection ratio of the age and gender
aimed to respect gender and age ratios in the general population of children that frequent the day centers in Tirana. The
selection of institutions have all been conducted based on criteria of homogeneity of social factors.
2.3 Application
There was applied a model based on the protocol used by Hannes Rakoczy and Michael Tomasello (2006) by a trained
specialist. Activities and games used in this procedure were selected from the education program that is implemented in
public kindergartens based on group age. There were presented two models of action: if it was eating / trying to eat; pour
pretending / trying to pour. Each child was presented two action models of trying and two action models of pretending by
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the same theme. The order of operations and the definition of objects of the same subject to trying and pretending
actions change from case to case. The order of topics within the same sequence was the same. In the beginning the
tester specialist and child played freely, the tester did some simple actions, two pretending actions with an object
whatever, two pretend actions and asks the child to do the same action. Then realized the first testing session, which
consists of two models of actions. The procedure followed by the second session of the trying and pretend the extra
phase and the second testing session. During the application protocol a specialist based on coding conducted the
behavior classification.
2.4 Procedures and preparatory actions
Simple actions preparatory of pretend and trying (1) dig a whole (with a new object, (2) behave if makes a call (with the
same object) (3) trying to make music with piano children (by pressing a button that does not work) 2. The first trying and
pretending section with additional action: (1) behave if someone is brushing the teeth, (2) behave if it is making a shower
(3) attempting to open a container (using pliers), (4) trying to open a second container (then using pliers), (5) act if it is
drinking and as it is opening a bottle of fruit juice, (6) cutting some dough with pliers, (7) behave if it is cooking
something.3. session of the first test (for half of the children the pretending behavior, the other half the trying behavior) 4.
The second trying and pretend session with additional action, (1) behave if someone combs the hair, (2) trying to open a
box, (3) behave it is washing something, (4) tries to write (with a pen that has a lid) .5. The second testing session (for
half of the children the pretending behavior, the other half the trying behavior).
Each coding behavior was classified into one of five categories: "inferential pretend" when the child performs an
action in accordance with the thematic contender, that goes beyond what the tester performs; "simple pretend" when the
child performs what seems like a clear contender. Conversely, responses were coded as "inferential trying" when the
child discovers from an action / word recognition that the goal was to implement a successful action or as "simple trying"
when the child perform something that looks like a clear example of a trying behavior. Finally, the category "unclear"
answers that do not meet the above categories.
2.5 Validity and ethical principles
The using standard procedures has minimize subjectivity in applying the protocol from the testers and in data
interpretation. The procedure is carried out by a tester/specialist who is instructed to use the same standards applicable
to each behavioral sequence of each child. The tester is supervised. The behavioral coding is performed by an appraiser
who is instructed and trained to follow the same behavior as indicators of ability. To increase the validity of coding is used
a double check procedure. The institutional permission and the informed consent is obtained in advance by the
institutions and parents. During the study the ethical and moral principles have been respected. Confidentiality was
respected during the work with children.
3. Results
At the end of the study showed that from 20 children 18- 25 months during the intentional stimulation behavior model 4
of them follow "inferencial pretending", 3 show "simple pretend", 5 showed "inferential intention", 7 show "simple
intention" and the behavior of one child was classified "not clear". While during pretending stimulation model behavior 6
children show "inferencial pretending", 5 children showed "simple pretending", 3 showed "inferential intention", 4 show
"simple intention/trying" and the behavior of two children was classified "not clear ". While the behavior of 25 children 2536 months showed that from during the intentional stimulation behavior model 3 of them follow "inferencial pretending",
4 show "simple pretend", 6 showed "inferential intention", 7 show "simple intention" and the behavior of 5 children was
classified "not clear". While during pretending stimulation model behavior 7 children show "inferencial pretending", 3
children showed "simple pretending", 3 showed "inferential intention", 3 show "simple intention/trying" and the behavior of
5 children was classified "not clear ".
4. Discussion
Thus studies in the theory of mind provide complete data than 3 years old children understand the target pretend
structure as a specific form of action and game different from other forms of behavior though. In contradiction to the
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theory of “if behavior”, these data indicate that children at smaller age have at least the ability to understand the hidden
elements of the pretended or intentional actions. The data for children 2 years old are really unclear. In imitative
character studies fail to show children the more correct than incorrect responses after pretend models. This may be a
consequence of the conceptual problem that children can not understand the true structure of the pretend actions in
target.
Another explanation may be the result of unclear instructions or negative ones. One possibility could be that the
problems in the implementation of the guidelines problems occur due to improper submission after pretending models;
although they perceive action model presuming they see that the object can be used to perform the action in reality and
were unable to overcome the tendencies of "superiority", etc. Another source could be that children misunderstand
practical elements of the situation, so they understand the actions modeled as claims and deliberately misinterpret the
model as pedagogical aspect.
This option becomes more plausible by the fact that after pretending models many children 2 years old give many
answers that do not meet either criteria or attempt to claim.
According to the research issues examined in the present study, specific results show that children 20 to 36
months have the ability to distinguish intentional actions symbolic ones. Children 25-36 months have more ability to
distinguish intentional actions with symbolic ones under the stimulus of the respective models; children 20-25 months
understand the aim’ actions and follow the presented models but find it difficult to improvise beyond the model to
introduce and express in words the quality of the acts performed. In a detailed comparison between reactions compatible
and not compatible after the presentation of each model, the children presented more compatible responses than noncompatible ones after the presentation of the model. So, the symbolic play influence the cognitive development and the
cognitive skills according to the development stage influence the pretend play performance in early childhood. While on
the findings in this study show that children 3 years of age but probably sooner have the ability to distinguish the actions
purposiveness of the self and others; Well they have a theory of mind.
References
S Goldstein & J Naglieri, Encyclopedia of Child Behavior and Development, Springer Science+Business Media LLC, 2011, f. 522-523.
A Lillard, Playing with a theory of mind, In O. N. Saracho & B. Spodek Multiple perspectives on play in early childhood, Albany: State
University of Neë York Press, 1998 f. 11-33.
Z Orhani, Psikologjia konjitive, Ada, 2005, f.61, 262-263.
R Shelov and R Hannermann, Caring for your baby and young child: Birth to 5, American Academy of Pediatrics, 2004 www.cdc.gov/
actearly
D Bergen, The Role of Pretend Play in Children's Cognitive Development , ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood
Education Champaign IL Miami University, Volume 4 Number 1, 2002.
M Robinson, Child Development 0–8, A Journey through the Early Years, Open University Press, NY, 2008, f.157
J Piaget, The child conception of the world, Littlefield, Adams and CO, Totoëa New Yersey, 1976, f.14
S Johnson, The nature of cognitive development, Trends in Cognitive Sciences, Vol.7, No.3, Mars 2003 f.102-104.
Hannes Rakoczy∗ , Felix Warneken, Michael Tomasello, Young children’s selective learning of rule games from reliable and unreliable
models, Cognitive Development 24 (2009) 61–69
Rakoczy H, Tomasello M, Striano T. Young children know that trying is not pretending: a test of the "behaving-as-if" construal of
children's early concept of pretense. Dev Psychol. 2004 May;40(3):388-99.
H Rakoczy and M Tomasello, Two-year-olds grasp the intentional structure of pretense acts, Developmental Science 9:6 (2006), f. 557–
564.
Kelly, R., Hammond, S., Dissannayake, Ch., Ihsen, E., The relationship between symbolic play and executive functions in young
children, Australiasia Journal of Early Childhood, pp 21-28;
Bjorklund. David, “Children’s Thinking; Cognitive Development and Inidividual Differences”, Bot. i IV; Wadsworth, 2005
Wellman HM, Cross D, Watson J. Meta-analysis of theory-of-mind development: the truth about false belief Child Dev. 2001 MayJun;72(3):655-84.
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Age as a Determining Factor in L1 and L2 Acquisition
Antonija Šarić
Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Faculty of Food Technology Osijek,
Kuhačeva 18, 31000 Osijek, Croatia
Lidija Obad
Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Faculty of Food Technology Osijek,
Kuhačeva 18, 31000 Osijek, Croatia
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2015.v5n1s1p25
Abstract
This paper deals with L1 and L2 acquisition and factors which inhibit or stimulate this acquisition. It is generally agreed that L1
acquisition is neurologically, psychologically and cognitively conditioned and there is a critical period for a morphosyntactic
language acquisition. However, certain aspects of L1 development can extend far into adulthood. When considering L2
acquisition, special attention is paid to the critical period which extends to the age of nine due to neurological and biological
factors. Cerebral flexibility enables direct language acquisition aspiring to achieve native speaker's standard regarding the
phonological and morphological aspects and the access to Universal Grammar. Early language acquisition requires less
cognitive effort supporting the idea that less is more. Some latest discoveries, however, dispute this claim arguing that brain
plasticity is not lost at that age. Emphasis is also given to the exercise hypothesis relating to the idea that capacity for language
learning remains lifelong provided the learners start language exercise at an early age. On the other hand, maturation state
hypothesis advocates that capacity for language learning declines with maturation regardless the exercise. When discussing
L2 acquisition and nativelike ultimate attainment three various hypotheses are taken into consideration. The first one claims
that native speaker's level is achievable only by child starters. The second one supports the former hypothesis adding that it is
possible not only to child starters but also to individual late starters. The third hypothesis disputes these claims stating that
nativelike ultimate attainment cannot be achieved by any of those learners.
Keywords: L1, L2 acquisition, critical period, nativelike ultimate attainment, child and late starters
1. Introduction
The issue of possible existence of an age factor in language development is a topic which generates a great interest and
encourages fierce debates. The study of the age factor stretches far back into history, though systematic research
commenced in the 1960s. Thorough overviews of such research can be found in the works of David Singleton (2005),
Singleton and Ryan (2004) Birdsong (1999), and Nikolov (2009). The reasons for emergence of further discussions on
the age factor in language development are derived from both theory and practice. The theoretical side can be explained
by the fact that there is an interaction between the limitation faced by adult students when acquiring language and the
idea that language development is backed by special biological programming, whereas the practical side involves the
assertion that young learners of the second language possess an advantage over the older ones. That assertion
becomes a frequent topic when discussing about an optimal age to start second language learning at school (Singleton
and Ryan, 2004).
What remains controversial in this light is the issue whether there is an exclusively neurologically dependent
critical period after which language acquisition is not possible any more or is greatly hampered. It might be that after
childhood, the ability of language acquisition gradually declines as a result of the interaction between neurological,
cognitive, psychological and social factors.
2. Critical Period for L1 Acquisition
Studies of the critical period for first language acquisition are scarce, mostly due to the fact that only few children could
not acquire their mother tongue naturally and hence the presence of such a critical period has often been researched
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based on the language of people who have suffered brain damage followed by aphasia. The above studies have
facilitated the conclusion that brain damage appearing at an early age implies a higher probability of full recovery, i. e.
when there is still a possibility of language development. Confirmation of the existence of such a critical period is
provided by children who were deprived of normal childhood and thus of first language acquisition (Steinberg, Nagata
and Aline, 2001, as cited in Medved Krajnović, 2010).
The story of a boy named Victor who lived in the first half of the 19th century serves as an acknowledgement of a
critical period for first language acquisition. At the age of 12, the boy showed up in the French village of Aveyron, walked
on four legs and produced inarticulate sounds. The boy’s upbringing was trusted to Dr. Itard who worked at the Institute
for People with Hearing Impairment in Paris and who attempted to acquaint the boy with social and linguistic behaviour.
The boy managed to get used to some social norms, but he never learned more than a few words while due to his short
life, his inability of language acquisition has never been clarified. It is still unclear if his inability resulted from skipping the
critical period for language acquisition or from poor raising conditions or from some other congenital disorder.
The story of a psychically and physically abused girl named Genie who was put in a dark room at the age of just
20 months and kept there by her father who would only enter the room to bring her the food or to empty the chamber pot
to which she was attached to, is even more prominent. The father did not communicate with her at all but only growled at
her and when she tried to get into any kind of contact with him, he would beat her. The girl was found in Los Angeles in
the 1970s when she was 13 years old. After having been taught for four years, she acquired vocabulary typical for five
year-olds, but she had problems with syntax. She spoke telegraphically and could not comprehend complex grammatical
structures. Although there is more available information about Genie’s childhood, one still faces the issue about the
cause of the inability of development of normal language skills. Is it a result of a late exposure to language learning or a
consequence of the brutal living conditions?
On the other hand, there are plenty of proofs that the first language development continues long after puberty.
While researching the morphology of the first language of Dutch pupils aged from 7 to 17, Smedts (1988 as cited in
Singleton and Ryan, 2004) revealed that his seven year old examinees were, in average, familiar with only 14 % of the
Dutch morphology, the 13-year olds knew only 51 % of the rules in question and the 17 year old children were
acquainted with more than 66 % of these rules. In fact, some aspects of the development of the first language go deep
into adulthood.
Singleton (1989) drew the conclusion that if a child is exposed to any language in normal circumstances, he/she
adopts the language fairly fast following the universal developmental pattern. It implies that children say their first words
at the age of one, they significantly expand their vocabulary when they are two, and use two words in combination, when
they turn three, a rise in their syntactic complexity and development of functional morphemes is manifested and when
they are five, their entire linguistic system is shaped.
3. Critical Period for L2 Acquisition
In 1959, Penfield and Roberts, shared the opinion in their work, entitled Speech and Brain Mechanisms, that children can
acquire their second language more efficiently due to neurological and biological factors. They collected evidences
which encouraged them to claim that ˝after the age of nine, for the purposes of learning languages, the human brain
becomes progressively stiff and rigid. ˝ (Penfield and Roberts, 1959 as cited in Singleton and Ryan, 2004). They
advocated the idea that children should be introduced to the second language early in life since "when languages are
taken up for the first time in the second decade of life, it is difficult to achieve a good result because it is unphysiological"
(Penfield and Roberts, 1959 in Singleton and Ryan, 2004).
In their opinion, the child’s brain possesses certain capacity for language learning and there might be a biological
clock therein. They proposed a limit of about nine years of age until which there is cerebral flexibility that enables direct
learning through information input. These scientists also explained lower levels of language acquisition as a
consequence of a late start of language learning. According to them, children begin to think analytically at the age of
nine and learn the second language through the first one. While investigating cases which involved recovery after
aphasia, Lundeberg (1967) noticed that the examined children quickly regained their speaking ability that was not the
case with adults. He explained that according to the theory, brain cell lateralization begins approximately at the age of
two and ends before puberty. This theory is supported by the brain plasticity hypothesis, namely, in case of an injury of
the left hemisphere during childhood, the brain remains flexible, plastic enough, to let other parts take over the language
function. As children grow up, this plasticity vanishes (Hyltenstam and Abrahamson, 2003).
However, Lundeberg (1967) thinks that adults can learn a foreign language as well, which does not deny the
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theory of the critical period since:
a) adults are privileged as they have already learned one language, which means that some fundamental
principles do not have to be acquired later;
b) adults are mature in the cognitive context and good at learning the aspects of the second language via
learning mechanisms which are generally well used by them and adolescents, defined as explicit learning;
c) adults were not able to reach the standard of native speakers, particularly in the area of pronunciation despite
the cognitive maturity and great efforts.
A certain number of authors who do not necessarily embrace the concept of critical period laid down by Lenneberg
support, nevertheless, the idea that post-puberty second language learning is more conscious and difficult. Krashen,
Scarcella and Long (1979) disclosed the following conclusions on second language acquisition:
1) adults make more progress in the initial acquisition stages as far as morphology and syntax are concerned;
2) older children acquire language faster than the young ones (in the light of morphology and syntax);
3) children are superior to adults in the long run.
In the 1970s, the existence of a critical period for language acquisition was much discussed and resulted in
opposing opinions, which is why Krashen, Scarcella and Long (1979) divided the studies into two groups:
a) the first group encompassed those studies which dealt with the early beginnings of language learning;
b) the second one with the conclusions related to ultimate attainment. In the end, the authors drew the
conclusion that older learners acquire some aspects of language faster than the young ones in the beginning,
but young learners (particularly children) soon catch up with the former and finally surpass them. Although the
last conclusion does not specifically involve ultimate attainment (Long, 1990 in Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson,
2003), research shows that young learners can, though rarely, reach the level of native speakers, which is
almost impossible regarding grown-ups.
Numerous studies of the linguistic competence of immigrants reveal that it is much better to be exposed to the
second language at an early age (Asher and Garcia, 1969; Patkowski, 1980 in Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson, 2003;
Johnson and Newport, 1989). Johnson and Newport (1989) offer two interpretations of the theory of the critical period:
a) the first theory was entitled Exercise Hypothesis. It suggests that people possess superior capacity for
language acquisition at an early age and if this capacity is not exercised on time, it gradually disappears or
declines as individuals get older. If it is used, other language skills stay intact.
b) the second theory was called Maturational State Hypothesis. In line with this theory, people have superior
capacity for language acquisition which disappears or declines with the process of maturation. The two
theories represent different implications of the age factor in second language acquisition. According to the
Exercise Hypothesis, learners who were not in touch with the first language during their childhood are not
capable of acquiring the second language later on. However, if they acquire the first language in their
childhood, their capacity for second language acquisition should not be impaired and is expected to be
exercised at any age or in other words, children and adults are equal when it comes to second language
acquisition and thus age does not matter in this context.
On the other hand, the Maturational State Hypothesis propagates that there is something extraordinary about the
development of the child’s brain that enables children to adapt to the acquisition of the first or second language. It also
assumes the standpoint that the capacity for second language acquisition declines regardless of its exercise. In
compliance with the latter hypothesis, age does matter in terms of second language acquisition. Both hypotheses can be
interpreted if ones take into account the initial level concerning second language acquisition or ultimate attainment of
learners of different ages and the capacity of acquiring various linguistic domains, which declines by time. According to
the aforementioned, adults advance more rapidly at the initial language acquisition levels (Krashen, Long and Scarcella,
1979) while children catch up with the grown-ups in the end (Singleton, 1989).
The capacity for second language acquisition that declines over time can be observed through the morphological,
phonological and syntactic domain. Johnson and Newport (1989) investigated the syntactic competence of Korean and
Chinese children aged 3 to 39 by assessing their grammatical accuracy to evaluate the attainment of English as the
second language with respect to their different age of arrival in the United Stated of America. The authors agreed that the
syntactic performance of learners drops with the age of arrival in a foreign country, revealing a sharp decline between 14
and 16 years of age while children who came to America between three and seven years of age achieved results at the
native speakers' level. Using a sample of 23 Chinese learners of English as the second language, who came to the USA
at the age from 18 to 38, Johnson and Newport (1991) studied the acquisition of linguistic universals. The results
disclosed that linguistic universals became less accessible to learners as they get older. Furthermore, the authors share
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the opinion that the changes occurring between childhood and adulthood have an effect on all the aspects of grammar
acquisition, including the access to the Universal Grammar.
Regarding the morphological domain, Harley (1986) studied the level of acquisition of the French verb system in
Canada using two groups of learners after 1000-hours language course and the data were collected by means of
interviews and translation exercises. According to Harley, neither group managed to completely master the verb system,
but the older groups achieved poorer results, demonstrating that the ability of second language acquisition declines even
in the morphological domain. With respect to the phonological domain, Oyama (1976 in Dong and Ren, 2013)
researched the accent of 60 immigrants to America aged between 5 and 18 rated by the native speakers. They
concluded that children who moved to America at an early age did not have a foreign accent unlike those who were older
than 12 when they came to the USA, which proves that the phonological competence of second language acquisition
deteriorates by time as well. Second language acquisition (from the viewpoint of the initial level of acquisition or as
ultimate attainment) depends on the early beginning of learning. The loss of the acquisition competence during the
critical period gives relevance to the Maturational State Hypothesis, i. e. age influences second language acquisition.
The research conducted by Johnson and Newport has remained dominant with respect to the limitations of maturation
and critical period.
Concerning the age factor and second language acquisition, Bley-Vroman (1988, as cited in Medved Krajnović,
2010) offered a fundamental difference hypothesis, according to which adults acquire second languages in a way
different from that of children, i. e. children unconsciously take advantage of the congenital structure of the Universal
Grammar, whereas adults apply their knowledge of the first language (mother tongue) to utilize general learning
mechanisms, i. e. their analytical skills while considering the organization of the second language. Accordingly, adult
learners possess two privileges – the native language and general problem-solving ability which supplement each other
or better to say, the native language opens up a path to the Universal Grammar and the general problem-solving ability is
activated in analysing second language data, though this cooperation cannot compensate for the loss of the Universal
Grammar, which is at hand to children. In order to clarify the age factor in second language acquisition, Felix (1985, as
cited in Dong and Ren, 2013) developed a competition model, according to which, children’s language learning is guided
by a language-specific cognitive system, whereas adults apply their cognitive problem-solving system. These two
systems compete. Newport (1990) defended the assumption less is more, which suggests that in case of early, natural
exposure to a second language, investment of less conscious and cognitive efforts guarantees more success.
Nevertheless, limited time and a need for structured learning (school environment) encourage adults and older children
to learn more efficiently due to their explicit analytical skills. In terms of teaching efficiency, Moyer (2004) focuses on
learning methods, having an emphasis on communication, since learners deem the same methods as being the most
relevant, which is not the case with grammatical and translation exercises that lead to a delay of speech.
DeKeyser (2000) surveyed 57 English learners aged from 1 to 40 who were Hungarians and residents of the USA
for 10 or more years. DeKeyser’s test included 200 sentences; a few original sentences were deleted or amended while
some supposedly difficult structures to the Hungarian examinees were added. Along with a grammatical assessment
test, there was a linguistic competence test. This study was aimed at challenging the fundamental difference hypothesis
(Bley-Vroman, 1988, as cited in in Medved Krajnović, 2010). Similar to the research conducted by Johnson and Newport
(1989), DeKeyser’s investigation did reveal significant correlations between the tests and variables such as length of
stay, years of education or the age when the test was taken; there was only one negative correlation between the age
and grammatically judgement tests. All children aged 16 or younger resolved correctly 180 out of 200 sentences (except
a person who found solutions for only 170 sentences) while the score of most of the adult examinees (16 years of age or
older) was below 180 points. However, it came to an overlap between these two groups; six examinees in the older
groups had a relatively high score (above 175) and three of them exceeded the 180-point threshold. Such a score was
derived, in DeKeyser’s view, from the significant correlation between the results achieved at the grammatically judgement
tests and the results accomplished at the general linguistic ability tests. The group with children aged 16 or less did not
disclose any correlation between the grammatical competence and general linguistic ability. In other words, adult
examinees with excellent results, similar to those of children who were exposed to the language at an early age, were
characterized by a relatively high verbal-analytical competence, which facilitated their acquisition of the second language
through an explicit overview of grammatical rules. In addition, DeKeyser’s (2000) research showed that some structures
are less prone to the age factor, which can be explained by means of perceptive prominence or in other words, the less
prominent morphological structure, the less vulnerable it is to the age factor. Although DeKeyser’s research is viewed as
a consolidated version of Johnson and Newport’s study (1989), it still involves certain flaws. One of them refers to the
fact that the assertion that only adult learners with a high verbal competence can match children is not completely true
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since one out of three grown-ups did not have a high score at the general linguistic ability test. Likewise, since none of
the native speakers served as a research control group, it is hard to compare the obtained results with native speakers’
competence.
Hyltenstam and Abrahamson (2000) think that students who start learning a second language at an early age
differentiate from native speakers and claim that there is no person who started learning a second language as a
beginner and achieved the characteristics of native speakers regarding all linguistic aspects.
Today there are few scientists who deny the long-lasting advantage of children who start acquiring a second
language as small children (Krashen, Long and Scarcella, 1979; Long, 1990). Yet, there are some discrepancies about
the issue if this fact is to be explained by biological factors or limitations imposed on a learner together with maturational
or socio-psychological factors. Most controversies on the issue of the critical period arise due to Lenneberg’s (1967)
original formulation of the critical period:
Automatic acquisition from mere exposure to a given language seems to disappear (after puberty), and foreign
languages have to be taught and learned through a conscious and laboured effort. Foreign accents cannot be overcome
easily after puberty. However, a person can learn to communicate at the age of forty. This does not trouble our basic
hypothesis. (p. 176)
Indeed, the central place in the original formulation of the critical period is taken by the possibility of language
acquisition up to the native speakers’ level. Several scientists have lately stressed the fact that the hypothesis on the
critical period and limitation of the maturational state relate to the capacity for language acquisition at the native
speakers’ level (Birdsong, 1999; Long, 1993 in Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson, 2003). Studies on the limitation of
maturation or of the critical period have enticed the issues related to Lenneberg’s fundamental concepts. At least three
different theories which set ground for the researched issues can be considered. These are:
a) The first theory completely coincides with Lenneberg’s theory and is focused on a language ability acquisition
similar to that of native speakers, namely, simply through exposure to a second language. In this case, the
hypothesis on the critical period should be regarded as groundless if this ability similar to native speakers' is
found in learners, who start acquiring a language beyond a certain age limit, irrespective of the acquisition
mode.
b) The second theory also deals with the respective age and ultimate language attainment and suggests that
young learners outrank the older ones, which is witnessed by the final results with respect to ultimate
attainment, even though older students sometimes reach the attainment level higher than that of the young
ones under the same conditions.
c) According to the third theory, young learners are generally better at language acquisition than their older
colleagues. The theory should be deemed as unfounded if older students are better than the young ones
according to a success measurement in a particular area under the same learning conditions (Snow and
Hoefnagel-Höhle, 1978 in Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson, 2003). While describing this theory, studies on
ultimate attainment were neglected, which implies abilities similar to those of native speakers.
If acquisition of a second language vastly results from conscious efforts, i. e. learning in formal circumstances, the
advantages of an early onset are either not recognized or it may be stated that they depend both on the age and many
other factors (Nikolov 2009). Therefore, the ultimate success in foreign language learning is attributed to the interaction
of a number of factors – motivational, interlingual, educational, generally cognitive and affective, e. g. a positive attitude
towards all novelties and a low level of linguistic-cultural identity (Singleton 2001 in Medved Krajnović, 2010). Moyer
(2004) also stressed that age is connected with socio-psychological factors such as motivation intensity, personal
motivation, satisfaction with the achievement and personal fluency assessment. Later exposure to a language is
characterized not only by stronger personal and professionally-oriented motivation but also by weaker satisfaction and
lower fluency assessment and more intense aspiration to the native speakers’ accent.
Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson (2003) substituted the concept of the critical or sensitive period for language
acquisition with the concept of maturational period. They elaborated a model dealing with the role of the age of onset
(AoA) of language acquisition, which reveals the interdependence of maturation factors, socio-psychological influences
and the influence of practice. This involves the possibility of natural use of language and the possibility of conscious
efforts of an individual to improve their own knowledge of a language. In compliance with these authors, maturational or
neurological-cognitive factors have the key role in the successfulness of language acquisition all the way to adolescence,
while later in life the major role is played by socio-psychological factors and the language practice. In addition, the
authors think that the ability of language acquisition gradually declines immediately after the birth and that foreign
language speakers, no matter if they started to acquire a language at an early or late stage of life, can never reach the
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native speakers’ competence at all levels. Considering the importance given to maturational factors in language
acquisition by the aforementioned authors, the role of the first language in second language acquisition is extremely
important, since second language acquisition at later stages of life is hardly possible due to maturation limitation. Moyer
(2004) investigated the role of age and maturation. The research results demonstrated that the age effects are not
equally prominent during different ages of onset of the second language learning, i. e. around 15 years of age, other
factors play an important role in language acquisition since certain neurological changes are stabilized in puberty.
There are a growing number of studies showing that even individuals who start acquiring a second language after
puberty can also reach a very high level of linguistic and communication ability. The first of such studies was published
by Coppieters (1987 in Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson, 2003) who gave syntactic and semantic assessment tests to 21
adult learners of French as a foreign language, followed by an oral interview. However, although the examinees were
preliminarily characterized as native speakers and although they answered the questions related to syntactic-semantic
assessment correctly, their general score did not match the score of native speakers since the recorded interviews
discovered mistakes in the structures resolved in the assessment exercises. Birdsong (1992 in Hyltenstam and
Abrahamsson, 2003) made a replica of Coppieters’ research using strict criteria for selection of examinees and realized
that 15 out of 20 examinees, i. e. learners who started learning French as a foreign language, accomplished the same
score at demanding grammatically judgement tests as native speakers.
Ioup, Boustagui, El Tigi and Moselle (1994 in Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson 2003) observed Julie, a talented
British woman who moved to Cairo at the age of 21 (she had never learned Arabic before), married an Arab man and
worked as an English teacher at school. At the time of the research, she had lived in Cairo for 26 years. The same
authors kept track of Laura, an exceptionally talented American who had learned Arabic at various universities and in
various countries before coming to Cairo, and during the performance of the research had been married to an Egyptian
for already 10 years. What makes this research different from other similar studies is an extremely large number of
measuring instruments which involved some highly demanding tasks. The examiners rated the women’s oral production,
the ability of their differentiation of dialects and their grammatical competence (translation, grammatically judgement
tests, anaphoric interpretation). The research disclosed that both Julie and Laura accomplished better results at dialect
differentiation tests than some native speakers (Julie had somewhat better score than Laura did). At the oral production
tests, both women were graded as native speakers by most examiners (native speakers of Arabic and teachers of Arabic
as a foreign language) and at the grammatical intuition tests, both examinees achieved a high score (although slightly
below that of native speakers). In other words, the differences between Julie and Laure and other native speakers were
negligible. Ioup Boustagui, El Tigi and Moselle (1994 in Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson, 2003) assumed that if there are
exceptions in the critical period, the supposed neurocognitive differences do not occur in an ordinary way, although it is
not clear if the usual acquisition manner keeps being functional or if there is an alternative system which substitutes the
former.
Hyltenstam (1992 in Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson, 2003) examined the grammatical and lexical performance of
24 advanced examinees – Spanish and Finnish learners of Swedish aged 17-18 (their teachers did not immediately
recognize them as non-native speakers). Out of 24 examinees, 16 of them started learning the second language when
they were six years old or younger and 8 of them were eight years old or older. The examinees were bilingual and they
actively used both languages. The group of 12 native Swedish speakers served as a control group and also participated
in testing. The examinees were asked to orally retell four texts and to write an essay in Swedish. Even though the
analysis of mistakes revealed their low frequency, the control group made 1-10 mistakes, the group of examinees who
started learning the language at the age of six or earlier made 1-23 mistakes. In other words, the results of the ’older’
group did not coincide with those of the native speaker group, whereas the results of the ’younger’ group matched the
results of both groups. Hyltenstam (1992 in Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson, 2003) concluded that the age of 6 to 7 is
extremely important for differentiating the language acquisition of native speakers from the acquisition similar to that of
native speakers. Considering that the group of younger students did achieve results similar to that of native speakers, it
is assumed that an early age of onset may have a vital role in language acquisition although it is not a sufficient condition
for the native speaker-like language acquisition.
Other studies on second language acquisition at an early age prove that there are differences between non-native
speakers, who have almost reached the level of native speakers, and these differences referred to application of specific
structures or to the scope and quality of vocabulary. The referring flaws are not immediately noticeable, but they can be
traced in linguistic research results. Hene (1993 in Hyltenstham and Abrahamson, 2003) analysed several aspects of the
vocabulary of 24 children aged 10-12 who were adopted by Swedish families at the age between three months and six
years. The results revealed some differences in the comprehension of some frequent words and phrases, which appear
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in the curriculum and include local prepositions and lexical explanations expressed by synonyms and paraphrases.
Similar results were obtained by Butler (2000 in Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson, 2003). The author explored the
knowledge of Chinese learners of English as a second language. The examinees were put into three groups (the first
group – those who were first exposed to the language aged from 3 to 5, the second group – between 5 and 10, the third
group – between 10 and 15) and there was one more group of native speakers. After applying a grammatically
judgement test, it was concluded that the first group (those who got in touch with the language aged 3-5) achieved the
best results, but these were still fairly below those of the native speakers. The first group was followed by the second
group while the scores of the third group were the poorest (those who were exposed to language aged 5-10). Taking into
consideration Butler’s (2000, Ekberg, 1998; Hene, 1993 in Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson 2003), Hyltenstam’s and
Abrahamson’s (2003) studies who explored second language acquisition, one can assume that they overlap with the
studies on first language acquisition. It means that even the shortest delay in the age of onset does have an effect on
ultimate attainment. Bearing in mind all the aforementioned, the outcome of the studies indicate that there is only a small
number of learners who possess a potential for reaching the native speakers’ level in one of the areas of the second
language and such learners are deemed either highly motivated (Moyer, 1999 in Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson, 2003) or
individuals with a high language learning ability (DeKeyser, 2000; Harley and Hart, 1997 in Hyltenstam and
Abrahamsson, 2003).
Harley (1986) concluded that the successfulness of language acquisition is subject to a number of factors such as
the level of cognitive maturity, motivation, exposure to a second language and the possibility of its active use, adding
also that all these factors get into active interaction with the age of learners and obviously appear in connection with
various levels of the language system. For instance, Harley emphasized that neurological factors, which do not have to
be necessarily bound to language, but they can be more general such as the aging process in which it comes to
decrease and deterioration of numerous neuron connections in the network of the brain nervous system, contribute to a
diminished ability of all forms of learning and hence the language.
Besides the critical period, there are four types of factors which might be responsible for the impact of the age of
onset of language learning. These are motivational, linguistic, educational and general cognitive factors (Singleton and
Ryan, 2004). Motivational factors are linked with the issue of language domination. Late comers to the second language
environment frequently come into contact with their mother tongue and accordingly, restrain their contacts with the
second language, which can be interpreted by their wish for avoiding isolation and/or the wish for retaining a particular
language-cultural identity. On the other hand, the children’s affective filter is lower or in other words, a child’s feelings
towards everything related to second language acquisition are more positive than the feelings of adults and thus become
a smaller drawback to acquisition of new information, knowledge and skills.
Regarding the linguistic factors, the time spent in the country where the target language is in use and the time
spent with native speakers, have turned out to be the main determinant of the pronunciation quality of a second language
(Riney and Flege, 1998 in Singleton and Ryan, 2004).
As far as the educational dimension is concerned, Bialystok and Hakuta (1999 in Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson,
2003) suggested that existence or a lack of second language writing skills can appear as a basis for second language
competence and observed that immigrants who migrate at a young age have mostly well-developed writing skills – due to
their schooling experience – while those who migrate as late comers do not have such a good opportunity to develop
these skills.
Finally, in terms of the cognitive factors, Bialystok and Hakuta (1999 in Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson, 2003)
stressed a regression in areas such as task completion under pressure, taking risks, establishment of long-term memory
codes and the ability of memorizing details.
Taking into account the age of onset and ultimate attainment, the previous results might be summed up in the
following way:
a) The native speakers’ competence can only be attained by early learners, which is shown in Figure 1.
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Figure 1. Observations of nativelike ultimate attainment in early starters only "Maturational Constraints in SLA" by K.
Hyltenstam and N. Abrahamsson, 2003, p. 567. From The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition by Long, M. H. ,
2003, Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
These data are based on the studies which suggest that the average attainment of young learners is similar to that of
native speakers and that it negatively correlates with the age (Johnson and Newport, 1989; Patkowski, 1990 in
Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson, 2003). The above results are explained by the biological effects of the critical period
theory (DeKeyser, 2000; Johnson and Newport, 1989; Patkowski, 1990 in Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson, 2003). The
alternative interpretation attributes it to identity, motivation, input, cognition, formal learning and other social conditions.
b) The native speakers’ competence can be attained by early learners and by only few late learners as shown in
Figure 2.
Figure 2. Observations of nativelike ultimate attainment in early starters and individual late starters. "Maturational
Constraints in SLA" by K. Hyltenstam and N. Abrahamsson, 2003, p. 568. From The Handbook of Second Language
Acquisition by Long, M. H. , 2003, Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
This theory is based on the research proving that there are exceptionally successful students who started learning a
language late in life, but managed to reach the native speakers’ level (Birdsong, 1992; Bongaerts, 1999; Moyer, 1999;
White and Genesee, 1996 in Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson, 2003). The first explanation of this theory is that there is no
biologically dependent critical period and that learners of any age can reach the native speakers’ level (Birdsong, 1992;
White and Genesee, 1996 in Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson, 2003). The second explanation says that despite the
existence of a biologically dependent critical period, there are some late learners who can exceed the expectations of the
critical period hypothesis compensating their late age of onset with a great talent (DeKeyser, 2000; Ioup et al, 1994 in
Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson, 2003), high motivation (Bongaerts, 1999, 2000; Moyer, 1999 in Hyltenstam and
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Abrahamsson, 2003), formal education and input (Bongaerts, 1999 in Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson, 2003).
c) The native speakers’ competence can be attained neither by early nor by late learners as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. A reassessment of the nativelikeness of both early and late starters. "Maturational Constraints in SLA" by K.
Hyltenstam and N. Abrahamsson, 2003, p. 569. From The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition by Long, M. H. ,
2003, Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
This theory is based on evidences which prove that even early learners cannot match native speakers (Ekberg, 1998;
Hene, 1993; Hyltenstam, 1992; Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson, in print, McDonald, 2000 in Hyltenstam and
Abrahamsson, 2003), that the ultimate attainment of some extremely successful older learners shown in Figure 3 is not
identical in all relevant aspects to that of native speakers (Coppiertes, 1987; Ioup et al, 1994; Moyer, 1999; White and
Genesee, 1996 in Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson, 2003) or that ultimate attainment declines linearly (not suddenly) with
age (Bialystok and Hakuta, 1999; Birdsong, 1999; Butler, 2000; Flege, 1999; Guion et al, 2000 in Hyltenstam and
Abrahamsson, 2003). The first interpretation of this theory is that the possibility of second language ultimate attainment
linearly declines already from the birth (Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson, 2003; Birdsong, 1999) and the second one
suggests that the declined language skills result from a linear decline of all the skills in general (Bialystok and Hakuta,
1999 in Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson, 2003).
Figure 4. A reinterpretation of nativelikeness as non-perceivable non-nativeness, and the critical period as an "illusion"
based on data from underanalyzed early starters. "Maturational Constraints in SLA" by K. Hyltenstam and N.
Abrahamsson, 2003, p. 572. From The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition by Long, M. H. , 2003, Oxford, UK:
Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
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Figure 4 encompasses all the previous theories and figures denoted by numbers 1, 2 and 3. The Figure 4 makes it clear
that the examinees qualified as native speakers do not actually exist, i. e. the examinees identified as native speakers,
who start learning a language early or some late learners, who were regarded as native speakers, are actually very close
to the native speakers’ level but not really on it. What is thought to be a critical period is nothing else but the time
preceding the age of onset, whereas the ultimate attainment of average learners of a second language is claimed not to
be on the native speakers’ level.
Figure 5. A model of the interplay between maturation, exercise, and social/psychological factors. "Maturational
Constraints in SLA" by K. Hyltenstam and N. Abrahamsson, 2003, p. 573. From The Handbook of Second Language
Acquisition by Long, M. H. , 2003, Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Figure 5 actually presents a consensus model, the purpose of which is to integrate the existing empirical facts and
various theories. Although maturation plays an important role in language acquisition, other factors also contribute to the
ultimate attainment of some individuals. Figure 5 shows a possible scope of attainment levels which range from zero
(bottom of the diagram) to ultimate attainment (on top). The black bold line in Figure 5 presents an attainment level
similar to that of native speakers and the upper curve shows the ultimate outcome of some exceptionally successful
individuals (Julie). The lower solid line presents the final achievement of students who cannot be regarded as successful
students. The space between the two curves presents the range of the achieved attainment levels. The dotted curve
presents the delayed attainment of the first language. Although cases of first language delayed attainment are rare, they
still clearly show that the previously established system of first language delayed attainment influences second language
attainment. The difference between the level of attainment of the native speakers and a low level of first language
attainment is a reflection of the maturational effect, i. e. maturation can explain the general and linear decline of language
acquisition, which rises with an increasing age of onset while the difference between exceptionally successful and
unsuccessful learners with the same age of onset cannot be interpreted by maturation. In other words, sociopsychological factors can clarify the reasons why a learner who starts learning a language at the age of 25 is able to
reach a higher level of attainment than another learner of the same age, but these factors cannot explain the reasons
why a child who starts learning a language at the age of four has a better score than the older learner. The latter
explanation can be provided only by maturational factors. It seems that the role of socio-psychological factors becomes
extremely important later in life. At the age of six or seven, all the learners automatically attain levels which make them
eligible to appear as native speakers – under the condition that there is a sufficient input and after that, sociopsychological factors have to be extremely favourable to compensate for the negative impacts of maturation.
Figure 5, similar to Figure 4, does not involve curves that reach the peak of the diagram; ultimate attainment
cannot be achieved even if started only slightly later. Taking into account the fact that there are no proofs that any adult
learner can match native speakers at all levels and considering the fact that early learners cannot catch up with native
speakers either, one can draw the conclusion that complete second language mastering is not possible.
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Finally, the term maturational period itself (period between the birth and the 15th year of life) is used instead of the
term critical/sensitive/optimal period. The continuous decline of all the curves after the age of 15 can be interpreted as
something that does not depend on maturational factors. Ultimate attainment depends on the level of motivation, talent
and other potentials of a person which cannot be anticipated based on the age of onset. On the other hand, the critical
period, based on attainment native speaker-like levels can be predicted if the attainment commences within the critical
period. Figure 4 focuses on the importance of time periods which can be understood as critical periods. The bottom of
the black bold line in Figure 5 is at the end interrupted (firstly by the curve that represents the first language and then by
the lower curve that represents the second language). If the bottom of the line representing the native speaker-like
attainment is interpreted as an ultimate attainment, identical to that of native speakers, it can be concluded that there are
obvious critical periods within which a high level attainment similar to that of native speakers can be realized. Still, there
is a pending question where (or how) the upper curve representing the second language passes the limit of the level
which is below the native speakers’ level. In line with the aforementioned, some studies dealing with the issue of the
critical period can be challenged, even though there are evidences of the role of maturation in the first and second
language acquisition.
4. Conclusion
There are few scientists today who deny the long-lasting advantage of children who start acquiring a second language as
early starters. However, some discrepancies appear regarding the issue if this fact is to be explained by biological factors
or limitations imposed on a learner together with maturational or socio-psychological factors.
If acquisition of a second language vastly results from conscious efforts, namely, from learning in formal
circumstances, the advantages of an early onset are either not recognized or are dependent both on the age and many
other factors. Therefore, the ultimate success in second language learning is attributed to the interaction of a number of
factors – motivational, interlingual, educational, cognitive and affective, satisfaction with the achievement, and a positive
attitude towards all novelties.
References
Birdsong, D. (1999). Second Language Acquisition and the Critical Period Hypothesis. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
DeKeyser, R. M. (2000). The robustness of critical period effects in second language acquisition. SSLA, 22, 499-533.
Dimroth, C. (2008). Age Effects on the Process of L2 Acquisition? Evidence from the Acquisition of Negation and Finiteness in L2
German. Language Learning, 58 (1), 117-150.
Dong, G. & Ren, H. (2013). The Role of Age in Second Language Acquisition – A Psychological Perspective. British Journal of English
Linguistics, 1 (1), 1-6.
Harley, B. (1986). Age in Second Language Acquisition. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd.
Hyltenstam, K. & Abrahamsson, N. (2000). Who can become native-like in a second language? All, some, or none? On the maturational
constraints controversy in second language acquisition. Studia Linguistica, 54 (2), 150-166.
Hyltenstam, K. & Abrahamsson, N. (2003). Maturational Constraints in SLA. In Doughty, C. J. & Long, M. H. (Eds. ), The Handbook of
Second Language Acquisition. pp. 539-588. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Hyltenstam, K. & Abrahamsson, N. (in print): Age of onset and ultimate attainment in near-native speakers of Swedish. In Doughty, C. J.
& Long, M. H. (Eds. ), The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Johnson, J. S. , & Newport, E. L. (1989). Critical Period effects in second language learning: the influence of maturational state on the
acquisition of English as a second language. Cognitive Psychology, 21 (1), 60-99.
Krashen, S. , Long, M. H. & Scarcella, R. (1979). Age, rate and eventual attainment in second language acquisition. TESOL Quaterly.
13 (4), 573-82.
Lenneberg, E. H. (1967). Biological Foundations of Language. New York: Wiley.
Medved Krajnović, M. (2010). Od jednojezičnosti do višejezičnosti. Zagreb: Leykam international.
Moyer, A. (2004). Age, Accent and Experience in Second Language Acquisition. Clevedon, Buffalo, Toronto: Multilingual Matters.
Newport, E. L. (1990). Maturational constraints on language learning. Cognitive Science,14 (1), 11-28.
Nikolov, M. (2009). Early Learning of Modern Foreign Languages: Processes and Outcomes. Bristol/Buffalo/Toronto: Multingual Matters.
Singleton, D. (1989). Language Acquisition: the Age Factor. Clevedon, Avon: Multilingual Matters.
Singleton, D. (2005). The critical period hypothesis: A coat of many colours. International Review of Applied Linguistics,43, 269-286.
Singleton, D. & Ryan, L. (2004). Language Acquisition. The Age Factor. 2nd edition. Clevedon, Buffalo, Toronto: Multilingual Matters
Ltd.
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Chemical Dimensions of Plastic Wastes and Their Recycling in Environmental Education
Bahattin Aydinli
Education Faculty, Kastamonu University, Turkey
baydinli@kastamonu.edu.tr
Çağrı Avan
Science Teacher, Kastamonu SEKA Primary School, Turkey
cagriavan@gmail.com
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2015.v5n1s1p37
Abstract
Environment, energy, recycling, sustainability, various footprints that take attentions of all layers of society, are such a key
concepts in last decades. These layers are widespread all over the world in terms of the perspectives of academics, politics,
economics, mediatics which all try to manipulate societal life respectively to better position. One of the popular debates is
usage of plastics and their supposed environmental pollution. This subject also takes the attention of educators and becomes
at least one of the subtitles of environmental education research. While, the governmental municipality which has the key
responsibility of these issues, academicians make research about these subjects to activate inner faculties of people. Chemical
dimension of environmental issues - along with biology, geography and environmental sciences- helps us to take picture of
huge problems. In this study, plastics and their recycling were examined as a chemical dimension of environmental education.
And also it is accepted that the attitude of the people is a promising sign and indicator to execute the specified behavior. The
attitude sometimes supported on triangles of cognitive, affective, and psychomotor skills which covers than all learning
behavior of humans. Here, attitudes of sixth grade students were determined about the plastics and recycling in environment.
The previously developed attitude scale was applied to 492 primary school students in Kastamonu province of Turkey. The
results were analyzed with statistically and evaluated. The factors of the attitude scale and socioeconomic factors were
correlated. Some significant differences related with gender residence type obtained.
Keywords: Environmental Education, Plastic, Wastes, Recycling, Attitude Scale, Chemistry
1. Introduction
Environment is the area where all living and non living things interact. Environmental education is the regular studies
which enable the human beings to make the interaction easier and thus minimizing the possible problems arising from
the interaction (Conner&Sliwka, 2014; Markaki, 2014; Karaarslan et al, 2014). Environment, energy, recycling,
sustainability, various footprints take attentions of all layers of society, are such a key concepts in last decades. These
layers are widespread all over the world in terms of the perspectives of academics, politics, economics, media which all
try to manipulate societal life respectively to better position. One of the popular debates is usage of plastics and their
supposed environmental pollution. This subject also takes the attention of educators and becomes at least one of the
subtitles of environmental education research (O’Gorman&Davis, 2013; Rees, 2003; Palliser, 2011).
Both science and social science educators tackle these environmental problems. While, the governmental
municipality which has the key responsibility of these issues holding the authority, power, rules and rights, academicians
make research about these subjects to activate inner faculties of people. Some of these faculties are relevant and
changing according to cultures such as wisdom, conscience, sensitivity, ethics and morals, essence of life, virtues,
altruism, pride, guilty, responsibility, rights, duties, citizenship, humanity, esteem, affection, compassion, and charity.
These inner faculties can be count and categorized in many ways. So these educational studies tries to take meaningful
part in this huge picture and their results have always been evaluated cautiously. To go further in these environmental
issues, it seems that the best thing is to collect the positive and meaningful results and making sketches rather than
stating contradiction of the previous researches (Haynes, 2009; McClain et al, 2010; Menzel&Bögeholz, 2009).
Teaching and learning environment is an important issue for sustainable environment. Students who are the basic
pillars of society are not only today’s citizen but also the citizens of future who are going to shape our future (parents,
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engineer, politician, teacher, unemployed, etc. ) (Varga et al, 2007; Cheong, 2005). The education that the students get
about the environmental problems is crucial to prevent environmental problems. Therefore, the data gathered from the
preparation of the attitude scale demonstrates students‟ attitudes about the environmental problems. And the results
direct the way of environment education.
Environment and environmental education is a multi- and inter-disciplinary subject. Generally, environmental
education is accepted as the main framework of the related subjects. Many different studies appears on this subjects
such as sustainable development, environmental literacy, the relation of science-technology-society, and applications of
various learning theories such as planned behavior and value-belief-norm theories etc (Oreg& Katz-Gerro, 2006; Sahin,
2013; Teo&Tan, 2012). And there are two main streams in human perspectives to nature or environment. One is seeing
the humanity as a part of the nature, the other is human is different species then the rest that is the environment is for the
purpose of human. The unified third perspective can appear from former two in case of exploiting previously stated inner
faculties of human whatever without stating belief or ideology. Accordingly, the findings of solutions to these problems
possess great importance.
1.1 Aim of the Study
In order to deal with environmental problems and/or to minimize them, the most effective way is raising environmentally
conscious and sensitive individuals who should be equipped with necessary knowledge to develop positive attitudes for
it. Therefore, education presents crucial importance. Otherwise, damages given to environment cannot be prevented.
The basic goal of this study is; to determine concisions level of sixth grade primary school students about the subjects of
plastics - wrongly defined previously as a polluter of environment – and their pollution effect, and also environment,
recycling and its advantages.
The chemical dimensions of the subjects were tackled in chemical context such as wastes, their disposal and
effects to the environment, and recycling concepts along with other dimensions. The chemical dimension of
environmental issues - along with biology, geography, environmental and health sciences- helps us to take picture of
huge problems. In this study, plastics and recycling were examined as a chemical dimension of environmental education
(Cutler&Moore, 1995). And it is accepted that the attitude of the people is a promising sign and indicator to execute the
specified behavior. The attitude sometimes supported on triangles of cognitive, affective, and psychomotor skills which
covers than all learning behavior of humans. Also, energy, environment and recycling should be truly understood by the
every section of society (science, policy, education, media and people) for sustainable development and inhabitable
environment. And these issues should be evaluated within the framework of basic citizenship, which will affect the
people’s future life more than today and will be a central theme.
Here, the attitude scale which was previously developed by us (Avan et al, 2011) were used where 80 attitude
sentences according to 5-point Likert-type scale were prepared and applied to 492 students of 6th grade in the
Kastamonu city center of Turkey. It is suitable to give some details about the attitude scale to inform the reader before
stating the execution and findings of this study in Table 2. 1. The attitude scale was prepared which demonstrates
primary school students‟ interaction with environment from several perspectives. It is possible to define students‟
cognitive, affective and psychomotor attitudes about environment, recycling, plastics, and plastic waste. It should be
emphasized that affective skill attitudes which is lack in many similar studies, was accommodated. Besides resolving the
chemical perspectives, the effects of gender, residence and income were correlated with these mentioned issues. There
are several developed attitude scales on environmental education in literature. Our study is complementary to the
development of environmental attitude scale in chemistry perspective with concentrating directly on plastic solid waste
(Powell et al, 2011; Mobley et al, 2010).
2. Method
The patterns of interaction between human and nature is very difficult conflict to be resolved directly. The determinations
of attitudes of human towards any subject bears always problem from ancient times till beyond the infinity probably. Here
general survey method has been used.
2.1 Sample and Population
Here, in this study, attitudes of sixth grade students were determined about the plastics and recycling in environment
through using the previously developed attitude scale which was applied to 492 primary school students in Kastamonu
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province of Turkey. The results were analyzed with statistically and evaluated. The factors of the attitude scale and
socioeconomic factors were correlated. Some significant differences related with gender residence type obtained. In
Tables 2. 1-3 the general data about student gender, residence and income were presented.
Table 2.1: Distribution of Student Genders
Gender
Male
Female
Total
Number of Students
247
245
492
%
50,2
49,8
100
Table 2.2: Distribution of Student Residence
Residence
Family House
Apartment
Apartment Complex (Site)
Total
Number of Students
173
219
100
492
%
35,2
44,5
20,3
100,0
Table 2.3: Distribution of Student according to their Family Income Annually per capita (Changed into US Dollars
according to purchasing power parity of Turkey)
Annual Income per capita ($)
Less than 3500
Between 3500-7500
More than 7500
Toplam
Number of Students
196
215
81
492
%
39,8
43,7
16,5
100,0
2.2 Data Collecting
The aforementioned attitude scale consisting of 4 parts was used in order to measure primary school students’ attitudes
about the recycling, impacts of plastics and plastic wastes on environment. Cognitive, affective, psychomotor skills
domains which are the three dimensions of the term attitude were studied separately. In the first part, there are questions
to know students’ cognition about the issue, in the second part there are questions about the affective approach of
students, in the third part there are questions to define the behavioral tendencies, and in the fourth part, there are
questions to measure the socio economic conditions. The Cronbach’s reliability coefficients of the scale for cognitive,
affective and psychomotor domains are 0. 854, 0. 871 and 0. 826, and there were 3, 4 and 5 factors sequentially. The
content consistency was determined as sufficient for all scales. As a result, it was found that the scale can be used to
define cognitive, affective and psychomotor attitudes.
Table 2.4: Dimensions, Factors, Mean (X), Standard Deviation (SD) and item numbers for each factor of Attitude Scale
Dimensions of Attitude Scale Factors Phrases of the Factors
Cognitive Domain
Understanding the recycling and environment problems
C. 1
(13 items)
Knowing the hazardous effect caused by plastics (6
C. 2
items)
C. 3 Evaluating the plastics as energy resource (3 items)
A. 1 Wishing to live in clean environment (7 items)
Affective Domain
A. 2 Wishing to reuse the plastics (4 items)
A. 3 How scattered plastics effects us emotionally (3 items)
A. 4 Worrying the health effects of reused plastics (3 items)
Psychomotor Domain
P. 1 Attending environment protection (8 items)
P. 2 Getting use of recycle bin (3 items)
P. 3 Not throwing garbage away (3 items)
P. 4 Reusing of plastics (3 items)
P. 5 Getting use of litter bin (3 items)
39
X
SD
4,48
0. 35
3,19
0. 85
3,12
4,66
3,89
3,98
3,52
3,23
3,25
2,24
3,37
3,30
0. 92
0. 95
1. 64
1. 82
1. 65
1. 06
1. 25
1. 18
1. 18
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3. Findings
3.1 The relationship between factors and gender
The data were analyzed statistically. The relationship between factors and gender were questioned with t-test. There
were significant differences (p<0. 05) in seven factors and they are given in Table 3. 1. The X values having positive sign
(+) means favorable attitude. So in four factors C1, A1, A3 and P5 male students are positive and in the rest three factors
C2, A4 and P. 5 female students show positive behavior.
Table 3.1. The t-test results of the relationship between factors and gender
Factors
C. 1 Understanding the recycling and environment problems
C. 2 Knowing the hazardous effect caused by plastics
A. 1 Wishing to live in clean environment
A. 3 How scattered plastics effects us emotionally
A. 4 Worrying the health effects of reused plastics
P. 3 Not throwing garbage away
P. 5 Getting use of litter bin
Gender
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
N
245
247
245
247
245
247
245
247
245
247
245
247
245
247
X
0,16
-0,159
-0,153
0,152
0,231
-0,23
0,14
-0,14
-0,18
0,17
-0,209
0,207
0,095
-0,094
SS
0,84
1,12
0,98
0,99
0,88
1,05
0,97
1,01
1,01
0,95
0,87
1,08
0,97
1,03
Sd
t
p
490
3,58
0,001
490
3,43
0,001
490
5,26
0,001
490
3,15
0,002
490
3,95
0,001
490
4,72
0,001
490 2,099
0,036
3.2 The relation between factors and residence
Also, the relation between factors and residence were investigated and significant difference (p< 0,05) between C1 factor
and residence was obtained and thus Post-Hoc test was used as Gabriel test to explain the differences in group. The
results are shown in Table 3. 2 and 3. 3. Accordingly, two significant differences obtained 1. between family house and
apartment, and 2. family house and site. That is residents in site and apartments are more conscious probably due to
population density of the habitat which is more sensitive garbage scattering and pollution.
Table 3.2: The anova analysis results of C1 factor with residence
Source of Variance
Inter-groups
Within-groups
Total
Sum of Squares
10,307
480,693
491,000
sd
2
489
491
Mean of the Squares
5,154
0,983
F
5,243
P
0,006
Table 3.3: The Gabriel test results of C1 factor with residence
Residence
Family House
Apartment
Site
Residence
Apartment
Site
Family House
Site
Family House
Apartment
Mean Difference
-0,275*
-0,348*
0,275*
-0,073
0,348*
0,073
40
Standard Deviation
0,1
0,12
0,1
0,12
0,12
0,12
(p)
0,019
0,015
0,019
0,9
0,015
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3.3 The relation between factors and income
Additionally, Also, the relation between factors and income were investigated and significant difference (p< 0,05)
between C1 factor and income was obtained and thus Post-Hoc test was used as Gabriel test to explain the differences
in group. The results are shown in Table 3. 4 and 3. 5. Accordingly, two significant differences obtained between middle
income group with both low income and high income groups. That is middle income group is showing more
environmentally behavior than higher income group.
Table 3.4: The anova analysis results of C1 factor with income
Source of Variance
Inter-groups
Within-groups
Total
Sum of Squares
8,963
482,037
491,000
sd
2
489
491
Mean of the Squares
4,482
0,986
F
4,546
P
0,01
Table 3.5: The Gabriel test results of C1 factor with income
Annual Income per capita ($)
Less than 3500
Between 3500-7500
More than 7500
Annual Income per capita ($)
Between 3500-7500
More than 7500
Less than 3500
More than 7500
Less than 3500
Between 3500-7500
Mean Difference
-0,268*
-0,293
0,268*
-0,249
0,293
0,025
Standard Deviation
0,098
0,131
0,098
0,129
0,131
0,129
(p)
0,02
0,07
0,02
0,99
0,07
0,99
4. Results and Discussion
The inspections of results reveals that in seven of twelve (7/12) factors showed significant differences between gender
which can be attributed to gender theory and/or environmental factors on genders which attributes differences inborn or
the effect of external environment in growth of child between genders. And also C1 factor shows significant differences
with residence and income. This may stem from consistency of C1 factor which has 13 sentences as total 13 items. The
other factors have limited number item sentences and thus not revealed any significant factor.
Social aspects of male students come forth about more than female students on environmental issues. Also,
positive attitudes of male students come to the fore for the following issues; waste recycling, re-use and use of it as an
energy source. Therefore it can be concluded that they perceive these subjects in economically. However, female
students put forward more importance on the environmental pollution, the clarity of living space and attendance to
cleaning workshops. The similar results were cited in the literature. The main reason for this observation can be the
Turkish family structure and culture that while female family members are struggling for housework, male family
members are engaging in earning money.
If the results are examined for the case of residence type, students living in apartments and site complexes have
more positive attitudes than any types of single houses. Peoples living in apartments and sites have to store their wastes
in finite living space, whereas, peoples in single houses can somehow scatter wastes randomly in environment due to
relatively infinite living space. Therefore, it can be assumed that peoples living in apartments and sites takes care more
to the environment.
Middle-income students have more positive attitudes in environmental issues. They have positive attitudes in
cognitive and affective skill domains, but problems lie in transforming these into behavior i. e. , psychomotor skill domain.
This negative situation may stem from the students’ family that they may not have enough awareness in these issues.
Because these type of habits were learned in the family and it is difficult to these conventionality in schools.
The environmental issues are newly taken into account and citizens (all segments of the population) do not have
enough knowledge in this area. Environmental issues must be re-handled by taking into accounts many factors, and also
primary school books and contents should be revised. The teachers specialized in environment should be trained. And all
segments of population should be taken into environmental education programme of course, first of all, educators,
officers, workers and farmers. The wrong choice made now may totally perish our future.
The significant differences were obtained with gender within which it can be claimed that the female students
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handles this subject in social manner, whereas, males perceives in economical perspectives. This may be stemmed from
Turkish culture and family structure where the separation and perception and responsibilities are strictly divided and
defined. Also, the significant differences were observed according to residence where students living in building complex
were exhibited more affirmative attitudes.
The topics in this study were grasped well by students cognitively, but the trouble lies in transforming knowledge
into behavior and action. The correlations between socioeconomic and attitude scale factors were revealed. Shortly, this
type of studies should be elaborated and kept on with developing new programmes and spreading in public.
References
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(1), 97-110.
Conner, L. & Sliwka, A. (2014). Implications of Research on Effective Learning Environments for Initial Teacher Education. European
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Cutler, A. & Moore, S. (1995). Consumer Education: The Key to Successful Plastics Recycling. Resource Recycling, 14 (5), 29-30.
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Karaarslan, G. ; Sungur, S. ; Ertepinar, H. (2014). Developing Preservice Science Teachers' Self-Determined Motivation toward
Environment through Environmental Activities. International Journal of Environmental and Science Education, 9, (1), 1-19.
Markaki, V. (2014). Environmental Education through Inquiry and Technology.
Science Education International, 25 (1), 86-92.
McClain, L. ; Ylimaki, R. ; Ford, M. P. (2010). Sustaining the Heart of Education: Finding Space for Wisdom and Compassion.
International Journal of Children's Spirituality, 15 (4), 307-316.
Menzel, S. , Bögeholz, Susanne. (2009). Values, beliefs and norms that foster Chilean and
German pupils’ commitment to protect biodiversity. International Journal of Environmental and Science Education, 5 (1), 31-49.
Mobley, C. ; Vagias, W. M. ; DeWard, S. L. (2010). Exploring Additional Determinants of Environmentally Responsible Behavior: The
Influence of Environmental Literature and Environmental Attitudes. Environment and Behavior, 42 (4), 420-447.
O’Gorman, Lyndal & Davis, Julie (2013) Ecological footprinting: its potential as a tool for change in preservice teacher education.
Environmental Education Research, 19 (6), 779-791.
Oreg, S. & Katz-Gerro, T. (2006). Predicting Proenvironmental Behavior Cross-Nationally: Values, the Theory of Planned Behavior, and
Value-Belief-Norm Theory. Environment and Behavior, 38, 462-483.
Palliser, J. (2011). Green Science: Revisiting Recycling. Science Scope, 35 (3), 14-17.
Powell, R. B. ; Stern, M. J. ; Krohn, B. D. ; Ardoin, N. (2011). Development and Validation of Scales to Measure Environmental
Responsibility, Character Development, and Attitudes toward School. Environmental Education Research, 17 (1), 91-111.
Rees, W. E. (2003). Impeding Sustainability? The Ecological Footprint of Higher Education. Planning for Higher Education, 88-98
Sahin, E. (2013). Predictors of Turkish Elementary Teacher Candidates' Energy Conservation Behaviors: An Approach on Value-BeliefNorm Theory. International Journal of Environmental and Science Education, 8 (2), 269-283.
Teo, T & Tan, L. (2012). The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and Pre-Service Teachers' Technology Acceptance: A Validation Study
Using Structural Equation Modeling. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 20 (1), 89-104.
Varga, A. ; Koszo, M. F. ; Mayer, M. ; Sleurs, W. (2007). Developing Teacher Competences for Education for Sustainable Development
through Reflection: The Environment and School Initiatives Approach. Journal of Education for Teaching: International Research
and Pedagogy, 33 (2), 241-256.
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Educational Research Projects as New Form of Educational Methodology
Bekim Fetaji
b.fetaji@seeu.edu.mk
Majlinda Fetaji
m.fetaji@seeu.edu.mk
Alajdin Abazi
a.abazi@seeu.edu.mk
Mirlinda Ebibi
m.ebibi@ibu.edu.mk
* South East European University, Contemporary Sciences and Technologies, Ilindenska bb, 1200 Tetovo, Macedonia
** International Balkan University, Information Technology, Skopje, Macedonia
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2015.v5n1s1p43
Abstract
Research study has focused on investigating: could we transform today’s outmoded education system to a vibrant learning
ecosystem that puts learners at the center?, how technology is changing the way we teach and more importantly the impact it
has on the way students learn? The study focused primarily on two objectives. Firstly on assessing and evaluating issues and
deficiencies in the current state of technology enhanced education, the second objective, proposing and recommending
solutions to the findings from the secondary research and answer both research questions from above. Creating personalized
learning for all the learners requires a paradigm shift in current educational methodologies in practice and a deep commitment
in order to guide this process tempered with wisdom and based on evidences of practical benefits. The research study is
primarily trying to answer these research questions and focused on devising a set of guidelines and recommendations for
designing new educational methodology based on the previous analyses. Findings and recommendations are provided.
Keywords: Educational methodologies, educational research projects, technology enhanced education, learning modeling
approaches, e-learning
1. Introduction
Education has seen big changes, many of which have been technology-driven: social networking tools like facebook,
twiter, google +, LinkedIn,, the expanding role of e-learning, sophisticated learning-management systems, and new
communication tools. Also major impact is realized from, open educational resources (OERs), massive open online
courses (MOOCs), and the benefits and challenges of online learning.
Perhaps the most important issues concern how technology is changing the way we teach and more importantly
the impact it has on the way students learn. Technology enhanced education also known as e-learning is becoming very
important. There has been a greater need for learning technologists to step in and help communities benefit from
technology. The role of learning technologists is essential to integrate new technologies and education.
The main research focus of the study is can we transform today’s outmoded education system to a vibrant learning
ecosystem that puts learners at the center and enables many right combinations of learning resources, experiences, and
supports to help each child succeed? Creating personalized learning for all the learners requires a paradigm shift in
current educational methodologies in practice and a deep commitment in order to guide this process tempered with
wisdom and based on evidences of practical benefits.
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2. Literature Review
There is evidently a lack of support for instructional techniques and pedagogical learning models, as well as procedures
or guidelines how, when and for what particular situation each pedagogical learning model should be supported in the
software development process and its conjunction and correlation with the instructional strategies (Fetaji, 2007d).
Instructional strategy is a very important concept that needs to be addressed because the main purpose of any
learning activity should be clear to the learner (Merrill et al. 1996).
Instructional design in an e-learning environment can foster the alliance between technology and education for
pushing higher education to transform the academic environment. A properly executed instructional design can help
faculty and academic departments develop new modes of instruction that use various technologies and teaching
strategies. Instructional design represents analysis of learning needs and systematic development of instruction.
Instructional design models typically specify a method in using the technology that if followed will facilitation of the
transfer of knowledge, skills and learning process (Merrill et al. 1996). This learning dimension should provide the context
of instruction and desirable outcome. The learning environments require high level of self-organization and metacognitive
abilities from the learners engaged in the process of learning that should be captured by the instructional techniques.
There are five main instructional strategies that are currently considered: Problem Based, Project based, Inquirybased Learning, Task based and Game based learning (Helic et al 2005), (Marjanovic, 2005), (Schroeder, et al 2006),
(Mitchell, 1993).
Problem based learning represents the learning that results from working with problems that needs solving. The
entire learning process is set around a problem introduced and the knowledge is developed as a consequence of trying
to solve the problem. Official description offered by (Mitchell, 1993) generally describe it as “an instructional strategy in
which learners confront contextualized, ill structured problems and strive to find meaningful solutions and learn in the
process of doing it. ” In general it is an approach to learning focusing on the process of solving a problem and acquiring
knowledge. The approach is also inquiry-based when learners are active in creating the problem. The learners are
elevated to the position of analyst and problem-solver and have specific objectives and deadlines to meet. According to
(Savery, et al 1995) there are two critical issues involved in presenting the problem. First, if the learners are to engage in
authentic problem solving, then they must own the problem. A second critical issue in presenting the problem is to be
certain that the data presented does not highlight critical factors in the case. Either the problem must be richly presented
or presented only as a basic question. Learning should be synthesized and organized in the context of the problem.
Project-based learning (PBL) is a model that organizes learning around projects. Definitions of "project-based
instruction" include features relating to the use of an authentic ("driving") question, a community of inquiry, and the use of
cognitive (technology-based) tools (Krajcik, et al 1994). Project-based instruction is an authentic instructional model or
strategy in which learners plan, implement, and evaluate projects that have real-world applications beyond the classroom
(Harwell, 1997). Projects sometimes go off track, with teachers and students pursuing questions that are peripheral to the
subject matter of interest. The solution, according to (Blumenfeld et al. 1991) is to find ways for projects to center on
"learning appropriate goals. "
Inquiry-based Learning according to (Lin, et al 2006) represents an instructional strategy were involvement in
learning implies processing skills and metacognitive abilities in order to seek answers to questions and issues while at
the same time constructing new knowledge. Numerous inquiry-based instructional models, such as Authoring Cycle and
Inquiry Cycle have been developed to support different learning activities. "Inquiry" is defined as seeking information by
questioning. While questioning and searching for answers are extremely important parts of inquiry, effectively generating
knowledge from this questioning and searching is greatly aided by a conceptual context for learning. According to (Helic,
et al 2006) it usually begins with posing a problem or question, followed by generating and pursuing strategies for
investigating, collaborating, reflecting, and justifying the solutions of the problem or answers to the question, and
communicating the conclusions.
Task-based learning is an educationally sound, effective and efficient instructional strategy for learning focusing
the learning activities around tasks. The term "task-based learning" according to (Nunan, 1989) originated primarily from
the work done in language education. According to (Harden et al, 1996) the learning tasks play a fundamental role in
determining the learning outcomes. According to (Harden et al, 1996) it has three advantages:
1. TBL is learning built round tasks is more effective than traditional didactic memory-based or purely
apprenticeship-type learning;
2. TBL is learning structured round the tasks is an efficient approach to learning;
3. TBL is likely to lead to more relevant and appropriate education;
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4. TBL links theory with practice. The practical task becomes the starting point for the theory: in turn, theory
informs and leads to a better understanding of the task (suits to curricula study program);
5. TBL provides an appropriate framework for planned education (curricula driven) where it makes explicit what
is to be achieved and how the learner should do this (efficient learning);
6. A TBL approach is likely to result in greater relevance of curriculum content (appropriate for curricula
learning).
TBL offers a focused and structured approach to learning and increases the learners’ satisfaction and motivation,
and at the other side is consonant with current theories of education (Harden et al, 1996). This is the reason we decided
to implement a task-based model for the prototype.
Task-based learning offers action and reflection, while in contrast, rote learning is low in action and in reflection.
According to (Harden et al, 1996) incidental learning, such as occurs in on-the-job learning, is rich in action but may be
low in reflection. Classroom, or formal, learning is frequently high in reflection but low in action.
Game based learning or also lately refered to as digital game-based learning (Prensky, 2001), goal based
scenarios and instructional games and simulations are alternatively used to describe the instructional strategy were
learning activities are organized around a game or simulation. The academic community regarded game based learning
as part of problem based learning using simulations and did not give much of attention in its research, and still today
there are a lot of opinions in this regard (Yacci, 2004). According to (Yacci, 2004) educational games and simulations are
defined as activities that have rules and constraints, a goal, and an emphasis on competition and also has the additional
feature of having a primary objective of enabling a student to learn either facts, skills, attitudes, or all three. (Eklund,
2000) suggests that transfer of knowledge is aided when students actively construct explanations for events. Perhaps the
biggest benefit for game -based learning is the fact that it involves students who need to learn complex skills and need to
transfer these skills to real life.
However there are no clear procedures, methodologies or rules what learning modeling approach is more
appropriate to use when developing e-learning solutions and especially its conjunction and correlation with the
instructional strategies discussed previously.
The design and development of e-learning can not be based only in the existing practice of technology, it is
necessary to understand the relation between theory and practice to ensure that the design of practice is founded on the
learning theory. This concept defined by (Harmon,et al 2003) is given in the figure below:
Figure 1 - Theoretically grounded evaluation of technology (Harmon,et al 2003)
E-Learning modeling approaches are very important in the process of the development of e-learning solutions as
software products. Although recently in the e-learning community there is acknowledged the importance of pedagogy
however there is little research on learning modeling approaches.
It describes that the different learning activities that are driven in the learning environment are supported by the elearning instructional technologies stated above. The learning principles are formed by the learning activities to be done
to produce the learning outcome. The learning activities are crucial to define the features and abilities the learning
environment has to support and are supported by the technology.
According to (Marjanovic, 2005) the e-learning solutions development process adopts one of the following learning
modeling approaches:
1. the content-oriented,
2. the tool-oriented, or
3. the task-oriented approach
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The content-oriented approach deals with management of learning content. It is mainly concerned with supporting
authoring, structuring, delivering, sharing, re-using, and querying the content (Helic, 2006). The design and authoring of
e-learning content requires major input from instructional designers, graphics designers, and programmers. Normally the
instructors are expected to develop the content for e-learning on their own. However content creators search for a
theoretical basis to justify their designs (Eklund et al. 2003). Normally the instructors are expected to develop the content
for e-learning on their own. However they are not aware of the effective methods which can be used to present their
content to users. Especially the novice instructors need additional support in developing interactivity since it involves
programming. Support might include collaborative tools for enriching the learning content by writing comments and
annotations, tools for tracking the student progress with the content, or tools for adapting the content to the students’
preferences (Helic, 2006).
Tool-oriented approach is based on using the technological infrastructure in the learning process. Learning
sessions which follow this approach are organized around the use of the developed software (Helic, 2006). The
developed software solution is the main vehicle into increased transfer of knowledge. This learning modeling approach
provides clear support and focuses the learning process around the developed tool of instruction as medium.
Task-oriented approach deals with learning tasks or learning activities which learners need to perform in their
learning sessions. Those tasks are typically structured in very simple learning sequences that the students need to pass
in a sequential mode (Helic, 2006). This learning modeling approach clearly support and focuses the learning process on
previously created scenarios of sequential tasks that will guide the learner activities into more efficient and higher level of
knowledge transfer.
3. Conclusions
There are a lot of new methodologies that are considered as advanced and that are considered as the future of elearning. Learning object methodology, semantic web, Learning Activity Management System (LAMS) and others are
considered as new trends and hot topics in e-learning. However, based on the conducted review and important
synthesizes of current state of the art in the field of e-learning and e-learning solutions applied the study represents the
next conclusions.
Most of the published research papers evidence that different e-learning projects are consisted of only monolithic
learning systems and also many current e-learning initiatives follow the “one-size-fits-all” approach (Fetaji et al 2007).
Typically, this approach is related to lack of knowledge of the learner audience or factors influencing that audience and
therefore fail to provide satisfactory support for most of the learner audience. Conclusion is that we need to focus on
some other issues first before we offer learners one of the above discussed monolithic systems.
Regarding the first objective 1) assessing and evaluating issues and deficiencies in the current state of e-learning
projects a conclusion is that there are a lot of deficiencies. Some of the most important have been reviewed and
analyzed above. The most important issue remains the one dimensional approach to e-learning and failing to recognize
and acknowledge its multidimensional nature. A conclusion has been achieved that among the main reasons for the
current unsatisfactory results in many e-learning initiatives and in meeting the e-learning expectancies are the above
mentioned deficiencies. Therefore, the research strategy should try to address and solve the above identified issues.
Regarding the second objective, 2) Proposing and recommending solutions to the findings from the secondary
research based on analyses and literature review. The conclusion is that there is a need to raise the awareness of the
factors influencing e-learning in order to enhance learning and identify the nature of obstacles being faced by e-learners
as well to approach e-learning recognising its multidimensional nature and trying to address several issues using a
methodology that interconnects all of these issues but still addresses their multidimensional specifics.
Therefore, we believe that no new systems are needed but a series of experiments has to be conducted to see
what does and does not work in a particular situation and to provide guidelines and recommendations for that situation.
Based on the findings of the research study there are too many factors and personalization that it would be wrong
to view the entire process in global. The study views each particular e-learning initiative as specific in many particularities
and requires special approach for each one that needs to start with assessment, measurement and evaluation of the
defined e-learning indicators. The study proposes is that as starting point in any e-learning initiative to start from
measuring and evaluating the factors influencing e-learning that are represented as e-learning indicators, (Fetaji et al
2007).
Therefore there is a need to raise the awareness of the factors and concepts influencing e-learning in order to
enhance learning and identify the nature of obstacles being faced by e-learners through the e-learning indicators
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methodology proposed by Fetaji (2007) and undertake several experiments to see what works in particular situation and
try to propose recommendations, procedures and guidelines regarding the gained insights from the experiments.
Based on the review of Learning theories and analyses of learning modeling approaches the study as new
learning methodology proposes to engage learners with educational small projects that would require the leners to
engage in research within each of the courses. This means that will embrace Project Based Learning which will offer
learners the opportunity to be engaged in hands on study and practice the learned content through the project.
In the south East European University – SEEU, under the Instructional Support Center (ISC) (http: //www. seeu.
edu. mk/english/isc/home. html) the faculty are encouraged to use the practical information gained from these research
findings and most important tried-and true techniques form these research to improve instruction of their e-learning
content. Instructional design in an e-learning environment can foster the alliance between technology and education for
pushing higher education to transform the academic environment. The questions that we have opposed the tutors and
students to are the next: What does this mean to me? How can I use it? Is this better than what I am doing now? Trying
to answer these questions helped tutors to create e-learning content with instructional sound design that will invoke
higher level of knowledge and level of learning.
Embracing instructional technology methods helped in increasing the learning process while decreasing costs at
the same time. For example we have used it to provide the opportunity for students to interact with experts, even they
were not located physically in the campus but were from the region. In order to realize this we have used discussion
forums and video conferencing sessions in real time that did prove very efficient and were highly welcomed.
References
Barron, B. J. S. , Schwartz, D. L. , Vye, N. J. , Moore, A. , Petrosino, A. , Zech, L. , Bransford, J. D. , & The Cognition and Technology
Group at Vanderbilt. (1998). Doing withunderstanding: Lessons from research on problem- and project-based learning. The
Journal of the Learning Sciences, 7, 271-311.
Blank, W. (1997). Authentic instruction. In W. E. Blank & S. Harwell (Eds. ), Promising practices for connecting high school to the real
world (pp. 15–21). Tampa, FL: University of South Florida. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED407586)
Blumenfeld, P. C. , Krajcik, J. S. , Marx, R. W. , & Soloway, E. (1994). Lessons learned: How collaboration helped middle grade science
teachers learn project-based instruction Elementary School Journal, 94, 5, 539-551.
Eklund, J. , Kay, M. , & Lynch, H. (2003). E-learning: emerging issues and key trends. A discussion paper, Australian National Training
Authority.
Fetaji, B. , & Fetaji, M. (2007j). “E-learning indicators approach in developing e-learning software solutions”, IEEE EUROCON 2007
conference, Warsaw, Poland, USA, 09-12 September 2007.
Harden, Jennifer M Laidlaw, Jean S Ker and Helen E Mitchell (1996) Task-based Learning: An educational strategy for undergraduate,
postgraduate and continuing medical education, AMEE Medical Education Guide No 7, Medical Teacher (1996) 18,1 pp 7-13
and 18,2 pp 91-98
Harwell, S. (1997). Project-based learning. In W. E. Blank & S. Harwell (Eds. ), Promising practices for connecting high school to the
real world (pp. 23–28). Tampa, FL: University of South Florida. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED407586)
Helic, D. (2006): Technology-Supported Management of Collaborative Learning Processes, In International Journal of Learning and
Change, Vol. 1, Issue 3, pages 285-298, 2006.
Krajcik, J. S. , Blumenfeld, P. C. , Marx, R. W. , & Soloway, E. (1994). A collaborative model for helping middle-grade science teachers
learn project-based instruction. The Elementary School Journal, 94, 483-497.
Marjanovic, O. (2005). Towards A Web-Based Handbook of Generic, Process-Oriented Learning Designs. Educational Technology &
Society, 8 (2), pp. 66-82.
Merrill, M. D. , Drake, Leston, D. , Lacy, Mark J. Pratt, & Jean A. and the ID2 Research Group. (1996). Reclaiming instructional design.
Educational Technology, 36 (5), 5-7.
Mitchell S. (1993) Problem based learning: A review of literature on its outcomes and implementation issues. Acad Med 1993;68 (1): 5281.
Nunan, D. (1989). Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom, Cambridge University Press.
Prensky, M. (2001). Digital Game-Based Learning. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Savery, J, R. and Duffy, T, M (1995) Problem Based Learning: An instructional model and its constructivist framework, B. Wilson (Ed)
Constructivist Learning Environments: Case Studies in Instructional Design, 1995, 135-150
Schroeder, U. , Spannagel, C. (2006) Supporting the Active Learning Proces, International Journal on E-Learning. 5 (2), pp. 245-264.
Chesapeake, VA: AACE.
Yacci, M. (2004). Game-Based Learning: Structures and Outcomes. In C. Crawford et al. (Eds. ), Proceedings of Society for Information
Technology and Teacher Education International Conference 2004 (pp. 1894-1896). Chesapeake, VA: AACE.
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Efficiency in the Criminal Procedure for Juveniles and the Protection of the
Dignity of Juveniles
Dr. Sc. Hashim Çollaku
Mr.sc. Mentor Çollaku
20000 Prizren, Rr. Bajo, Topulli nr. 6, Republika e Kosovës
hashimqollaku@hotmail.com
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2015.v5n1s1p49
Abstract
Criminal-procedure law is characterized by four stages of development: the investigative stage, the stage of the indictment and
the defendant's statement, the trial stage and the stage with respect to remedies. The procedure for juvenile criminal offenses
also goes through these stages. Juveniles participate considerably in crime, which means that society's concerns for further
work are juvenile perpetrators of criminal offences. This obliges holders of responsibilities, prosecutors, judges, the police and
other authorities that work to implement the legal provisions that refer to juvenile perpetrators of criminal offenses as the most
sensitive categories of criminal procedure requires special attention. It works like acts and international agreements and
domestic legal framework guaranteeing the rights and fundamental freedoms, which guarantee and protect the dignity of
juveniles. Juvenile Justice Code was promulgated in the spirit of the Constitution of the Republic of Kosovo as well as acts of
international agreements. Diversity measures oblige prosecutors and judges to new challenges in working with juvenile
perpetrators of criminal offenses. In order to maintain the dignity of juvenile perpetrators of criminal offenses there should be
constantly support on positive legal provisions, involving the guarding of human character, educational, economic, etc..
Keywords: carrier responsibilities in juvenile criminal proceedings, concern for society, crime prevention, criminal procedure
efficiency, diversity measures, procedures for the juvenile criminal offenses, the preservation of the dignity of minors.
1. Introduction
The criminal legal procedure goes through those stages of development: the procedure of investigations, stage of filing of
indictment and pleading of the accused, stage of main hearing and the stage about legal remedies which is the same
also for juvenile perpetrators of criminal offences.
Causes of dissatisfaction led to the review of the mentioned Regulation and it was decided to rectify it by issuing
the UNMIK Regulation No. 24/19991 which improved the existing Regulation. In Article 1, Item b, inter alia it reads: “the
law that shall be applicable in Kosovo is valid for the laws promulgated until 22 March 1989”, with other explanations until
Article 2.
In the general criminality, the juveniles participate with a percentage of about 7.5% which means that the concern
of the society for further work are mainly juvenile perpetrators of criminal offences. This obliges the ones responsible,
prosecutors, judges, the police and other authorities to implement legal provisions at work that are related to juvenile
perpetrators of criminal offences.
2. Background of the Criminal Procedure for Juveniles in Kosovo
After 10 June 1999, once the war was over, Kosovo was left without institutions, therefore, in order to have the function
of the general social order; it was more than necessary to start with constituting provisional institutions of selfgovernance. The Provisional Administration in Kosovo started to be installed in the functioning of the governance starting
from the legislative and executive ones as well as the administration of justice authorities exercised by the Special
Representative of the Secretary General of the United Nations (SRSG). The same Regulation also foresees the laws that
will be applicable as well as the entry into force of the Regulations that would be issued by UNMIK.
Since it was seen that there was a gap and lack of clarity about application of the laws in force and in order to
1
UNMIK Regulation No. 24/1999, 12 December 1999.
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eliminate those uncertainties, the Regulation 1/99 was supplemented with Regulation 24/99 in which in Article 1,
Paragraph 1.1 (b) decisively it was emphasized that “the Laws applicable in Kosovo shall be all laws that were applicable
until 22 March 1989 “.
Criminal legislation was applicable in Kosovo according to UNMIK Regulation No. 1/992 and 24/993, which have
foreseen the procedures with juvenile perpetrators of criminal offences. After the entry into force of the Criminal Code of
Kosovo (hereafter referred to as CCK), the gap was noticed in relation to preparatory procedure with the juvenile
perpetrators of criminal offences, therefore, there was rapid work done on the issuing of the Juvenile Justice Code of
Kosovo (hereafter referred to as JJCK)4.
The juveniles are a sensitive category of the society; therefore, the legal infrastructure needs to be more adequate
for the ones responsible - Justice Authorities and other organizations. Thought is given that juveniles as perpetrators of
criminal offences with participation in general criminality should have the necessary care by the society. Based on
general statistics on a state level, the participation of juvenile perpetrators of criminal offences in Kosovo is about 7.5 %5.
The preparatory procedure and the court hearing for juveniles require special laws for the work with juveniles. There is
constant work on enhancement of the legislation. In pursuit of this issue, it was the task of the respective authorities to
work on arrangement of JJCK as to the substantive and procedural side. During the work, the difficulties in application of
JJCK are identified and after the identification of deficiencies and uncertainties, this lead to promulgation of the Juvenile
Justice Code6 (hereafter referred to as JJC). With this law promulgated, it is thought that the best solution has been
done.
Special care has been shown to the category of juvenile persons as a special procedure has been conducted also
according to the laws that were applicable in the inexistent state, former Yugoslavia. Legal provisions that referred to the
work with the juveniles were foreseen in the Law on Criminal Procedure of the SFRY (LCP)7, which has abolished the
LCP that was applicable according to the official gazettes of SFRY No. 50/67, 54/70 and 6/73. Rules based on this Law
and other provisions are in contradiction with LCP according to the official gazette of the SFRY No. 26 dated 16 May
1986 entered into force with LCP, Chapter 27 according to the legal provisions that refer to the criminal procedure for
juveniles8 adapting other legal provisions during the work.
Considering this fact, it is necessary that the human rights and freedoms are guaranteed with legal infrastructure.
This means that the juveniles too should have the fundamental rights and freedoms like the right for life, for education, for
communication, for freedom of expression etc., because denying these rights put them in an inferior position.
Also other international instruments and acts that need to be in force have been foreseen which refer to the
guaranteeing of Fundamental Human Rights and Freedoms, with special emphasis by protecting the personality and
integrity of the juveniles. Special emphasis here is the International Convention on the Rights of the Children dated 20
December 1989.
The work of courts and prosecution offices in Kosovo started with the mentioned Regulations foreseeing ad hoc
courts and ad hoc prosecution offices with the mentioned legal framework. All Regulations issued by the SRSG were
valid for the whole territory of Kosovo until the promulgation of JJCK without excluding the other international instruments
and acts.
There was no Criminal Code for Juveniles in Kosovo but the laws and other international instruments and acts that
were in force in the inexistent state were applicable until the promulgation of the Criminal Procedure Code of Kosovo
(CPCK) 9 , Criminal Code of Kosovo (CCK) 10 , so that there is no legal vacuum. With the suggestion of local and
international experts, the procedure for promulgation of JJCK was expedited in order to protect the work with the juvenile
perpetrators of criminal offences as to the procedural aspect.
Promulgation of JJCK marks an important era in the work of the justice authorities like prosecution offices and
courts as Kosovo had its JJCK for the first time enabling the regulation of the work of the Justice authorities with special
UNMIK Regulation No. 1/1999 dated 25 June 1999, on the Authority of the Interim Administration in Kosovo.
UNMIK Regulation No. 24/1999, 12 December 1999, on the Law Applicable in Kosovo.
4 UNMIK Regulation No. 2004/8 dated 20 April 2004.
5 Perpetrators of criminal offences reported by the police reach the number of 8.000 cases, just for information, from 01 January 2007 to
31 March 2009, there were 8.280 cases reported where perpetrators of criminal offences were juveniles5.
6 Juvenile Justice Code No. 03/L-193
7 Official Gazette of SFRY No. 4/77 dated 01 July 1977.
8 The same, Article 452-492 of LCP.
9 UNMIK Regulation No. 26/2003 dated 6 July 2003.
10 UNMIK Regulation No. 25/2003 dated 6 July 2003.
2
3
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laws. Of course the part of the work on JJCK and of the ones in charge for Justice Authorities were also the other legal
provisions of CPCK, and international instruments and acts which need to be applied while exercising the work.
JJCK, which is in force since 20 April 2004, in its content, has foreseen five parts, each of them with its own
characteristics.
JJCK is drafted in the spirit of international instruments and acts by not excluding the Instructions of the United
Nations on the Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency (Riyadh Instructions) adopted and published with the Resolution
45/112 of the General Assembly on 14 December 1999, 68th plenary session, Minimal Standard Rules for Nonpunishment Measures (Tokyo Rules) adopted with the Resolution 45/110 of the General Assembly on 14 December
1990, Minimal Standard Rules of the United Nations for Justice Administration for Juveniles (Beijing Rules) adopted with
the Resolution 40/33 of the General Assembly in November 1985. As a novelty in JJCK and in the spirit of this
instructions and regulations, an integral part of this code were foreseen to be also the diversity measures as part of
criminal sanctions that could be imposed to juveniles along with educative measures and other punishments11. Diversity
measures are imposed to juvenile perpetrators of criminal offences in order to prevent when there is legal possibility not
to start with the criminal procedure against the juvenile perpetrator for criminal offences and in order to assist in
rehabilitation and reintegration in the society so that the deviating behaviors are not repeated.
As to the JJC, which is in force since 08 July 2010, it differs from JJCK which was applicable until the promulgation
and entry into force of JJC, which foresees six dividend parts in 22 chapters. Part one - Guiding Principles and
introductory provisions, Part two - Applicable Measures and punishments, part three - Procedure, part four - Mediation
and execution of measures and punishments, part five - proceedings involving criminal offences committed against
children, part six - transitional and final provisions.
3. Main Characteristics in the Preparatory Procedure for Juveniles
Before initiation of the preparatory procedure, a prosecutor should eliminate the dilemma whether the criminal offence is
punishable with a imprisonment sentence up to 3 years or with a fine in order to decide for the imposition of the diversity
measure, otherwise shall start the procedure for issuing the ruling on initiation of the preparatory procedure. Then, the
prosecutor starts with collection of necessary evidences that follow the criminal case respecting the rights and freedoms
guarantied with positive local laws and other international acts and instruments.
It is important that if the juvenile while commission of the criminal offence was under the age of 18, then after the
age of 18 until the age of 21 the procedure will be conducted as if he/she was of the age of 18. After turning 21, the
preparatory procedure is not conducted. Despite the fact that there is no adequate legal provision based on judicial
practice, the practice is that for the persons who have committed criminal offences until the age of 18 and the procedure
is not finished, the procedure is then terminated.
There is a possibility that a prosecutor does not finish the preparatory procedure; he/she may ask for extension of
the preparatory procedure for a legal period of time12. Depending on the nature of the case, a prosecutor decides for one
of the measures foreseen for ensuring the presence of the reported juvenile13 and depending on the measure decided,
the provisions of CPCK are applied mutatis mutandis. But special care should be shown to the reported juvenile as the
detention is initially decided for duration of one month and may be extended with the proposal of the state prosecutor for
another 2 months.
So, the duration of the detention cannot be more than 3 months in the preparatory procedure whereas while in the
detention center, the juvenile should not be kept together with adult detainees as is negatively affected in the personality
of the juvenile.
During the preparatory procedure after all collected evidences are evaluated, after the conclusion of the
preparatory procedure the prosecutor issues the proposal for imposition of the educative measure or the proposal for
imposition of the punishment, depending on the circumstances in the flow of the criminal case. The juvenile judge should
be notified for each document, collected evidence, and proposal coming from the parties interested in the procedure,
during the preparatory procedure.
After it is considered that it is over with the collection of evidences and the juvenile judge as well as the defense
counsel of the juvenile and the juvenile is notified about it, the prosecutor evaluates the collected evidence and decides
for proposal of imposition of educative measure or proposal for announcement of the punishment.
Article 6 Paragraphs 1 and 2 of JJCK
Article 59 of JJCK and Article 159 of CPCK.
13 Chapter X, from Article 161 of CPCK.
11
12
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The state prosecutor files the proposal for imposition of the educative measure against a juvenile who at the time
of the commission of the criminal offence is not of the age of 16 so that the juvenile is given the possibility to improve and
be reintegrated in the society with the belief that the proposed measure would have effect on the juvenile and that the
wanted effect would be achieved but depending on the type of the criminal offence the possibility of proposal of such type
is not limited also for juvenile perpetrators of criminal offences who are over this age.
The proposal for announcement of the punishment, proposed by the prosecutor, is filed after the legal conditions
are met against the juvenile perpetrator of a criminal offence who at the time of commission of the criminal offence is of
the age of 16. This circumstance should be proved during the course of the preparatory procedure.
The proposals foreseen in the JJC should be justified with the evidences that are collected and evaluated so that
the criminal case is presented in an adequate manner and in line with the legal framework, otherwise, the juvenile judge
may decide to dismiss the proposal filed at the court as inappropriate for further work or to return it for supplementation.
If the juvenile has committed a criminal offence together with an adult, the public prosecutor files the proposal for
joinder of the criminal procedure with the adult. The trial panel of the competent court decides on this.
When the foreseen legal conditions are fulfilled, the work is continued at further stages as foreseen, like, initiation
of the court hearing by the juvenile judge of the respective court and the participation of the prosecutor is mandatory.
For the efficiency of the criminal procedure, the prosecutor decides for one of the measures for ensuring the
presence of the reported juvenile as foreseen with the legal provisions of the CPCK which are applied mutatis mutandis
also for juveniles. Detention can also be imposed against a juvenile which initially is imposed with a duration of one
month and may be extended for another 2 months by the juvenile panel of the competent court with the proposal of the
prosecutor with the intention to achieve the requested efficiency in the procedure. Detention is imposed in accordance
with the legal provisions14, as a measure to ensure the presence of the juvenile in order to achieve the requested rhythm
of the work.
In order to respect the dignity of the juvenile while his/her stay in the detention center15, the juvenile should not be
kept at the same place with the adult detainees but the detention should be served in a respective penitentiary institution
for juveniles.
The prosecutor files the proposal for imposition of educative measure against a juvenile who at the time of the
commission of the criminal offence is not at the age of 16 so that the juvenile is given the possibility to improve and be
reintegrated in the society with the belief that the proposed measure would have effect on the juvenile and that the
wanted effect would be achieved but depending on the type of the criminal offence the possibility of proposal of such type
is not limited also for juvenile perpetrators of criminal offences who are over this age.
The proposal for announcement of the punishment, proposed by the prosecutor, is filed after the legal conditions
are met in line with JJC and is filed against the juvenile perpetrator of a criminal offence who at the time of commission of
the criminal offence is of the age of 16. This circumstance should be proved during the course of the preparatory
procedure.
The preparatory procedure against the juveniles is conducted with a special care considering the juvenile against
whom the procedure is conducted in order to retain the personality of the juvenile, spiritual, psychological development,
sensitivity of the juvenile. When the gaps are noticed at work, the provisions of CPCK and the other international
instruments and acts are applied mutatis mutandis.
In the preparatory procedure for juveniles, the prosecutor issues the ruling on initiation of preparatory procedure
and from that moment he/she starts with the investigation of the criminal case for gathering of necessary evidences by
applying positive legal provisions until the conclusion of investigations and decision to send the criminal case to further
work. Once the criminal report is filed, it is important to determine the type of the criminal offence as the juveniles are
mainly perpetrators of different types of criminal offences.
Diversity measures are foreseen in the second part, chapter four. There are 8 (eight) types of it. They are imposed
by the state prosecutor through a Ruling and without conducting a preparatory procedure. This does not mean that if the
diversity measure imposed did not achieve the foreseen legal effect (verified by the work of the subjects in the
procedure) the preparatory procedure cannot be initiated.
14
15
Article 187, CPCK, conditions for imposition of detention.
Article 194 read with Article 197, of CPCK.
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4. Efficiency in the Criminal Procedure for Juveniles and Protection of the Dignity of the Juvenile
Starting from the United Nations Universal Declaration of Fundamental Human Rights and Freedoms 16 , European
Convention on Human Rights17, Facultative Pact on Civil and Political Rights18, Universal Convention for Protection of
the Rights of Children19, Constitution of the Republic of Kosovo20 local legal framework, Criminal Procedure Code of
Kosovo (CPCK21), Criminal Code of Kosovo (CCK22) Juvenile Justice Code of Kosovo, now in force JJC23, special care is
shown for the efficiency of the preparatory criminal procedure for juveniles. Respecting the international instruments and
acts and the local laws increases the efficiency and protection of the fundamental human rights and freedoms, in the
concrete case the dignity of the juvenile.
Juvenile perpetrators of criminal offences as the most special category in the work require privileged treatment
during the work. There is a need for adequate legal infrastructure and offering of better conditions at work based on the
local and international legal framework. There is a legal definition at JJC as to the juveniles so the juvenile is a person
who at the time of the commission of the criminal offence was for 14 (fourteen) to 18 (eighteen) years old. The legal
definition of the category of juvenile persons is also provided in the international convention.
In order to have a better efficiency, prosecution offices and courts should have sufficient number of prosecutors
and judges 24 , and now the number of prosecutors and judges is being increased as a result of the process of
reappointments and reformation of the judicial and prosecutorial systems. This is expected to improve the material status
of the judges and prosecutors with the increase in their salaries.
Starting of the work of courts and prosecution offices in the territory of Kosovo has vitalized the life in the
jurisprudence and there were efforts for a contribution in preventing the spreading of the criminality. With the
Regulations, the work of courts and prosecution offices was of ad hoc character. The applicable law according to the
Regulations issued by the SRSG is applicable in the territory of Kosovo together with other international instruments and
acts.
Promulgation and entry into force of JJC marked an important achievement for the work of justice authorities as
they work with a codified material which makes the further work easier. The subjects and parties in the procedure have
the possibility to have better rhythm and efficiency during the work. Being equipped with the legal infrastructure, the
police, judges and prosecutors shall have the possibility not to do mistakes and violate the fundamental human rights and
freedoms of juveniles during the work and will protect the dignity of the juvenile. While hearing the juvenile, the
guaranteed rights should be respected; otherwise, each violation is registered and poses a responsibility for a subject.
The diversity measures as a novelty in JJC, present the integral part of the work with juvenile perpetrators of
criminal offence that are applied before initiation of the work on preparatory procedure with the juveniles and after
finishing the work with them educative measures or other punishments are imposed. The diversity measures are
United Nations Universal Declaration of Fundamental Human Rights and Freedoms dated 10 December 1948.
European Convention on Human Rights, 1950.
18 Facultative Pact on Civil and Political Rights 1966.
19 Universal Convention for Protection of the Rights of Children 1986.
20 Constitution of the Republic of Kosovo dated 9 April 2008, in force since 15 June 2008.
21 Criminal Procedure Code of Kosovo, UNMIK Regulation 26/2003, July 2003, in force since 6 April 2004.
22 Criminal Code of Kosovo, UNMIK Regulation 25/2003, July 2003, in force since 6 April 2004.
23 JJCK, UNMIK Regulation No. 6/2004 dated 20 April 2004, amended with JJC since October 2010, promulgated in the spirit of
international instruments and acts by not excluding the Instructions of the United Nations on the Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency
(Riyadh Instructions) adopted and published with the Resolution 45/112 of the General Assembly on 14 December 1999, 68th plenary
session, Minimal Standard Rules for Non-punishment Measures (Tokyo Rules) adopted with the Resolution 45/110 of the General
Assembly on 14 December 1990, Minimal Standard Rules of the United Nations for Justice Administration for Juveniles (Beijing Rules)
adopted with the Resolution 40/33 of the General Assembly in November 1985. As a novelty in JJCK and in the spirit of this instructions
and regulations, an integral part of this code were foreseen to be also the diversity measures as part of criminal sanctions that could be
imposed to juveniles along with educative measures and other punishment. Diversity measures are imposed to the juvenile perpetrators
of criminal offences in order to prevent initiation of criminal procedure against the juvenile perpetrators for the criminal offences as
foreseen in the law.
24 Number of prosecutors with respect to the number of inhabitants. If a comparison is done between the number of prosecutors in
Kosovo with the number of prosecutors from the countries in the region, the difference is as follows: in Kosovo for 100.000 inhabitants
there are 3.7 prosecutors, in Bosnia and Herzegovina for 100.000 inhabitants there are 7.3 prosecutors, in Slovenia for 100.000
inhabitants there are 8 prosecutors, in Croatia for 100.000 inhabitants there are 13.0 prosecutors and in Montenegro for 100.000
inhabitants there are 13.4 prosecutors (Source: report on the programs - July 2009, page 89 on internet webpage: http://www.eulexkosovo.eu/news/docs/programmereport/EULEX-PROGRAMME-REPORT-July-2009.new-AL.pdf
16
17
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imposed to the juvenile perpetrators of criminal offences with the aim to prevent the initiation of preparatory measure for
juveniles in cases as determined by law.
5. Preparatory Procedure for Juveniles
Initiation of the preparatory procedure against the juveniles is linked with the procedural principles like the principle of
publicity, the principle of division of the preparatory procedure, the principle of fair trial within a reasonable time, the
principle of economization etc., that directly have impact on the efficiency of the procedure. The ones in charge of
responsibilities should have the necessary knowledge on implementation of the legal provisions as during the work they
should care for protection of the dignity of the juvenile. All these principles follow the preparatory procedure so that the
dignity of the juvenile is protected and that there is no concern that reflects negatively on the juvenile.
The preparatory procedure for juveniles starts with the initiation of the ruling on initiation of the preparatory
procedure after the criminal report is assessed and offers the necessary basis for initiation of the procedure. Once the
preparatory procedure is initiated, the rhythm of the work is set by coordinating actions with the other subjects in the
procedure. In line with the respective provision, the on-call authority of the Center for Social Work, the Correctional
Service are informed in order to receive the social inquiry as well as the other parties as mentioned in the legal
provisions.
Protection of the dignity of the juvenile starts from the first contact at the police, the juvenile needs to be respected,
should not be subjected to physical and psychic maltreatment, should be enabled to have contact with the legal
representative - parent, his defense counsel etc., as foreseen with the legal provisions.
In line with the legal provisions of JJC, CPCK, the state prosecutor conducts the preparatory procedure, gathers
the necessary evidences, evaluates them and following the conclusion of the preparatory procedure decides for filing of
the proposal for imposition of educative measure or the proposal for imposition of a punishment. This obliges the
prosecutor to be efficient at work.
Respecting the dignity of the juvenile during the work applies also while undertaking procedural actions, starting
from interrogation, verification of the date of birth, if the juvenile was under police custody all measures should be
undertaken that the juvenile is sent to the Center of Family Medicine to find out about his/her health status in relation to
facing the custody and stay in the detention for the further procedure.
The following conditions should be fulfilled during the interrogation of the juvenile:
- his legal representative - parent should be present;
- if he has no parent, the adopting parent or the custodian of the juvenile should be present,
- depending on the stage of the preparatory procedure, the public prosecutor should be careful that the juvenile
is assigned with a defense counsel,
- to respect all rights guaranteed that pertain in line with Article 231 of CPCK when he is in front of the
prosecutor for giving a statement and if he is interviewed at the police in line with Article 214 of CPCK. The
rights should be respected also when he is before the juvenile judge.
6. The State Prosecutor in the preparatory stage for juveniles
A juvenile is a person from 14 to 18 years old, an age that offers legal conditions for initiation of the preparatory
procedure for juveniles. The preparatory procedure cannot be conducted against a juvenile person who has committed a
criminal offence and has not reached the age of 14.
Categorization of persons as juvenile is foreseen with legal provisions 25 , in which there is an expressional
definition for this category but this division of juveniles was also foreseen in the applicable laws based on which the
preparatory procedure for juveniles were conducted26. JJC contains respective provisions for regulating the preparatory
procedure for juveniles starting from material, procedural and provisions for execution of criminal sanctions.
The preparatory procedure against the juveniles is conducted with a special care considering the juvenile against
whom the procedure is conducted in order to retain the personality of the juvenile, spiritual, psychological development,
sensitivity of the juvenile. When the gaps are noticed at work, the provisions of CPCK and the other international
25
26
Article 2, JJC
Applicable LCP, on chapter 27 has foreseen the procedure against juveniles starting from Article 452 – 492.
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instruments and acts27 are applied mutatis mutandis.
In the preparatory procedure for juveniles, the state prosecutor issues the ruling on initiation of preparatory
procedure and from that moment he/she starts with the investigation of the criminal case for gathering of necessary
evidences by applying positive legal provisions until the conclusion of investigations and decision to send the criminal
case to further work. Once the criminal report is filed, it is important to determine the type of the criminal offence as the
juveniles are mainly perpetrators of different types of criminal offences.28
When we are at the work and development of preparatory procedure, we need to consider that the juvenile
perpetrators of criminal offences are persons of different genders, they are male or female. Males in general delinquency
participate with about 97 % whereas females as juvenile perpetrators of criminal offence participate with 3 %.
According to LCP, the preparatory procedure for juveniles is initiated with the request of the prosecutor for
preparatory procedure, whereas the juvenile judge has issued the ruling on initiation of the preparatory procedure who
also organizes the work on collecting the necessary evidences29.
The State Prosecutor should be careful that during the preparatory procedure, he/she should respect the dignity of
the reported juvenile from the first moment in the procedure, to verify the date of birth by ensuring a birth certificate,
should know whether the juvenile was sent to the Center of Family Medicine to find out about his/her health status. If the
case is with detention, it should be verified whether the juvenile can face the imposition of detention or not.
The juvenile should not be interrogated more than two times and the following conditions should be fulfilled during
the interview of the juvenile:
- his legal representative - parent should be present;
- if he has no parent, the adopting parent or the custodian of the juvenile should be present,
- depending on the stage of the preparatory procedure, the public prosecutor should be careful that the juvenile
is assigned with a defense counsel,
- to respect all rights guaranteed that pertain in line with the CPCK.
7. Conclusion
The Criminal Procedure for juveniles has many specifics which are characterized with the efficiency in protecting the
dignity of the juvenile. The preparatory stage starts with the issuance of the Ruling on initiation of preparatory procedure,
than goes with collection of evidences – personal and material ones.
From this point of direction, the procedure goes through the stage of preparatory procedure, the procedure of
deciding to present the respective proposal, to present the subjects and parties in the main hearing and the procedure
about the legal remedies.
Hence, respecting the human rights is a crucial issue as the fundamental human rights and freedoms are
guaranties with the constitution and laws without excluding other international acts and instruments.
This has made the subjects and parties in the procedure to respect the rights of the juvenile starting from:
- the right for life,
- the right for identity,
- the right and freedom for expression in all types of procedure,
Inter alia, Minimal Standard Rules of the United Nations for Justice Administration for Juveniles (Beijing Rules) adopted with the
Resolution 40/33 of the General Assembly on 29 November 1985, Instructions of the United Nations on the Prevention of Juvenile
Delinquency (Riyadh Instructions) adopted and published with the Resolution 45/112 of the General Assembly on 14 December 1999,
68th plenary session, Minimal Standard Rules for Non-punishment Measures (Tokyo Rules) adopted with the Resolution 45/110 of the
General Assembly on 14 December 1990.
28 Criminal offences that characterize juvenile perpetrators of criminal offences are offences against life and body, chapter XXV (criminal
offence of murder – Article 146 of CCK, criminal offence of aggravated murder – Article 147 of CCK, criminal offence of light bodily harm
– Article 153 of CCK, criminal offence grievous bodily harm – Article 154 of CCK, criminal offence of participation in a brawl – Article 155
of CCK, criminal offences against sexual integrity, Chapter XIX (criminal offence of rape – Article 193 of CCK, criminal offence of sexual
abuse of persons with mental or emotional disorders or disabilities – Article 197 of CCK, criminal offence of sexual abuse of persons
under the age of sixteen years – Article 198 of CCK, etc.), criminal offences against public health – Chapter XXI (criminal offence of
unauthorized purchase, possession, distribution and sale of dangerous narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances from Article 229 of
CCK), criminal offences against economy – chapter XXI (criminal offence of counterfeit money – Article 244 of CCK), criminal offences
against property, chapter XXII (criminal offence of aggravated theft – Article 252 of CCK, criminal offence of Robbery – Article 255 of
CCK).
29 Article 470, LCP
27
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the right for defense and defense counsel,
not to be misused and abused during the procedures,
to respect the interest and the dignity of the child who needs to have additional care,
to have the right for time off and use of free time,
to have the right to fight all forms of exploitation or discrimination,
to have the right not to be deprived of liberty illegally and to have the legal defense,
to have the diversity measure imposed more by prosecutors and judges during the procedure in order to
increase the efficiency considering the aim of imposing those measures,
alternative sentences foreseen in JJC should increase during the work
social inquiry should be more all-inclusive and should not contain the proposal for imposition of eventual
measure,
placing the juvenile in detention should be as limited as possible,
a respective service should be established in the state level for the care of children who are perpetrators of
criminal offences of the age of fourteen (14) (considering the fact that we have perpetrators of criminal
offences of this age, and nothing is regulated in the law as to the treatment that should be offered to this
category),
to adapt the legal provisions so that there are no difficulties at work in relation to their implementation,
during the interrogation of the juveniles in the capacity of the reported party, injured party or witness, they
should not have psychical burden that would affect the statement.
References
Books and Essays
UN Universal Declaration of Fundamental Human Rights and Freedoms, December 1948,
Convention on the Rights of a Child, 1989
European Convention on Human Rights, 1950,
Constitution of the Republic of Kosovo, Pristina, 2008
Constitution of the Republic of Albania, Tirana, 1998
Criminal Procedure Code of Kosovo, UNMIK Regulation No. 25/2003, July 2003
Criminal Code of Kosovo, UNMIK Regulation No. 26/2003, July 2003
Code of ethics and professional behavior for Kosovo prosecutors, 9 May 2005
Convention on the Rights of the Child, Adopted by General Assembly of the Unated Nations, Law on Kosovo prosecutor, Official
Gazette of SAPK, 32/1976, 28 July 1976
Law on regular Courts, Official Gazette of SAPK, 21/1978, 28 April 1978 Sahiti, Ejup, Argumentation in Criminal Procedure, Tetovo
1999; Pristina 2006
Juvenile Justice Code of Kosovo, 20 April 2004,
Juvenile Justice Code of Kosovo, No 03/L-193 o8 July 2010
Law No. 03/L-003 on amending and supplementing the CPCK,
Facultative Pact on Civil and Political Rights, June 1986,
Compilation of principles for the protection of all persons under any form of detention or imprisonment, approved with the Resolution of
the General Assembly No. 43/173, 09 December 1998
UNMIK Regulation No. 1/1999, 25 June 1999, on the Authority of the Provisional Administration in Kosovo
UNMIK Regulation 5/1999, 4 September 1999, on the establishment of an ad hoc court of final appeal and of the ad hoc public
prosecution office
UNMIK Regulation 24/1999, 12 December 1999, on the applicable law in Kosovo.
UNMIK Regulation 53/2005, 20 December 2005,
Sahiti, Ejup, The right on Criminal Procedure, Pristina, 2005
Salihu, Ismet, The Criminal Juvenile right, Pristina 2005
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Formation of Linguistic Culture of Pupils by Working with Vocabulary
Doc. Dr. Kledi Satka (Shegani)
University of Tirana, Faculty of History and Philology, Linguistics Department
Email: kshegani@yahoo.com
Doc. Dr. Albana Deda (Ndoja)
University of Tirana, Faculty of History and Philology, Linguistics Department
Email: albanandoja@hotmail.com
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2015.v5n1s1p57
Abstract
The main purpose of educationin the elementary school is that the pupils gets the basics of thinking and speech development
and to create conditions for the formation of different concepts. For this reason, in this initial period of child’s education, it is of
first importance the work of vocabulary which is directly connected with the addition of images of the child for the physical and
social environment that surrounds him, the exercice of speech and addition of the active reserve of the vocabulary of the
pupils. This process essentially realizes the organization of thoughts, multiplies and optimizes social, emotional,
communicative and cognitive behavior by mobilizing all the energies of the child and identifying specific trend in the formation
of everyone. Highlighting examples from the work of teachers with vocabulary, as a means to stimulate imagination and logical
thinking, we will try to analyze the primary role of the culture of the word, which is considered foremost as a precise expression
of different images and concepts. The most effective method is exactly the one that gives priority to the continuos and
systematic discovery of connections of word and imagination, object and image in order for them to enter the consciousness of
pupils not as separate things, but as systematic knowledge of reality and of denominations or ways of saying that serve them
to express themselves.
1. From A to Z of the Culture of Language (From the First Letter of the Alphabet to the Last Letter)
Development and learning are the result of the interconnection of the biological maturity and environment, including the
social and cultural world where the child lives.
From A to Z of the culture of language, the child progresses to practice new skills gained from experience and
motivated by learning through social interaction and relationships with others. Work for establishing pupils’ culture of
speaking first presupposes continuous perfection of their ability to use the mother language in all forms of its practical
implementation, both orally and in writing. 1
The main purpose of education in the elementary school is that the pupil gets the basics of thinking and speech
development and to create conditions for the formation of different concepts. For this reason, in this initial period of
child’s education, it is of first importance the work with vocabulary, which is directly connected with the addition of images
of the child for the physical and social environment that surrounds him, the exercise of speech and addition of the active
reserve of the vocabulary of the pupils. Education in fact can not be considered only as a technical issue through which
information is processed, it is a complex activity, which tries to adapt the culture with the requirements of members of a
society, but on the other hand also adapt their knowledge to the requirements of this culture. 2
Work with dictionary should be extended to all subjects. This is for the simple reason that the contact of children
with the language of books leaves multiple traces and sometimes we encounter mechanical use of words or analogous
construction of nonexistent words. For example a child, after hearing the tale of shark “peshkaqen”, addressed teacher
with the words: "Now tell us a tale with “peshkamace”. Such examples show that in the first two years of elementary
school, children are still associated with a talk where frequently are used words that do not express their imagination,
Gjokutaj,M., Gjendja dhe perspektivat e zhvillimit të lëndës së gjuhës shqipe në shkollën tetëvjeçare, në “Kurrikula dhe shkolla”, Gjuhë
shqipe dhe leximi letrar, 5, Tiranë, 2003,f.62-82.
2 Bruner J.,La cultura dell’educazione, nuovi orisonti per la scuola, Fetrineli Editore, 2000, faqe 56
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sometimes even contradict the linguistic facts. The semantic link of the word star (like orb: Morningstar, the stars are in
the sky; the star as a symbol of a five-corner sign: the starfish, it is a star “is beautiful”, was born with a star “lucky”) is
among the simple links, but for a child it is not so simple to make the linguistic link be responsive to his imagination. The
child who already knew the word star like orb that looks only at night, listening to the starfish word asked the question:
why was night at the sea?
The child is thus expanding the meaning of the words already learned. For example, he may have learned the
word “first” because he himself is in the first class. Now, he is learning that the same word can have other meanings,
such as to be first in the queue, or the first letter of a book. In its entirety, the system of understanding of the child, thus
the semantics, not only grow in size, but also deepens the meaning at the same time.
2. Word and Image
Lexicon can be considered as a kind of “mental dictionary” in which a person has stored the words from an early age, the
amount of which increases progressively over the years. From this “dictionary” we take whenever we need the word and
put it in the right lexical and semantic context. According to Bruner, intellectual development is influenced by the way in
which human beings gradually learn to present the world through action, image and symbol3.
The most effective method is exactly the one that gives priority to the continuous and systematic discovery of
connections of word and imagination, object and image in order for them to enter the consciousness of pupils not as
separate things, but as systematic knowledge of reality and of denominations or ways of saying that serve them to
express themselves. The culture of speech is therefore, first and foremost, the precise expression of various images and
concepts. From the observed examples we have noticed that children have established with the language a report, which
in its early stages passes through notional grammar, which is the frame of reference within which the child starts to move
by dealing with language. According to Deon,4 the starting point is the so-called “notional grammar”, exactly the grammar
which consists of basic concepts that are close to the child (movement, time, eating, etc. ), and serve as points of
reference in linguistic logical flow while the child reaches its full disposition, transmitting meanings that are channeled
according to available means of a language and to child development in its linguistic environment.
Child’s personality, his intelligence and expressive language are developed step by step in conjunction with adults,
peers and the environment where he is living. Efforts for culture of speech are in fact attempts for the culture of child's
thinking, for the education of his images and imagination.
Relying on intuitive knowledge of the child is important for two reasons: the first is the motivation: when children
have their own theories about the process, means that they are interested in the problem in question and have overcome
the stage of a simple description of the problem. The second relates to the value of education in the development of
thinking of a child; towards a logical understanding.
Practice has shown that generally in the children of first classes there are quite a lot of discrepancies between the
word and its imagination. Sometimes children have images, but not enough words to express. This is because the word
is learned without knowing the meaning or it is connected with an inaccurate and incomplete image.
To enrich the vocabulary of pupils, it is important the course of knowledge of nature, through which children
become acquainted with nature, environment and society, even through concrete observations, excursions and
experiments, so that for each new word, pupils form strong links with what it is called. Thus, there is the possibility to
have complete sensations and perceptions of objects, objects and their properties. When the pupil has never seen an
object, it is difficult or impossible to visualize it.
It is clear that the teacher to expand the vocabulary of pupils must rely on the experience of the pupils, in familiar
things to them, but always, this experience or knowledge of the essence and characteristics of various items must be
enriched with other knowledge. The more obvious are the images of objects that pupils study the stronger and the stable
will be links of the word with its meaning, and the greater will be the opportunities for uses of figurative and semantic
extensions of the type of polisemy. This regards, of course, to the fact that the recognition of nature, of its objects and
phenomena is endless; it is added and continuously enriched with new details, through which also comply the related
names. Thus for example the words: bear, roaring, fences teeth, tearing etc. children may have heard and learned even
before they enter school, through their parents' stories, tales, conversations with adults etc. but their understanding get
clear only when they visit the zoo, or see a teaching movie etc. where they notice specifically what they have heard of it.
Another way is reliance in the description given in the dictionary of Albanian language, in presenting their
3
4
Bruner J.,La cultura dell’educazione, nuovi orisonti per la scuola, Fetrineli Editore, 2000
Deon V., La grammatica suggerita dai bambini në Italiano e Oltre Nr. 4, 1993
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similarities and differences from other types of relevant gender. In this case it is child's imagination to perform the
connection of new meanings to those well known, so it happens often that images for new objects are not be the same
for all pupils in a class, they differ, being close or far from the truth, depending on the clarity of the explanation presented,
but also the experience of personal knowledge of each one. Thus for ex. in the course of the Knowledge of Nature the
pupils faces the phrase spaceship. Different pupils in different areas visualize this word in different ways, depending on
the knowledge and experience acquired previously. Those who live in coastal cities, of course, have a better knowledge
of ships, their size and type, hence the name of the new spaceship is for them more accessible to the imagination; this
can be said for those who have seen the documentary and films concerning sea, ships etc. , and is quite elusive for
those residing in different areas, non close to the coast, especially in remote mountain areas.
In cases like this, when the child’s is enriched with new words through the mediated images, illustrations are an
important element in the enrichment of child's vocabulary. This relates primarily with the generalized character of different
denominations. For example the word animal used in the course of Knowledge of Nature should be understood by
children as comprising all kinds of animals, wild or domestic, although they can be very different from the appearance,
size and way of living.
Thus, knowledge of nature is the course through which pupils enter deeply into polisemy and homonymous and
synonymous richness of Albanian language.
Words such as: world, block, bloom, subject, leaf, smell, etc. . , should take all their breadth of meaning, so that
the name is associated with clear images. For the meanings of the verb bloom “cel” are effective compound words such
as: çel derën, çelin lulet, çelem në fytyrë, çelën zogjtë, çeli koha etc.
Of course that explanation of the meanings and the difference between them will not be so metalinguistic, but
mainly through getting free compound words or sustainable typical for the respective meanings.
Exactly by phrases and sentences which consist of compound words that are of interest us, the child not only
knows polisemy of words, but also the penetration of figurative expressions and of different shades of stylistic value.
Thus for example for the word erë, (smell/wind) through sentences in which it is contained: a strong wind blows; autumn
wind, windy spring; smell the flower; good smelling, stink; etc. , it is made the distinction of its first meaning “wind” from
the second meaning: “fragrance”; on the other hand, precisely through compound words that explain the second
meaning, fragrance (as good smell, stink, flower smell) it is created the opportunity to understand the phraseology “it
smells” “the trick is understood, the secret is revealed”.
3. Conclusions
In conclusion to the discussion and examples that we brought above, we can say with conviction that the language of
children should be considered as the foundation of formatting a human personality, which runs from stuttering and babytalk to the imagination and processed and logical thinking. Nowadays, everywhere in the world, and also in Albania, as a
result of increased incentives of “electronic discourse” (games with sounds, words, and musical sounds etc. ) and the
cartoons that are provided by television channels, videotapes or DVDs, it is observed an acceleration of the overall
mental and linguistic development of children.
It is necessary to expand more the concept of forming linguistic culture to pupils considering these basic
directions:
a) Enriching morphological system of speaking to pupils with a sufficient amount of different parts of the lecture
(names, adjectives, verbs, pronouns, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, particles, exclamations);
b) Processing and clarification of difference between the words of the same root and words with similar roots;
c) Enriching pupils' speaking, i. e. recognition of such categories of words such as synonyms, antonyms,
homonymy, epithets, comparisons, phraseology and sustainable compound words equivalent to a word or
term etc.
This process essentially realizes the organization of thoughts, multiplies and optimizes social, emotional,
communicative and cognitive behavior by mobilizing all the energies of the child and identifying specific trend in the
formation of everyone.
References
Shkurtaj, Gj. , (2003) Sociolinguistika, SHBLU ,Tiranë.
Shkurtaj Gj. (2004) Etnografi e të folurit të shqipes, SHBLU, Tiranë.
Jerome,B. , (2002), La cultura dell’educazione, nuovi orisonti per la scuola, Fetrineli Editore.
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Marazzini C. , (2001) Il perfetto parlare. La retorica in Italia da Dante a Internet, Roma, Carocci.
Deon V. , (1993) La grammatica suggerita dai bambini në Italiano e Oltre Nr. 4.
Pontecorvo, C. , Ajello, A. M. Zucchermaglio, C. (1995). I contesti sociali dell'apprendimento. Acquisire conoscenze a scuola, nel lavoro,
nella vita quotidiana, Milano, Ambrosiana.
Fishman J. , (1965) Who speaks, what language, to whom and when, “La linguistique”2.
Koutsouvanov, E. , (1993) Television and child language development, International Journal of Early Childhood 25 f. 27-32.
Buzan, T. , (2006) Truri i fëmijës, Botimet “Max”.
Gjokutaj, M. , (2003), Gjendja dhe perspektivat e zhvillimit të lëndës së gjuhës shqipe në shkollën tetëvjeçare, në “Kurrikula dhe
shkolla”, Gjuhë shqipe dhe leximi letrar, 5, Tiranë.
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The Understandings of Genetics Concepts and Learning Approach of
Pre-Service Science Teachers
Bahattin Deniz Altunoğlu
Faculty of Education, Kastamonu University, Turkey
bdaltunoglu@kastamonu.edu.tr
Metin Şeker
Student of Graduate Science Institute Kastamonu University, Turkey
mtnseker@gmail.com
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2015.v5n1s1p61
Abstract
Advances in genetics and related technology have significant influence on our life. Recently, one of the most popular scientific
and technological advances are related with genetics such as human genome project, genetically modified organism, cloning
of organism, gene therapy and genetic background of various illness etc.. With the discoursing of this, society demands clear
cut information to evaluate these genetics related issues having ethic and social characteristics. Becoming of evaluations’
skills for genetics related controversial issues required sufficient understanding of basic genetic concepts. At this point science
education and science teachers take priority for the supplying of scientific literacy which is required for making informed
decision about of genetic related controversial issues imposed by daily life. However, some researches indicated that teachers
are one of the reasons of students’ misconceptions. In this study pre-service science teachers’ difficulties of genetics concepts
and relationship understanding level and learning approach was investigated with 196 pre-service science teachers, who were
studying at Kastamonu University Faculty of Education. Data collection tools were multiple choice Genetics Concepts Test and
Learning Approach Questionnaire, four-point Likert type instrument. Data obtained from Genetics Concepts Test were
described by means, variance and most frequently false responses were determined to uncover misunderstanding of genetic
concepts. Correlation analyses were conducted to examine relationship between pre-service teachers’ understanding of
genetics concepts and learning orientations.
Keywords: genetic concepts, pre-service science teachers, learning approach
1. Introduction
Recently, one of the most popular scientific and technological advances are related with genetics such as human
genome project, genetically modified organism, cloning of organism, gene therapy and genetic background of various
illness etc. These advancements caused by society curiosity and concern (Kılıç & Sağlam 2014). As experienced in all
scientific and technological developments, little information fragments from discussions of scientists and specialists
reflected by mass media. For instance genetically modified organism have risks related with health problem and
environmental problem but such organism can provide benefits; these controversial opinions expressed by experts
(Durrant & Legge 2005). Society by such controversial topics needs basic knowledge to make meaningful decision
which is the best one between lots of options. At this point science education and science teachers take priority for the
supplying of scientific literacy which is required for making informed decision about of genetic related controversial issues
imposed by daily life, because teachers are an critical link for the general public’s understanding and perception of
scientific developments (Yates & Marek 2013; Nehm & Schonfeld 2007). This mission burden on the teachers that they
have the best scientific literacy, however literature shows that teachers play a role by having learning difficulties of
students (Sander 1993, Soyibo 1995, Yates & Marek 2014) and pre-service teachers and teachers have difficulties with
understanding of various biology concepts (Bishop & Anderson 1998, Yip 1998; Tekkaya, Çapa, & Yılmaz. 2000;
Dikmenli, Cardak & Kiray 2011; Kurt, Ekici, Aksu, & Aktaş, 2013; Özgür 2013).
Other side understanding of concepts in genetics contributes meaningful learning evolution which is complex and
misunderstood areas of biology such as evolution.
Genetics is a basic topic in biology however it is perceived difficult by students and teachers (Johnstone, &
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Mahmoud, 1980; Bahar, Johnstone & Hansell, 1999; Knippels et al., 2005). Knippels (2002) determined some difficulties
which should be effective in genetic education: the domain-specific terminology, the cytological processes and the
abstract nature of the genetics concepts. In addition to the nature of topic, some cognitive factors like reasoning ability
and learning orientation have effect on learning of abstract and complex topics. In this scope level of understanding of
genetics and effect of learning approach on this situation were aimed with this investigation.
2. Research Method
Primary aim of study was investigate understanding of genetics. Additionally the correlation between pre-service science
teachers’ understanding level of genetics and learning orientation was determined. The design of investigation was
descriptive study since main aim of study was uncover and interpret inherent condition of pre-service teachers’
understanding of genetics.
3. Research Group
Research group of study consisted of 196 pre-service science teachers at the Faculty of Education in Kastamonu
University. The average age of pre-service science teachers was 21.2 years (range 18 - 23).
Data collection tools
In the study multiple choice Genetic Concept Test (GCT) and Learning Approach Questionnaire (LAQ) was used
to state students’ understanding level of genetics concepts and learning orientations.
4. Genetic Concept Test (GCT)
GCT was designed to uncover of understanding level of pre-service science teachers about basic concepts of genetics
such as DNA, chromosome, gene, genome and cell divisions. Some items of test were designed to determine the
understanding level of relationship among these basic concepts. GCT consisted 22 multiple choice type items. For
calibration of GCT a pilot study was performed with 125 pre-service science teachers, which were separate from study
group. The pilot study of GCT was accomplished by conducting item analysis in which difficulty and discrimination indices
of each item were calculated. Item discrimination indices were found to between 0.22 and 0.62, item difficulty indices
were between 0.27 and 0.86. To assess internal consistency reliability, the Kuder-Richardson 20 (KR-20) formula was
used and KR-20 coefficient was found to be 0.68. These values showed that items functioned in a satisfactory way.
5. Learning Approach Questionnaire (LAQ)
The LAQ, which is 22-item, 4-point Likert instrument, was designed to state of individuals’ learning approach ranging
from meaningful to rote (Cavallo 1996). The instrument has two subscales: Learning Approach QuestionnaireMeaningful (LAQ-M) and the Learning Approach Questionnaire-Rote (LAQ-R). The LAQ-M and the LAQ-R consist of
11items each. Participants responded to each statement by indicating their agreement, ranging from 4 (strongly agree)
to 1 (strongly disagree). High scores for LQA-R indicated a strong tendency toward rote learning and high scores for
LQA-M R indicated a strong tendency toward meaningful learning.
The questionnaire was adapted to Turkish by Tekkaya and Yenilmez ( 2006) and Cronbach alpha internal
consistency of instrument was calculated by authors r = .78 for the LAQ-M and r = .62 for LAQ-R. The LAQ was
frequently used by Turkish researchers for uncover the effects of cognitive variables on learning of scientific concepts (
Sadi & Çakıroğlu, 2012; Gürçay 2013; Kılıç & Sağlam, 2014).
6. Data Analysis
The data obtained by GCT and LAQ were described mean and variance. GCT and LAQ mean scores each were tested
by one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Pearson correlation coefficient was calculated between mean scores of
GCT and LAQ. In addition to statistic procedures frequently false answers of participants were determined.
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7. Results
The data about pre –service science teachers’ understanding of fundamental concepts of genetics was collected by
GCT. Mean scores (M) and standard deviation (SD) obtained GCT were displayed by Table 1.
Table 1. GCT mean scores and Standard deviation distribution according to grade level
Grade level
Freshmen
Sophomore
Junior
Total
N
65
50
81
196
M
9,52
8,74
11,28
10,06
SD
3,20
3,88
3,26
3,57
According to Table 1GCT mean scores show increasing trend across the grade level of pre-service science teachers.
One way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to examine possible differences in participants’ GCT
scores relative to their grade levels and results displayed by Table 2.
To examine statistically significance of differences between GCT mean scores according to participants’ grade
level ANOVA was employed and results displayed by Table 2
Table 2. One way analysis of variance with GCT scores
Between groups
Within groups
Total
Sum of square
226,573
225,803
2452,376
df
2
191
193
Mean Square
113,286
11,653
F
p
9,721
0,000
Statistically significant difference between GCT scores of pre-service science teachers according to grade level was
determined [F (2,191) = 9.721, p=0.000].
LAQ was used to determine the learning approach of participants. This instrument had two subscales; LAQ-R and
LAQ-M.
Mean scores (M) and standard deviation (SD) obtained LAQ-R were displayed by Table 3.
Table 3. LAQ-R mean scores and Standard deviation distribution according to grade level
Grade level
Freshmen
Sophomore
Junior
Total
N
65
50
81
196
M
29,25
26,90
27,01
27,72
SD
4,68
4,59
3,94
4,48
According to Table 3 LAQ-R scores display a decreasing trend across the grade level of participants.
One way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to examine possible differences in participants’ LAQ-R
scores relative to their grade levels and results displayed by Table 4.
Table 4. One way analysis of variance with LAQ-R scores
Between groups
Within groups
Total
Sum of square
225,573
3681,549
3907,122
df
2
193
195
Mean Square
112,787
19,075
F
p
5,913
0,003
Statistically significant difference between GCT scores of pre-service science teachers according to grade level was
determined [F (2,193) = 5.913, p=0.003].
Mean scores (M) and standard deviation (SD) obtained LAQ-M were displayed by Table 5.
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Table 5. LAQ-M mean scores and Standard deviation distribution according to grade level
Grade level
Freshmen
Sophomore
Junior
Total
N
65
50
81
196
M
30,91
32,04
31,41
31,40
SD
5,89
4,39
4,16
4,85
According to Table 5 LAQ-M scores were close to each other and total mean score calculated as 31.40.
One way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to examine possible differences in participants’ LAQ-R
scores relative to their grade levels and results displayed by Table 4.
Table 4. One way analysis of variance with LAQ-M scores
Between groups
Within groups
Total
Sum of square
36,236
4546,922
4583,158
df
2
193
195
Mean Square
18,118
23,559
F
p
0,769
0,465
There were no statistically significant difference between LAQ-M scores of pre-service science teachers according to
grade level [F (2,193) = 0.769, p=0.465].
The correlation coefficients were calculated to determine possible relations between participants’ understanding of
genetics concepts, reasoning ability and learning approaches, and the results of this correlation matrix are presented in
Table 6.
Table 6. Correlation coefficients between GCT and LAQ subscales
GCT
LAQ-R
LAQ-M
GCT
1
-0,044*
0,182*
LAQ-R
-0,044*
1
0,068
LAQ-M
,182*
0,068
1
*p<.05
GCT: Genetic Concept Test scores
LAQ-R:=Rote Learning Approach Questionnaire scores
LAQ-M: Meaningful Learning Approach Questionnaire scores
Significant weak correlations were found between GCT and LAQ-M (r = .182;p<.05) also between TGCT and LAQ-R (r = .044;p<.05). So it can be allege that participants higher level understanding genetics concepts have prefer meaningful
learning approach, however it must be considered low level of correlation coefficients.
Responses of teacher candidates for GCT were analyzed so frequently emerged misunderstandings of teacher
candidates were detected. In Table 7 detected misunderstandings were displayed.
Table 7. Frequently encountered misunderstandings of pre-service science teachers
- Genetic information about a protein molecule transmitted from one generation to the next by tRNA nucleotide
sequences
- Genetic diversity between organisms emerged due to replication
- After cell division disappeared parent cell
- Spindle fiber originate from chromosomes
- Gene genome concept confusion
- The gene for eye color is located in the iris of the eye
8. Discussion
The results of the study revealed that science teacher candidates’ understandings’ level is quite low. However junior
teacher candidates have highest GCT scores but their mean score can reach only half point of the maximum test point.
The analysis of the false responses showed that teacher candidates have some misunderstandings which have students
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of primary and secondary school. For instance Saka et al. (2006) have determined that 9th and 11th graders had
confusion about chromatin and spindle fiber. Science teachers candidates have misunderstanding of concepts related to
cell division. These findings are compatible with the findings of Flores et al. (2003).
One of the reasons for difficulty of genetics concepts is unfamiliarity of students with the definitions of the genetics
related terms because terms look and sound very similar, e.g. transcription, translation, chromosome and chromatide
(Bahar et al, 1999). But this explanation seem not suitable for science teacher candidates because in science teacher
training program there are two semester general biology and one semester genetics courses, so teacher candidates
should be familiar with such concepts. In this case should be learning orientation of teacher candidates more adequate
explanation for low understanding level of genetics concepts. In this study a positive but weak correlation between
understanding level of genetics concepts and level of tendency of meaningful learning approach. It is expected results
since abstract characteristic of concepts of genetics is commonly expressed reason for the learning difficulty (Saka et al.
2006; Yenilmez 2011; Dikmenli et al. 2011, Kılıç & Sağlam 2014). The abstractness of genetic concepts makes
meaningful learning approach indispensable by preventing from getting misunderstanding. In contrast to this many
students’ learning approach display rote learning tendency and students don’t construct the relationship between
concepts (Cavallo & Schafer, 1994).
It is not surprising that science teacher candidates have decreasing preferences for rote learning approach,
increase their grade level, since teacher training programs, in which there are lectures about leaning theories, learning
strategies etc. instructed, have positive effect on learning approach positively.
References
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Teaching, 27, 415–427.
Cavallo, A. M. L. (1996). Meaningful learning, reasoning ability, and students' understanding and problem solving of topics in genetics.
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Cavallo, A.M.L., & Schafer, L.E. (1994). Relationships between students’ meaningful learning orientation and their understanding of
genetics topics. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 31, 393-418.
Kılıç, D. & Sağlam N. (2014) Students’understanding of genetics concepts: the effect of reasoning ability and learning approaches,
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Dikmenli, M., Cardak, O., & Kiray, S. A. (2011). Science Student Teachers’ Ideas about the ‘Gene’Concept. Procedia-Social and
Behavioral Sciences, 15, 2609-2613.
Din Yan Yip (1998) Teachers' misconceptions of the circulatory system, Journal of Biological Education, 32:3, 207-215,
Durant, R. F., & Legge, J. S. (2005). Public Opinion, Risk Perceptions, and Genetically Modified Food Regulatory Policy Reassessing
the Calculus of Dissent among European Citizens. European Union Politics, 6(2), 181-200.
Flores F, Tovar M, & Gallegos L (2003). Representation of the cell and its processes in high school students: An integrated view.
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Johnstone, A. H. & Mahmoud, N. A. (1980). Isolating topics of high perceived difficulty in school biology. Journal of Biological Education,
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student teachers’ cognitive structure. Educational Research and Reviews, 8(17), 1574-1593.
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Ozgur, S. (2013). The Persistence of Misconceptions about the Human Blood Circulatory System among Students in Different Grade
Levels. International Journal of Environmental and Science Education, 8(2), 255-268.
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they ımage the gene, dna and chromosome? Journal of Science Education and Technology, 15(2), 192-202
Sander, M. (1993). Erroneous ideas about respiration: The teacher factor, Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 30, 919-934,
Soyibo, K. (1995). A review of some sources of students' misconceptions in biology. Singapore Journal of Education 15( 2), 1-11
Tekkaya, C. & Yenizmez, A. (2006). Relationships among measures of learning orientation, reasoning ability, and conceptual
understanding of photosynthesis and respiration in plants for grade 8 males and females. Journal of Elementary Science
Education, Vol. 18(1), 1-14
Tekkaya, C., Çapa, Y., & Yılmaz, Ö. (2000). Biyoloji öğretmen adaylarının genel biyoloji konularındaki kavram yanılgıları. Hacettepe
Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 18(18).
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Yakışan M. (2013). The alternative conceptions of pre-service teachers concerning the status of organelles during cell division Journal of
Baltic Science Education, Vol. 12, No. 6, 2013
Yates, T. B., & Marek, E. A. (2013). Is Oklahoma really OK? A regional study of the prevalence of biological evolution-related
misconceptions held by introductory biology teachers. Evolution: Education and Outreach, 6(1), 1-20.
Yates, T. B., & Marek, E. A. (2014). Teachers teaching misconceptions: a study of factors contributing to high school biology students’
acquisition of biological evolution-related misconceptions. Evolution: Education and Outreach, 7(1), 7.
Knippels M C P J (2002) Coping with the abstract and complex nature of genetics in biology education. The yo-yo learning and teaching
strategy. Utrecht: CD-ß Press [http://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/1874/219/full.pdf?sequence=2]
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Educational Media Tools and Lifelong Education
Mr.Sce. Dritan Ceka
Europian University of Tirana
dritanceka@hotmail.com
Mr. Anila Jaku
University of Shkodra “Luigj Gurakuqi”Albania
anila2010@hotmail.co.uk
Mr. Sce. Vjosa Imeri
Shkolla Fillore, Zenit, Prishtinë
vjosaimeri_5@hotmail.com
Mr.Sce. Shkendije Jashari
Shkolla Fillore, Zenit, Prishtinë
dija_209@hotmail.com
Mr. Fitore Haliti
Shkolla Fillore, Zenit, Prishtinë
fitore.s.haliti@gmail.com
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2015.v5n1s1p67
Abstract
One of the key factors in lifelong education are also various media including, television, radio, newspapers. The thesis
”Educational content in Kosova’s television programs” is a thesis that requires multilateral approach as well as psychological,
social, pedagogical, andragogical and practical coverage. The importance of this issue remains into the complexity of problem
content, because analytic study for the researcher means dividing the problem into two fundamental aspects: the theoretical
aspect and practical aspect as well. Actually in Kosova there is a considered number of televisions with 24 hours broadcast,
which are identified with a lot of deficiencies, which in fact actualize the problem, but the technological and scientific
development especially, have had that impact in human knowledge that the human could not achieve to posses without media
help. Latest knowledge become old and are replaced in that speed that it is impossible for human being to cope with these
rapid changes if he would not be continuously educated or would not be informed by the media. Besides education, school
should prepare the pupil to be able to continue the education further in his life in order to be successful in coping with the latest
changes in technology. After finishing the basic education, in order to succeed in his profession and cope with technological,
social, economical changes, it requires being continuously educated and informed. Besides everything, the human willingness,
involvement and continuous insisting for self improvement help him to achieve success in every field of life, as well as coping
with the challenges we face. Without personal involvement for further education even in formal or informal institution, the
human as part of society or the society itself could not make it further without media help either television, radio or electronic
ones.
Keywords: media, education, culture, television content.
1. Introduction
Before 20 or even more years, when man was educated and prepared for a job, with the knowledge that has earned
during his schooling, he was able to achieve results at work. Now is a time of rapid and varied changes, because life
itself has become more dynamic, and the man will "lose" in these rapid changes, because the school is not able to
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prepare enough the individual for changes brought about time.
School besides providing knowledge must prepare the individual to be able to be educated throughout his life, in
order to be more successful in dealing with the changes. After completing basic education, in order to achieve success in
the profession and to withstand the economic, social and technical – technological chnages,it is required to be educated
in continuously. Man begins his education since childhood and his education is affected by a range of factors and tools.
Initially he is prepared in the family, later in different institutions, but also durin working life in various forms. It is
considered that aftes the acquisition of a certain fund of knowledge, skilled individual should be educated independently,
without the presence of teachers.
Different educational television programs help to broaden and deepen the knowledge of various fields, without
having individual contact with anyone, or to follow any sort of continuing education course. Continuous education leaves
room to be implied the development of other sectors such as: the economy, education, health and technology, enabling
the active involvement of citizens in these developmental processes. This kind of education will enable our inclusion in
the family of democratic nations. Without inclusion and adapting to advanced countries, we will find ourselves in a
situation of social, educational and technological disadvantaged. Our society will deal with major challenges, so to
overcome these challenges, our society should be active society, which educated and moving in step with global
developments.
2. Research Purpose and Objectives
Television is a very important source of educational advancement of individuals and lifelong education. The role of
television has changed the lives and professional development of people. Now television is a medium and a tool which
provides good knowledge in many areas. That a man can be educated throughout life, society must ensure that
television programs to be diversified, and also the individual is responsible for his education.
The object of study - is to conclude how educational television content affects lifelong education.
3. Research Questions, Hypothesis and Research Methodology
Research questions of this research are: Educational TV contents and their importance in lifelong education.
3.1 Research methodology
For the realization of this research are used different methods, combined, descriptive. Also, the research was based on
quantitative and qualitative methodology, and we also reviewed research, and other documents related to the subject
that we have researched.
3.2 Hypothesis
Does educational TV content influence lifelong education?
4. Research Importance
The problem of educational television content and their relevance to lifelong education, as is extensive and actual, is also
very complex. This issue must not be confined within a specific area, inter alia due to the multidimensional character it
has. Lifelong Education, in addition to general technological and social progress, represents the television as quite an
important factor. Along with global developments, television is becoming a medium and a tool, which will serve us in our
continuous efforts to the educational and professional raise
5. The Purpose of the Research
The purpose of this research is: analyzing the current situation, time when television broadcast educational programs,
and their quality. As a main purpose of this research is to detect and identify other causes and motives, of any nature,
which influence educational content on Kosovo’s televisions.
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6. Research Tasks
From the above statement of the purpose of research derive also the operational tasks. Within the project was envisaged
the realization of specific tasks that the nature of the research and work flow enabled to be achieved.
The tasks of the research were to ascertain:
What TV channels offer more educational programs for the citizens of Kosovo;
How much is the television used by the citizens of Kosovo for lifelong education;
How many of those programs help adults to enhance their knowledge.
Which resources are used by the citizens of Kosovo for lifelong education
Which educational programs are the most viewed in our country;
How satisfied are adults with the diversity and quality of the programs they follow;
7. Lifelong Education
The aim of the educational policy of any country is to provide opportunities for achieving the appropriate level of
education for each one and for all groups of adults as well ensure that all possess the knowledge, skills and attitudes that
are in accordance with the requirements of society and labor market. Because of this, education must be accessible to
everyone who lives in this society, regardless of age, gender, religious determination, health, ethnicity and socio-financial
situation. Also, education and training must have all the conditions for efficiency and effectiveness, in order to be able to
offer all general and professional education. Education should be characterized by a certain dynamic and flexible
structure, which would enable mobilization of pupils, students and teachers, which will operate with clear mechanisms
that will enable adaptation and willingness to deal with the requests for changes of individuals and society in general.
Also, education must overcome issues and eliminate factors that promote absence of education and flood of users of
educational services. Particular attention should be paid to the differences that will be manifested in the areas of: quality
of teaching, learning conditions, adequate infrastructure, possession with adequate staff and physical access into
educational institutions. Society must create comprehensive opportunities for education also encourage and motivate
them to use these opportunities to improve their position in society, to aim for self actualization, regardless of their social
background and educational level. The individual should aim to be updated and actual in the workplace. If he will not be
updated and actual, then the results at work will not be enjoyable
Lifelong education is a continuous process of implementation of real opportunities of learning and self learning, in
order to unconventionally, indirectly and directly, to obtain knowledge and functional skills for successfully solving
important problems at work, also social, family and personal problems. If you rely on the rapid changes occurring in
society, and the explosion of new knowledge and aging of them for a short time, it is considered that lifelong education is
a necessity of the time. Scientific, technical, technological changes impose lifelong education so that we can move
forward and together with all developed countries towards global change.
7.1 Forms of lifelong learning
Lifelong Education includes all stages of human life and helps in overcoming the youth education and supplementary
education for adults. It emphasizes the man who is educated and not the educational institutions, recognizing, in this
way, that education can be accomplished in many different ways and not necessarily in school, under the guidance of
teachers and giving exams.
Lifelong Education includes:
a. formal education
Formal education is realized in education and training institutions, which provide officially recognized certificates
and qualifications and it is structured (in relation to the goals, objectives, duration and the means by which is realized). 1
b. Non-formal education
Non-formal education is provided through the activities of organizations and civil society groups, such as youth
organizations, trade unions, political parties, as well as through additional services organizations or formal systems, such
as art classes, music and sports or private lessons preparing for exams, it is typically structured and ends with award
certificates that are not formally recognized or even without issuing certificates. 2
1
2
Prof. dr. Pajtim Bejtja, Të nxënët në shoqërinë e sotme, Tiranë, 2003, fq. 3.
Ibid.
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c. informal education
Informal education is follow up of the activities that take place during everyday life at work, at home or at leisure,
usually unintentional (accidental), so it is unstructured and does not lead to any certification. 3
7.2 Factors that determine the individual to determine for lifelong education4
In the century which we live in, the changes are enormous, so human must necessarily be lifelong educated otherwise
would not be able to perform professional duties that arise. There are a number of factors that determine lifelong
education, among others will include:
Motivation to be educated.- This is a very important factor, because the man to be educated continuously must
have motive and incentive to learn.
Awareness of the need to be educated.- man must be aware of what he knows, what he learns and what you has
to learn in the future;
A clear picture of what should be learned.- man must clearly know what he has to learn what he needs to learn;
Practicality of knowledge – in order the knowledge gained to stay longer in our memory and influence our work
they must be exercised. Only with the practicality of knowledge, they can be functional and serve us in our work;
Filling, expansion and progressive development of Knowledge- we constantly have to expand and also update
new knowledge, in order to go with technical and other scientific –technological developments;
Updating need- Adding knowledge, doubling them for a short time helps the man to be continually educated,
because it also imposed for a job and a better life. This rapid change of information, and the desire to be present,
promotes aspiration for lifelong education
7.3 Audiovisual technique and the education
The postwar generation of first world war (1914-1918) and especially that of the 1930s witnessed the birth and
development of audiovisual civilization. The postwar generation of II world war grew in an environment in which
audiovisual techniques was already fully installed. Children and adolescents of 1968s are fully living with picture and
sound civilization. While children of after 1980s, already live and will live more and more in the world of computing. This
means that, for some of them the audiovisual technique was rather new phenomenon, which failed to accept and use, for
others, the environment provided all the conditions for an accelerated learning as this technique began to be a part of
their psychological and personality forming development. For youngsters, the presence of "audiovisuals" is an evident
fact and a necessity, such that they have the impression that you can not live witout ear headphones. First implications
that can be drawn from such a simple conclusion is that pedagogical problems arising out of the audiovisual intervention
in the educational process of a few decades ago are no longer the same as those faced today. For this reason there can
be distinguished the main following stages.Problems of 1940-1950s were associated with the use of instruments, purely
psychological aspects of perception on the screen. In its beginings audiovisual technique was considered as completing
the educational process introduced by the teacher, slowly, it was integrated into the teaching process, but always
assecond element5 Audiovisual technique does not remain in the helping role of pedagogical action. It has a central role,
being considered today as one of the major elements of the pedagogic action across the spectrum of its constituent
ingredients: information, learning and expression. Until a century before, the knowledge sources of an adult were; the
family, the physical environment, economy, schools, newspaper reading books, personal and professional experience.
Radio and TV are sources of new knowledge, qualitatively different from the previous ones in terms of quantity as well.
Just in front of us now is developed actualization and "internationalization" of knowledge.Information, cultural programms,
propaganda, publicity etc.
7.4 Audiovisual technique and new processes
Audiovisual technique, that one of illustrated publications, cartoons, cinema or television to reach the fixed images on
the screen, has caused birth of a new form of perception; two dimensions perception of a reality which is three
dimensional itself, a perception that necessarily introduces a form of passivity without reference to J. Piaget works on
Ibid.
Ligjërata të nivelit master, Prof. dr Demë Hoti.
5 Gastron Mailaret, Pedagogjia e Përgjithshme, Koha, Prishtinë, 1997, fq.430
3
4
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the child's conception of space. Increasingly the question of how elementary student integrates a highly complex
landscape plan that gives adults the notion of depth or distance. The teacher is constantly in the flux of possible errors of
interpretation of a document and is bound to make the necessary corrections without delay. In fact, what the film shows
us is a series of successive images related to the same subject, figures which we are obliged to follow one after another
in the order given, to try to integrate the perceived object, place, event or landscapes in their entirety. Cinema, radio and
television, are excellent tools for information transmission, while the inactivity of the auditor or spectator is not indicative
of a real communication. It is this reason why the teacher must have a minimum of knowledge about makin a film laws,
on the type of film language used to help young viewers develop their critical spirit. Audovisual technique is not neutral in
this respect6.
7.5 CD player
Cd player is a small instrument, which has not taken its rightful place in the midst of an educational situation. With its
ease of use, it is audible witness of what happens in a classroom or what means a certain subject. Its practical use for
repeating effect turns in a superb instrument of learning. Thanks to cd player the learning process has been a real
revolution. Cd player plays magic mirror role in all educational situations that require verbal expression of subjects. 7
7.6 Television - short history
In 1947, the US begin the first steps in television engagement in educational work, for which were made plans for first
television educational programs. Systematic use of television in education starts around 1948 (Japan, USA, England),
and educational programs begin to gain more space in programs and television companies. Television is an invention of
the 20th century which conquered the world with great speed. Information was not obtained through the written rows
anymore, but directly from the filming reality. People could see from their homes what was happening in the world.
Television, in fact, changed people informing so quickly and revolutionary. It turned the world into what we call today
global village. Prishtina’s Television began work with the program in 1974. Television was discovered by John Logie Bard
(british) and Vladimir Zworykin (Russian) in America. On October 2, 1925, in his laboratory Bardi has successfully
transmitted the first television appearance.
7.7 Television in schools
Television in school creates conditions that general and vocational education to be acquired mainly through television. All
those who wish to finish a certain type of school, get a qualification or further refine their profession can accomplish this
with the help of television in school. "via television various curriculum are broadcasted and students watch, listen, take
notes and try to remember.”8 the teacher gives adequate explanation, makes additions and gives certain tasks and thus
students imbibe certain school program and benefit proper qualification. Students send questions to television, fill in
answers and tests and undergo other modes of exams, while teachers, taking into account pedagogical requirements,
organize and develop their teaching work.
7.8 CD and DVD- television tools
CD and DVDs are modern teaching tools that can be used successfully in the learning process. As Cd as well as DVDs
have many options, ranging from their capacity, up to their potential for large scale exploitation for educational needs. CD
and DVD also are practical, as their storage and their use. In these learning tools can be found films, documentaries, but
recently has become common practice in Cd to be a whole book, from different areas. A CD or DVD can hold hundreds
of thousands of information.
7.9 TV contents and their relevance to lifelong education
Through television content, individuals have the opportunity to see various events of great importance, which would
Gastron Mailaret, Pedagogjia e Përgjithshme, Koha, Prishtinë, 1997, fq.432
Mirko Bogičević, Tehnologija savremene nastave, Beogra, 1974, fq.177
8 Petar Mandiq, vep e cit. fq. 258.
6
7
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hardly be followed closely, or due to economic failure. Television has tremendous opportunity to offer your students an
event when it is actually happening or through film, drawings and other material and provide different parts of the world,
reconstruct events, provide data, show processes (chemical, biological, etc.), produce rare objects, concretize etc.
Thanks to television broad popular masses can follow all political, cultural, scientific and sports events and thus became
possible the expansion, deepening and updating of educational content, the modernization of methods and forms of
teaching and learning.9. Television is a very powerful tool for informing the public. Broadcasting of television programs
and experience in systematic educational television programs for schools has shown that television throughout the
education system is a very important tool for the rationalization and modernization of the education system10
8. Lifelong Education for you Means
Graph nr. 1
Table nr. 1
Options
a
b
c
Level
Saving Time
Saving Money
Nr
292
148
Percentage
16.2 %
8.2 %
Labor Preservation
171
9.5 %
d
e
ë
f
g
Spiritual Tranquility Preservation
Personal Security
Anxiety and Stress Preservation
Intellectual Condition Storage
Social Balance Preservation
Total
Legend: Time; b. Money, c. labor; d. Spiritual tranquility; e. personal security. ë.
society balance.
394
21.9 %
28
1.5 %
30
1.7 %
442
24.6 %
295
16.4 %
1800
100 %
anxiety and stress; f. intellectual condition; g.
As to the question of what it means lifelong education for participants in the research, this result has been produced:
In first position is f option. Lifelong Education is the intellectual Condition storage. In second position is the option
under d. Lifelong Education is the preservation of spiritual tranquility. In third position is the option g. Lifelong education
means preserve the balance in society. In fourth position is a option. Lifelong education is saving time, then come work
option, money etc.
Lifelong Education is the intellectual Condition storage, preservation and conservation work the pace of change.
9. Do you Watch Television?
This question was submitted to elicit information from the respondents that do watch television. Depending on the answer
given by the respondents, we continued or not with other questions.
9
Dr. Petar Mandiq, Novacionet në mësim, ETMM, Prishtinë, 1985, fq. 244.
Rtv pedagogija, vep e cit. fq. 7.
10
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Graph nr. 1.
Table nr. 1.
Options
a
b
Answers
yes
no
Total
Number
1749
51
1800
Percentage
97.2 %
2.8 %
100 %
Caption: On the question Do you watch television?, most of the participants in the research claimed that they watch
television, while only are few of them said they do not watch television. Depending on the answer given to this question,
we proceed or not with the two following questions. Subjects who said they do not watch television, we did not need to
ask the question 2 and 3. The answers show that 97.2% of Kosovo citizens find time to watch and actively monitor
television programs. Out of these 57% were male and 40.2% were female. Differentiation based on age, about 35% are
aged up to 18, 21% aged 19-25 years, 19% aged 26-45 years, 16.2% aged 46-60 years old, 6% aged over 60 years
About 96% of those living in villages and 98.4 of those living in cities watch television. Most of the citizens of
Kosovo are interested to watch and watch TV regularly.
10. Which Programs do you Watch More?
Question has the purpose of obtaining information by respondents about programs they watch more..
Graph.5
Table nr. 5.
Options
A
B
C
D
Level
Number
Percentage
Movies (Artistic, Serials etj)
584
32.2 %
Music
341
18.8 %
Educational Programs
564
31.1 %
Other Porgrams
324
17.9 %
Total
1813
100 %
Legjenda:a. Filma (artistik, seriale etj) , Legend: a. movies b. Music c. educational programs d. other programs
In this question we got the following answers: Kosovo citizens mostly watch movies, so in the first place is option a, in
second place is the option c.educational program, in third place is option b. music and at the bottom is option d. other
programs. The outcome shows that educational programs occupy a very important place in the daily programs that
citizen s of Kosova watch. However there is further need to provide more, and also educational programs to be followed
more by the citizens.
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11. Label some National or International Tv Channels that you Watch for your Educational Raise?
Graph nr. 6
Table nr. 6
Options
a
b
c
d
e
ë
f
g
gj
h
TV channel
Nr
Percentage
Explorer
780
21 %
RTK
1140
31 %
KTV
760
20.5 %
TV 21
600
16.2 %
Discover
100
2.7 %
Top Chanel
100
2.7 %
BBC
90
2.4 %
Besa
60
1.6 %
Tema
40
1.1 %
Mitrovica
30
0.8 %
Gjithsej
3700
100 %
Legend: a. Eksplorer; b. RTK; c. KTV; d. TV 21; e. Discover; ë. Top channel; f. BBC; g. Besa; gj. Tema; h. Mitrovica;
Regarding the TV channels that can be watched in our country, we have a rating of about 10 TV channels followed by
the citizens of Kosovo, but we will enumerate only a few who followed the highest percentage of citizens. In first position
is Kosovo's public television RTK, in second place digital TV channel: Explorer, then comes the television channel KTV
and after him comes TV 21. Six other TV channels are followed by a small number of citizens. Some of these TV
channels can not be watched by many people because of the extent of their relay. While for some other channels
(Explorer for instance), in some rural areas where there are no cable network installation and they cannot afford the
digital access, it is impossible to watch these channels.
12. How Much are you Satisfied with the Quality of Educational Programs that Broadcast Television Kosovo?
The purpose of this question was to have opinions on how much information is provided for lifelong learning.
Graph nr. 5
Table nr. 5
Options
a
b
c
d
e
level
A lot
Relatively
Average
A little
Not at all
total
Legend a. A lot; b. relatively; c. average; d. a little; e. not at all
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Nr
374
626
427
58
0
1485
Percentage
25.2 %
42.2 %
28.7 %
3.9 %
0%
100 %
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According to most participants, whether they are satisfied with television channels that broadcast quality educational
programs, they say that it helps for new information from the world of latest technical and technological developments,
also there are information about books containing, educational programs for kids, etc. The skills to use the print and
electronic resources, help you relatively a lot for lifelong education. In second place stand a group of participants who
think that these are average qualitative educational content and there is still need for improvement. In third place is the
option a).a lot there is a high quality of the educational contents in Kosovo’s TVs. While the terms of the option d) has
stated that few programs that broadcast quality programs with educational character, and to the last question did not
have any correspondent who has provided an answer on this question. Quality education programs have great
importance to the general public viewer on new information.
13. Do you Use Other Electronic Resources and Media to your Lifelong Education?
The purpose of this question was to obtain information whether participant use other resources for their lifelong
education.
Graph nr. 6
Table nr. 6
Options
a
b
answers
yes
no
total
Nr
1508
292
1800
Percentage
83.8 %
16.2 %
100 %
Legend: a. Yes; b. No.
Most participants in the survey say they use other electronic resources and media for their lifelong education. A small
number said they cannot exploit these resources.
The reason why the citizens of Kosovo do not use other resources for their educational establishment is that, as
more resources are used more information is taken. If they use only the television they could not take much knowledge
as well as a few television channels broadcast educational programs for adults
14. Conclusions and Recommendations
Based on theoretical analysis and practical problem, we can see that television is an important medium for educational
establishment, however the actual television centers in Kosovo does not offer enough programs for adult education.
Regarding this issue, we draw some conclusions:
Most of Kosovo's citizens watching television meaning they have access to television, most follow local channels
on television, more viewers and highest broadcast quality has national television RTK, but the citizens of Kosovo use
also other educational resources for their lifelong educational advancement. From the results obtained, we concluded
that 53.7% of respondents are constantly educated in order to gain more knowledge, 14.3% of them want to have good
income, 5.5% of them want to be advanced at work, equally wish to be updated in the workplace, 2.3% want higher
position, 14.7% want to be role models for their children, while 4% of the respondents have other reasons for continuous
education.
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References
Andoni, Mirela, Ejvis Shehi : “ Gjendja e arsimimit të të rriturve dhe prirjet e tij në Shqipëri”, ”, “Revista pedagogjike”, 2003, nr. 4, ISP,
Tiranë.
Bejtja prof. dr. Pajtim ( 2003), Të nxënët në shoqërinë e sotme, Tiranë.
Bejtja prof. dr. Pajtim: “Të nxënët gajtë gjithë jetës- koncept udhëheqës për reformimin e arsimit dhe formimin profesional”, “Revista
pedagogjike”, 2001, nr. 2, Tiranë.
Bogićević, Mirko (1969) Tehnologjia savremene nastave, Zavod za udžbenika, Beograd.
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Mandiq Dr.Petar (1985), ETMM, Novacionet në mësim, Prishtinë.
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Rtv pedagogija (1970), “Mladost”, Zagreb.
Shahini, prof. as. Dr. Ladi “Globalizimi dhe arsimi”, Revista ped”,2002,nr.1, ISP, Tiranë.
Shifra dhe fakte për arsimin e Kosovës (2000), KEC, Prishtinë.
Shimlesha, Dr. Pero ( red. ), (1988), Pedagogjia, ETMM, Prishtinë.
Zylfiu Dr.sc.Nijazi (2001, 2005), Didaktika, UP, Prishtinë.
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Science Teachers Self Perception about Metacognition
Mohammed Yousef Mai
Faculty of Education, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, 35900 Tanjong Malim, Perak Darul Ridzuan
dr.mohd.mai@gmail.com
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2015.v5n1s1p77
Abstract
Metacognition is a significant part of human abilities. Metacognitive knowledge can be described as what we know about our
own cognitive processes (Young & Fry, 2008). This research aims at measuring perception of science teachers about
metacognitive awareness. The sample consists of 52 science teachers from six schools in Perak, Malaysia. Metacognitive
awareness was measured using Metacognitive Awareness Inventory for Teachers (MAIT) developed by Cem Balcikanli (2011)
that consists of 24 items, it has a good validly and reliability indicators. The results reveal that the science teachers have a high
level of perception about metacognition. No significant differences found related to teachers gender or age. Although there are
no significant differences found related to the teachers' gender, but there is a significant difference found related to the
teachers' age and there is an interaction between teachers' age and educational level concerning their c.
Keywords: Science teachers, Metacognitive, science education.
1. Introduction
Metacognition is an important aspect of teaching and learning. It is one of the foundation upon which students may
become independent learners (Fazal ur Rahman, 2011). In 1971, Flavell used the term metamemory in regard to an
individual's ability to manage and monitor the input, storage, search and retrieval of the contents of his own memory. He
implied with his statements that metacognition is intentional, conscious, foresighted, purposeful, and directed at
accomplishing a goal or outcome. It is one’s knowledge, concerning on one’s own cognitive process and products or
anything related to them. It is where a person is able to identify and aware of his cognitive process (Flavell, 1979).
The concept itself has increased its popularity in almost all disciplines ranging from communication to nursing. This
popularity has been materialized with a lot of metacognitive inventories developed in time (Balcikanli, 2011). In the field
of education, metacognition is congruent with the learners’ need and desire to communicate, explain and justify thinking
to organisms as well as to himself (Flavell, 1978). It is where the person needs to be able to identify his need to
understand certain things in education and able to make others understand it too.
In research literature, there have been a great number of attempts to conceptualize the construct of metacognition
over the last three decades. The literature is replete with definitions of meta- cognition up to date. However, there is no
general consensus of the most agreed-upon definition of metacognition as yet (Balcikanli, 2011). "Metacognition" is
often simply defined as "thinking about thinking" (Livingston, 1997). Others defined Metacognition as any knowledge or
cognitive process, in which there are the assessment, monitoring or cognitive control. Based on a viewpoint, it can be
considered as a general aspect of understanding which plays a role in all cognitive activities (Abdi et al. , 2012).
Metacognition is a multifaceted concept. This concept involves the knowledge (beliefs), processes and strategies
which evaluate, supervises or control the identification (Abdi et al. , 2012). As the concept of metacognition includes that
individual is aware of his own learning and learning process and can give feedback to himself regarding them, the
individual should have these abilities. Metacognition takes part between cognition and emotion, plays a key role in selfregulation which is necessary for reaching success in learning and affects a lot of elements such as knowledge
acquisition, comprehension, recollection and application (Alkan & Erdem, 2014).
Many researchers stress that metacognition is best defined by recognizing that it is both knowledge about, and
control over, thinking processes. Therefore, metacognition could be considered as a three-step process (Fazal ur
Rahman, 2011):
(1) Connecting new information to previous knowledge
(2) Deliberately selecting thinking strategies
(3) Planning, monitoring, and evaluating the thinking processes
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The purpose of metacognitive prompting is to guide learners in the process of identifying the structure of problems,
creating connections with prior knowledge, and selecting learning strategies. It is meant to promote learners’ regulation of
their knowledge and skills during training rather than awareness of performance alone (Aurah, Cassady, & McConnell,
2014). Fazal ur Rahman (2011) also reported that Hennessey (1999), identified five characteristics of metacognition:
(1) A knowledge of the content of own thinking.
(2) An awareness of own conception.
(3) Monitoring of own cognitive process
(4) Regulation of one’s cognitive processes with respect to further learning.
(5) An application of a set of heuristics for helping people organizes their method to solve problems.
Similarly, Hartman (2001) underlined the following points of metacognition:
(1) Metacognition is thinking about thinking.
(2) It enables awareness and control over how teachers think about teaching.
(3) It enables them to self-regulate teaching activities with respect to students, goals and situation.
(4) Some metacognition is domain-specific and some are domain-general
(5) Two general types of metacognition are: executive management strategies that help to plan, monitor and
evaluate/revise thinking processes and products, and strategic knowledge about information/strategies/ skills
and when, why and how to use them.
The term "metacognition" is most often associated with John Flavell (Livingston, 1997), he often considered being
the father of metacognition. He viewed metacognition as a primarily conscious endeavor; however, he also
acknowledged that it may well take place unconsciously. Flavell proposed a formal model of metacognitive monitoring to
include four classes of phenomena and their relationships. His four- pronged model of metacognition breaks down into
the following categories (Flavell, 1979) (Fouché, 2013):
1. Metacognitive knowledge, which he defined as one's knowledge or beliefs about the factors that affect
cognitive activities. The distinction between cognitive and metacognitive knowledge may lie in how the
information is used, more than a fundamental difference in processes. Metacognitive activity usually precedes
and follows cognitive activity. They are closely interrelated and mutually dependent. Metacognitive knowledge
can lead the individual to engage in or abandon a particular cognitive enterprise based on its relationship to
his interests, abilities and goals.
2. Metacognitive experiences, it includes the subjective internal responses of an individual to his own
metacognitive knowledge, goals, or strategies. Metacognitive experience can also be a “stream of
consciousness” process in which other information, memories, or earlier experiences may be recalled as
resources in the process of solving a current-moment cognitive problem.
3. Metacognitive goals and tasks are the desired outcomes or objectives of a cognitive venture. This was
Flavell's third major category. Goals and tasks include comprehension, committing facts to memory, or
producing something, such as a written document or an answer to a math problem, or of simply improving
one's knowledge about something. Achievement of a goal draws heavily on both metacognitive knowledge
and metacognitive experience for its successful completion (Flavell, 1979).
4. Metacognitive strategies are designed to monitor cognitive progress. Metacognitive strategies are ordered
processes used to control one's own cognitive activities and to ensure that a cognitive goal (for example,
solving a math problem, writing an effective sentence, understanding reading material) have been met. A
person with good metacognitive skills and awareness uses these processes to oversee his own learning
process, plan and monitor ongoing cognitive activities, and to compare cognitive outcomes with internal or
external standards.
Researchers further conceptualize metacognition by breaking down metacognition into two subcomponents,
metacognitive knowledge (knowledge about cognition) and metacognitive regulation (regulation of cognition). These two
subcomponents have been theorized to be related to one another, Metacognitive knowledge can be described as what
we know about our own cognitive processes. In the category of metacognitive knowledge, researchers suggested
subcategories of (Balcikanli, 2011) (Young & Fry, 2008):
- Declarative knowledge, In brief, declarative knowledge refers to “knowing about things”
- Procedural knowledge, procedural knowledge refers to “knowing how to do things”, and
- Conditional knowledge. , Conditional knowledge is “knowing the why and when aspects of cognition".
As a whole, our knowledge of cognition refers to what we know about how we learn; what we know about the
procedures and strategies that are the most effective for us; and, what we know about the conditions under which various
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cognitive activities are most effective.
In contrast to metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive regulation is more related to a set of actions and events so
as to facilitate learning than a set of knowledge that shapes how those actions emerge. Metacognitive regulation can be
broken down into three component activities. These include:
- Planning involves “the selection of appropriate strategies and the allocation of resources that affect one's
learning performance”.
- Monitoring involves “one's on-line awareness of comprehension and task performance”.
- Evaluating refers to “appraising the products and regulatory processes of one's learning”.
Flavell (1979) pinpointed three important implications for this. First, metacognitive experiences have the power of
influencing metacognitive knowledge along with a variety of actions including adding, deleting or revising. Second, they
can guide learners to recreate new goals and revise them on the basis of old ones. Third, metacognitive experiences can
arouse strategies that may be employed in the face of cognitive or metacognitive goals (Balcikanli, 2011).
It stands to reason that if students have well developed metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive regulatory
skills and they use their metacognition, they will excel academically (Young & Fry, 2008).
Metacognitive awareness is an important element in learning, it plays a pivotal role in the effectiveness of the
learning process, it could be defined as ability of individuals to control his own cognitive process and direct them (Alkan
& Erdem, 2014). Studies suggest that metacognition has the potential to affect students’ learning across different
domains. Flavell emphasized that “metacognition is congruent with the learners‟ need and desire to communicate,
explain and justify thinking to organisms as well as to himself” (Balcikanli, 2011). He acknowledged the significance of
metacognition in a wide range of applications that included reading, oral skills, writing, language acquisition, memory,
attention, social interactions, self-instruction, personality development and education (Flavell, 1979).
So far, the correlation between the metacognitive beliefs and students' academic achievement has been studied in
a very limited research, but it seems that the metacognitive beliefs have an important impact on the students' academic
achievement (Abdi et al. , 2012). Young & Fry (2008), based on their research study where they investigated to reveal
the relationship between metacognitive awareness and academic achievement in college students, found out that there
are correlations between the MAI (Metacognitive Awareness Inventory) and cumulative GPA (Grade Point Average).
Lee (2009) examined the relationships between metacognition, self-regulation and students‟ critical thinking skills
and disposition, she argued that self-regulation had significant relationships with students‟ critical thinking disposition
(Balcikanli, 2011)
Furthermore, metacognition has been one of the most concentrated concepts among researches because of many
reasons (Memnun & Akkaya, 2009):
1. Metacognition is one of the most important factors that affect problem solving behaviors of individuals
2. Metacognition is an extremely important structure, affecting individual learning process
3. Metacognition has a main role in the self-regulation, required to succeed in learning
4. Learners with a certain level of self-regulation and strategy of metacognition get a better academic
achievement.
5. Metacognition encourages reflective thinking, provide responsibility, and build self-confidence to make
decisions quickly.
6. Metacognition facilitates critical and creative thinking.
Thus, metacognition is important to regulate and improve their cognitive tactics and strategies used in problem
solving process. The students with a higher level of metacognitive skills become successful in problem solving (Aurah et
al. , 2014).
When students are aware of their learning process they will be able to focus and study better. On the other hand,
teachers who are aware of their teaching process and well aware of the students’ conditions will be able to have a better
control in the learning process.
As certain studies indicate, metacognition is a crucial skill to have since it makes students independent thinkers
who control their thinking processes. Using metacognition, learners can have the control over what and how they learn,
which can trigger the development of independent learning. What is important is that learners who display more
metacognitive skills tend to set clear objectives in the learning process, to define the content, to make a schedule in line
with this content, and to select the cognitive and metacognitive strategies. (Balcikanli, 2011).
Various studies have revealed that learning can be enhanced if students use metacognitive processes, i. e. ; they
are aware of, monitor and control their own learning. Good learners are metacognitively adept and poor ones
metacognitively deficient in how they tackle learning tasks in most subjects (Fazal ur Rahman, 2011).
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If it is the aim of education to let learners take charge of their own learning, then they need to be able to plan,
monitor and evaluate their learning. In order to do so, they need to be metacognitively aware, students without
metacognitive approaches are essentially learners without direction and ability to review their progress, accomplishments
and future learning directions (Balcikanli, 2011).
Metacognition plays an important role in teaching, learning, social cognition, attention, self-discipline, problem
solving, communication and personality development. An understanding of learning process and learners, will put the
teacher in a better position to decide what can be done and how, what will not work and why (Fazal ur Rahman, 2011).
Metacognitive teaching refers teaching with and for metacognition. It means teachers think about their own
thinking regarding instructional goals, teaching strategies, sequence, materials, students’ characteristics and needs, and
issues related to curriculum, instruction and assessment before, during and after lessons. Teaching for metacognition
means teachers think about how teaching will activate and develop students’ metacognition, or thinking about their own
thinking as learners (Fazal ur Rahman, 2011).
Metacognition is important for teachers as they need to handle the students as well as adapting it to the students.
In school environment, teachers need to socially interact with their students, collegues, and as well as parents. This is
where teachers need to adapt with suitable metacognition in order for them to deal with each people differently. In
contrast to the problems and tasks confronted in typical metacognitive interventions, teachers must find a way to
effectively communicate and interact with people of different values to make their adaptations successful (Lin, Schwartz,
& Hatano, 2005). Metacognition in science teaching and learning includes both aspects teaching for and with
metacognition (Hartman, 2001):
1. Metacognition enables teachers to regulate their teaching activities according to students, goals and situation.
2. It help the teachers to plan, monitor and evaluate thinking processes and products, and
3. It also equip the teachers about what information/skills they have, when, why and how to use them.
Teachers need to think metacognitively to effectively run teaching and use instructional techniques strategically.
According to the literature on metacognition theory teachers’ understanding of metacognition is complex and depends on
an interaction between declarative, procedural, and conditional knowledge. The metacognition theory assumes that
teachers’ conditional knowledge influences procedural knowledge, which in turn also affects declarative knowledge, and
further alters their pedagogical knowledge in metacognition. Procedural knowledge directly affects declarative knowledge
and pedagogical knowledge. Declarative knowledge builds upon conditional and procedural knowledge and directly
influences pedagogical knowledge (Wilson & Bai, 2010).
Teaching is a profession where teachers or educators need to engage with a variety and diversity of students.
Thus, it makes the teaching profession as one of the most challenging profession. In everyday teaching lesson, teachers
need to be able to vary their teaching methods as well as lesson in order to attract the students’ attention. The teaching
process will become harder once the teachers have to deal with different level of students in the classroom. This is where
metacognition is important for teachers to be adapted in their teaching. It is because “successful teaching can benefit
from what we call adaptive metacognition, which involves change to oneself and to one’s environment, in response to a
wide range of classroom social and instructional variability profession” (Lin et al. , 2005).
There are many problems regarding the issue of teaching. However, when it comes to problems or students’ low
performance, teachers are among the first people that will be questioned. One of the major problem faced by the preservice teachers is the ability to view the importance of seeing different educational theories related to real instructional
problems. Teachers play the important role in educating and as well as to teach the students. Teachers need to know
their strength and weaknesses in teaching and always try to improve them. It is highly believed that knowing what
teachers know about their own teaching should be a starting point for a change in teacher development (Balcikanli,
2011).
Therefore, metacognitive awareness of teachers is regarded as an important factor in increasing of their career's
success, their creative and critical thinking, and building self-confidence. Consequently, it has very critical importance to
determine the level of metacognitive awareness of teacher. The aim of this study is to determine the levels of
metacognitive awareness of primary science teacher, and examine whether these levels change according to some
variables such as gender or class levels.
2. Research Questions
A detailed study of teachers’ pedagogical understandings of metacognition requires that teachers have declarative,
procedural, and conditional knowledge. Declarative knowledge is a teachers’ knowledge of what they should teach.
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Procedural knowledge is knowledge of how a teacher teaches something. Conditional knowledge is the understanding
that the teaching of metacognitive strategies is dependent on the situation and that particular situations require the use of
particular strategies.
The research questions under investigation for this study are as follows:
1. What are the science teachers' perception about metacognitive awareness?
2. Is there a significant difference among scores of metacognitive awareness of science teachers according to
their gender, age and educational level?
3. Method
3.1 Participants
The sample of this research consists of 52 primary school science teachers in Ipoh-Malaysia. Around 40% of them are
males and 60% are females. 71% of male teachers are 41-40 years old, while 45% of female teachers are 31-40 years
old. The majority of the sample (78. 8%) has bachelor (66. 7% of males and 87. 1% of female teachers. See table 1.
3.2 Materials
This study intends to investigate teachers’ metacognitive awareness in teaching. In this study, the researcher adapted an
inventory Metacognitive Awareness Inventory for Teachers (MAIT) by Balcikanli (2011). This inventory comprises of two
aspects that are metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive regulation. In metacognitive knowledge, there are three
strategies that completed it. It consists of the strategies of declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge and conditional
knowledge. Meanwhile, in metacognitive regulation, there are three strategies included in this part that are planning,
monitoring and evaluating. It includes two parts. Part one contains demographic questions. Part two is the Teachers’
Metacognition Scale (TMS) with 24 Likert- Scale questions.
The inventory was modified to a 5 point Likert- Scale ranging from (1) “strongly disagree” to (5) “strongly agree”.
There are six sub-items in the inventory that can be divided into two aspects, which are metacognitive knowledge and
metacognitive regulation. In metacognitive knowledge, there are three sub categories are, declarative knowledge,
procedural knowledge and conditional knowledge. In metacognitive regulation, the three-sub cognition are, planning,
monitoring and evaluating. In the inventory, in the six subs cognition in metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive
regulation there were four items each developed from them. Thus, the four items in the six subs cognition was sum up to
24 items that were designed for the inventory.
Since the instrument has not been used in the Malaysian cultural background before, the researcher retest the
reliability using Cronbach's Alpha internal consistency coefficient and split-half coefficient. The results of Cronbach's
Alpha internal consistency coefficient for the scale indicate that the overall scale had an alpha of 0. 880 and 0. 852 of
split-half coefficient. This means that the instrument has a good reliability and can be used to measure the science
teachers’ perceptions about metacognition.
4. Results
The main aim of this study is to measure science teachers’ perceptions about metacognition. Also,if there are a
significant difference among scores of metacognitive awareness of science teachers according to their gender, age and
educational level.
5. Findings of Descriptive Analyses
The second section of the survey asked science teachers to report their perceptions about metacognition. Table (2)
includes the means and standard deviations about teachers perceptions about metacognition. The results show that
science teachers have good perceptions about metacognitionis (M = 96. 15, SD = 6. 26) with 80% of mean. All the 6 sub
categories nearly get 80% of mean. The mean ranged from 15. 8-16. 15 with standard deviation between 1. 08 to 1. 3.
Those results reveal that science teachers have a good perception about knowledge and regulation of metacognition.
For more details, results in table (3) showed that the lowest items in kowledge of metacognition are items 11 and
11 with 76-78% of mean,those items are about (I find myself assessing how useful my teaching techniques are while I
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am teaching, and I ask myself if I could have used different techniques after each teaching experience). Both of them
are about the usfulness of the techniques and the possibility of using different techniques. On the other hand, the highest
items are 8, 2, 10 respectively. Those items got percent of mean ranged from 53-86%, they are about reasons for
choosing each teaching technique, using teaching techniques that worked in the past, and setting teaching goals before
start teaching.
With regard to the other part "regulation of metacognition", the lowest items are 20 and 21 with percent of mean
between 69-75%. Those items are about "using helpful teaching techniques and effective teaching technique". The
highest items with percent of mean around 82% are items number 15, 18, 19, and 22. The highest items are about using
different teaching techniques, teach in more effective way next time, knowing what expected to teach and organizing
teaching time.
In general, these results indicate that science teachers have good perceptions about metacognitionis. They are
aware about reasons for choosing each teaching technique, using teaching techniques that worked in the past, and
setting teaching goals before start teaching. They also think about using different teaching techniques, teach in more
effective way next time, knowing what expected to teach and organizing teaching time.
6. Findings of Multivariate Analysis
Are there any significant difference among scores of metacognitive awareness of science teachers according to their
gender, age and educational level? Considering the different perceptions between teachers according to their gender,
age and educational level, and testing the interaction between the independent variables, the researcher used a
multivariate analysis, the results included in table 4.
Table 4 shows the main 3-way ANOVA summary results. The main effect of gender was not significant, F (1, 41) =
0. 289, p = . 594. While, the main effect of educational level was significant, F (1, 41 = 12. 141, p = . 001) and the main
effect of age was also significant, F (2, 41 = 6. 757, p = . 003). Regarding the interaction between the independent
variables, it was not significant for Gender * Educational level, F (2, 41) = 0. 771, p = 0. 385, and Gender * Age, F (2, 41)
= 0. 497, p = 0. 612, and Gender * Educational level * Age, F (2, 41) = 0. 078, p = 0. 782. However, the interaction effect
between Educational level * Age was significant, F (2, 41) = 17. 524, p = 0. 001. The plot of the mean " perceptions about
metacognitionis " score for each combination of groups of " Educational level " and "Age" is plotted in a line graph, as
shown in figure 1, and the results of the Multiple Comparisons (Scheffe test) presented in table (5).
Figure 1 shows that the teacher age interacted with their educational level to explain their perception of
metacognition. The teachers aged 20-30 with diploma have higher perception than teachers aged 20-30 with bachelor.
This result as same as of teachers aged 41 years old and above with bachelor degree. On the opposite, the teachers
aged 31-40 with bachelor have higher perception than teachers aged 31-40 with diploma have.
The results of the Multiple Comparisons (Scheffe test) presented in table (5) showed that there is a significant
differences between teachers according to their age. Teachers aged 20-30 have higher perception towards
metacognition than both of teachers aged 31-40 and teachers aged 41 years old and above do.
7. Conclusion
Metacognitive is a term that is widely discussed in the field of education. However, there is only little research in this
issue happened in Malaysia. There are many literature reviews from Flavell (1971) until Balcikanli (2011) that studies on
metacognition. It shows that metacognition plays a very important role in education. It does not only work for the students
but it helps the teachers to improve their teaching skills. Many researches show that students that are able to aware of
the metacognitive have a better opportunity in learning compared to those who do not. In relation to teaching, it is
important for teachers to be able to measure their level of awareness in metacognitive knowledge and regulation in order
for them to apply and eventually teach the right metacognitive knowledge and regulation that best suits their students.
Lastly, Metacognitive Awareness Inventory for Teachers (MAIT) is use in order to see the effectiveness of this
inventory towards the primary school science teachers in Ipoh. Results indicated that science teachers have good
perceptions about metacognitionis. They are aware about choosing the appropriate and effictive teaching technique, and
setting teaching goals before start teaching. And they also think about using different teaching techniques and organizing
teaching time. The results of multivarite analysis showed the interaction effect between Educational level * Age , the
teachers aged 20-30 with diploma have higher perception than teachers aged 20-30 with bachelor. On the opposite, the
teachers aged 31-40 with bachelor have higher perception than teachers aged 31-40 with diploma have. Regarding the
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teachers age, teachers aged 20-30 have higher perception towards metacognition than both of teachers aged 31-40 and
teachers aged 41 years old and above do.
References
Abdi, H. M. , Bageri, S. , Shoghi, S. , Hosseinzadeh, a, Branch, R. , & Branch, S. (2012). The Role of Metacognitive and Self-Efficacy
Beliefs in Students ’ Test Anxiety and Academic Achievement, 6 (12), 418–422.
Alkan, F. , & Erdem, E. (2014). The Relationship between Metacognitive Awareness, Teacher Self-efficacy and Chemistry Competency
Perceptions. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 143, 778–783. doi: 10. 1016/j. sbspro. 2014. 07. 475
Aurah, C. M. , Cassady, J. C. , & McConnell, T. J. (2014). Predicting Problem Solving Ability from Metacognition and Self-Efficacy
Beliefs on a Cross Validated Sample. British Journal of Education, 2 (1), 49–72. Retrieved from http: //www. eajournals.
org/journals/british-journal-of-education-bje/vol-2-issue-1march-2013/predicting-problem-solving-ability-metacognition-selfefficacy-beliefs-cross-validated-sample-2/
Balcikanli, C. (2011). Metacognitive awareness inventory for teachers (MAIT). Electronic Journal of Research in Educational
Psychology, 9 (25), 1309–1332.
Fazal ur Rahman. (2011). Assessment of Science Teachers Metacognitive Awareness and Its Impact on the Performance Assessment
of Science Teachers Metacognitive Awareness and Its Impact on the Performance of STUDENTS. ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN
UNIVERSITY.
Flavell, J. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: a new area of cognitive developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34
(10), 906–917.
Fouché, J. (2013). THE EFFECT OF SELF-REGULATORY AND METACOGNITIVE STRATEGY INSTRUCTION ON IMPOVERISHED
STUDENTS’ ASSESSMENT ACHIEVEMENT IN PHYSICS. Liberty University.
Hartman, H. E. (2001). Metacognition in learning and instruction: Theory, research and and practice. Netherland: Kluwer Academic.
Lee, S. (2009). Examining the relationships between metacognition, self- regulation and critical thinking in online socratic seminars for
high school social studies students. Unpublished Master’s. University of Texas.
Lin, X. , Schwartz, D. L. , & Hatano, G. (2005). Toward Teachers’ Adaptive Metacognition. Educational Psychologist, 40 (4), 245–255.
doi: 10. 1207/s15326985ep4004_6
Livingston, J. A. (1997). Metacognition: An Overview. The American Journal of Pharmacy Education, (1). Retrieved from http: //www.
ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pmc/articles/PMC1847545/
Memnun, D. S. , & Akkaya, R. (2009). The levels of metacognitive awareness of primary teacher trainees. Procedia - Social and
Behavioral Sciences, 1 (1), 1919–1923. doi: 10. 1016/j. sbspro. 2009. 01. 337
Wilson, N. S. , & Bai, H. (2010). The relationships and impact of teachers’ metacognitive knowledge and pedagogical understandings of
metacognition. Metacognition and Learning, 5, 269–288. doi: 10. 1007/s11409-010-9062-4
Young, A. , & Fry, J. D. (2008). Metacognitive awareness and academic achievement in medical students. Journal of the Scholarship of
Teaching and Learning, 8 (2), 1–10. doi: 10. 3109/0142159X. 2010. 487711
Tables
Table 1. The sample
20 - 30 years
31 - 40 years
41 and above
Diploma
Ijazah
Male
Count
5
15
1
7
14
21
Male
%
23. 8%
71. 4%
4. 8%
33. 3%
66. 7%
40. 4%
Female
Count
5
14
12
4
27
31
Female
%
16. 1%
45. 2%
38. 7%
12. 9%
87. 1%
59. 6%
Count
10
29
13
11
41
52
Total
%
19. 2%
55. 8%
25. 0%
21. 2%
78. 8%
100. 0%
Table 2. The mean and Std. Dev. about teachers Perception of metacognition (N=52)
declarative knowledge
procedural knowledge
Conditional knowledge
planning
monitoring
evaluating
Metacognition
Mean
16. 1538
15. 9423
16. 0385
16. 2115
15. 8077
16. 0000
96. 1538
83
81%
80%
80%
81%
79%
80%
80%
Std. Deviation
1. 30436
1. 30479
1. 11955
1. 39096
1. 48243
1. 08465
6. 29467
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Table 3. The mean and Std. Dev. about teachers Perception of metacognition (N=52)
1. I am aware of the strengths and weaknesses in my teaching.
2. I try to use teaching techniques that worked in the past.
3. I use my strengths to compensate for my weaknesses in my teaching.
4. I pace myself while I am teaching in order to have enough time.
5. I ask myself periodically if I meet my teaching goals while I am teaching.
6. I ask myself how well I have accomplished my teaching goals once I am finished.
7. I know what skills are most important in order to be a good teacher.
8. I have a specific reason for choosing each teaching technique I use in class.
9. I can motivate myself to teach when I really need to teach.
10. I set my specific teaching goals before I start teaching.
11. I find myself assessing how useful my teaching techniques are while I am teaching.
12. I ask myself if I could have used different techniques after each teaching experience.
13. I have control over how well I teach.
14. I am aware of what teaching techniques I use while I am teaching.
15. I use different teaching techniques depending on the situation.
16. I ask myself questions about the teaching materials I am going to use.
17. I check regularly to what extent my students comprehend the topic while I am teaching.
18. After teaching a point, I ask myself if I'd teach it more effectively next time.
19. I know what I am expected to teach.
20. I use helpful teaching techniques automatically.
21. I know when each teaching technique I use will be most effective.
22. I organize my time to best accomplish my teaching goals.
23. I ask myself questions about how well I am doing while I am teaching.
24. I ask myself if I have considered all possible techniques after teaching a point.
Mean
%
Std. Deviation
4. 019
4. 212
4. 154
3. 981
4. 038
4. 135
4. 019
4. 308
4. 019
4. 173
3. 885
3. 808
3. 981
3. 981
4. 096
3. 942
3. 904
4. 096
4. 135
3. 442
3. 769
4. 115
3. 981
3. 962
80%
84%
83%
80%
81%
83%
80%
86%
80%
83%
78%
76%
80%
80%
82%
79%
78%
82%
83%
69%
75%
82%
80%
79%
0. 420
0. 498
0. 460
0. 577
0. 593
0. 715
0. 610
0. 466
0. 610
0. 474
0. 615
0. 525
0. 505
0. 542
0. 358
0. 366
0. 534
0. 534
0. 444
0. 574
0. 425
0. 471
0. 420
0. 194
Table 4: Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
Source
Type III Sum of Squares
Corrected Model
994. 032a
Intercept
164294. 253
Gender
7. 240
Educational level
304. 038
Age
338. 428
Gender * Educational level
19. 307
Gender * Age
24. 867
Educational level * Age
877. 665
Gender * Educational level * Age
1. 943
Error
1026. 737
Total
482790. 000
Corrected Total
2020. 769
a. R Squared = . 492 (Adjusted R Squared = . 368)
df
10
1
1
1
2
1
2
2
1
41
52
51
Mean Square
99. 403
164294. 253
7. 240
304. 038
169. 214
19. 307
12. 434
438. 833
1. 943
25. 042
F
3. 969
6560. 650
. 289
12. 141
6. 757
. 771
. 497
17. 524
. 078
Table 5: The results of the Multiple Comparisons (Scheffe test)
(I) Age
20 - 30 years
31 - 40 years
41 and above
Mean Difference (I-J)
8. 431*
6. 722*,b
-8. 431*
-1. 709b
-6. 722*,c
1. 709c
31 - 40 years
41 and above
20 - 30 years
41 and above
20 - 30 years
31 - 40 years
84
Sig.
. 001
. 037
. 001
. 527
. 037
. 527
Sig.
. 001
. 000
. 594
. 001
. 003
. 385
. 612
. 000
. 782
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Figure 1: mean of perceptions about metacognitionis for each combination of groups
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Education Challenges and Developments in Foreign Language Teaching in
Croatian Law Schools Education Challenges and Development for the Future
Ljubica Kordić
University of Osijek, Faculty of Law, Croatia, Assistant Professor is at present the Head of the Department of
Foreign Languages at the Faculty of Law, University of Osijek, Croatia
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2015.v5n1s1p87
Abstract
In the modern world of global economic and political associations, the knowledge of foreign languages and communication
skills represent essential factors in all professions. In this respect, knowledge of English language as lingua franca of
international communication is an indispensable prerequisite for communication within the legal profession worldwide. This
paper is a case-study of teaching foreign languages in Croatian Law Schools, presented on the case of the Faculty of Law,
University of Osijek. In the introductory part of the paper, a short description of the status and the position of foreign language
courses in the Higher Education System of the Republic of Croatia is offered. In the main part the author presents new
developments in the foreign language teaching in Croatian law faculties as answers to current challenges of Croatian
membership in the EU. On the example of the Faculty of Law, University of Osijek, new projects on teaching foreign
languages to practicing lawyers and law students are presented, with an emphasis on the Lifelong Learning Programme for
Lawyer-Linguists. This programme, as well as specific foreign language courses in Legal English, Legal German and Legal
French, have been developed within the lifelong education projects for lawyers, by which young lawyers are offered an
opportunity to learn and/or to improve their knowledge of the three working languages of the EU. These developments in
foreign language teaching within the Croatian Higher Education System are one of the responses to current challenges of the
internationalization of the modern world.
Keywords: foreign languages, international communication, lifelong learning programmes, law schools, lawyer-linguists
1. Introduction
The modern world is characterized by the globalization process, which is defined as the “widening, deepening and
speeding up of worldwide interconnectedness” (Held, McGrew, Goldblatt and Perraton, 1999). This process has been
brought about by the trends of population mobility and especially by developments in information and communication
technologies, which enable establishing instantaneous links all over the world. In the new globalized world
communication has taken its central facilitative role. These changes of the modern world have highlighted the importance
of foreign languages and brought new requirements and challenges for foreign language teachers. With mobility being
one of the main principles of the new Europe, young people need to be proficient in languages of wider communication,
especially of English as lingua franca of international communication. Various EU and Council of Europe documents and
reports stress the importance of learning languages and put forward multilingualism as one of the highly appreciated
values of modern European society.
In the introductory part of this paper, the status of LSP in the Croatian Higher Education System will be briefly
described. New developments in LSP teaching will be analysed and discussed with regard to teaching of Legal English
and Legal German at the Faculty of Law, University of Osijek, Croatia. The main part will be dedicated to the Lifelong
Learning Programme for Lawyer Linguists which has been developed at the Faculty of Law in Osijek as a response to
current requirements of Croatian membership in the EU and the challenges of internationalization of the labour market.
2. Teaching FL for Legal Purposes and intercultural Communication in the EU
The White Book of the European Commission points out that every person should be given the opportunity to learn at
least two foreign languages in addition to one’s mother tongue (EU Commission, 1995). In accordance with this
requirement, higher education institutions are encouraged to ensure resources and provide opportunities for students to
continue learning a language appropriate to their programmes of study and fields of work (Council of Europe, 1982).
Provisions of the Croatian National Curriculum Framework (NCF, 2010) determine foreign language
teaching in
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Croatian secondary schools in accordance with the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. As for
higher education, the Law on Science and Higher Education as the only relevant legal regulation on higher education
mentions foreign languages only within individual study programmes and general goals of the European tertiary
education system. By ratifying the Bologna Declaration in May 2001, the Republic of Croatia introduced many changes in
its higher education system, especially in terms of curriculum reform and student mobility as well as in teaching and
learning of foreign languages. The language policies of higher education institutions should include clearly defined
activities to promote foreign language learning and the acquisition of linguistic communicative skills as prerequisites for
academic mobility within the European Higher Education Area. Students should master a foreign language to such a
level to be able to read scientific and professional papers in a foreign language, to participate in conferences and use a
foreign language in direct communication with native speakers. Due to autonomy of higher education institutions, these
ideas are implemented at Croatian universities in different ways, with different intensity of FLT and different approaches
to the status and importance of foreign languages (Kordić, Lj, Cigan, V. , 2013). Such a situation was confirmed by a
study on teaching foreign languages at Croatian universities, which was conducted in 2009 in 143 departments of 5
Croatian universities (Osijek, Zagreb, Zadar, Rijeka and Split). The study showed that in 31% of the departments LSP
was not offered to the first year students at all, while 30% of the departments had FL in the second and third years. Only
7% had a FL course incorporated into their curriculum continuously during 6 semesters (Poljaković, Martinović, 2009).
The results of this study indicate that in Croatian faculties and other higher education institutions there are many
discrepancies concerning the status of foreign languages, the intensity of FL courses, and the ECTS credits allocated to
those courses. The data from the annual report of the Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek for the academic year
2010/2011 (Sveučilišni godišnjak) will be shortly presented here as an illustration of the position of FL at Croatian
faculties. The language of law being in the focus of the paper, the data presented here specifically refer to foreign
languages for specific purposes.
3. FLT in Croatian Tertiary Education
The University of Osijek encompasses nine faculties, one Academy of Arts and five departments: Department of
Mathematics, Department of Physics, Department of Biology, Department of Chemistry, and Department of Cultural
Studies. Foreign languages taught as LSP at the University are English and German, as well as Italian, which is taught
as the third FL at the Academy of Arts.
There are many differences between the faculties in the status, number of credits allocated to the course and even
the number of teaching hours of foreign language courses per semester. The Department of Chemistry offers LSP only in
the first two semesters, and the Departments of Physics and Mathematics, as well as that of Cultural Studies, have LSP
in the first four semesters. The Department of Biology does not have any foreign languages in its curriculum at all. At the
Faculty of Agriculture, LSP is taught only to the first year students, but more intensely than at other faculties. That
workload is allocated 6 ECTS per semester, which is the highest credit allocated to LSP within the Osijek University. At
the Faculty of Food Technology, LSP is learned only by the first year students as a compulsory course in all study
groups, with the exception of the “main” study programme Food Technology, in which LSP is taught for four semesters at
the BA level. The course is allocated 2 credits in every semester. At the Faculty of Law, FL for Legal Purposes is taught
in the first four semesters as a compulsory course, with double the intensity in comparison to other faculties. It is also
offered as an elective course in the ninth semester. Nevertheless, the credits allocated represent an average at the
University level: 3 ECTS for compulsory courses and 4. 5 for the elective courses English for EU Law and Deutsch für
Strafrecht (Kordić, 2013). The cases presented here indicate a strong influence of the University autonomy, reflected in
differences in status, intensity of teaching and the number of credits allocated to foreign language courses. A slight
improvement of the situation can be noticed in recent years, but the annual report for the academic year 2010/11 clearly
implies that in spite of the declaratory appreciation of multilingualism in the EU, this appreciation remains largely invisible
in the teaching practice, since foreign languages are not incorporated in the curricula of two out of nine faculties, while in
one faculty no ECTS credits are allocated to FL courses.
4. Developments in LSP Teaching in the Faculty of Law in Osijek
Emergence of different varieties of LSP and the developments in this field in terms of methodology and teaching
materials have been the topic of many discussions and scientific papers. The reasons for this boom in the linguistic
theory of LSP and its practical application in FL teaching in secondary and higher education all over the world can be
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seen in the demands of the New World after World War II, a revolution in linguistics and a shift of the focus from the
teacher to the learner (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987: 5). By putting the learner in the centre of the teaching discourse,
learner’s needs became as important in FL teaching as the teaching methodology. For the first time, the teaching
content, the design of teaching materials and the choice of teaching methods were based on the learner’s reason for
learning (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987: 19). This new movement in teaching approach is known as the learner-centred
approach. This approach implies various developments in the teaching practice in terms of teaching materials developed
in accordance with learner’s needs (based on needs analysis), teaching is perceived as guiding, scaffolding and
facilitating learning rather than transmitting linguistic knowledge to the learner, real-life tasks get priority in teaching,
learners are included in the teaching process with more autonomy and responsibility, they accept more challenging tasks
and fulfil them autonomously by using modern technologies.
The changed approach and changes of social, environmental and technological circumstances have reflected in a
specific way on the most recent developments in teaching foreign languages for specific purposes at the tertiary level.
These developments, well elaborated by Elžbieta Jendrych, include: a) content-and-language-integrated-learning (CLIL),
b) use of didactic case-studies, c) corpus studies conducted for teaching purposes and aimed at identifying high
frequency language elements: terms, specialized lexis items, collocations, phrases, formulae, acronyms, etc. that need to
be prioritized in language courses, d) more effective course-books with higher terminology indexes, e) extended use of
online materials, f) teaching writing for specific purposes and g) teaching professional culture and non-linguistic skills
(Jendrych, 2013: 46). This list of the current developments in LSP illustrates all the complexity of teaching foreign
languages for specific purposes at the higher education level and indicates how many challenges and new requirements
modern LSP teachers are confronted with. In the following paragraphs the situation in teaching foreign languages for
legal purposes at the University of Osijek shall be presented in the light of these new requirements in teaching LSP at the
tertiary level.
a) Content-and-language-integrated-learning (CLIL)
The concept of CLIL – Content and Language Integrated Learning - has been strongly advocated by the Language
Division of the Council of Europe (2004) on all education levels, especially on the university level. According to main
principles of the CLIL-approach, in most European universities foreign languages for specific purposes are instructed by
teachers who teach both subject matter and the foreign language. Although English and German as foreign languages
for specific purposes are taught in most Croatian universities, the dominant FL is English. This phenomenon is especially
observable in recent years, when student mobility between European universities has been intensified. Consequently,
not only LSP courses, but also some subject matter courses are held in English. Thus it can be stated that English has
become not only the lingua franca of professional and business communication, but also of education and academic
communication worldwide. No wonder that this new situation is often informally determined as “Englishization” of tertiary
education. These new circumstances demand a new kind of FL teacher, too – either a teacher who has learned a subject
matter to such an extent that he/she can competently teach students the content and language integrated topics, or a
content matter teacher with good linguistic competence. In my contacts with LSP teachers from other European
countries, the latter solution is often encountered in some European countries like Poland, Germany or the Czech
Republic. Teaching Legal English by lawyers who additionally have studied English as a foreign language or have
studied law (even for several semesters) in the USA or Great Britain is not a rare situation at European law schools. But
the prevailing case – like in the Republic of Croatia – is that graduated FL teachers teach subject matter topics in the
respective FL. Teaching subject matter in a foreign language is a very demanding task, and FL teachers usually learn
the subject matter by individual additional learning from legal textbooks or undertake postgraduate or doctoral studies
within the subject matter sciences or those related to them (e. g. FL teachers instructing Business English or Legal
English can enrol in European Doctoral Studies at the University of Osijek, which is an interdisciplinary study programme
integrating law, political studies and economics).
Teachers teaching FL for Legal Purposes at the Faculty of Law, University of Osijek, are able to fulfil this
requirement due to the opportunity to participate several years ago in the TEMPUS project “Foreign Languages in the
Field of Law – FLIFL”, coordinated by the Faculty of Law from the University of Zagreb. Target groups of the project were
graduated lawyers and FL teachers in the field of law. The main goals of the project were defined as 1) education of FL
teachers employed at Croatian law faculties in order to improve their professional credibility in LSP (“Teacher Training
Programmes”), 2) education of lawyers in foreign languages (“Lawyer Training Programmes”) and 3) development of FL
curricula and modern teaching methodology in conformity with the Bologna requirements and following the needs of
Croatian law students (needs analysis was conducted among Croatian lawyers at the beginning of the Project). Teacher
training within the Project was organized as a series of workshops including the following topics: Basics of the EU Law,
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European Private Law, European Comparative Law, Introduction to the Analysis of EU Law, Introduction to FL for Legal
Purposes; Legal Translation and Terminology, Communication Skills for Lawyers, Introduction to Forensic Linguistics,
Intercultural Communication for Lawyers, Legal and Linguistic Aspects of Multilingualism, Teaching Legal English – Skills
and Materials, and, finally, Language Policy of the EU: Sources of Information. Workshops were organized and
delivered by estimated professors teaching at European universities, like Peter Sandrini of the University of Innsbruck,
Paul Verluyten, Diane Phillips, and Ludger Kremer of the University of Antwerp, Werner Schroeder, Andreas Müller, and
Eva Lechner (University of Innsbruck), John Olsson of the Forensic Linguistics Institute, Powys Wales UK, Helmut Heiss,
Sture P. Ureland, and Olga Voronkova of the University of Mannheim, etc. 1 The knowledge and skills acquired in these
workshops made Croatian LSP teachers more competent to teach legal content in their foreign language courses and
capable of developing new education programmes which could respond to new professional circumstances and
challenges of political, economic and legal changes in Europe.
b) Use of didactic case studies
The second characteristic of recent developments in LSP teaching refers to the introduction of specific cases
analysed and solved for didactic purposes. In the field of law, this refers to solving simple legal cases: our second year
students are asked to solve a specific case of tort law concerning the missing dog. In this way they are involved in
solving a real-life task by following the methods used by lawyers in their professional life. Individual work on relevant
legal provisions, prepared at home, is combined with classroom group work in simulations of the court case. By
introducing concrete case-study methods in FL courses at law faculties, the requirement for real-life tasks as one of the
recent developments in LSP teaching is fulfilled. From a didactical point of view, the case-study method is very fruitful
because foreign language is used to solve a real-life task, thereby developing productive writing and speaking skills. The
case-study method is student-centred and the language is used in a natural way: as a means, not as an end of teaching
discourse activity (Jendrych, 2013: 48).
c) Corpus studies conducted for teaching purposes and aimed at identifying high frequency language elements
This requirement can be fulfilled by those FL teachers who are interested in academic writing and linguistic
research. This especially refers to research in legal terminology, collocations and phrases which frequently occur in the
language of law and thus represent a linguistic feature which should find its place in teaching specific legal language. At
the Faculty of Law in Osijek, this requirement is completely met, because all the three FL teachers explore Legal English
and Legal German and apply the results of their research in designing their FL courses. As teaching Legal English and
Legal German as compulsory courses is partly restricted by the subject matter content of the respective course books
and by the limited number of teaching hours per semester, the results of those linguistic studies have been applied to the
greatest extent in the development and design of the Lifelong Learning Programme for Lawyer Linguists, which shall be
presented in the main part of this paper.
d) More effective course-books with higher terminology indexes
This requirement is partly fulfilled. Although there are modern textbooks of Legal English and Legal German
designed in conformity with recent developments within the CLIL-approach, the LSP teachers of the Osijek Faculty of
Law are currently working out the idea of developing a new, more effective course-book, which would be based on the
needs analysis. It is important to stress that the foundation for this has been built by an extensive and detailed needs
analysis among law students, graduated lawyers and law practitioners in different fields of legal profession, which was
conducted in 2003 (Kordić, Mujić, 2004) and again in 2014 (Kordić, Papa, 2014).
e) Extended use of online materials
Modern computer technologies and achievements of information sciences have been applied in the teaching
process at Croatian faculties. This especially refers to students preparing Power Point presentations on legal topics, for
which they can use both published legal sources and internet sources. Online sources are also used by students in
solving their case study tasks. Still, apart from using sources published on the internet and online dictionaries, there are
many other possibilities for law students to use computer technology and online materials, like creating students’ own
website with the list of legal terminology. This idea has been successfully carried out in some European universities, like
in the Foreign Language Centre of the University of Wrocław2. Apart from that, there are also online LSP courses that
can be used by students on their own. At this point it has to be stressed that students must be warned to use internet
information selectively and carefully and to pay attention to credibility of some internet sources they frequently use, e. g.
Wikipedia.
Retrieved from: www.pravo.unizg.hr/_.../Tempus_workshops_final_27_March.doc, accessed 28/02/ 2015, 19:08
From the workshop „Writing in Plain English“ held by Aleksandra Łuczak in „The first Legal English Workshop SHARE & GAIN“,
Suprasl, Poland, 18-19 September 2014
1
2
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f) Teaching professional culture and non-linguistic skills
This requirement is partly fulfilled by means of legal texts dealing with specific topics of the national law (in our
case Croatian) and the law of countries where the foreign language is spoken (German law system, British and American
legal system). In legal language courses, LSP teachers develop students’ cultural and non-linguistic skills as well by
sharing their experiences and pointing out the similarities and differences between two professional cultures. Another
method we use to achieve this goal is giving individual tasks to students, for example, to watch a TV-series or a movie on
specific legal topics and discuss the differences in the classroom.
g) Teaching writing for specific purposes
The achievements within this requirement are rather poor at Croatian law faculties. The emphasis on oral
communication skills and the low intensity of teaching hours per week have led to neglecting the importance of writing
skills in Croatian law faculties, including the Faculty of Law in Osijek. The only type of written exercise done within FL
courses refers to summary writing combined with reading comprehension and determining subtitles to specific legal texts.
Our experience and contacts with fellow teachers from other European universities give evidence of far more advanced
and intensive use of writing skills, especially in Legal English courses. An interesting example represents creating a
website with legal glossary developed by law students, writing legal provisions in plain English, drafting official letters or
even contracts in Legal English (Luczak, 2014). It has to be mentioned here that our needs analysis several years ago
(2003) showed great interest of our students in speaking skills in LSP, so during the years we have tried to meet this
requirement and combine it with internalisation of as much as possible legal terminology and phraseology. Taking into
account low intensity of FLT courses per semester and focusing on developing oral communication competence in the
respective foreign language, there was little time left to be dedicated to writing skills. Keeping all the factors mentioned
here in mind, in my opinion it makes more sense to develop writing skills within groups of students with advanced FL
knowledge, like students and graduated lawyers who enrol in lifelong learning programmes in foreign languages and who
aspire towards careers on the wider EU labour market. This is the case with the current Lifelong Learning Programme for
Lawyer Linguists, which will be described in the following part of this paper.
4.1 Lifelong Learning Programme for Lawyer Linguists at the Faculty of Law in Osijek
Political and economic changes in modern Europe have reflected on the teaching approach in LSP in a specific way.
Financial deregulation, political and economic integrations, greater job mobility and intensified international cooperation,
along with the expansion of new communication technologies facilitated and speeded up the international communication
and highlighted the importance of foreign languages and communication skills. All these changes have strongly
influenced learner’s needs in the FL teaching process, especially in the field of FL for legal purposes, which is in the
focus of interest in this paper.
Following the guidelines of the Strategy of the Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek 2011-2020 (Strategy,
2011: 54), the Department of Foreign Languages of the Faculty of Law initiated the introduction of a new lifelong
education programme for lawyers. It was a pragmatic response to political and economic changes and requirements of
the EU labour market which became accessible to Croatian lawyers as well. The European Personnel Selection Office
(EPSO) of the European Commission announced job opportunities on the European labour market with the prospect of
Croatian full membership in the EU in July 2013. According to the data of December 2012, the European Union needed
translators, interpreters, lawyer linguists, administrators, heads of departments and other officials in the field of
Communication, Legal Affairs and Programme Management in the offices of the European Commission, the Court of
Justice of the EU and other institutions whose employees should master both legal and linguistic knowledge3. As a
response to new job opportunities for Croatian lawyers, Departments for Foreign Languages of the Faculty of Law in
Zagreb and in Osijek initiated their Lifelong Education Programmes for Lawyer Linguists: the former in the summer
semester of the year 2011/12 and the latter in the winter semester 2012/13. The Lifelong Learning Programme for
Lawyer Linguists in Osijek was organized on similar principles as the Programme of the Zagreb Faculty of Law, but in
conformity with specific circumstances at the respective faculty, especially in terms of FL competences and special
professional interests of its teaching staff. The Programme developed in Osijek was approved and officially accredited
by the Senate of the Osijek University. Altogether 22 ECTS credits were allocated to the Programme, the maximum
credit number that can be achieved by individual participant being 18. It encompasses seven courses with altogether 170
teaching hours. The Programme was offered in the winter semester of 2012/2013 to graduate lawyers and 5th year law
3
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students and was financed by a participant fee payable in instalments. The Programme was initially introduced to meet
demands of the EU institutions for skilled legal translators, but today the target group comprises young lawyers with good
foreign language skills who are interested in finding jobs in different EU institutions and/or international companies, due
to diverse job opportunities offered to Croatian lawyers on the EU market. The programme is mostly carried out by FL
teachers teaching at the Faculty of Law in Osijek, but also by guest professors from the Faculty of Humanities (for the
courses Croatian Language for Lawyer Linguists and Introduction to French Legal Translation). Lectures and exercises
within the Programme were held on Fridays and Saturdays during the period of 10 weeks. In the first term (the year
2012/2013), 25 participants were included in this Programme, in the second 18 participants. In this academic year
(2014/2015) we have enrolled 10 participants. The reduced number of participants can be seen as a result of the
economic crisis and the fact that most of them are unemployed.
The programme carried out in Osijek includes the following courses:
1) Introduction to the Theory of Legal Translation and Terminology
2) Croatian Language for Lawyer Linguists
3) Introduction to the EU Law
4) Introduction to French Legal Translation
5) EU Vocabulary and Online Language Tools
6) Exercises in Legal Translation – English Language
7) Exercises in Legal Translation – German Language.
Table 1: Lifelong Learning Programme for Lawyer Linguists at the Faculty of Law in Osijek
Course
Compulsory courses
Introduction to the Theory of Legal Translation and Terminology
Croatian Language for Lawyer Linguists
Introduction to the EU Law
Introduction to French Legal Translation
EU Vocabulary and Online Language Tools
Teaching
hours
15
20
15
Compulsory
Compulsory
Compulsory
3
3
3
20
Compulsory
3
Status of the course ECTS Type of assessment
10
Compulsory
Teaching
Status
hours
Legal English-Module
Exercises in Legal Translation – English Language FL 1
Exercises in Legal Translation – German Language FL 2
ECTS Type of Assessment
20
Elective
2
20
Elective
2
Teaching
Status
hours
Legal German Module
2
Oral exam
Written exam
Oral exam
Written exam
(translation)
Written exam
Written exam
(translation)
Written exam
(translation)
ECTS Type of Assessment
Exercises in Legal Translation – German Language FL 1
20
Elective
2
Exercises in Legal Translation – English Language FL 2
20
Elective
2
Written exam
(translation)
Written exam
(translation)
With the exception of the courses in EU Law and EU Vocabulary and Online Language Tools, the courses are mainly
focused on language. In accordance with recent developments in FL teaching, the Programme follows the CLIL
approach, as the learner, his interests and learning goals are the central criterion for syllabus design, for choice of
teaching materials and most appropriate teaching methods.
All participants have been trained in legal translation in three languages: English, German and French. The
knowledge of these three working languages of the EU is required in most jobs announced on the website of the
European Personnel Selection Office. 4 As most participants do not speak French, Introduction to French Legal
Translation is an obligatory course focused on teaching general communication in French including some basic legal
terminology.
As for English and German, participants are separated in two groups in these classes: one group includes those
who have learned English as their FL 1 and German as their FL 2, and the second group those with German as FL 1 and
4
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English as FL 2. Exercises in translation of legal texts in English and in German are focused on the translation process
and possible ways of approaching the translation. Teaching materials in both languages are chosen from EU legislation
of different types, while several texts pertain to the Croatian national law. Within these courses some changes have been
introduced in line with the demands and wishes of our participants: in the beginnings of the Programme, exercises were
focused on the analysis and discussion of translations they have done as their homework between sessions, as well as
of the translation process, the specific approach to translation of legal texts, specific features of the lexis (polysemy!),
syntax, frequent grammar structures and collocations typical of the respective legal language. As learners’ needs have
been our basic criterion in designing the Programme from the beginning, we have introduced slight changes in the
Programme at the request of our participants or based on our own experiences from previous years. This year, therefore,
based on experiences of our former attendants who applied for positions in EU institutions or international companies, we
have introduced trainings in oral interviews in the last four hours of these courses, because oral interviews conducted by
the employer represent an integral part of employment procedure in Europe. Accordingly, from this year on, participants
are informed in the first session within the Programme about the employment procedure in EU institutions by a FL
teacher who experienced all the stages of job application procedure carried out by the EPSO.
Within the course Croatian Language for Lawyer Linguists participants are trained in good writing skills, in
appropriate use of Croatian orthography and punctuation, with specific reference to dilemmas emerging while writing
translation in standard Croatian language. In this course, students participate in the course design by pointing out their
own problems arising in writing texts in Croatian language.
Introduction to the EU Law has been incorporated in the Programme primarily to meet the needs of those graduate
lawyers participating in the Programme who did not have this course in their curriculum while studying law. The
participants who had passed the exam in EU Law in their regular study time are exempted from attending this course.
EU Vocabulary & Online Language Tools has been introduced as a response to demands of modern business
communication as well as to recent developments in translation methodology and translation tools designed by using
information technologies. The course is taught by an experienced EFL teacher who was trained in these skills within the
TEMPUS project mentioned in the introductory part of this paper. This teacher is probably the most proficient user of
information technologies and online translation tools among the teaching staff at the Faculty of Law in Osijek.
4.2 Designing the Course Introduction to the Theory of Legal Translation and Terminology: Achievements and
Perspectives
As mentioned in the introduction to this paper, the entire Programme of education of lawyer-linguists was designed
according to learners’ needs (learner-centred), based on the CLIL-approach and adjusted to specific circumstances of
the Osijek University, especially in terms of appropriate teaching staff equipped and competent to teach specific subjects.
Thus, Introduction to the Theory of Legal Translation and Terminology was designed and delivered by the author of this
paper. The principal factors taken into consideration in the process of the course design were the purpose of the course
and the target group of learners, who were equipped with little or no theoretical linguistic knowledge in legal language
and in translation process in this field. As one of the main prerequisites for successful teaching outcomes is a competent
and motivated teacher, able to motivate his/her students and meet their needs in the respective teaching process, the
syllabus was designed based on scientific research the teacher (author of this paper) has conducted in the fields of
German, English and Croatian Legal Language since 2004, as well as on written sources on legal translation, specifically
Baker’s Encyclopedia of Translation (Baker, 2009), New Approach to Legal Translation by Susan Šarčević (Šarčević,
1997), and Prunc’s Entwicklungslinien der Translationswissenschaft: Von den Asymmetrien der Sprachen zu den
Asymmetrien der Macht (Prunc, 2012).
Apart from the introductory lecture, the course comprises seven basic topics delivered in two hours per week
during 10 weeks. Those topics are: 1) General features of legal language; 2) Linguistic features of the German, English
and Croatian language of law, 3) Translation as a communication process, 4) Basics of the translation approach in the
field of law, 5) EU terminology and phraseology, 6) Poetic elements in legal language – a comparative approach, 7)
Summary of the course – most important issues. In the first lecture some universal features typical of the language of law
are presented and discussed, such as: a) polysemy and complexity of legal terms, b) difficulties in understanding legal
texts due to frequency of Latin loanwords and abstract terms, c) nominal style and frequency of complex and complicated
sentences, and d) numerous text types of specific rigid structure and form. In the second lecture linguistic features of
German, English and Croatian legal language are discussed on all levels of linguistic analysis apart from phonetics: lexis
and semantics, morphology and syntax, word formation and style. Every feature is illustrated by examples in three
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languages and every session is concluded by a specific task for participants. In the third lecture the translation process is
observed from the perspective of communication theory and different translation theories and approaches are discussed
with specific reference to legal discourse. The forth lecture is dedicated to modern approach to the translation process,
by highlighting the principle defined by Professor Erich Prunc of the University of Graz as “Enttrohnung des
Ausgangstextes” and by explaining recent developments of the modern functionalist approach as defined by Vermeer (in:
Baker, 2009). The purpose of translation, the target language and the final user of translation as main factors of recent
developments in translation theory are discussed and illustrated with specific translation tasks. Special attention is paid to
the specific approach required in legal translation, which has been informally determined as “from-the-macro-level-to-themicro-level-approach”. In the conclusion of the topic, participants are warned about several problematic issues in legal
translation which should be kept in mind in the process of translation, especially concerning conceptual and cultural
differences between specific legal systems. In the lecture dedicated to EU terminology students are informed about the
importance of the standardization of the EU terminology and consistency in using standardized terms. Additionally, the
list of most common EU terms in the field of EU legislation and EU institutions in the three languages is offered to
participants, as well as the list of some new EU terms that are not used or are used in a different meaning in standard
British English. The lecture dedicated to poetic elements in the language of law discusses this unusual phenomenon from
the historic perspective, pointing out that back in 1815 Jakob Grimm had published an article titled “On the Poetry of the
Legal Language” (Kordić, 2010). In the main part of the lecture, by using a comparative approach, specific examples of
metaphor, alliteration, tautology, personification and doublets are presented in German, English and Croatian language
of law, based on the comparative corpus research in German, Croatian and English criminal laws that the author of this
paper carried out in 2009 (Kordić, 2010). The final session is planned as a summary of most important facts on legal
translation and preparation for the oral exam.
5. Concluding Remarks
In the introductory part of the paper recent developments in LSP teaching as applied in the Faculty of Law in Osijek have
been discussed: a) content-and-language-integrated-learning (CLIL), b) use of didactic case studies, c) corpus studies
conducted for teaching purposes and aimed at identifying high frequency language elements, d) more effective course
books with higher terminology indexes, e) extended use of online materials, f) teaching writing for specific purposes, and
g) teaching professional culture and non-linguistic skills. A short presentation of the Lifelong Education Programme for
Lawyer Linguists conducted successfully for three years at the Faculty of Law, University of Osijek, Croatia, can well
illustrate that best fulfilment of those requirements can be expected in such LSP programmes developed for specific
groups of highly motivated learners attending the courses with clearly defined real-life purposes. It can be concluded that
new developments in LSP teaching, resulting from political and economic integrations, greater job mobility and intensified
international cooperation by means of new communication technologies, find their most appropriate application in the
lifelong learning programmes designed in accordance with real life needs and aspirations of the target group of learners.
The learner-centred approach opens the opportunity to students to participate in the course design and to help adjust it to
their needs and current requirements of the labour market. However, this implies new requirements, challenges and
responsibilities for LSP teachers.
References
Baker, M. & Saldanha, G. (Eds. ). (2009). Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies, Abingdon: Routledge.
Barišić, Zdenka (ed), (2011): Sveučilišni godišnjak Sveučilišta J. J. Strossmayera u Osijeku 2010/2011 [Annual of the J. J. Strossmayer
University of Osijek 2010/2011]. Osijek: Sveučilište J. J. Strossmayera.
Held, D, McGrew, A, Goldblatt, D, Perraton, J. (1999): Global Transformations. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Hutchinson, T. , Waters, A. (1987): English for Specific Purposes: A learning-centred approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Jendrych, Elžbieta: Developments in ESP. Studies in Logic, Grammar and Rhetoric, 34 (47) / 2013, pp. 43-59.
Kordić, Lj, Mujić, N. (2004): Strani jezik u funkciji pravne struke: istraživanje stavova djelatnih pravnika i studenata prava [Foreign
Language for Legal Purposes: Exploring Attitudes of Practicing Lawyers and Law Students] . Pravni vjesnik Pravnog fakulteta
Sveučilišta Josipa Jurja Strossmayera u Osijeku, 3-4/2003, pp. 57-77.
Kordić, Lj. (2010): Elementi neformalnosti i poetičnosti u jeziku prava. Zbornik radova HDPL: Prostor i vrijeme u jeziku - jezik u prostoru i
vremenu. Međunarodna konferencija HDPL, Osijek, svibanj 2009 (175-1859. [Informal and Poetic Elements in the Language of
Law. Proceedings of the International CAAL Conference ‘Space and Time in Language - Language in Space and Time’, Osijek,
May 2009 (175-185)]. Zagreb-Osijek: HDPL & Filozofski fakultet Sveučilišta J. J. Strossmayera.
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Kordić, Lj. , Cigan, V. (2013): Teaching and Learning of Foreign Languages for Legal Purposes in Croatia. Studies in Logic, Grammar
and Rhetoric, 34 (47) / 2013, pp. 59-75.
Kordić, Lj. , Papa, D. (2014): Suradnja među katedrama u svrhu podizanja kvalitete nastave stranih jezika struke – komparativni pristup
[Cooperation between Faculty Departments to the Purpose of Quality Improvement in Teaching FL for Specific Purposes – a
Comparative Approach]. Pravni vjesnik Pravnog fakulteta Sveučilišta Josipa Jurja Strossmayera u Osijeku, 1/ 2014, pp. 73-88.
Luczak, A. (2014): Writing in Plain English (workshop). The 1st Legal English Workshop SHARE & GAIN, Suprasl, Poland, 18-19
September 2014.
Poljaković, I. , Martinović, A. (2009): A New Approach to Teaching Foreign Languages in Universities. In: Granić, J. (ed. ): Language
Policy and Language Reality, pp. 225-236. Zagreb: HDPL.
Prunc, E. (2012): Entwicklungslinien der Translationswissenschaft: Von den Asymmetrien der Sprachen zu den Asymmetrien der Macht.
Frank & Timme. Šarcević, S. (1997): New Approach to Legal Translation. The Hague–London–Boston: Kluwer Law International.
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Council of Europe (1982): Recommendation No. R (98)6-Appendix to Recommendation No R (82) 18
Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek (2011): Strategy of the Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek 2011-2020. Osijek:
Josip Juraj Strossmayer University.
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Croatian National Education Standard [Hrvatski nacionalni obrazovni standard – HNOS]. Ministarstvo znanosti, obrazovanja i športa
(2005)] http: //public. mzos. hr/Default. aspx?sec=2199 [Access: 18/10/2010]
European Commission (1995). Weißbuch zur allgemeinen und beruflichen Bildung – Lehren und Lernen – Auf dem Weg zur kognitiven
Gesellschaft. http: //europa. eu/documentation/official-docs/white-papers/index_de. htm [Access10/04/2013]
National Curriculum Framework [Nacionalni okvirni kurikulum za predškolski odgoj i obrazovanje te opće obvezno i srednjoškolsko
obrazovanje – NOK] (2010), http: //public. mzos. hr/Default. aspx?sec=2685 [Access: 18/10/2011]
Science and Higher Education Act [Zakon o znanstvenoj djelatnosti i visokom obrazovanju]. Official Gazette, 123/03 (2003) http:
//narodne-novine. nn. hr/clanci/sluzbeni/306330. html [Access: 18. 10. 2011]
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Organizing of Physical Education Teaching Classes and Methods to be
Used to Achieve the Intended Objectives
Rovena Elmazi
Ledina Koci
rd.elmazi@gmail.com
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2015.v5n1s1p97
Abstract
Physical education is an integral part of the comprehensive education of pupils. It represents the whole of the methods that aim
to improve the psycho-motor qualities of them. Physical education and education are closely related to each other.
Encouraging and promoting children to work with desire and seriously begin since preschool age and later at school. For this
reason in the content of the preschool cycle program, different games should prevail, led by the teacher who seek not only fun
but also develop pupils’ motor skills. Physical education teachers have an important role in this development process. They
must commit to implementing the program quality, well recognize how its content should be performed, the load to be taken
and in particular anatomic physiological progress, the psyche progress and the motor progress that delivers every motor
activity conducted within the classroom. Physical education teacher in his work looks to each student's level of motor skills
formation as one of the basic requirements contained in the program. He must identify the anthropometric indicators, physical
attributes and motor skills of the students and on the basis of these indicators will organize and differentiated work. First of all
differential work is strongly supported in the motor skills level, to continue with the advanced elements by adapting the physical
possibilities of the pupils. Teachers must have a special attention to the terminology used in order to be as clear and
comprehensible his instructions to them.
Keywords: Physical Education, program, method, terminology, psycho-motor qualities, motile
1. Introduction
The academic teaching process of physical education applies general didactic principles which apply to other subjects as
well including systematic learning, learning adaptation based on mental and physical capacity and student-developed
classes. Learning in the process of physical education has a significant educational nature especially from the social
aspect. Consequently, the teacher must not separate the acquisition of movements, development of physical qualities,
anthropometrical qualities and agility from education of moral and ethical values of the students. Any didactic analysis of
physical education must be anticipated by the structural analysis and physical and sports exercise which inter alia
consists in the study of the elementary movements, substance of the physical exercises and their learning. Moreover, it
would be more important to know the position of physical education in the school.
2. Aim of Study/Research
The aim of this study is to become acquainted with the teaching methods in the physical education classes and select the
proper methods for organisation of the teaching classes in order to achieve the intended objectives. Throughout my
experience as a teacher of physical education I have concluded that the choice of the proper method plays a very
important role in the quality of the classes. The methods consist in the set of means and way of teaching based on which
the student, under the guidance of the teacher try to acquire knowledge, agility, movement expression on the one side
and attain the objective of their education in general on the other side. There are three methods to organise physical
education classes: 1- demonstration method, 2- verbal method and 3- exercise method. Such methods must be selected
by the teacher based on the age, knowledge of the students about the topics and their physical skills. Each of the
methods has its own specifics.
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3. Research Topic
The reason for this research is built upon the mission we have to forward the message that sports is the key to the
psycho-motor development of the children. As a teacher of physical education, I have come to the conclusion that the
better the organisation of the classes by the teacher, the better are the results of the development of the students. It is to
this end that we decided to make this research to show that the method chosen to transmit knowledge to the student is
the most important step which must never be undermined.
4. Research Question
The main research question is: what is the proper method to be used during the physical education classes in order to
attain the required objectives? Before elaborating on this question, first we must know which are the methods and their
specifics, and whether they are closely linked to the age-group of students. Such questions shall be answered in the
following sections.
5. Scientific Methods
The methods used for this study are examination of the students in public and non-public schools in Tirana during the
physical education classes. It all started with the children of the pre-school system and depending on the topic of the day
we have used three methods to conclude which is the most relevant method to make the topic easily understood and
applied. We applied the same method to the students starting from the first to the fifth grade. Concerning the students of
the sixth to the ninth grade we initially tested their theoretical knowledge on the subject and then we used the methods
and concluded on the most appropriate method to have qualitative teaching and learning classes.
6. Discussion
The physical education subject and participation in various sports activities plays a very important role in the psychomotor development. The school must not transmit knowledge alone. In addition it must affect the education of their skills.
Children, before going to school, learn with all their senses and improve quickly their mistakes, therefore learning at a
clearly defined pace very often seems tiring wearisome. If we want children to be more motivated for this teaching class,
we must clearly explain them why it is necessary to attend the physical education classes and their usefulness.
Employing various games, especially those in the form of races through which the students experience positive
emotions, is essential in feeding their motivation for the physical education class.
Physical education is integral part of their comprehensive education. It constitutes the set of methods which aim at
improving the psycho-motor skills of students. It has to be reemphasised to the students of the elementary cycle that they
must be able to run, swim, be disciplined, persistent, daring, qualities which help them grow strong. To this end, special
attention must be paid to this area, especially during the work of the physical education teachers. In their capacity, they
must work with both seriousness and will.
In order to succeed in their work, the teachers must be willing and devoted in implementing the academic
programme, which aims at the psycho -motor development of the children. It consists of several movement activities
which are performed successfully through the better organisation of students during the teaching classes and proper use
of methods in order to make it as simple and understandable for the student.
It is up to the teacher to prepare, before organising the classes, the place where the class will be delivered and
use the means to the employed for the topic in question. The forms of organising the classes must guarantee
effectiveness in the ability to acquire movement expressions. The teacher must be cautious in the choice of terminology,
which must be clear and simple, so as to be as understandable as possible by the student.
The methods of delivery of classes consist in the set of methods used by the teachers during the classes in order
to make the exercise as clear to the student. The use of one method or the other depends on the skills of the teacher, the
content of the teaching classes, the individual features of the students, materials etc. They are not rigid but they are
adapted to the topic of the teaching classes very often and referring to the absorption by the student, the methods of the
physical education are divided in the three main groups:
1- Demonstration method
Demonstration must present the technique of movements in a perfect and dynamic manner. The teacher explains
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the exercise, demonstrates the exercise and shows it in slow motion indicating in this way the steps to be followed by the
student in performing the exercise. If the teacher because of physical reasons is unable to demonstrate the exercise, it is
better to assign two or three students whose movement skills are the best.
2- Verbal method
The use of this method depends on the age of the student, because the older they are easier and fruitful this
method is. In this case, terminology of the teacher must be laconic, fluent and adapted to the level of the students. In the
use of this method, the main issue is the explanation which requires systematic presentation of knowledge of technique
of exercises and the manner of performing the exercises. An example is the topic “chest pass”. In this case the teacher
explains the position of the body, stepping towards your target with one foot, then throwing the ball out towards the chest
with two hands while turning the hands over, ending with the thumbs pointing down. etc.
3- Exercise method
It is an independent method used widely in the learning of movement expressions and development of physical
qualities. It consists in two groups:
1- Methods used in the learning of movement expressions which are generally used for the low cycle classes
and follow-up classes
2- Methods for the development of physical qualities which are mostly used for the high classes because they
are familiar with these exercises and the manner they are performed. However work is focused in improving
the quality of the exercise.
Therefore, from the very beginning the students become aware of the movements through demonstrations, as the
easiest way to be perceived by the student (mainly from Grade 1-4), then explanation of the exercise which takes less
time from the teacher and more time from the student (used mainly for Grade 1-6), because it is assumed that up to
these grades, the student has appropriate knowledge in most of the topics and their content. It is important to emphasise
that the combination of the first two methods i. e explanation of the new topic and its demonstration. On the contrary, the
acquisition of such skills through the frequent and systematic exercise is mostly used for the grades 7-9.
7. Result
From the study we have conducted in all the 9-year schools in Tirana, we have concluded in the following data which are
reflected in the table and the respective graphs for each methods are herewith below based on the general data of the
table. During the physical education classes, starting from the pre-school system to the eights grade the student must
perceive and understand easily the topic of the class if the teacher will make use of the demonstration method, because
the student of such grades initially becomes informed of all the movement activities. The effect of use of this method is
clearly evident from the use of data which we have presented in the following table.
Grade / Methods
Demonstration method
Verbal method
Exercise method
Pre-school system
99. 90%
S/P-IV
Kl / V-VI
Kl / VII - IX
General table
I
II
III
95% 93% 90%
5%
7%
10%
IV
50%
50%
V
47%
53%
Specific tables and graphs
Demonstration method
85. 58%
41%
11. 66%
99
VI
35%
50%
15%
VII
15%
40%
45%
VIII
10%
15%
75%
IX
10%
10%
80%
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The verbal or explanation method of exercise takes less time from the teacher and more time from the student, thus
giving priority to the development of skills of the students. It may be used for the Grades 4-6 because it is assumed that
up to these grades, the student has appropriate knowledge in most of the topics and their content. It is important to
emphasise that the combination of the first two methods i. e explanation of the new topic and its demonstration.
S/P-IV
Kl / V-VI
Kl / VII - IX
Verbal method (explanation)
17. 50%
52%
21. 60%
The teaching classes from the seventh to the ninth grade is more active because as a result of a better performance in
the lowest grades, the student may be instructed by the teacher and apply them through a repetition of exercise, several
times more, and consequently, the movement skills in all the disciplines which the teaching programme contains, are
improved
S/P-IV
Kl / V-VI
Kl / VII - IX
Verbal method (explanation)
17. 50%
52%
21. 60%
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The teaching classes from the seventh to the ninth grade is more active because as a result of a better performance in
the lowest grades, the student may be instructed by the teacher and apply them through a repetition of exercise, several
times more, and consequently, the movement skills in all the disciplines which the teaching programme contains, are
improved.
Exercise methods
0. 00%
8%
66. 66%
S/P-IV
Gr / V-VI
Gr / VII - IX
8. Conclusion
The forms of physical education which are applied by the physical education teacher in the 9-year schools are of special
importance because they help in organising as productive as possible teaching classes and attaining the aimed
objectives which are closely linked to the improvement of the health of the students and their physical preparation.
Therefore, such classes must be organised and delivered in a planned way, fully in line with the purposes of the teaching
class and the particularities of the age of the students.
References
Prof. DR Jani Daci. Didactic of physical education (pg 10) (2004)
Wlodkowsli, R. Washington DC. Motivation and teaching
Stavri LLambriri, “Education Development” Association supported by UNICEF. Minimum necessary objectives of the student (2007)
Cratty, B, J. Intelligence in Action. Englewood Cliffs ,NJ : Prentice-Hall (1973)
Rovena Elmazi. Leasure and Recreation Sport. jurnal of Physicol Activity and Sports volume 2 issue 1 August 2014
Cratty , B,J.Perceptual and Motor Development in Infans and children. New York : CollierMacMillan Co. (1970)
Angela Glenn, advisory teacher at Medway ICSS
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Jacquie Cousins, manager at the referral unit of elementary pupils
Gallahue , D. L. Understanding Motor Development in children. New York : John Wiley and Sons (1982)
Volumes: Play and learning in early years / Eliminating barriers to learning in early years Terry F Pettijon : Ohio State University
Gerhardt, L. A . Moving and Knowing : The Young Child Orients Himself to Space. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall (1973)
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Information Literacy Primary School Students in the Czech Republic in
International Comparison
PaedDr. Zuzana Horváthová, Ph. D.
Department of Law and Public Administration, Metropolitan University Prague
zuzana.horvathova@mup.cz
Assoc. Prof. Ing. Josef Abrhám, Ph. D.
Department of Law and Public Administration, Metropolitan University Prague
josef.abrham@mup.cz
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2015.v5n1s1p103
Abstract
Increasing amount of information available becomes a reality of the contemporary global world. However, proper and effective
use of information depends on a set of information management skills. Recently, information literacy has become one of the
key elements of the educational process at a primary, secondary and tertiary level. The aim of this paper is to evaluate the
ability of primary school students to manage information. The main part of the research output is delivered via own survey,
which focuses on final-year students of primary schools in the Czech Republic. Information sources, ability to select them and
to make decision or trustworthiness check belong among those primarily examined. Also an access to new information and
decision-making ability of students in selection process and use of information is analysed. The results of the survey are
compared with those provided by academic literature and by other international research in this field.
Keywords: information literacy, basic education, Czech Republic, informatics and communication technology
1. Introduction
Information literacy has become an important prerequisite for successful processing in almost all fields of the current
economy and society. The amount of available information continues to grow and increases the demand for the quality of
its processing and handling. Thus information literacy has recently become in one of the essential parts of the
educational process. Working with information in the educational process embodies itself in several ways. This is namely
the ability of students to understand the text (literacy), skills in information and communication technologies including the
internet and also the quality of the selection, classification and verification of information sources. Information skills are
therefore subject to numerous research articles, various comparative studies at the international level as well as subject
to methodologically oriented papers, which seeks to develop methods for measuring information literacy. This study
represents a further contribution to the debate in the field.
The aim of this paper is to evaluate the ability of primary school students to manage information. The main part of
the research output is delivered via own survey, which focuses on final-year students of primary schools in the Czech
Republic. Information sources, ability to select them and to make decision or trustworthiness check belong among those
primarily examined. Also an access to new information and decision-making ability of students in selection process and
use of information is analysed. The results of the survey are compared with those provided by academic literature and by
other international research in this field. The literature review also includes an overview of several methodological
concepts of measurement information skills of students in primary and secondary schools, which were applied in the
Czech Republic and the European Union.
2. Theoretical Approaches to Education and Literacy in the Contemporary Information Society
The increase in the importance of information literacy within the contemporary education and society is reflected in the
academic papers that are covered in the following text. The emphasis is placed both on the assessment of the
significance of information literacy in the works of theorists in the education field and also the different approaches to
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monitoring and evaluation of the information literacy.
On the basis of a research focusing on education and training in the information society, Dombrovská, Landová,
Beneš and Rambousek came to the conclusion that although the educational potential of information technology opens
up new possibilities for education in the information society, the approach of schools to the education has to be changed.
If not, information technologies will not be a positive factor and will not make educational process more efficient, but
rather they will only become a tool for upgrading the educational process, without its educational use in practice and
continuing education (Beneš, Rambousek, 2005). The goal of modern education is a functional literacy and not the
content of knowledge, as was the case in the past, which means interpretation and processing of not only statistical data
(Dombrovská and Landová, 2004).
Fialová builds on the results of national research focused on students' opinions on the implementation of
information technologies in education, where it was concluded that although information technology cannot replace the
social interactions in the class and in the direct learning process, still with an appropriate use of computers (e. g. for a
teamwork) pupils learn to work in a team and act as a single entity and thus the social conscience of individuals improves
(Fialová, 2005).
Filipi defines information literacy as the ability to recognize the needs for information, the knowledge to find and
use it effectively. He perceives this ability as a summary of skills to work with the most used software and internet use not
only for communication but also for searching for and processing of information. ICT skills are seen as a unification and
application of cognitive and technical skills and consist of five basic components, namely (Filipi, 2012, p. 11):
 Access: knowledge of gathering and getting the information via ICT;
 Manage: use of existing classification and organization scheme;
 Integrate: representation and interpretation of information via ICT;
 Evaluate: decision about relevance, usefulness, quality and efficiency of information;
 Create: creation of new own information, possibly using amendments and adjustments of the existing
information via ICT.
Brdlička addressed the issue of integration of information education into curricula at primary and secondary
schools. He understands the information education as a preparation for life in the information society where tutoring
should not focus only on the computer but also on how to make appropriate use of this ability (Brdlička, 1998).
The trend in our modern society is using the internet, via computers one can easily and affordably communicate
over long distances, seek information from diverse regions and sectors, to educate themselves, find jobs, work and shop.
To make internet a benefit for individuals and not just a conduit for communication and spending leisure time by surfing
or playing computer games, the pretty computer literacy is needed. In modern education the stress is put on children
education in this area and from primary school these skills are taught. Adults are treated pretty same in this area as there
is a necessity to have mastered at least basic skills related to the PC and ICT. The main reason is the competitiveness of
individuals in the labour market, nowadays it is quite common that the given literacy is one of the requirements that are
imposed on jobseekers by employers. The previous text shows that computer literacy is, together with functional literacy
a part of the information literacy. An individual, who is not computer literate or functionally literate, can not necessarily be
information literate. The relevant skills are necessary for current and future application and adaptation in the
contemporary anamorphic society.
Mudrák considers the information education for a more cross-cutting discipline in many areas of education. That
makes the discipline alone richer in terms of the content, ideology and also methodology, but at the same times that
raises new questions and challenges to be addressed (e. g. the use of information technology in teaching physics,
languages, mathematics and music). The concepts and relationships that show some stability in the dynamic
environment of the information society must predominantly become the content of educational training. Finally, the
didactics of information education should respect the cross-curricular nature (Mudrák, 2005).
In recent years, a number of projects have been implemented in the area of information literacy. They map literacy
and work with information technologies in international comparison. One example of those studies is a study called the
International Computer and Information Literacy Study, where the students of the 8th grade of the elementary schools
and the students of the grammar schools at the corresponding grade are tested. The project focuses on the
implementation of international research and the subsequent use of results in educational policy and their own teaching
practice at schools in the country. In 2013, the undertaken research was aimed at detecting differences in computer and
information literacy of students in the surveyed countries, at verifying the relationship between the success of students
and educational systems setting, at the effect of technological background of the students on their success in computer
and information literacy as well as at the effects of socio-economic background of students on their results in computer
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and information literacy (Fraillon, 2013).
Another example of a widespread concept in the area of computer literacy and skills is a so called European
Computer Driving Licence (ECDL), which includes a wide range of training and certification programs. ECDL is
internationally recognized certificate of computer literacy. The contents of the tests are based on the ECDL syllabus.
They are subject to scrutiny of the sole proprietor of the ECDL concept and of the testing methodology, which is a nonprofit organization called Council of European Professional Informatics Societies (CEPIS). ECDL concept focuses on the
labour market. The attention is paid to the successful and effective use of digital technologies (Neumajer, 2012).
A highly respected international comparative study is regularly published by OECD, so called PISA testing. This
project focuses on mathematics, science and reading but also digital skills. From 2015, the testing in all areas surveyed
runs electronically. As the most important skill of electronic reading is considered the orientation on sites which means
quick browsing of the structure on non-linearly arranged websites. The students who did better managed to do so
because they used a better strategy such as minimizing the visits of the irrelevant sites and vice versa finding quickly the
requested ones. Test mechanisms in the PISA study simulate real situations. A student has the opportunity to work with
simulations of a simple web-browser, which can be accessed on the pre-web addresses, pages and entire sites
(Neumajer, 2012).
In the Czech Republic there has been recently undertaken a survey under the GAPARD programme, which
focuses strongly in the area of working with information, it means on "information literacy" as such, and that applies to
students already in elementary schools and then applies throughout the whole life. A technical use of ICT as a tool is
somewhat less important than its meaning: work with information, their acquisition, processing and transmission to
others. At the top of such prepared sites there is a set of tasks, through which a student goes in the course of testing.
There are several types of tasks. Most often it is about solving a closed task, which has four alternatives and in order to
determine the correct response, finding the relevant information on the website is needed. This website has usually set a
few pages linked with references. In other tasks there are open questions that require answers creation. An example of
this task is to send an e-mail through a web form. Everything is still ongoing in a simulated environment of the internet
browser. The content of the e-mail should be a summary of information that can be found on the prepared site
(Neumajer, 2012).
3. The Research of Information Skills of Students in the Czech Republic
The research is based on survey that focuses on identifying sources where fifteen year-old students of the Czech
schools get their information. The emphasis is also placed on the ways of verifying the information and factors that
influence the decision making of the students. The questionnaire was designed as a dialogue between the interviewer
and the respondent. The questions were ordered from simple to more complex ones. They were closed with a choice of
either one answers or marking on the range of options from a completely positive response to a negative one. Almost all
the issues have been given the opportunity to answer "I do not know / I did not think about it. " The questionnaire was
anonymous and the entire research was compiled on a sample of 470 respondents. The respondents were fifteen yearold students of secondary schools, grammar schools and apprenticeships from Prague and from the cities in the Central
Bohemia. The questionnaire survey was carried out in the period from May to September 2014.
Based on the results of the survey seven answers to seven concrete questions will be discussed in the following
text. These issues included the findings in the area of information sources, the information confrontation with the present
level of knowledge, the assessment of decision-making skills of the students and the verification of the quality and
relevance of the information.
Graph 1: Responses to the question „Where do you get most of your knowledge"
Source: Own survey made in 2014
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From Graph 1, which illustrates the responses to a question about sources of information, it is clear that most information
students receive at school, followed by the options „from family members“ and „on the internet“ which took almost the
same position. In a much lesser extent students receive information from friends. The frequency of other offered options
is negligible. Nearly half of the respondents use the educational process within the school as the main source of
information. In contrast, almost a quarter of students stated that they obtained the knowledge on the internet and from
individual family members. It can be therefore concluded that fewer than half of the students complete the compulsory
education with the feeling that most of the knowledge provided to them was at school.
As for the second question, if they can confront the findings with their knowledge, the majority of respondents
answered yes (Graph 2). The question was posed in order to investigate own opinion of the students on their ability to
compare information and knowledge. The vast majority of students (97%) think that they have this ability, however with
varying degrees of intensity. The answer "hardly ever/never" was chosen only by 2% of students. The frequency of the
response "I do not know" is only 1% and thus indicates a group of students who do not think over the information and
knowledge. It can therefore be noted that the vast majority of students believe that they are able to process and compare
the information obtained. On the other hand, it should be noted that such a positive response may be questionable, and it
would be reasonable to complete the given survey with testing of the answers obtained.
Graph 2: Responses to the question „Are you able to confront the information with your existing knowledge? “
Source: Own survey made in 2014
Graph 3 shows the frequencies of the response to the question whether the respondents are aware of the need for their
independent decision-making when working with information. Depending on their self-reflection based on their age, the
students mostly answered positively. The vast majority of respondents (95%) recognize the importance of decisionmaking, either „always“ or „mostly“ (more than 50% of responses). The question was included in the survey on purpose
as the conditions of the contemporary society place increasing demands on decision-making abilities of pupils and
students (e. g. when choosing the next stage of education, study abroad, future occupation, etc. ).
Graph 3: Responses to the question „Are you aware of the need of own decision-making when working with the
information? “
Source: Own survey made in 2014
In another area of the research, which involved the verification of the information obtained, the respondents were
generally positive. Almost 90% of those surveyed verify the quality of information, especially when they have some
doubts. Furthermore, the verification is also abundant in terms of knowledge which is exceptionally interesting. The
negative range of responses is almost negligible. The question was asked as to determine whether and what information
the students verify. The scale of answers offered was closed with a range from extremely positive to completely negative.
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Graph 4: Responses to the question „Do you verify the information obtained? “
Source: Own survey made in 2014
Another question further elaborated the way of verifying information. Table 1 presents a simplified matrix in which we can
read how (in what sources) and how often students verify the information. From Table 1 we can observe that the most
preferred source is the internet. Also the trust in the family and in case of half of the students the trust in the school is
positive. The role of other sources offered is entirely negligible. The questions included a closed range of answers
indicating the frequency on the scale of the options from totally positive to the negative ones. There was also an option „I
do not know“ offered as the emergency one.
Table 1: Responses to the question „How often do students verify the information in the following sources?“
At school
At home
On the internet (from one source)
On the internet (from more sources)
Combining more sources
In daily press
In books
Often
10 %
40 %
42 %
44 %
12 %
2%
6%
Sometimes
40 %
42 %
37 %
39 %
28 %
17 %
15 %
Seldom
35 %
13 %
17 %
11 %
33 %
21 %
32 %
Not at all
5%
3%
3%
1%
16 %
50 %
38 %
I do not know
10 %
2%
1%
5%
11 %
10 %
9%
Source: Own survey made in 2014
The last question of the questionnaire survey stems out from the hypothesis that the young man can be very easily
influenced by the mass media, classmates and friends. A closed offer of the answers was compiled from the anticipated
potential factors on the respondents at their age. Each answer offered contained a scale of the importance of the factors
ranging from completely positive to completely negative. The answer „I do not know" was inserted as an emergency one,
however, the frequency of that one was very low and thus not conclusive. The responses clearly showed that the major
factors influencing students´ decision-making are at first the benefit for a given student and then the information obtained.
Another important factor is the view of the family, followed by the recommendation of teachers at school. The opinion of
the friends and decision-making of the majority have only a partial effect. An actual mood has only a marginal effect.
Table 2: Responses to the question „ Are students at this age influenced in their decision-making mainly by media and
friends? “
TV, radio
Opinion of friends
Opinion of majority
Recommendation of parents
Recommendation of teachers
Actual mood
Personal benefit
Very important Quite important Not much important
6%
39 %
33 %
13 %
44 %
38 %
12 %
37 %
43 %
32 %
45 %
19 %
27 %
46 %
23 %
14 %
12 %
25 %
64 %
29 %
4%
Source: Own survey made in 2014
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Not important at all I do not know
15 %
7%
4%
1%
5%
3%
3%
1%
2%
2%
45 %
4%
1%
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The last question in the questionnaire featured the verification of the credibility of electronic information sources. It was
assumed that the students consider the main sources of information those electronic ones. Internet sources are not only
used to search for information, but also for self-education or spending leisure time by today's young generation (Table 3).
Table 3: Responses to the question „To what extent do the students trust the information sources? “
According to first offered sites by Google (or another viewer)
Wikipedia
Professional databases
Academic websites
Professional firms´ websites
Very
credible
16 %
33 %
46 %
39 %
26 %
Quite
credible
53 %
44 %
29 %
25 %
34 %
Not much
Not credible at all I do not know
credible
23 %
5%
3%
18 %
4%
1%
1%
1%
23 %
11 %
4%
21 %
10 %
8%
22 %
Source: Own survey made in 2014
The range of answers was once again closed and divided into a scale of two positive and two negative responses. The
answer "I do not know" was re-launched as an emergency one. Since the aim of the question is to identify the views of
respondents, the answer „I do not know“ can be considered "I do not have that knowledge". The students probably do not
know that source in the way that they do not use it. As "a very credible" information source were perceived technical or
professional databases, followed by websites of academic institutions and professional firms. In contrast, the answer „I
do not know“ was the most frequent one with these sources. It can be therefore assumed that those who use these
sources also trust them. However, almost a quarter of students probably do not know professional databases as a source
of information, because they cannot assess their credibility. The information provided via Google and Wikipedia are
considered by students predominantly as "more credible". However, with these sources, the answer „I do not know"
emerged only in case of 3% of students. We can assume that students know these sources and perceive them as quite
or very credible.
4. Conclusion
The importance of information literacy for the educational process as well as for other professional life of the graduates is
confirmed both by the theoretical concepts as well as by strategic documents at national and international level. The
importance of working with information is increasing as a result of the development of modern technology and the
knowledge economy.
Based on the results of a questionnaire survey one can say that working with modern communication technologies
and computers for students of elementary schools in the Czech Republic is quite natural. Mostly, students seek
information on information portals, which are normally accessible both to users as well as to the authors who make up
the content of the website etc. However, these sources are out of control in terms of truth and objectivity. If the students
verify the information, they use the same sources for verification as for their acquisition. It can be assumed that they use
the same internet sources in order to test their knowledge as the internet is the second most common source for
obtaining knowledge right after the school.
The examined respondents used books, newspapers and magazines very marginally. The influence of the media
such as television and radio is smaller than in the case of the internet. A very positive finding can be a still significant
effect of family and school on obtaining and verifying information as well as on the subsequent decision-making. In this
context, it seems appropriate to increase a focus of the educational process in the Czech Republic and other European
Union countries on the information and communication technologies. School facilities must fully exploit the potential of
new information sources and verify the ability to work with them on the side of their students. In relation to the undertaken
research one may recommend the application of simulations of web browsers, testing the ability of electronic reading, the
assessment of the speed of scrolling over non-linearly arranged structures of web sites, etc.
5. References
Beneš, P. , Rambousek, V. Výchova a vzdělávání v informační společnosti. In Vzdělávání pro život v informační společnosti. Praha:
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Educating Rita: The Muted Woman Raises Her Voice
Seval Arslan, PhD. Cand.
Lecturer, Department of English Language and Literature, Fatih University, Istanbul
sevalsarslan@hotmail.com
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2015.v5n1s1p111
Abstract
For centuries, women have been excluded from the literary canon which has been under the dominance of male authors. The
socio-political and domestic spheres of life have been divided according to the Cartesian dualism between the mind and body
which is based on the already determined characteristics of man and woman by the patriarchal order. Woman has been
doomed to the domestic sphere with certain responsibilities as a wife and mother; thus, she has been deprived of an active
participation in the social sphere of life. If woman stays at home, she is drowned in a lack of a self, however, if she wants to
pave her way towards an intellectual life, she will have to obtain a masculine position which, again, absorbs her female identity.
In Educating Rita, Willy Russell narrates the story of Rita, a working class woman, who is devoid of a self and tries to
overcome the difficulties life brings to her due to her social status and her sex. This paper is going to discuss Rita’s personal
struggle to pass beyond these restrictions via reading and writing in order to obtain her own thinking and critical self that gives
her the right to choose rather than to be chosen. Thus, overcoming the distinction between the reproductive body and
contemplative mind, woman is able to assert her sophisticated self through active participation in the intellectual life outside the
domestic sphere. Consequently, the muted woman is able to raise her voice by claiming her own independent identity.
Keywords: Woman’s identity, reading theory, woman’s writing.
In What Is a Woman? Toril Moi discusses that science and philosophy are based on the Cartesian mind/body dualism.
The patriarchal worldview structures society on the separation of the mind and body from a sexist perspective. Within
this structure, man represents the mind while woman is pre-destined to be the symbol of the body. The socio-political
and domestic spheres of life are divided according to this dualism which is based on the determined characteristics of
man and woman by the masculine order. Thus woman is believed to be fit to be a good wife, mother and housekeeper
while man’s way is paved for a more social, political and philosophical life in which he can use his creative intellect.
From this point of view, woman’s tasks are the ones that do not necessitate a creative-thinking process such as bearing
and rearing babies, cooking and cleaning the house while man’s duties are more social and enable him to be part of the
social structure. Moi (1999) emphasizes that “the rational, active, masculine intellect operates on the passive, objectified,
feminized body” (p. 348). Hence woman is doomed to a submissive state as the object in this subject/object relationship
between the sexes.
As an ultimate result of this dualistic approach, science, philosophy and literature have always been under the
dominance of man; therefore, if woman is ever eager to be part of this system in order to include herself in philosophy
and literature, she is supposed to have a masculine status ignoring her womanhood. Otherwise, Moi (1999) asserts, she
has to obey the sexist structure that destines women to become the irrational and thoughtless bodies of the rational and
creative minds (p. 348). The problem woman faces within this patriarchal structure is that she is left without a true self,
and this causes her to forget about her existence and identity; eventually she becomes part of the male world as an
object, and she ends up being both the tool and victim of patriarchy. If she stays at home as expected from her, she is
drowned in the lack of a self, however, on the other hand, if she wants to pave her way towards a more social and
philosophical life, she will have to obtain a masculine position which, again, absorbs her identity. In Educating Rita, Willy
Russell narrates the story of Rita, a working class woman, who is devoid of a self and tries to overcome the difficulties life
brings to her due to her social status and her sex. This paper is going to discuss Rita’s personal struggle to pass beyond
these restrictions via reading and writing in order to obtain her own thinking and critical self that gives her the right to
choose rather than to be chosen.
For centuries, women have been excluded from the literary canon which has been under the dominance of male
authors. This male dominance in the literary and philosophical domains has been caused by the Cartesian dualism
between the mind and body as discussed above. Because of their procreative status as mothers, women have been
regarded as pure wombs, and they have been devoid of other creative activities like thinking and writing that were
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attributed to the male genius with his creative intellectuality. Sandra M. Gilbert and Susan Gubar (2000) begin their
discussion about the male-dominated philosophy and literature in The Madwoman in the Attic with the following question:
“Is a pen a metaphorical penis?” (p. 3). Literature and philosophy have always been under such an influence of the
patriarchal structure that women have been almost completely alienated from the process of creative thinking and writing
since they have been supposed to be the irrational and passive side of the dual structure. Gilbert and Gubar (2000)
continue their debate about this comparison between the pen and penis questioning the position of woman within this
structure:
If the pen is a metaphorical penis, with what organ can females generate texts? The question may seem frivolous,
but both the patriarchal etiology that defines a solitary Father God as the only creator of all things, and the male
metaphors of literary creation that depend upon such an etiology, have long “confused” literary women, readers and
writers alike. For what if such a proudly masculine cosmic Author is the sole legitimate model for all earthly authors? Or
worse, what if the male generative power is not just the only legitimate power but the only power there is? That literary
theoreticians from Aristotle to Hopkins seemed to believe this was so no doubt prevented many women from ever
“attempting the pen” and caused enormous anxiety in generations of those women who are “presumptuous” enough to
dare such an attempt. (p. 7)
As stated above, if the pen is a metaphorical penis, there is no way left for a woman to be included in this
patriarchal literary canon since she clearly lacks the penis which prevents her from raising her voice in the masculine
order of literature and philosophy. Beginning with God the Father as the creator of all things in the world, man is
attributed the quality of intellectual creativity while woman is left out as the passive object on which the male intellect
operates. Since woman is doomed to stay as the mere womb which is a tool to help male procreation, man has been
regarded as the chief being within the philosophical thinking and critical writing process. Since the ancient times of the
primary philosophers like Aristotle and Plato, men have been considered to be the only legitimate generative power, and
this patriarchal view of philosophy and literature has determined the restricted position of woman.
The exclusion of woman from the literary and philosophical domains has eventually resulted in the belief that the
women who attempt to include themselves in this creative process are actually “presumptuous” since they betray their
nature doing so. At this point, arguing about the so-called female nature that is betrayed by the women who try to
exceed their boundaries surrounding their domestic lives, Gilbert and Gubar (2000) assert that these women are not only
called to be “intrusive” and “presumptuous”, but they are also completely “unredeemable” because there is a big mistake
in trying to overcome the boundaries drawn by nature (p. 8). However, it is vitally important to emphasize that these
boundaries that the woman, who is interested in philosophical thinking, is considered to cross betraying her nature are
not determined by nature itself but only by the patriarchal system that situates man as the primary intellectual and
creative subject.
This is actually what Rita tries to do in Willy Russell’s Educating Rita. As a working class woman, Rita struggles
very hard in order to cross the boundaries that enclose her within a structure that is chosen for her. All her attempt is to
become the one who is capable of choosing for herself avoiding the patriarchal power that determines her fate as a true
wife and mother. The way she chooses to liberate herself goes through studying, and she tries to learn reading and
writing critically. She is enrolled in the Open University, and she also takes courses from an English professor Frank.
The play includes the relationship between Rita and Frank which eventually affects not only Rita’s but also Frank’s
perspective for reading and writing critically; as a result, they end up teaching each other and switching their roles. In the
early beginning of the play, Frank is on the stage talking to his girlfriend on the phone. While he is talking about Rita, his
sexist prejudices appear clearly:
Yes?... Of course I’m still here… Because I’ve got this Open University woman coming, haven’t I?... Yes, I
probably shall go to the pub afterwards, I shall need to wash away the memory of some silly woman’s attempts to get into
the mind of Henry James or whoever it is we’re supposed to study on this course… (Russell, 2001, p. 3)
Frank’s first ideas about Rita who studies at the Open University show man’s reaction to woman’s attempts to
participate in the literary sphere. Mocking Rita as a prototype of all women who try to learn critical thinking and reading,
Frank makes the prejudiced male opinion clear. According to this perspective, women are not capable of critical reading
and thinking since they can easily be over-identified with the author or the characters in the story. In Theories of Reading
Karin Littau (2006) discusses the problem of over-identification especially for women readers who are believed to end up
devouring stories by reading fleetingly. However, Littau asserts that over-identification is not the only problem that
makes reading fiction dangerous. She asserts that another important aspect of this danger is the belief that “unlike
serious reading which ‘lifts the reader from sensation to intellect’, the novel actually does the opposite” (p. 65). Since
woman has always been made synonymous with sensation, her over-identification and absorption in novel reading is
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explained as her lack of capability for critical and objective reading.
On the other hand, focusing on the comparison between the lack of a penis and the female exclusion from
philosophy, Toril Moi (1999) asserts that:
First, woman is perceived as lacking the phallus. According to the patriarchal imagination, what a woman needs is
a man, not philosophy. If a woman declares that she too feels the philosophical lack, her desire for knowledge can only
be a compensation for her primary sexual frustration. On this logic, then, the thinking woman necessarily becomes
synonymous with the bluestocking, the frustrated spinster of patriarchal ideology: the female lack is never truly a
philosophical lack. In other words, the woman is always suspected of not being able to think simply because she is taken
to suffer from the wrong lack. (p. 356)
Based on the sexual discrimination that is structured on man’s physical and sexual power deriving from the
phallus, Toril Moi (1999) argues about the patriarchal belief that the true lack of woman is not philosophical thinking but
the male sexual organ which gives him autonomy. Thus, what woman needs to fulfil the absence of the phallus is not
philosophy but man himself. This analysis of woman’s lack stems from the dichotomy within the patriarchal structure that
controls the sexist approach based on the certain gender roles attributed to both sexes. That is why, Moi asserts,
woman’s attempt to fulfil herself philosophically is actually considered to be seeking for fulfilment for a wrong lack
because the true lack that she suffers from can be fulfilled only through submission to male sexual and intellectual power.
Thus, woman’s desire for knowledge is regarded as a wrong way of compensation for the female lack of the generative
phallus and her ultimate sexual frustration from the masculine perspective (p. 356). As a result of this active male
physical and sexual power, man has claimed himself as the authoritative voice in the socio-political, economic and
philosophical life subordinating woman to a passive status in which she is absolutely objectified, and her voice is silenced
within the domestic sphere. As clearly seen in the example of Rita, woman is not considered to be capable of
philosophical and critical reading, and her wish to pave her way into a more literary life forces her to be part of this maledominated structure. Thus the most important aspect of this process for Rita is not only to become an acknowledged
person but also to be a free one to choose for herself rather than being a dependent woman for whom others choose. As
discussed above, woman’s attempts to be included in this sphere ultimately results in detaching her from her identity
since this literary canon is dominated by the masculine power. As a result, woman is forced to choose between her
womanhood and her literacy in an unjust way. However, for Rita this process of being taught by Frank becomes a way
for her to seek her independent choice without the male authority.
When Rita meets Frank for the first time, this is actually not the beginning of her reading process. While she
introduces herself as Rita, Frank who checks her admission papers realizes that her name is written as Mrs. S. White.
Although her actual name is Susan, she renames herself after Rita Mae Brown, the author of Rubyfruit Jungle which is
one of her favourite novels in the beginning. In a sense, she identifies herself with this author she likes most, and this
shows her wish to become a reader and writer at the same time.
In his arguments about woman’s tendency for identification David Bleich (1986) indicates that, woman tends to
identify more with the author of the story or with the characters in it. For him, the reason for woman’s tendency for
identification stems from “the condition of less otherness” (p. 264). Bleich points out that the difference between man
and woman in regard to this topic stems from their different responses to otherness and objectivity. According to him
both men and women attempt to objectify things, however, this act of objectification does not seem to be an immediately
necessary one for women as it is for men. David Bleich (1986) tries to explain this notion of “less otherness” biologically
focusing on the fact that although both man and woman are born of women, man needs to detach himself from his
mother to find his own identity. On the other hand, as woman tries to detach herself from her mother to discover her self,
she will have to turn back to her mother while trying to acquire her gender based identity. This case is completely
different for man who gets more and more detached from his mother as he continues to shape his gender based identity
(p. 265). Eventually, the result is that man feels the urgent need to objectify his readings while woman lacks this
urgency, and she is more easily absorbed in the fictional lives of characters as well as the creators of that fictional life.
Thus Rita’s naming herself after her favourite fiction writer shows us her struggle to find her liberation out of the prison
she is entrapped in both as a working class member and a woman in the patriarchal order.
In the first conversation Rita and Frank have, Rita talks about her previous readings, and all the names she utters
are the ones Frank is not even familiar with. This shows us her social and literary background; she comes from the
working class environment, and her taste in the literary field is actually shaped by junk literature. The first time when they
begin teaching each other in the opposite ways is when she gives Rubyfruit Jungle to Frank to read while she borrows
Howards End from him. As she takes Howards End to read, Rita says she will post it to him if she decides to drop the
course because she “might decide it was a soft idea” (Russell, 2001, p. 8). At this point she still seems to be in conflict
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with what she is struggling for since it is obviously a betrayal for her so-called nature both in her working class
environment and in the overall patriarchal structure. The problem for woman in this masculine system is that her voice
has been silenced by the male-dominated philosophical canon, and eventually she is doomed to her so-called feminine
nature to deal with the female sphere of life. This position of woman in the patriarchal society has affected her existence
as a reader and writer at the same time.
Thus arguing about reader’s construction of meaning and the effects of gender on comprehension, Mary Crawford
and Roger Chaffin (1986) focus on women as a muted group and state that,
The theory of muted groups was developed to describe situations in which groups of people exist in asymmetrical
power relationships. The theory proposes that language and the norms for its use are controlled by the dominant group.
Members of the muted group are disadvantaged in articulating their experience, since the language they must use is
derived largely from the perceptions of the dominant group… In order to be heard, muted group members must learn the
dominant idiom and attempt to articulate within it, even though this attempt will inevitably lead to some loss of meaning.
(p. 21)
Due to the male dominance in literature and philosophy, language is also under the control of the patriarchal point
of view which excludes women from the canon. As a result, women have been subordinated as the muted group while
men have been included in the dominant group that controls language. Extremely surrounded by the patriarchal
dominance, the muted group of women has been forced to identify with this language in order to tell about women’s
experiences. However, since this language serves the dominant group, the muted group always lacks the proper way of
expression for its own experiences. As Crawford and Chaffin (1986) also point out, the muted group is supposed to learn
the dominant group’s idiom in order to be heard within this structure, and this will eventually cause women to lose their
intended meaning within the male idiom (p. 21).
Since man and woman have different backgrounds that are shaped according to their sex, their reading and critical
thinking will also be affected deeply by the contexts they find themselves in the patriarchal society. As a direct
consequence of the masculine language in the philosophical and literary canon, woman has to face her loss of self, and
her attempts to find herself in the masculine language dooms her to a contradictive status between her real female
identity and the masculine representation of her femininity. Hence, man’s authority in philosophy has silenced woman’s
voice to be lost in the male sovereignty. The women who have been interested in critical thinking and writing have been
doomed to the masculine dominance both in literature and language which has resulted in their contradictory position
between a real female self and the male representation of the female gender.
Focusing on the problem of the representation of woman in the male-dominated language, Judith Butler (2006)
discusses that:
For feminist theory, the development of a language that fully or adequately represents women has seemed necessary
to foster the political visibility of women. This has seemed obviously important considering the pervasive cultural
condition in which women’s lives were either misrepresented or not represented at all. (p. 2)
As Judith Butler argues, the development of a language that is not based on the patriarchal power and its
representation of woman has been one of the most important points of the feminist movement so far. Since the
masculine language either misrepresents or does not represent the circumstances women find themselves in at all,
woman has been doomed to an absolute loss of self, and this loss subordinates her to the passive and irrational status
she is entrapped in. Therefore, the development of a language free from the masculine domination is necessary to pave
woman’s way into a creative and philosophical sphere. However, it is also necessary to keep in mind that the only way to
develop such a language goes through getting familiar with the male dominated literary canon so that woman can face
man’s representation of woman and then assert her own representation of herself. Thus, woman should betray her socalled nature that is determined by the patriarchal system in order to cross the boundaries that surround her within the
limited space she is allowed in. For Rita, this is also the first step she needs to take in order to educate herself. She
needs to be familiar with the literary canon that is dominated by the male authors who also control the language that is
used. As Patrocinio P. Schweickart (1986) asserts, “The feminist inquiry into the activity of reading begins with the
realization that the literary canon is androcentric, and that this has a profoundly damaging effect on women readers” (p.
40). In the beginning, the first novel Rita borrows from Frank is E.M. Forster’s Howard’s End. Her education begins and
continues with male authors until the very end of the play, and this shows us Frank’s tendency to associate literature with
male authors as well as woman’s need to become familiar with the male authority in the literary canon so that she can
raise her voice later on.
Upon their discussion on “packing it in” Frank questions Rita why she has enrolled in if she is still in conflict about
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what she wants. Rita answers, “Because I wanna know” and upon being questioned about what she wants to know, she
says she wants to know everything (Russell, 2001, p. 8). In this dialogue what is obvious is Rita’s hunger for knowledge.
In the patriarchal society, woman’s hunger for knowledge is generally replaced by her maternal functions like bearing and
rearing babies; therefore, she is not supposed to feed her own identity with literary or philosophical knowledge. Her socalled nature demands her to act as a womb which means she is doomed to be a tool for the male procreation, and her
creative function is restricted to child-bearing. However, Rita does not want to be restricted to what is pre-determined for
her; on the contrary, she dreams for freedom out of this imprisonment both as a working class member and a woman.
Her wish for freedom becomes more obvious when she questions, “God, what’s it like to be free?” (Russell, 2001, p. 9).
Rita is not free as a working class woman, and she dreams about freedom that would enable her to find her own self.
And the only possible way to have this independence she seeks is to change, and this change should come from inside.
Working as a hairdresser Rita observes woman’s wish for physical change, and she becomes critical of this
claiming that, “But these women, you see, they come to the hairdresser’s cos they wanna be changed. But if you want to
change y’ have to do it from the inside, don’t y’? Know like I’m doin” (Russell, 2001, p. 14). She sees the reality about
woman’s position, and she understands that the ultimate solution lies within an inner change for woman. When women
come to the hairdresser’s, they expect too much according to Rita because each wants to leave as a completely different
person, however, the change in the hair or physical appearance does not bring any changes for woman’s problem in the
patriarchal society. That is why as a working class woman who is suffering not only because of being a woman in a
masculine order but also because of her financial and cultural position in her class, Rita seeks her inner change through
reading and eventually writing objectively so that she can raise her own voice within this male-dominated canon.
Rita is also a woman whose pre-determined destiny in the patriarchal structure dooms her to be a wife and a
mother while her working-class background forces her to work outside the home in order to contribute to her family
financially. Her position as a woman necessitates her to have a baby, however, although everyone expects her to do so,
she says she does not want a baby yet. Thus, she deceives her husband saying that she has stopped taking pills
although she has not. The explanation she gives in order not to have a baby shows that Rita’s primary purpose is about
herself and her position as a woman. She says, “See I don’t wanna baby yet. See, I wanna discover meself first”
(Russell, 2001, p. 15). As a woman, Rita’s role has been pre-determined for her by patriarchy but she does not want to
be subordinated by this fate, and she tries to change it via educating herself in an intellectual way. Through her reading
and writing, Rita aims at discovering her lost self and voice as a woman under the masculine domination.
Rita’s quest for her identity causes many problems in her relationship with her husband. In the beginning Rita tries
to explain her husband what she is struggling for and why. However, all her attempts end up being in vain because when
she says she wants “a better way of living her life”, her husband answers, they might begin saving money in order to
move to a new house in Formby (Russell, 2001, p. 16). Her reading and watching something different drives her
husband mad since he cannot understand the real reason behind her discomfort. Her search for a new self does not
mean anything for a man who thinks that they should have a baby now. Having a better house with babies is more than
enough to make a woman happy from man’s perspective, however, Rita cannot be satisfied with that, and she begins a
discovery in order to seek her right to choose. However, while she is trying to obtain the right to choose, this process
disturbs her husband Denny deeply that she cannot even study at home, and she has to write her essays at work. When
she talks about Denny’s reaction to her studies, she says, “It makes me stronger comin’ here. That’s what Denny’s
frightened of” (Russell, 2001, p. 36-37). Rita realizes that man is afraid of losing his pre-given power and authority in the
patriarchal system if woman begins searching for her free self which cannot be controlled. This is actually what Denny
feels about Rita’s education. He is completely disturbed by her addiction to this education since he is aware that she is
getting more conscious of her identity and directly more powerful.
Thus when Denny finds out that Rita is still taking pills not to have a baby; he gets completely mad and burns all
her books and essays. Rita’s more subjective purposes as a woman disturbs her husband extremely since she does not
act properly according to the family structure in society. In “Women’s Time” Julia Kristeva (1986) argues about woman’s
sacrifice in the patriarchal society and claims that the new generation of women has begun to revolt against this sacrifice.
Kristeva asserts that, “The new generation of women is showing that its major social concern has become the symbolic
contract as a sacrificial contract… And we consequently face a mass phenomenon – that they are forced to experience
this sacrificial contract against their will” (p. 200). It is possible to mention Rita’s name within this new generation of
women Kristeva is alluding to since she is also in a struggle against this symbolic contract that forces women to sacrifice
themselves in order to serve for the well-being of the other sex. Her rejection of having babies is obviously her first step
that she takes towards obtaining a free self that is not based on the expected sacrifice. Rita’s refusal to exist for others
becomes obvious when she tells Frank how Denny has burnt all her books. She emphasizes how she is busy finding
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herself and that is why she cannot even have an affair with somebody else because having an affair means that she will
forget about herself for the sake of him. While she is talking about her discovery inside, she focuses on her/self, and she
says although this might sound selfish, the only thing she is interested in is what she has begun to find in herself
(Russell, 2001, p. 39).
In her struggle to obtain her free self, Rita replaces her expected function as a woman to bear babies with her
ambition to read and learn more in order to become an educated woman who can raise her voice against the socially
constructed gender roles and woman’s sacrifice. Focusing on Rita’s choice of literature over having babies to fulfil her
maternal function, it would be useful to refer to Julia Kristeva’s (1986) argument about woman’s choice of literature when
she tries to answer the question of “Why literature?” as follows:
This identification with the potency of the imaginary is not only an identification, an imaginary potency, as a far too
normative view of the social and symbolic relationship would have it. This identification also bears witness to women’s
desire to lift the weight of what is sacrificial in the social contract from their shoulders, to nourish our societies with a
more flexible and free discourse, one able to name what has thus far never been an object of circulation in the
community: the enigmas of the body, the dreams, secret joys, shames, hatreds of the second sex. (p. 207)
Kristeva (1986) asserts that a woman reader’s identification with the imaginary world of literary texts stems from
her wish to overcome the barriers that are set up in front of her. The social contract necessitates sacrifice for woman
while man is allowed to fulfil his identity. Thus, Kristeva claims that this identification in literature presents new worlds for
women in which they can define their bodies, pleasures, joys and hatreds at the same time (p. 207). Before enrolling in
the Open University, Rita’s devouring pulp fiction shows us her over-identification especially after she reveals that she
has named herself after her favourite fiction writer. This can be analysed as her escape from the social contract that
dooms her to self-sacrifice. She accepts that she has always had this feeling that she lacks something important in her
life, however, each time she has tried to overcome this feeling via buying some new dresses. This is completely similar
to what other women she is being critical of do when they try to change themselves at the hairdresser’s. But now, after
she decides to change herself inside, Rita says she has not been buying new dresses for twelve months, and she will not
have one until she becomes acknowledged enough to pass an exam (Russell, 2001, p. 22).
Frank claims that Rita should learn objective criticism in order to succeed in her struggle, and he begins teaching
her how to be objective in her criticism supported by references to “established literary critique” without including any
sentiments (Russell, 2001, p. 22). But the important aspect of this process of getting educated by Frank is that Rita is
absolutely absorbed in the male dominated literary canon reading male authors. Jill LeBihan (2001) also focuses on the
lack of women writers in English departments in her article titled “Feminism and Literature” claiming that until the 1980s
English literature departments at British Universities were extremely dominated by the works of the male authors. She
continues to assert that even though a few female authors like George Eliot and Jane Austen were taught, this teaching
had nothing to do with the feminist issues. Within this male authorized canon, feminists were generally dealing with the
representations of women in the works written by men; these works, Jill claims, shaped the definition of woman “by
representing women as sexual objects rather than politically powerful subjects”; thus “women receive a version of
femininity and womanhood that is perpetually limited and therefore limiting” (p. 129). Also Rita’s way towards a more
critical self goes through her knowledge of literature dominated by men.
Discussing woman’s reading, and the subject-object relationship between a text and its reader, Patrocinio P.
Schweickart (1986) focuses on the immasculation of women via reading male-authored texts. Arguing whether the text
manipulates the reader or the reader manipulates the text to make meaning, she highlights how the male texts affect the
woman reader in her reading process. Eventually she asserts that, although some feminist critics believe that male texts
have damaging effects on the woman reader, actually women themselves become the agents of their own immasculation
via reading, and their autonomy in this process cannot be ignored. She questions what it means for a reader to take
control of the reading experience:
Recall that a crucial feature of the process of immasculation is the woman reader’s bifurcated response. She
reads the text both as a man and as a woman. But in either case, the result is the same: she confirms her position as
other. Taking control of the reading experience means reading the text as it was not meant to be read, in fact, reading it
against itself. Specifically, one must identify the nature of the choices proffered by the text and, equally important, what
the text precludes – namely, the possibility of reading as a woman without putting one’s self in the position of the other, of
reading so as to affirm womanhood as another, equally valid, paradigm of human existence. (p. 50)
From this perspective, even the feminist critics cannot avoid reading androcentric works because literature in the
patriarchal structure is dominated by the male authors. Therefore, Schweickart (1986) asserts, by the time a woman
becomes a feminist critic, she has already read various androcentric works. Throughout this process of the female
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inclusion within the male literary canon, the woman reader becomes immasculated. However, as Schweickart
emphasizes, it is not possible to think of women as mere victims of patriarchy in this process; on the other hand, it is
unavoidable that women end up being the agents of their own immasculation via their attempts to pave their way into the
male dominated literary canon. When the woman reader reads male texts, as stated above, she reads both as a man
and as a woman. In both cases, either when she reads as a man or as a woman, she has the same consequence of
approving her position as the other. However, what she actually needs to succeed within this process of reading is to
assert herself as an autonomous another that exists with her own worth and values. For Schweickart, this is possible by
means of reading the text against itself focusing on what it includes as well as what it excludes (p. 50). In Rita’s case,
her immasculation begins at the moment when she prefers reading and educating herself into a more philosophical way
of life instead of having babies as a proper wife. Her devouring pulp fiction in a feminine manner is shifted towards a
more male reading of male texts under the guidance of Frank who provides her with the major texts of the male authors.
However, the fact that Rita chooses to read also as a man does not only mean that she completely ignores her femininity
in order to be absorbed in the male literary canon; on the contrary, this is the way she chooses in order to assert her own
identity that is as valid as the male one.
On the other hand, while Rita is trying to educate herself in order to seek for a female self that is not predetermined by the patriarchal structure; she also tries to find the meaning of life which the working class people are
devoid of. Thus it would not be enough to assert that the barriers in front of her that prevent her discovery of self are
established by the subordination of woman. As well as being a woman in the masculine order, Rita also comes from a
working class background which makes her conditions even more difficult compared to other women in the upper class.
Thus her fight is not only against patriarchy but also against the working class life that is devoid of a meaning and a
proper culture. Beginning with her desire to go to school as a child, the shallow perspective of her mates and her family
that “school could be anythin’ other than useless” turns out to be a clear example of the lifestyle she has been forced to
adopt within the environment she has grown up (Russell, 2001, p. 21). After she decides to educate herself in order to
free her restricted identity both as a woman and a working class member, her first criticism about E.M. Forster’s Howards
End that she considers as crap stems from her subjective dislike with the author who says, “We are not concerned with
the poor” (Russell, 2001, p. 23). Here Frank indicates that she is being completely subjective with this approach, and if
she wants to be an objective critic, she has to learn to analyse the texts from an objective point of view. During this
process, Frank emphasizes that “Devouring pulp fiction is not being well read” and he tells her she needs to be more
selective while reading (Russell, 2001, p. 30). However, for a long time until the very end of the play, Frank is the one
who chooses what to read for Rita, and, as has already been stated, what he chooses is always a male-authored text.
During the process of education, Rita also fights against the meaninglessness of the working class life she has
been pursuing. Thus, she is not only struggling against the subordination of woman but also against her social
background. In her discussion of patriarchy Sheila Rowbotham (2006) refers to the working class women who lack the
opportunities the upper class women have. She claims that:
It has often been said that as women we have come to know that the personal is ‘political’ because we have been
isolated in the personal sphere. I think this is only half the story. We were isolated in the personal sphere, but some of
us were hurtled dramatically out of it by the expansion of education and the growth of administrative and welfare work,
and while some (working-class and black women) were never so luxuriously confined. (p. 55)
Although the restriction of woman within the male-dominated culture cannot be ignored, the differences among
women themselves should not be disregarded, either. So, while considering Rita’s case and her struggle to search for
her free self, it is clearly not enough to analyse her position only as a woman without referring to her social background.
As Rowbotham points out above, the circumstances of the working class women differ from the others who have at least
the comfort and luxury of their financial status.
Thus, Rita does not only search for a free female self but she also tries to find the meaning of life which the
working class people lack. When she talks about Peer Gynt to one of the women at the hairdresser’s, the woman thinks
it is a new perm lotion. However, when Rita tells about the play, they woman says, “I wish I could go off searchin’ for the
meanin’ of life” (Russell, 2001, p. 35). Contemplating about this wish, Rita asserts that although the working class people
seem to be content with what they have, they are actually not deep inside because there is no meaning in their life.
Despite of their better positions compared to the past, she claims, “there’s like this sort of disease, but no one mentions
it” (Russell, 2001, p. 36). There is a disease in this part of society, but nobody dares to mention or do something about it;
therefore, Rita appears to be the courageous one as a woman who can dare to stand against both the disadvantages of
being a woman in the patriarchal system and a working class member in a capitalist society. She ceases to pretend any
more as others do, she understands the reality behind what is visible especially when she sees her mother who begins
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crying just after she sings in the pub claiming that they could actually sing better songs.
Rita’s entire attempt is to sing better songs through her education in literature and philosophy. She does not want
to join the dinner at Frank’s house because she does not want to be mocked as a silly woman who tries to learn. She
wants to become as serious as those educated men and women from the upper class so that she can raise her voice
among them in order to be heard, and she works hard for this purpose. When Frank claims it is enough for her to be
herself, she answers, “I don’t want to be myself. Me? What’s me?” (Russell, 2001, p. 52). Both as a subordinated
woman and a working class member, she is devoid of the meaning of life as well as an independent self that can enable
her to make individual decisions. Nevertheless, she cannot keep her silence against this fate, and she makes her first
important decision not to go on living as emptily as she has been doing until she is twenty-six. Although her husband
Denny claims hers is not the age to get educated, she insists on her own decision.
Considering Rita’s insistence not to conform to her pre-determined fate, it is possible to conclude that she does not
accept to be the tool of her own victimization as a woman. In “Feminism and History” Judith M. Bennett (2006) indicates
that:
Women have a large part to play in this historical study of patriarchy, not merely as victims, but also as agents.
Women’s support has always been crucial to the endurance of patriarchy; hence, we must examine and understand the
motivations of women who have colluded in their own oppression. (p. 67)
The belief that women are fragile beings and the pre-determined space is the safest one for them which protects
them from the dangers outside has been imposed on women who have ended up admitting their subordination for the
sake of safety instead of dangerous freedom. However, in Rita’s case, she makes her most important decision when she
has to choose between her education and her matrimonial life. One day she comes home to find her case packed by her
husband who forces her to choose. Eventually Rita makes her choice of education to have her independent self
sacrificing her family life. That means Rita rejects to be the agent of her own victimization under the masculine order.
Denny’s fear that Rita gets more powerful as she attends the courses with Frank is eventually realized when Rita makes
this important decision leaving her so-called safe home for the dangerous outer world without being afraid of her
vulnerability.
In the beginning of Act II when Rita is back from the summer school in London, she is in a new, second-hand
dress. This dress on her shows the change she has been through as a result of her reading and writing. Especially after
the summer school, Rita appears to be a woman who can contemplate and talk about important works of art in an
objective and critical way. Even her new house and her flatmate Trish appear to be the symbols of the big change in her
life; she has a room now full of plants and books like Frank’s office. She even attempts to alter her voice in order to talk
properly. On the one hand, as Rita changes towards Frank’s lifestyle as well as thinking style; on the other hand, Frank
begins to change towards Rita’s old way of acting and thinking. While Rita can understand the difference between pulp
fiction and serious literature now, Frank begins to think that Rubyfruit Jungle is an excellent book. This shift in the roles
of Frank and Rita becomes obvious when Rita sits “in the armchair by the window, reading a heavy tome” and Frank
“enters carrying his briefcase” (Russell, 2001, p. 68). Clearly the roles are shifted between Frank and Rita, and
eventually each becomes a teacher for the other. While Frank teaches Rita how to be an objective and critical reader,
Rita teaches Frank how to be more sentimental and subjective judging the education system. Hence, Frank concludes
that he wants to change his name to Mary Shelley; in a way, he compares himself to Frankenstein who creates a
monster. Frankenstein is also very enthusiastic with what he intends to create in the beginning, however, upon seeing
the monster that is born, he runs away not to see him again. He cannot even dare to look at his own creature. In Frank’s
case, as he helps Rita change in the way she wants, he himself changes, and consequently he cannot tolerate seeing
Rita in her new existence that is dependent on nobody.
As a result of her education process Rita fulfils her search for an independent self in order to make her own
choices. Discussing the self-less existence of woman under the domination of patriarchy Sandra M. Gilbert and Susan
Gubar (2000) point out that:
Whether she becomes an objet d’art or a saint, however, it is the surrender of her self – of her personal comfort, her
personal desires, or both – that is the beautiful angel-woman’s key act, while it is precisely this sacrifice which dooms
her both to death and to heaven. For to be selfless is not only to be noble, it is to be dead. A life that has no story is
really a life of death, a death-in-life. The ideal of “contemplative purity” evokes, finally, both heaven and the grave. (p.
25)
Obeying the patriarchal structure that confines woman to the domestic sphere asserting that the outer world
threatens her safety, woman sacrifices her identity. Eventually if she chooses to be protected, she does it at the cost of
her independent self; thus, she becomes selfless and dependent. All her desires and pleasures are sacrificed for the
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male protection, however, this safety dooms her to a passive and repetitive lifestyle which lacks a philosophical and
critical approach to life. As Gilbert and Gubar also point out, this sacrifice causes her to die while she is still alive
because this lifestyle does not allow her to be actively creative. Within these circumstances Rita seeks for a rebirth
which she believes she might have via education. As a result, she is capable of claiming her free self in order to choose
for herself without being dependent on either a husband or a teacher. At this moment, she gets furious with Frank
because he also tries to shape her according to his own ideas, and he cannot tolerate her thinking differently. She does
not want to be dependent on anybody, what she would like to do is to make her own reasonable decisions without being
bound to anybody else. As Frank goes on calling her Rita, she announces that there is nobody left who calls her Rita
any more. Frank’s reaction to this is whether she has changed it to Virginia, or Charlotte, or Jane, or Emily (Russell,
2001, p. 79). For the first time in the play, Frank utters the names of famous women writers in British literature, and this
gives hope about Rita’s future as a woman writer.
The most important aspect of Rita’s change is that now she can choose what she wants to do. In the end of the
play she emphasizes the importance of this difference saying, “I dunno. I might go to France. I might go to my mother’s.
I might even have a baby. I dunno. I’ll make a decision, I’ll choose. I dunno” (Russell, 2001, p. 83). Then she puts on
the new dress Frank has bought for him, and this is a dress an educated woman would have. In her new mood and new
appearance, Rita’s life completely changes. She has so many options, and obviously she is happy to have the luxury to
choose without obeying the pre-determined decisions for her. Now, she might even have a baby because it would be her
own wish not somebody else’s. Consequently, Rita’s cutting Frank’s hair in the last scene of the play can be regarded as
man’s emasculation by woman’s creativity. Frank who has represented the male dominated philosophy and literature
throughout the story is eventually emasculated by a woman who is able to raise her voice after getting familiar with the
dominant male voice in literature.
The early discussion in this paper about the Cartesian dualism between the mind and body each represented by
each sex ultimately results in woman’s subordination as the lacking other who does not have the potential to think
critically. However, this so-called defection of woman is actually not natural but constructed by patriarchy in order to
serve man. The woman whose voice has been silenced by the male domination in literature first needs to have a
familiarity with this male-dominated literature in order to raise her own voice as an objective and critical reader and writer.
This is what Rita experiences during her education studying the male authored texts chosen by Frank, however,
eventually she causes Frank to utter the names of women writers which shows a hopeful sign for Rita’s future as a
reader and writer. In the end, when she cuts Frank’s hair, she also proves her power over him via attempting to give him
a new appearance. Thus, the woman that has represented the body on which man’s mind operates claims her own self
not only as a passive body but also as a creative intellect. Consequently, the muted woman is able to raise her voice by
claiming her own independent identity.
References
Bennett, J. M. (2006). Feminism and history. In Morgan, S. (Ed.), The feminist history reader (59-73). London: Routledge.
Bleich, D. (1986). Gender interests in reading and language. In Flynn, E., & A., Schweickart, P. P. (Eds.), Gender and reading: Essays
on readers, texts, and contexts (234-266). London: John Hopkins University Press.
Butler, J. (2006). Gender trouble. London: Routledge.
Crawford, M., & Chaffin, R. (1986). The reader’s construction of meaning: Cognitive research on gender and comprehension. In Flynn,
E., & A., Schweickart, P. P. (Eds.), Gender and reading: Essays on readers, texts, and contexts (3-30). London: John Hopkins
University Press.
Gilbert, S. M., & Gubar, S. (2000). The madwoman in the attic: The woman writer and the nineteenth-century literary imagination.
London: Yale University Press.
Kristeva, J. (1986). Women’s time. In Moi, T. (Ed.), The Kristeva reader (187-213). New York: Columbia University Press.
LeBihan, J. (2001). Feminism and literature. In Gamble, S. (Ed.), The routledge companion to feminism and postfeminism (129-139).
London: Routledge.
Littau, K. (2006). Theories of reading: Books, bodies and bibliomania. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Moi, T. (1999). What is a woman? Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rowbotham, S. (2006). The trouble with patriarchy. In Morgan, S. (Ed.), The feminist history reader (51-56). London: Routledge.
Russell, W. (2001). Educating Rita. London: Methuen Drama.
Schweickart, P. P. Reading ourselves: Toward a feminist theory of reading. In Flynn, E., & A., Schweickart, P. P. (Eds.), Gender and
reading: Essays on readers, texts, and contexts (31-63). London: John Hopkins University Press.
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Field Base Teaching: A Malaysian Experience
Raman Mariyappan
College of Law, International Studies and Government, Doctorate Candidate
raman@uum.edu.my
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2015.v5n1s1p121
Abstract
This paper narrates the field base teaching method that has been incorporated in Northern University of Malaysia. By tradition,
the university is a management university, which emphasis on management skills, such as banking, finance, entrepreneurship
and other essential components of management. Beginning of 1995, the university realizes that a wider curriculum scope is
needed to cater ever growing demand on humanities programs. As a result of this, courses such as history, sociology,
anthropology, geography and other courses related to humanities programs were introduced. Components of geography were
introduced as regional geography and environmental management in 1997 as one of the elective subject in Public
Administration Undergraduate Program. Generally, the teaching method being employed at the university was lectures,
tutorial and the assessments were more exams oriented. Starting from the academic session of 2000/2001, the evaluation
processes were altered and assignments were introduced. I took this opportunity to introduce assignments based on report
writing about development projects and its impacts on natural environment surroundings the university. This paved way for the
students to conduct surveys and data collection prior to the report writing. Slowly, I introduced the idea and the importance of
field base teaching to the students and the management. Initially it was well perceived by the management and the students.
Latter, when the number of students increased from merely 20 to few hundreds, issues such logistics, cost and other related
issues influenced the management to rethink the idea of field base teaching. At present the number of students varies from
1,000 to 1,500 per academic semester. The numbers of instructors were also increased from one to fifteen. Unfortunately my
present role as an instructor and coordinator does not provide the luxury of practicing field-based teaching due to financial and
man power constrain. It is an uphill task to design a syllabus and convince the faculty members to participate in the field based
teaching.
Keywords: field base teaching, teaching, method, university
1. Introduction
Education plays a fundamental role in creating a well-structured society. Education promotes self-identification, creates
self-ability in order to participate and function in a society. Discovering self is very important because this lead to
harmony in a society. Each individual are unique in the sense that he/she displays a different pattern of thinking and
displays various ways of doing things. This is called process of education. It is very crucial that each individual must
attain self- knowledge or self-excellence (Romeo Aquino, 2010). So education is an essential tool that our modern
society needs to progress in various fields.
Education plays vital role in transforming society and improving community’s living standard. Education also plays
an important role in enhancing economic growth and economic development. So, the government has the responsibility
to run the education system for the benefits of the public. In this context the tertiary education system also comes under
the state’s social responsibility. Meanwhile the stakeholders involved are government, public, parents, students and
many others. It is an essential for the stockholder’s active participation to ensure the maximum benefits from the public
education system. In Malaysia, several public universities were formed to cater the ever increasing demand for tertiary
education. Universiti Utara Malaysia or Northern University of Malaysia was one of the public universities funded fully by
the Federal Government to fulfill the government’s agenda in education transformation.
Northern University of Malaysia or Universiti Utara Malaysia was formally incorporated on 16th February 1984, with
the unique mission to provide academic excellence in the areas of business management, education, information
technology, and quality management. Faced with this challenging task, the university has since its inception, ensured
that its academic niche areas are focused on such disciplines as management, accountancy, economics, information
technology, entrepreneurial development, tourism management, banking & finance, social development, human resource
development and international affairs management. Active learning occurs when students are mentally engaged in
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processing knowledge in order to construct understanding. Through mental engagement, meaning is made, learning is
internalized, and knowledge, skills, and concepts are applied (Starnes & Carone, 2002).
In many classroom settings today, however, it is not uncommon to observe students taking a fairly passive role in
their learning. This is especially the case when instructors employ mainly traditional methods of teaching (i.e., lecturing,
note-taking, and using multiple-choice and true-false exams). Unfortunately, while these methods can be convenient for
the instructor, they often do not impact student learning in a significant way. As reported by Wingfield and Black (2005),
passive methods of teaching are likely to be more instructor-centered. Conversely, active styles of teaching foster greater
student participation, which oftentimes results in more intense and longer-lasting learning. Active learning has also been
linked to critical thinking, increased levels of social integration resulting in subsequent institutional commitment, and
enhancement of the well-being and personal growth of students (Braxon, Milem, & Sullivan, 2000; Koljatic & Kuh, 2001).
Field-based instruction, a form of active learning, has proven to be worthwhile to enhancing student learning outcomes,
including retention of the subject matter, and improving student's problem solving skills (Davis, 1993). Field experiences
are learner-centered, allowing students the opportunity to apply ideas and concepts taught in a traditional classroom
setting to an environment that stimulates critical thinking and analysis (Hickcox, 2002). Field experiences enable students
to further develop cognitively from more simplistic positions (Barr & Tagg, 1995; Ediger, 2001).
As a geographer I was trained and exposed well in field based teaching. Unfortunately my present role as an
instructor and coordinator does not provide the luxury of practicing field-based teaching due to financial and man power
constrain. It is an uphill task to design a syllabus and convince the faculty members to participate in the field based
teaching.
2. The Puzzle
Geography was first introduced as regional geography in 1997/98 academic session at Northern University of Malaysia.
The author was given the responsibility to outline the curriculum syllabus. Based on the university’s practice at the time,
the teaching mode were lectures and assessment based on exams. Furthermore the subject was only an elective
subject, part of the Public Management Program. The first batch consists of 16 students and none of the students had
previous learning experience on geography or geography related issues. This was really challenging for the author to
design the lecture notes in order to cater the student’s needs. The issue was whether to introduce a different set of
leaning objectives and learning outcomes. The teaching method also designed differently with introduction of field work
observation and data collection. Since the students did not have any knowledge on field observation techniques, they
were given simple assignment such as fauna and flora observation (natural geography) and traffic analysis (human
geography). Unfortunately the students cannot perform this simple task due to lack of knowledge. The first puzzle was
that, what is the best teaching method to employ to this group of students?
For the past 5-10 years the author was involved in teaching courses such as Environmental Management and
Social Science Studies. As a coordinator for the Social Science Studies, part of my responsibilities is to design the
syllabus. The Social Science Studies comprises of various disciplines and one of which is Geography and Environmental
Management. Each semester the number of students ranges from one thousand to two thousand five hundred from
various faculties (Law, Accounting, Finance, Business Management, Computer Studies, International Studies, Public
Management, Developmental Management, Project Management, Housing Management, Communications,
Communication Business, International Business and many other courses. Devising a workable field-based program was
contentious because the change entailed much than combining faculty and curriculum.
Due to the large number of students, basically the approach is 32 hours of theoretical teaching and 10 hours of
field-based teaching. The students will be divided into smaller groups (10-15) and given first-hand experience (one day
trip) on the issues such as policy formulation and policy implementation by various government agencies. The students
will be placed (for one day) in government agencies and private sectors which is related to environmental management,
such as irrigation agency, land agency, department of environment, river agency, department of agricultural, local
authorities, housing developers and public utility departments. Then students will come out with a mini report (15 pages)
and a presentation (10 minutes) based on the field trip. The report and presentation must entirely base on their
experience gained from the various agencies.
The author realized that there are several shortcomings: i) one day field trip is not sufficient, ii) participating
government agencies are below par, iii) the accompanying officer from the government agencies are not equipped with
proper knowledge or information and iv) the total number of students and too many groups are too large for a field-based
teaching. Due to various constrains the field-base component being revised and probably will be phased out sooner. This
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is due the instructors were not keen and the monetary resources cannot sustain the field-based teaching expenses.
3. Discussion
Fortunately the field-based teaching of Environmental Management is more pragmatic and futile towards end results.
During the past three years I am involved designing the suitable field-based teaching syllabus that benefited most to the
students and the instructors. This course is about managing the environmental resources such as water, forest, land,
coast, wetlands, rivers and etc. The course involves three phases starting from the third semester until the sixth
semester. The third semester comprises of 32 hours of theoretical teaching and 10 hours of field-based teaching. The
theoretical teaching is about four earth spheres and various ecosystems and the relation to human activities. The field
trip involves visit to Forest department, Irrigation department, Department of environment, Department of minerals and
other government agencies that deals directly about environmental resources. Based on the theoretical findings and the
relations to the field trip will be presented in the class room comprising 15-20 minutes presentation.
The fourth semester is 20 hours of theoretical teaching and 22 hours of field-based teaching. The field-trip involves
visiting and experiencing the management of reservoir, wetlands, rivers, forest reserves, forest parks, beaches and etc.
This is really exciting because the students will get to see natural process at work, the importance of hydrological cycle,
the importance of trees, coastal processes etc. The students will prepare a report how man interacts with nature.
The fifth and sixth semester is about 30 hours of field-based teaching. The students will collaborate with local
communities such schools, business communities, farmers, professionals, non governmental agencies to design a
project that reflects man’s responsibilities’ towards environmental resources. This involves projects such as: a) adopting
a stream, b) conserving water, c) clean water streams and fish, d) water pollution, e) earth day, f) ecosystems, g)
importance of mangroves, h) plant a tree, i) pollution, j) recycle. At the end of the sixth semester a comprehensive report
will be prepared. The most outstanding report will be given priority to be developed into a graduation thesis. Refer to
table 1.
After 3-4 years of experimenting, I realize that field based teachings with sound theoretical background; the whole
teaching and learning process were much more educational and practical. It also gives a new dimension to the teaching
profession at the tertiary level. Let me share my experience with a good case study involving the replanting of mangroves
in Penang Island. During the Third Semester the students were taught about mangroves and its importance to the
coastal system especially in Malaysia. A visit to the one of the best managed mangrove forest in Malaysia that is Matang
Mangrove Forest1 in Perak, Malaysia, enhance the participants/student knowledge to understand better the mangrove
ecological system.
To practice what had been learned in the classroom and at Matang mangrove Forest, we decided to volunteer for
two programs called “Save the Mangrove Forest in Penang”2 and “Clean the Gurney Drive Coastal Waters”3 organized
by the Penang State Government in 2009 and 2010.
The students were divided into two groups and the first groups were involved in the mangrove replanting and the
other groups were involved in the cleaning of Gurney Drive. Some 1,000 saplings were planted off the Marina Bay
Matang Mangrove Forest Reserve in the largest single forest in Peninsular Malaysia, covering an area of 40,151ha. It is one of the
world’s best well-managed mangrove swamps. The forest reserve has received various international awards. Mangrove eco-systems
are highly productive and represent the life support systems for fisheries, forestry, medicine, food and other products. Within this
mangrove swamp are found multitudes of tree species, birds and marine life which is haven to natural lovers (Perak Tourism Board,
2014).
2 The eastern coastal of Penang Island is undergoing tremendous changes in the past 30 years. Observation would tell us that once the
east coast of Penang Island was full of mangroves forest with various species of flora and fauna. The swamps were reclaimed to cater
for the ever growing industrial, commercial and housing sectors.
3 Gurney Drive is a popular seafront promenade in Georgetown, Penang, Malaysia. The road also one of Penang’s most popular tourist
destinations, famous for the hawker food. Previously known as the New Coastal Road, which was completed in 1936 and renamed in
1952 after Sir Henry Gurney, the British High Commissioner of Malaya (1950-1951). Over the years, the beaches along Gurney Drive
have largely been lost to coastal erosion. More recently, a land reclamation project near by area Tanjung Tokong has reversed the
erosion, leading to accretion of silt and mud off Gurney Drive. Mangrove sapling has sprouted in the mud, which is now frequented by
egrets and other birds, as well as mudskippers. There have suggestions that the Gurney Drive coastal area, formerly earmarked for
reclamation under the Penang Outer Ring Road project (at present suspended), be reclaimed for a recreational park or allowed to
develop into mangrove forest.
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condominiums near Tanjung Tokong. The other group was involved in making EM mud balls4 and throwing into the
Gurney Drive coastal waters. Both the activities were instrumental for the undergraduates about understanding the
process of nature that they decided to continue to participate on their own during weekends. This is just one of the
examples that I experimented and bravely can say that the field-based teaching has great potential to offer compare to
the class room based method. Nevertheless the number of participant is very essential in-order to achieve the outlined
objectives of the syllabus.
Table 1. Summary of the field-base teaching that relates to activities, evaluation and cost.
Item Sem No. of students
Teaching (hrs)
Theory Field-base
1
3
60
32
10
2
4
60
20
22
60
12
30
3 5&6
Activities
Evaluation
Cost
Educational Visits; Forrest
Group presentation; policy
10-15 usd per
department, Irrigation
formation & policy implementation student
department, DOE, etc
Educational visits; Reservoir,
Report writing; how man interacts 20 usd per
Wetland, river, Forrest reserve,
with nature
student
Beach parks
Design a project which reflects men’s responsibilities towards
10-15 usd per
mother nature; planting trees, recycling, adopting stream
student
Source: Raman, 2010.
4. Advantages
Mary Jane Gray (1975) argues that field base teaching must be incorporated in elementary school. She outlines three
major areas; cooperating teachers, cooperating schools and evaluating effectiveness of students prepaid in this way. She
emphasizes on availability and usage of a laboratory, which plays essential role in this education system. In the long run
the system brings the result which is far better than class room base teachings.
Maryellen Weimer 2009, on the other hand carefully scrutinizes the following which supports the PBL. From the
student’s perspectives, PBL creates student centered approach, which can be used as yardstick to outline the ability of
the student’s achievements. PBL also creates an enjoyable and satisfying scenario. This can be explained by sighting an
example where any kind of interaction with public or specific person will create anxiety and develop interest from the
students to participate actively. A personal experience encourages greater understandings with gathered information.
This garners higher abilities and develops lifelong learning skills. From the instructor’s perspectives, PBL enhances the
class attendance increases due to intense class room discussion among students. This method affords more intrinsic
reward and encourages students spend more time studying. PBL also promotes interdiciplinarity interaction, which
benefits the students. From the institutions perspectives, PBL makes student learning a priority and helps students’
retention. PBL also may be taken as evidence that an institution values teachings.
The PBL promotes a dynamic learning approach. It also creates a suitable atmosphere for group discussions,
synthesizing ideas, promotes lifelong learning experiences, new studying approaches cultivates student centered
learning process, betterment the sharing process, instills sense of belonging among students, creates networking with
outside world, connects people from various disciplines and promotes active participation.
5. Disadvantages
Maryellen Weimer 2009, from the students’ perspectives, prior learning experiences do not prepare well for PBL. It also
takes more time and takes away study time from other subjects. PBL creates anxiety because learning is no more in
systematic manner. Due to group dynamics issues compromise PBL defectiveness and maybe less content knowledge
may be learned. From the instructors perspectives, to create suitable problem scenario is difficult. This again warrants
more preparation time for the lessons. It is very difficult to pinpoint the exact needs of each student. Sometimes group
dynamic issues may require faculty intervention. Lastly the assessment being employed may be in question mark.
4 EM mud balls are a bio-remedial environmental solution of reducing water pollutants and improving water quality of rivers. The
fermentation emitted from the mud balls will prevent algae growth and pathogenic microbes which causes infectious diseases
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Other than that, one of the most disadvantages using the field base teaching method is the high costing involved.
The table 1.1 shows, every aspect of the field base teachings involves expenses. Initially the expenses were low, but as
the number of students gets bigger as per semester, the expense also soars up. The faculty does not want to burden the
students with the extra expenses and at the same time the faculty also does not want to own the responsibility of sharing
the expenses. From the institutions perspectives, PBL requires a change educational philosophy for faculty who mostly
lecture. To support the additional burden, the faculty will need to incorporate faculty staff development and support for
PBL. Again it involves more recruitment of instructors. It also needs a better classroom, if possible a laboratory with
flexible classroom space. Definitely it will engender resistance from faculty who questions its efficacy.
6. Conclusion
This paper is about sharing the experience on the field-base teaching method. Field-base teaching offers variety in the
context learning. It also enhances and enriches the learner’s ability to analyze a particular issue from different
perspective. The instructor also gains valuable experience through trial and error. Teaching and learning becomes very
much interesting and the whole process of learning is given a new dimension.
References
Pawson, E., Fournier, E., Haight, M., Muniz, O., Trafford, J., and Vajoczki, S. 2006. Problem-based learning in geography: Towards a
critical assessment of its purposes, benefits and risks. Journal of Geography in Higher Education 30 (1): 103–16.
Aquino, R. (2010, July 25). The Role of Education towards Individuals and Society. Retrieved February 27, 2015, from
http://ezinearticles.com/?The--Role--of--Education--Towards--Individuals--and--Society&id=4735373
Starnes, B., Et Carone, A. (2002). From thinking to doing: The Foxfire core prac- tices. Mountain City, GA: Foxfire Fund. Tassoni, J., Et
Leweicki-Wilson, C. (2002)
Stewart-Wingfield, S., & Black, G. S. 2005. Active versus passive course designs: The impact on student outcomes. Journal Small
Business Institute® National Proceedings Vol. 33, No. 1 Winter, 2009 of Education for Business, 81(2), 119-125.
Braxton, J. M., Milem, J. F., and Sullivan, A. S.(2000). “The Influence of Active Learning on the
College Student Departure Process: Toward a Revision of Tinto’s Theory.” Journal of
Higher Education, 2000, 71(5), 569–590.
Koljatic, M. & Kuh, G. D. (2001). A longitudinal assessment of college student engagement in good practices in undergraduate
education. Higher Education, 42, 351-371.
Davis, B. G. (1993). Tools for Teaching. Jossey-Bass Inc., San Francisco: California.Hickcox, 2002).
Barr, R. B., & Tagg, J. (1995). From teaching to learning: A new paradigm for undergraduate education. Change Magazine, 27(6), 1225.
Ediger, M. (2001). Assessment, Geography, and the Student. Journal of Instructional Psychology ,28 (3).
Maryellen Weimer 2009. Developing learner-centered teaching: a practical guide for faculty. Jossey-Bass, 2009
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Linguistics and Women’s Speech
Prof. Asoc. Dr. Meli Shopi
University “Aleksandër Xhuvani”, Elbasan
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2015.v5n1s1p127
Abastract
This article, which has as object of analysis the women speech, will be an addition to those articles and to that authentic
scientific literature, in the sociolinguistics field and respectively the ethnolinguistic one. Some of the questions that are asked
today regarding this object are precisely related to the fact of how women are treated today based on their language, which are
their language corpus, the possibility that they have to use it in specific fields and in different linguistic situations discourse,
reacting with their support, their protests and their appreciation. Also, this article, will present that way of speaking, that today
researchers have defined as “the rhetoric expression” and “subversive speech strategies”. Through the linguistic behavior and
the women attitude according to their position and social status, will emerge the importance of the gender belonging of the
speaker in certain situations and environments.
Keywords: linguistic,ethnolinguistic, speech,women register.
‘Studies on women’ in an interdisciplinary field in many American universities which can be studied as a primary subject,
upon which influence the following disciplines: sociology, psychology, political sciences, pedagogical sciences, justice,
history, literature studies, anthropology and linguistics. There have been two prominent attitudes regarding women’s
speech, one given by the dialectological school of the first middle of the 19th century, according to which women are
more conservative than man, and the other given in more recent times by the sociolinguists, who are prone to
considerate women as innovative subjects, because they are more sensible to the shapes of prestige, as frequently
testified by the sociolinguist William Labov, according to which ‘in careful speech, women use fewer stigmatized forms
than men, and are more sensitive than men to the prestige pattern. They show this in sharper shape of style shifting,
especially at the formal end of the spectrum’.1 Women generally use a lower number of stigmatized forms compared to
men and they are more sensitive to the prestige model compare to men. Therefore they want a clear inflection toward
style change, especially in the extremity of the formal spectrum.2
Only in linguistics we can find bibliography with hundreds of titles regarding women’s speech. Since 1958 Fishman
has mentioned and augmented the acceptance of a linguistic variety connected in a visible way with the situation and
sex. He analyzed the social understanding of varieties with –im and -ing (verbal suffixes in English language), by
inquiring the speech of a group composed of 24 children in a village of New England, divided by two criteria, by age from
3-6 years and 7-10 years and gender females and males. Every child had to tell a story which is going to be studied as
the material of the study. The result of the analysis was that the –ing suffix was more frequently used by women than
men, therefore according to Fishman, the –ing suffix is a characteristic of women’s speech, whereas the -im suffix is a
characteristic of men’s speech. Moreover Fishman noticed that children coming from higher social class had a broader
use of the –ing suffix, but this should not considered to be less meaningful than the difference based on sex.3
These so called varieties were up to recently regional or historically determined, in the present days they are
determined by sociolinguistic which deals with language and with the neglecting of minorities and of the underprivileged
will be determined according to the correspondence to specific groups. For instance there are studied on children
belonging to low social classes in England, to people with color in Detroit, to young people with color in New York, to
Italian workers in Germany etc. From the moment when women were conceived as a group and were placed in the
centre of public scrutiny, from the moment they showed importance of being neglected, in linguistics began a movement
interested in finding their neglection in linguistics and by male speakers.
Specific social facts have a direct linguistic analogy. For instance taking into consideration the fact that there are
Labov, 1984, f. 243
Gj. Shkurtaj, Etnografia e të folurit të shqipes, SHBLU, Tiranë, 2004, f. 246
3 Gj. Shkurtaj, Sociolinguistika, SHBLU, Tiranë, 1999, f. 156
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just few women in specific scientific positions, administration or politics, in language we have a lack of specific
professional terms, titles or verses dedicated to women; however discriminating acts are just linguistics act or the
discrimination of a specific situation can be verbally expressed. Even though we still do not have enough data and there
is the need to conduct deeper research, we can preliminary say that we can notice a certain distinction between men’s
and women’s speech even in Albanian language. It has been noticed that in the city of Tirana and also in many parts
belonging to the South the pronunciation of the phoneme /rr/ as vibrating /r/ is more frequent among women than in man,
and the forms with /r/ are more frequent in the standard language, and also a type of distinguishing element of coming
from the capital and cities of Southern Albania, whereas the full vibrating /rr/ is pronounced in the North. From women
living in the city we hear rush (rrush), ara (arra), buri (burri): rrush, arra, burri. Moreover, there is the need to stress the
importance of geo-linguistic elements because regarding dialectic extension, the diminution of the difference /rr/ and /r/
comes from the Tosk way of speaking especially found in the cities. 4
However this is still a hypothesis which needs to be analyzed and verified and we cannot confirm it as a product of
a profound research. The discrimination can be observed in: how somebody speaks to a woman, how her speech is not
taken into consideration, misunderstood, wrongly paraphrased, is interrupted or ignored. Linguistics, psychologists,
sociologists and anthropologists who study women’s language have another request and other cases compared to the
few linguists and anthropologist who previously have encountered some exotic aspect of women’s language in some
exotic languages etc. Today’s interest on women’s language is based on the experience of inequality. Women are
everywhere treated differently and even worse than men are treated. Linguistically speaking the questions which are
posed regarding the topic which is being treated are:
How are women treated by language? Which possibilities are given to talk to r include women in the linguistic
system, how are women treated by the speakers, i.e. how do they follow linguistic and communicative expectations and
how can they be protected by them. In the Koasate language (in Louisiana SO) it is possible to form masculine forms
from feminine forms through a complexity of rules, but not the contrary. The feminine forms of Koasate are archaic
compared to masculine forms and they can find a corresponding term in other languages of the group. Masculine forms
in this way are presented like a novelty. A fundamental help given in the study of language diversity related with the
lexicon was given by the Danish linguist Oto Jaspersen, one of the pioneers in the research of this field since the
beginning of the 20th century. He noticed that women’s way of talking it was filled with hesitation and euphemisms:
women purposely avoided the usage of vulgar expressions while learning for the sake of their social role to deposit
civilian and educated ways of speaking. They are more prone than men to be more reserved and elegant in their attitude
and linguistic behavior. 5 Men talk more about things and facts whereas women talk more about people, relations and
feelings. Men use language in a competing way by reflecting their general interest in taking and preserving their status,
whereas women’s use of language is collaborative by reflecting their preference for equality and harmony. Nevertheless
what is the origin of the concept ‘women’s speech/language’? People’s differentiation based on sex is one of the crucial
problems treated by sociolinguistics. Different researches which were conducted till present days, although they are not
investigated thoroughly, it was observed that women (females) speak in a different way compared to man. They might
also have their own lexicon which is, specifically speaking for typical aspects of women’s life and generally speaking in
daily communication, different from men’s lexicon, might it be from their spouse or older sons.
For the first time, by noticing some euphemisms of Albanian language, the term ‘women’s speech/language’ was
mentioned by our distinguished linguist 6 Eqerem Cabej. In the vocabulary or lexicon used by women, there appear
unknown terminological sectors which are rarely used by men, for example: the words and the manners of saying which
are related with the house and its furniture, especially related with cleaning and clothes preparation, with services and
child feeding, with the kitchen and cooking etc. Generally it is everything related with the word group ‘women’s work’.
Therefore there also exists the popular expression: “women’s work and women’s words”. There is some typical
womanly labeling which men might know but practically pretend not to know, as a result they do not use them.7 The
existence of women’s language has been noticed since ancient times in some classical authors who have tried to find an
explanation to this phenomenon: women speak a different language from men because they come from a different group.
In this way Herodoti showed that the Skits were never able to learn the Amazonian language, which was the language
spoken by the women they had married, whereas the Amazonian were able to learn the Skit language, even though not
in a perfect way. “Sauromans (who were the descendants of Amazonian and Skits) use Skit language, eventhoguh they
Gj. Shkurtaj, Sociolinguistika, SHBLU, Tiranë, 1999, f. 157
Gj. Shkurtaj, Etnografia e të folurit të shqipes, SHBLU, Tiranë, 2004, f. 245
6 ‘Studime gjuhësore’, Prishtinë, 1978, f. 17-25
7 Gj. Shkurtaj, Sociolinguistika, SHBLU, Tiranë, 1999, f. 155
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speak it with some mistakes because the Amazonian do not learn it in a perfect way.”
Another well known case was the speech of Santo-Domingo where men spoke Karibish whereas the women
spoke Aravakish, this fact was documented in 1564 in the book Du Tertes “Historia general de las pesquenas Antillas”. In
both cases it is not about different languages, but it is about the same root language but different varieties. 8
Women’s emancipation is connected with the equality of her role with her spouse in the family, society or nation.
This phenomenon is encountered in the moment of activation, with the employment, with the education and intellectual
capacity. In this way there is a mutual dependence between men and women everywhere. There is a popular expression
which states that: ‘behind a successful man there stands a wise woman’ which can also be understood reciprocally.
In the emancipation of the society there is of great importance the respect and reciprocal honor between men and
women in the family, especially now where there are not pronounced differences amongst the couple in education,
culture, employment, abilities and concepts.
The famous researcher and patriot Sami Frashëri in the position of salient sociologist was among the first who
studied the emancipation of women and who published a book regarding this phenomenon with the title “Women”.
According to Sami Frashëri in this book the foundation of society was the family whereas the foundation of the family was
the child, child who was educated by the mother. Therefore when someone says ‘family’ it means woman. Human
society (states Sami) is created by the family; taking into consideration the fact that harmony in human society is
connected with harmony inside the family and finally is connected with the education of woman because her education is
fundamental for the general harmony of the society.
An English researcher of ethnography once visited the villages of Tropoja and Kukës and always noticed that in
steep mountain paths men walked 20 meters in front of women. By continuing his visit toward Kosovo in a bordering
village he noticed that women walked in front of men. Taking into consideration the fact that both these phenomenon
were part of Albanian tradition he was surprised by this difference and asked a peasant:
– How is it possible that old traditions were changed and Albanians become so emancipated and modern that
they respect women and they leave women to walk ahead and they stand behind?! The peasant replied:
– You are wrong man, we respect traditions, but what can we do against mines! (Mines which were placed by
Serbs).
Therefore, women were seen as ‘great devices for detecting mines’ and if it happed they would be the first to step
on mines, whereas men could escape without being harmed. What emancipation!
Feminist movement is called that movement which strives for women rights. The terms ‘feminism’ or ‘feminist’ was
firstly used in France and Netherland in 1872, in England in 1890 and in the United States of America in 1910.
According to western history, the modern history of Feminist Movement is divided in three periods.
The first period begins in the 19th century until the first part of the 20th century and this movement was more about
obtaining the right to vote, to become employed and to be educated. The second period begins in the 1960s and it
continued until 1980s. This wave was about obtaining legal and cultural rights and claiming the role of women in social
life. The last period begins in 1980 and continues until the first decade of the 21st century. During this period there
continued the strive for attaining rights which were not obtained during the second period. In the beginning women who
had no rights and were without a representative in the political sphere were dependent by their spouses, even though
political parties and old organizations supported women until the moment they needed them for their own interest. In the
moment that their goals were reached women were left without a support. Consequently the first movement organized by
women was mainly focused on obtaining the right to vote. There were done many tentative by women to have a unique
and fundamental right which is the right to live a life as a free human being.
The Borghese French Revolution was the beginning of all tentative. The first movement begins in an époque of
development and change of civil and political rights. The main promoter of this movement was Olympe de Goued, who
wrote the Declaration of Women’s Rights and Female Citizen in 1798. In the first article of this declaration there is
written: ‘The woman is born free and she has equal rights with the man in every aspect’.
Similar events where being observed also in Grand Britain, in 1918 there were given some rights to women in the
same way given in America where the discrimination toward women had reached unprecedented levels, by humiliating
not only older women but also children belonging to feminine sex, as it was done in pre-Islamic times.
Under these conditions in 1978 there is the approval of the Convergence for the elimination of any type of
discrimination toward women (CEDAW). This Convergence holds civil, political, economical and cultural rights obtained
by women.
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The Convergence recognized women as full human beings which were very important because until that time
women were known as something which did not belong to the human race. However this phenomenon still continues to
exist after so many centuries even in present days. After so many strives there were created many Convergences and
declarations related with women’s rights. Nevertheless it remained the fact that they remained only on the paper and
were never implemented in real life.
Actually the case of ‘women’s speech/language’ has been treated in Labov’s researches, where there has been
treated the relation of sec with the indicators of standard. According to investigations done in English language used in
New York, women are nearer to the standard language, they keep a more conformist linguistic attitude fearing of
receiving social sanctions which strikes provincial accent and in general the nonstandard variety. Labov states that: “…
men use more nonstandard forms, less influenced by the social stigma directed against them, or, conversely, women use
more standard forms, responding to the overt prestige associated with them”.9
This specific attitude depends on the fact that women present a very low indicative of linguistic self-confidence.
Linguistic conditions of women have a reflection on linguistic changes as ‘women lead in both the acquisition of prestige
patterns and the elimination of stigmatized forms’, therefore women’s way of speaking seems more sensitive for
resuming and using novelties in this specific direction. However, many researchers think that the characteristics of
womanly speech are in the majority of cased expressions of a certain cultural datum rather than of a linguistic one. This
can be supported even with many data regarding ethnographic speech.10
References
E. Çabej. Disa eufemizma të shqipes, Tiranë, BLSH, 1949.
G. Lambrosso, Shpirti i gruas. (L’anima della donna) V. I. Sh.B, “Shkolla e jetës”, Tiranë, 2000.
Gj. Shkurtaj, Etnografia e të folurit të shqipes, SHBLU, Tiranë, 2004.
Gj. Shkurtaj, Sociolinguistika, SHBLU, Tiranë, 1999.
K. Bevapi, Hyrje në etnologji dhe ne antropologji, ‘Shtëpia e artit’, Sejko, Ribotim, 2013.
‘Studime gjuhësore’, Prishtinë, 1978
Sh. Rrokaj, Filozofi e gjuhës, Arbwria 2010.
Xh. Lloshi, Stilitika e gjuhës shqipe dhe pragmatika, SHBLU, Tiranë, 2001
9
Labov, 1990, f. 210
Gj. Shkurtaj, Etnografia e të folurit të shqipes, SHBLU, Tiranë, 2004, f. 246
10
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Is Mr. Pickwick a Gentleman or a Comic Character?
Mahmut Terci, PhD
Beder University, Tirane
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2015.v5n1s1p131
Abstract
The Pickwick Papers has been chosen for analysis for several reasons. First, it is the success of this novel that made Charles
Dickens one of the best known writers in the Victorian age. Secondly and more importantly, The Pickwick Papers is Dickens’s
first novel that has become the seed of his later novels. Thirdly, Dickens had the chance to show his great ability of humor in
this novel. In terms of gentility, this novel on the one hand includes the comic gentlemen- such as Mr. Pickwick and his club
members- and on the other hand it also includes the typical devious gentlemen such as Jingle, Dodson and Fogg who are
extremely selfish and never get ashamed to deceive the others. Our main concern is to analyze the concept of the gentleman
in Dickens’s works in terms of their positive and negative qualities. At the beginning of the novel we see that Mr. Pickwick is a
snob who is the president of a club – which used to be a common habit among rich people in the Victorian time – and enjoys
going to parties as well as going to the theatre and watching some sport activities. His innocence and naivety creates some
comic misunderstandings and funny adventures. Later, he becomes a benevolent, kind and true gentleman with his comical
qualities. His nature attracts the respect of the people around him and although he does not own a family himself his servant
eagerly convinces him to live with them like their father. His sincere and gentlemanly behavior makes him a very popular and
respectable person in the town they live.
Keywords: Charles Dickens, Mr. Pickwick, Victorian gentleman, devious gentleman, true gentleman, comic gentleman
1. Introduction
The Pickwick Papers (1836-1837), was the first successful step in Dickens’s writing career. Surprisingly, this novel made
Charles Dickens one of the best known writers in the Victorian age. This fact can easily be seen in the comments of a
few contemporary writers and critics such as J. W. Crocker (1837), R. G. White (1870), and M. Oliphant (1892). What
they share in their comments1 is the fact that they all appreciate Dickens’s brilliant writing skill as well as the characters’
popularity in the daily life he had created in The Pickwick Papers.
H. N. Maclean argues that Dickens’s first novel has become the seed of his later novels. In his article, entitled ‘Mr.
Pickwick and the Seven Deadly Sins’, he claimed that the pattern Dickens had used in this novel has become his style.
At the beginning of the essay Maclean mentions Dickens’s admission “first in Great Expectations, then in Drood, that it is
from man’s personality, not society, that good and evil spring” (Maclean, 198) and then he mentions Edmund Wilson’s
concern that “it is only with Chuzzlewit that he finds Dickens beginning to "pillory" abstractions: "Selfishness in
Chuzzlewit, Pride in Dombey.”(Wilson in Maclean, 198) Personally, he believes that “at least six of the seven deadly sins
are "pilloried" in Pickwick Papers, which can be regarded as an almost medieval allegory of the dangers besetting man in
a world of terror and misery.” (198) Then, Maclean suggests that Dickens also followed this pattern in his later novels:
The book's effect upon the reader suggests a four-square bastion of everything Dickens
loves and respects,
surrounded by a circle of more or less active enemies, of whom, though some are routed, many continue to threaten. In
Pickwick this plan concentrates on the individual's struggle against institutional society; but the later novels, increasingly
concerned with the struggle of good and evil within man's self, are prepared for here, as the central group resists
tempters and destructive influences with much the same weapons employed by man in medieval allegory or
Renaissance morality. In succeeding novels, the forces of evil tend to close in and drag down the protagonists.
Conclusions to many of these later novels are more and more transparently contrived to appease Dickens's public.
However, though the menacing circle is largely thwarted in Pickwick Papers, it is in that novel that the pattern is set for
Dickens's later work. (Maclean, 198-199)
As Dickens was not only just a novelist but also a social commentator who criticized the economic, social and
See Harold Bloom, Bloom’s Classical Critical Views: Charles Dickens, Bloom’s Literary Criticism, Infobase Publishing 2008. pp.141143
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moral abuses in the Victorian era, according to me he did not just aim at earning his living through writing, but instead he
aimed at raising the social and personal awareness to the personal and social illnesses or disorders. For some readers,
Dickens became the teacher of their minds and hearts so that they could understand themselves much better, for some
he became a social reformist and developed a strong social consciousness in the society, and for some he was
considered as an outstanding artist or playwright who portrayed the English society in such an artistic way that the
readers were fascinated or enchanted by the magic of the words he had combined together.
Generally speaking, Victorian writers aimed at making their readers ‘laugh’, ‘cry’ by creating ‘suspense’ using a
large variety of characters and themes in their works. It is clear that Dickens preferred making his readers laugh at these
comic scenes in this novel to making them cry which he planned to do in his later novels such as Oliver Twist, Nicholas
Nickleby, and Hard Times. Although Dickens adds some sentimental scenes when Mr. Pickwick is arrested and sent to
the prison at the end of The Pickwick Papers. Nevertheless, the overall story has more comic scenes and it is obvious
that his major concern was to entertain his readers. Dickens’s first novel has been criticized in terms of its ‘formless’ and
late appearance of Sam Weller, the character who is most responsible for the novels’ success. Barry Tharaud combines
the perspectives of some critics together who have found various principles of form in The Pickwick Papers as
“Alexander Welsh (1967) sees the novel as a satirical work that parodies Scott’s Waverley novels; W. H. Auden (1948)
sees Pickwick as a mythopoeic character who moves between two poles of mythic experience represented by Dingley
Dell and the Fleet prison; John Butt and Kathleen Tillotson (1957) see the Bardell–Pickwick lawsuit and the relationship
between Sam Weller and Mr. Pickwick as structural principles that give order to the plot; Edgar Johnson (1952) sees a
unique blend of realism and romance that he calls the “realist fairy tale”; and Robert Patten (1967) and Heinz Reinhold
(1968) have found a structural principle in the relationship between the main plot and the novel’s interpolated stories.
Finally, William Axton (1965), following the lead of Monroe Engel (1959) and J. Hillis Miller (1959), investigates how point
of view, “governed by Dickens’s concept of the attitudes of middleclass society,” is the unifying idea and technique in the
narrative. All of these viewpoints have contributed to our understanding of the novel, and I have no wish to dispute or
enlarge upon them.” (Tharaud, 145)
Dickens’s transition from sketch writing to sustained narrative could be observed easily in this work. Especially
with the appearance of Sam Weller, the work attracted the Victorian readers’ attention. While the first issue was sold only
1000 at the beginning, by the end of its run in 1937 nearly 40,000 copies were sold. It was a great a success at that time.
More than its literary success Paul Davis mentions how it became a cultural event as follows;
Its success was more than literary. Pickwick was a cultural event that became an industry. ROBERT PATTEN
(1978) describes the frenzy: “There were Pickwick hats, canes, cigars, fabrics, coats, song books, china figurines, Weller
corduroys and jest books, and Boz cabs. There were imitations, plagiarisms, parodies, sequels, extra illustrations,
Pickwick quadrilles, stage piracies, and adaptations.” ELIZABETH GASKELL gently satirized this literary mayhem in
Cranford (1853) with a newspaper report that describes a man being run over by a train because he is so engrossed in
the current installment of the novel. (Davis, 324-325)
The Pickwick Papers was actually first the project of the artist, Robert Seymour and the publisher, William Hall.
They planned to produce a series of sporting prints of the Nimrod Club. They just needed some prose narrative
commentary for the illustrations and luckily Dickens was chosen for this task. Dickens, who was not familiar with the
sporting themes, accepted the offer only if the subject hadn’t been limited by the sporting scenes. Seeing this as a great
opportunity, Dickens started to show his artistic writing skills doing some modifications on the original plan and choosing
another illustrator who illustrated according to his demands. The increased written parts rather than their illustrations
gained more importance in the new shape of the work. This episodic novel was influenced by some factors. As Paul
Davis thinks that;
Dickens’s models for the story were the novels of picaresque tradition, works like ALAN RENÉ LESAGE’s Gil Blas
and especially such 18th-century English novels as DANIEL DEFOE’s Robinson Crusoe, HENRY FIELDING’s Tom
Jones and Joseph Andrews, and TOBIAS SMOLLETT’s Roderick Random and Peregrine Pickle, works he had pored
over as a child. These episodic picaresque novels were filled with practical jokes, slapstick situations, and physical
comedy, scenes that provided prototypes for many of the comic episodes in Pickwick. MIGUEL DE CERVANTES’s Don
Quixote and OLIVER GOLDSMITH’s The Vicar of Wakefield were also key influences, contributing to the idealism and
the sentiment in Dickens’s novel. Dickens was especially indebted to Goldsmith’s novel for the prison scenes in Pickwick.
(Davis, 324)
Due to the fact that Dickens first had to shape the characters and the plot of the novel according to the demands of
his publisher, it took some time to put everything according to his own wish and plan. The more Dickens came closer his
own style, the more the novel gained its popularity. The incoherence of the interpolated tales in the first part of the story
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could have been the result of the monthly deadlines. Dickens had to write a certain amount of words and hand the parts
of the work to the publisher in time. Samuel Weller’s entrance in the later chapters into the story increased the number of
the readers. So that Dickens shifted the focus from The Pickwick Club to “the idealistic Victorian Quixote and his cockney
Sancho Panza… With the introduction of Sam Weller, Pickwick found its centre…The story of their relationship becomes
the story of the novel…” (Davis, 327) Thus, Dickens became one of the great comic writers of his time. Having given the
general outline of the novel, we start to focus on the characters and their attitudes in terms of their gentlemanly qualities.
While Dickens entertains his readers with the comic adventures of Mr. Pickwick and his club members, the readers
also notice which qualities make some characters true gentlemen, and which of them make them wicked gentlemen. On
the one hand, we notice that especially Mr. Pickwick transforms himself from being a snob into becoming a true
gentleman, on the other hand we see selfish and dishonest Jingle, Dodson and Fogg. These devious and wicked
gentlemen also play important roles in Mr. Pickwick’s transition to a true gentleman. The mischievous traits we see in
Jingle first attracts the anger and hatred of Mr. Pickwick but in the meantime, this anger and hatred is transformed into
his generosity and benevolence. It might be easy to show one’s generosity – like the country gentleman Mr. Wardle – by
giving a lavish feast for the guests but it is not that much easy to forgive your enemies – especially when you have the
power to give them the punishment they deserve – and it is rather difficult to give your enemies a hand when they fall into
a miserable situation. This is one of the most important qualities of a true gentleman Dickens which portrays in this novel.
2. The Amusing Pickwickians
A close investigation is needed at this point to see the comic sides of Mr. Pickwick as well as his gentlemanly behavior
he unveils in various difficult situations. At the very beginning of the novel, Mr. Pickwick and his three club members,
Tupman, Snodgrass and Winkle are portrayed owning different distinguished abilities. They do not only think that they
are really good at different fields – science, love affair, literature and sports respectively – but they are also proud of
being highly distinguished gentlemen. With a belief doing a useful research for the society and supporting the social life
with their scientific and valuable contributions, they decide to have a journey in the country together. Paul Davis notes
their abilities as follows:
Each of the four corresponding members begins the novel as a “humors” character, a person defined by a single
dominating obsession: Winkle is the sportsman, Snodgrass the poet, Tupman the lover, and Pickwick the scientific
investigator. They are equally inept at their professions, and the opening sketches suggest that the story will progress by
mocking their pretensions. Winkle proves to know nothing about hunting, Snodgrass never writes a poem, Tupman loses
Rachael Wardle to Jingle, and Pickwick - even with his spectacles on - is stumped by Bill Stump’s stone. (Davis, 326)
Mr. Pickwick is quite an interesting character at the beginning of the novel. He is the president of a club, goes to
feasts and parties frequently and enjoys appearing in such social gatherings as well as going to theatres and
participating in sports like the other ordinary snobs in the society. However, Mr. Pickwick also resembles Miguel De
Cervantes’s Don Quixote in terms of his goodness, benevolence and innocence. As a result of his old age he is expected
to represent wisdom and experience, but he represents the childish innocence. Things in reality and in his imagination –
or how he perceives things happening around him are completely different. – Not only the comical adventures but also
the harsh situations (for example, his being cheated by Jingle and sent to prison) make him a kind of respectable
gentleman that the people who are close to him never imagine a life without him.
What are these comical adventures and difficult situations that Mr. Pickwick has to endure so that he combines his
comic nature with the gentlemanly behaviors? At the very beginning of the novel, Mr. Pickwick’s speech is interrupted by
Mr. Blutton calling him a “humbug”. The insult made by an ‘honorable gentleman’ jolts or emotionally shocks Mr.
Pickwick. Mr. Blutton is forced to give an explanation what he really means. When Mr. Blutton says that he has used the
term not in ‘common sense’ but in ‘the Pickwickian sense’, the problem is resolved. Although ‘the Pickwickian sense’
does not make any sense, Mr. Blutton’s acceptance of his being a member of the ‘Pickwick Club’ makes Mr. Pickwick
tolerate his insult at that moment.
The second problem – which seems to be more serious – occurs during their journey. Mr. Pickwick’s note-taking
while driving and chatting is misunderstood by the cabman, because he thinks that Mr. Pickwick is an informer who has
noted down everything he has said. As a result of his fear – that things he has uttered might be used against him – he
starts a fight. Luckily, he is rescued by a stranger called ‘Jingle’, before the dispute ends in a hospital or at a police
station. Mr. Pickwick feels indebted to Mr. Jingle and invites him for a drink and a chat with his friends. He cannot see
Jingle’s selfishness and deceiving character easily at the beginning of the novel. First the verbal attack of Mr. Blutton and
then the cabman’s physical attack drag Mr. Pickwick to give a harsh response to these people. Dickens prepares the
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Victorian readers to expect dueling as the form of showing courage as well as cleansing honor with blood. His patience
and tolerance play important roles – to make him a true gentleman – not to exaggerate these problems. Marshal Gregory
believes that ethical issues are seldom recognized although they exist in every human interaction. In his article, Gregory
points out that:
Whether we are being treated fairly, sympathetically, compassionately, generously, kindly, honestly, respectfully, and
so on are not discretionary issues for us, nor are they ever trivial…We seldom ask whether we continue to breathe but
of course our breathing is continuous. So is our involvement with ethical issues. (Gregory, 283)
The moral qualities that make a man a true gentleman are often ignored or people prefer sticking or adhering to
their prejudices. Mr. Pickwick’s reactions – being patient and tolerable – are such qualities that should be considered in
the development of his gentlemanly character and personality. Dickens’s comical tones in these disputes make it hard to
see these ethical issues in the context but as Marshal Gregory states “Dickens’s ethical vision taps into rock-bottom
human orientations. His vision is simple but goes deep.” (Gregory, 300) In the same article, Gregory also pinpoints that
…his grasp of such ethical principles as justice, kindness, honesty, and compassion is both strong and sure. Dickens
recognizes that goodness is not always refined, well-spoken, well-dressed, or well-read, and he even knows that
goodness isn’t immune from being comical and occasionally ridiculous. But he knows goodness vs. oppression and
compassion vs. cruelty when he sees them, and he never longs for a transcendent realm of escape. His ethical vision
asserts powerfully that the quality of people’s lives is created not by the ideologies they applaud in the abstract but by
the concrete ethical choices they make in their everyday treatment of each other at business, in the street, at table, and
when they need help or are called upon to give help. And he knows how to contrast nourishing and productive ethical
choices with those that are demeaning and destructive. (Gregory, 299)
What Gregory tries to emphasize is the fact that Dickens’s realistic descriptions of the characters and their
interactions in the daily life help us to understand the characters’ ethical engagements as well as Dickens’s ethical vision.
Mr. Pickwick is attacked verbally and physically but his reactions to these unkind behaviors are tolerance and patience.
The communicative problems are solved easily in a gentlemanly way when these gentlemanly qualities are applied in the
human interaction.
The next serious problem occurs when Winkle is enforced for a dueling as a result of the offence to Dr. Slammer.
Mr. Jingle is in fact, the responsible person for the offence and dispute because he wears Winkle’s new coat for the
party.
'Doctor Slammer. He begged me to express his opinion that your conduct of last evening was of a description
which no gentleman could endure; and' (he added) 'which no one gentleman would pursue towards another.' (The
Pickwick Papers, 35)
Dickens implies that even a verbal attack or an insult might have caused a dueling for a gentleman to recover his
honor. Although dueling was considered to be an old-fashioned way of protecting or recovering the honor in the Victorian
time, Dickens uses this instrument adding an extra comical issue to the plot. While doing some analysis about the fine
gentleman’s honor David Castronovo briefly notes about the history of dueling as follows:
Lawrence Stone points out that dueling began to come under heavy fire in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth
century because the monarchy was using the rule of law to bring the peers and gentry under the military control of the
state. The peers were undergoing a process of being disarmed. The result of this tendency was three centuries of
legislation that attempted to bring private acts of violence into disrepute: the state was at war with the gentleman of honor
and his code of duel. (Castronovo, 21)
David Castronovo believes that honor and the duel had no legal significance save that connected with legislation
on manslaughter and homicide. However, it is difficult to say when and how exactly dueling started but it had begun to
lose its popularity in the 17th century. From Dickens’s use of the dueling, it can be suggested that his characters, who ask
for dueling are the ones whose honors are seriously damaged by the insults. Both of them never take place. Dickens
insinuates that dueling never solves any problems. Yet, mutual understanding, dialog and communication are the keys
for the gentlemen to solve their problems even if it is the matter of honor.
Not remembering what Winkle has done the day before – because they get heavily drunk – he accepts the
dueling. Not only the others’ considerations about him that he is a good sportsman but also general beliefs that a
gentleman has to prove his courage when a dispute is related to honor is the main reason for his acceptance the
challenge. Luckily, the dueling is called off when Mr. Slammer does not recognize Winkle at all. By the way, comically,
Winkle explains the reason why he has accepted the challenge as follows:
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'Because, Sir,' replied Mr. Winkle, who had had time to deliberate upon his answer, 'because, Sir, you described
an intoxicated and ungentlemanly person as wearing a coat which I have the honour, not only to wear but to have
invented--the proposed uniform, Sir, of the Pickwick Club in London. The honour of that uniform I feel bound to maintain,
and I therefore, without inquiry, accepted the challenge which you offered me.' (The Pickwick Papers, 42)
It is a matter of honor for Winkle to show his dependence and loyalty wearing the coat just like a uniform. Dickens
also implies that wearing a proper item of clothing for the parties (or in their daily life) is one of the criteria for the people’s
acceptance in the gentry. The appearance used to be important for the people showing their class level. Dickens gives a
special care for this issue as it used to be a way for the gentry to show their significant difference. Alfred Jingle’s
preference to wear Winkle’s new suit for the party implies that the clothes people wore used to be an essential factor for
the gentry’s acceptance. Even today, the clothes that people prefer to wear from its color and material to its brand and
fashion have some connections or relationships to their character as well as their social background.
Dickens’s approach to the ‘gentleman’s honor’ in this novel is also remarkable because while the ‘pride’ is a
negative moral value for a devious and wicked gentleman, ‘honor’ is an inseparable value for a true gentleman. At the
beginning of the novel, the Pickwikians’ feelings about their own qualities are sensed that they feel ‘proud’ of their
distinguished abilities. Dickens slaps the Pickwickians, sometimes kindly and sometimes severely, using comical motifs
throughout the novel to make a distinctive difference between ‘pride’ and ‘honor’. Here, David Castronovo’s approach to
the gentleman’s honor has to be mentioned to understand Dickens’s perspectives about this issue. Castronovo points out
that:
Honor as a social value is no longer obsession with this dishonor, but a positive value: a gentleman of honor is not
oversensitive duelist, but the proverbial “truth-telling Englishman,” the man of integrity, the man of responsibility and
respectability. Honor has gone from being a matter of forms and appearances to being a matter of character.
Dickens also played a major part in prying honor apart from the code of men of birth. His novels are a veritable
procession of boys and men who refuse to submit to the world’s lies and sordidness and who protect repute and integrity
by decent and manly acts of self-assertion. Oliver Twist defends his mother’s reputation in the workhouse by giving the
bully Noah Claypole a drubbing; Nicholas Nickleby enjoys liberating experience of beating up the brutal school master
Squeers, a man who has tried to degrade him by making him a party to the school’s corruption; Pip in Great Expectations
gains stature as a man when he abandons his snobbery, shows love for a common convict, and learns that gentleness
means more than pride of position. (Castronovo, 30)
Similar to Pip, Mr. Pickwick does not only abandon his snobbery but he also integrates his comic character with
gentlemanly virtues in this novel. When Mr. Pickwick and his friends are invited to Manor Farm by Mr. Wardle, a country
squire, whom they meet at a military review in Chatham, has treated them rather kindly and generously. The
Pickwickians have probably thought or felt that they are much superior to the country people. Dickens describes their
feelings as follows:
And Mr. Winkle came out with jokes which are very well known in town, but are not all known in the country; and as
everybody laughed at them very heartily, and said they were very capital, Mr. Winkle was in a state of great honour and
glory. (The Pickwick Papers, 82)
One the one hand, the generosity of this country gentleman as well as his respectful manners makes them so
happy that they find great opportunities to show off their talents. On the other hand, kind and humble country people
enjoy the jokes of the gentlemen from the town. When the human interactions are observed in two perspectives, which
are from Mr. Wardle’s and Mr. Pickwick’s sides, we see that both parties are happy for various reasons. While the
country gentleman, Mr. Wardle, finds an opportunity to show off his kindness and generosity to the gentlemen from the
capital, Mr. Pickwick and his friends find a chance to show off their distinctive talents to the people in the country.
Winkle’s jokes, which are not all known in the country, make everybody laugh heartily. The Pickwickians become the
centre of joy. Mr. Pickwick feels great when he reads everybody’s glory and happiness in their eyes. Dickens points out
this feeling as follows:
The evening glided swiftly away, in these cheerful recreations; and when the substantial though homely supper had
been despatched, and the little party formed a social circle round the fire, Mr. Pickwick thought he had never felt so
happy in his life, and at no time so much disposed to enjoy, and make the most of the passing moment. (The Pickwick
Papers, 82)
During their stay as guests on the farm, the Pickwickians are invited to a couple of entertaining activities for
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gentlemen. Dickens’s descriptions of the pastime activities for the gentlemen signify some facts in various dimensions.
First, the readers can observe what type of pastime activities gentlemen got involved in in Victorian time. Second, the
characters’ portraits as well as their interactions are described in a way that readers can get some ideas or conclusions
about their thoughts, feelings and manners. Third, the characters’ attitudes and their development through the specific
incidents give the reader a better chance to observe their gentlemanly qualities. Although Mr. Pickwick is older than his
friends, he never thinks to stay behind; instead he prefers participating to the hunting event. Due to his leadership
character, he forces himself to participate in the activities and his old age does not prevent him to get involved in them.
Moreover, Mr. Pickwick keeps on motivating his friends with his energetic personality and he becomes the centre of
enthusiasm. For the Victorian gentlemen the popular recreations used to be going to the theaters, hunting, cricket,
dancing or (fancy dress) parties.
The pride of Winkle, Tupman and Mr. Pickwick is beaten or in a way punished by Dickens with the following
incidents. Winkle’s pride or reputation is damaged when he shoots his friend Tupman accidentally in hunting. However,
Tupman becomes happy about this accident because he spends more time with Mr. Wardle’s old-aged sister, Rachael,
when all the gentlemen go out for the cricket match. Tupman declares his love to her immediately. According to Dickens,
love is a serious matter. Tupman’s love affair with an old lady becomes a comical instrument in Dicken’s descriptions.
When Tupman finds out that Rachael has gone away with Jingle his first reaction to this serious problem is described by
Dickens as follows:
'I paid his expenses!' said Mr. Tupman, jumping up frantically. 'He's got ten pounds of mine!--stop him!--he's
swindled me!-- I won't bear it!--I'll have justice, Pickwick!--I won't stand it!' and with sundry incoherent exclamations of the
like nature, the unhappy gentleman spun round and round the apartment, in a transport of frenzy. (PP, 121) (Bold mine)
Which is more important, “ten pounds” or “Rachael”? From Tupman’s reactions readers can easily understand that
he is not so serious in his love affair. Moreover, when he is found in the pub, readers notice that he has ordered a “big
meal” for himself. He is also expected to become very upset and to refuse anything as a result of his sorrow or to harm
himself as a result of this eloping. But, Mr. Pickwick finds no difficulty to convince him to continue their journey. Thus, this
kind of reaction is not really normal behavior of real lovers in their upset time. According to Dickens, “love” should be
considered as one of the most important issues in one’s life. David’s love to Agnes and Pip’s love to Estella are just some
examples of real love. Through these characters readers can easily see that the life is meaningless without their lovers’
presence and whatever they think or feel is always related to their lovers.
Mr. Pickwick’s pride related to his scientific intellect is punished by Dickens with an “ordinary stone” that Mr.
Pickwick comes across on the road by chance. Noticing some writing on the stone, Mr. Pickwick suggests that it is an
“antique stone” and he feels very proud of himself discovering such a valuable piece. In the meantime, it becomes
obvious that the ‘precious antique stone’ is actually an ordinary stone with a funny message on it. Thus, it is figured out
that Mr. Pickwick is also not a professional ‘scientist’ like the other Pickwickians who believe that they are professionally
a sportsman or a lover or a poet. Throughout these funny adventures, readers become aware that the ‘sportsman’,
Winkle, is actually not a great sportsman at all showing his inability in shooting. The ‘poet’, Snodgrass, cannot come up
with his own poem in the social gatherings at all. The ‘lover’, Tupman’s unsuccessful attempt in his first love affair
amuses the readers. The ‘scientist’, Mr. Pickwick, finds himself in an awkward situation when the fact about the stone is
proved by one of the club members.
Dickens leads or attracts the attention of the readers to Mr. Pickwick and the awkward situations he cannot get rid
of due to his naïve character. Dickens uses Jingle as an evil and witty character to make fun of him and/or to provoke his
anger and/or helps him to improve his gentlemanly behavior. From time to time, Mr. Pickwick feels that he has almost
lost all his patience. Dickens shows his state of anger as follows:
Nothing in the whole adventure, not even the upset, had disturbed the calm and equable current of Mr. Pickwick’s
temper. The villainy, however, which could first borrow money of his faithful follower, and then abbreviate his name to
‘Tuppy,’ was more than he could patiently bear. He drew his breath hard, and coloured up to the very tips of his
spectacles, as he said, slowly and emphatically—
‘If ever I meet that man again, I’ll—’ (The Pickwick Papers, 128)
Jingle’s offence to one of Mr. Pickwick’s friends – calling him Tuppy – really drives him mad. He cannot bear the
offence destroying his honor and feelings deeply. In order to relieve and recover his honor and dignity, he really desires
Jingle’s punishment to get revenge so that he would feel relaxed. However, taking revenge is not a gentleman’s
honorable quality.
When Mr. Pickwick and Mr. Wardle find the fugitives in London, to their surprise they find out that they have
already got married. They cannot give Jingle a punishment but instead, with the help of Sam Weller, who becomes man136
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servant Mr. Pickwick later in the novel, Jingle is convinced to accept £120 as a bribe –actually Jingle considers it as a
compensation–. And then in return, he gives the marriage license back.
'Expensive affair,' said Mr. Jingle. 'Money out of pocket-- posting, nine pounds; licence, three--that's twelve-compensation, a hundred--hundred and twelve--breach of honour--and loss of the lady--' (The Pickwick Papers, 141)
In fact this is not the nastiest thing Jingle has done in the story. He appears again with his worst plan later. Before
that we have to follow Dickens how he has portrayed some other funny adventures with his comic characters.
It has been the hospitality and kindness of Mr. (or Esq.) Wardle –the concrete qualities of the country gentleman.–
Having excellent meals, going to hunting, seeing a cricket match and enjoying the parties have developed their
socializing with the country people and have formed wonderful relations and happy memories for the Pickwickians during
their stay in Dingley Dell. They have seen sincere hospitality and it has become very difficult for them to leave the kind
people behind.
It was a more difficult task to take leave of the inmates of Manor Farm, from whom they had received so much
hospitality and kindness. (The Pickwick Papers, 145)
Here, from the descriptions of Dickens we notice that the generosity of the country gentleman or esquire is
outstanding. Dickens also portrays the pastime activities for the Victorian gentlemen include long-lasting feasts, hunting,
cricket matches and parties.
Mr. Pickwick, who is the centre of the joy and lively atmosphere for the people around him, attracts the readers’
appreciation with his comic and lively character. Because Mr. Pickwick cannot see the reality and the facts rapidly,
Dickens creates another important character, Sam Weller. He becomes Mr. Pickwick’s man-servant. Dickens gives some
kind of role to Sam that whenever Mr. Pickwick needs help he is always ready to save his master. Whenever he falls into
difficult or awkward situations, Sam is there to give him a hand.
One of the funniest awkward situations that he gets involved is when Mr. Pickwick mixes up his own room in the
hotel and enters a room which belongs to a lady.
‘Gracious Heaven!’ said the middle-aged lady, ‘what’s that?’
‘It’s— it’s—only a gentleman, ma’am,’ said Mr. Pickwick, from behind the curtains.
‘A gentleman!’ said the lady, with a terrific scream.
‘It’s all over!’ thought Mr. Pickwick.
‘A strange man!’ shrieked the lady. (The Pickwick Papers, 321-322)
The reason why a special emphasis is given to this funny situation here is that Dickens prefers choosing this term
loaded with varied meanings. Secondly, we can observe and analyze much better the gentlemanly qualities in people’s
attitudes in various circumstances. As in the funny example about Mr. Pickwick, he prefers to communicate with the lady
in a very polite way to give her confidence about his real purpose. He stops to search for his own room after this incident
not to cause any problem at all. He prefers to wait until the sun breaks the darkness of the night. The polite language he
uses, his kindness, and his respect to the lady are the important qualities of a gentleman. This is the very basic usage of
the term gentleman which refers to ‘a man’. Dickens also prefers to use polite language to address many people with
descriptive adjectives as ‘jolly old gentleman’, ‘honorable gentleman’, ‘respectable gentleman’, ‘tall gentleman in a blue
coat’, ‘last-named gentleman’, ‘elderly gentleman’, ‘young gentleman’, ‘stout gentleman’, ‘strange gentleman, ‘baldheaded old gentleman’, ‘fat gentleman’, ‘enthusiastic gentleman’, and so on. The other ways of Dickens’s use of the term
gentleman is quite noticeable in the following examples.
‘Doctor Slammer. He begged me to express his opinion that your conduct of last evening was of a description which no
gentleman could endure; and’ (he added) ‘which no one gentleman would pursue towards another.’ (The Pickwick
Papers, 35)
Here, the term consists of the qualities such as ‘honor’, ‘dignity’, ‘grace’ and ‘glory’. But the following use of the
term suggests the ‘class distinction’ in the Victorian age.
‘When I wos first pitched neck and crop into the world, to play at leap-frog with its troubles,’ replied Sam. ‘I wos a
carrier’s boy at startin’; then a vaginer’s, then a helper, then a boots. Now I’m a gen’l’m’n’s servant. I shall be a gen’l’m’n
myself one of these days, perhaps, with a pipe in my mouth, and a summer-house in the backgarden. Who knows? I
shouldn’t be surprised for one.’ (The Pickwick Papers, 221)
Readers can easily deduce that the people in the lower class like Sam always had a chance to shift a class as
long as they work hard to get a better profession or to get enough money in business. Thus, Dickens uses the term
gentleman basically in four ways; the first use refers to ‘a man’, the second use refers to ‘the polite way of addressing
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people’, the third use refers to ‘conducts or virtues of the people’ and the forth use refer to ‘the man in upper class’.
Sam Weller is the second important character in the story whose ambition is to become a gentleman as it used to
be Dickens’s, while he was writing this story. This fact is also another proof that Dickens’s first novel is the seed of his
later novel as being a respectable gentleman is one of the ambitions of Dickens’s character, Sam Weller, as well as Pip’s
in one of his later masterpieces Great Expectations. Magwitch’s obsessive ambition is to turn Pip into a gentleman, which
can be done, in his opinion, simply through investing amounts of money in his education. In other words, Magwitch
believes that gentlemanship may be bought, which proves entirely false at the end of the novel. While investigating the
possible meanings Dickens has loaded in the term gentleman, a close look into the characters’ gentlemanly behavior
according to the noticeable incidents or situations they have been involved, is needed. As in that funny example about
Mr. Pickwick, he prefers to communicate with the lady in a very polite way to give her confidence about his real purpose.
He stops to search for his own room due to his fear to get involved in an awkward situation like that. He prefers waiting
until the sun breaks the darkness of the night. The polite language that he uses, his kindness, and his respect to the
others in order not to disturb them are some of the important qualities of the gentleman which should be mentioned here.
3. The Devious Gentlemen
Returning to Pickwick, another awkward situation causes an important crisis between Mr. Pickwick and Mrs. Bardle. She
falls into his arms as she misunderstands his real intention. Although Mr. Pickwick wants to imply that a servant is
needed, she thinks that he has proposed marriage to her. The appearance of Sam Weller is also attached to the most
important plot theme, which is the dispute between Mr. Pickwick and Mrs. Bardle. Although Mr. Pickwick explains that he
himself could not conceive why she has fainted and adds that he has just wanted to suggest employing a servant for the
home, unfortunately, nobody – even his friends – believes him. The professionally devious gentlemen named Dudson
and Fogg convince Mrs. Bardle to sue Mr. Pickwick to get some compensation as a result of his attitudes that caused
some damages to her feelings. Dickens weaves new adventures for Mr. Pickwick based on this comic situation in the
following chapters. The comic incident is ended in prison.
The parties, where the ladies and gentlemen find a proper chance to meet and to get to know each other better,
are used by Dickens to reflect and at the same time to mock the upper class Victorian society. The Pickwickians are
invited to a fancy dress party in the morning in Eatenswill. Mr. Pickwick cannot be persuaded to wear a funny costume for
the party. Dickens satirizes this kind of events in a different way. First, this fancy dress party, which is held in the
morning, is very unusual and awkward because similar parties are usually held in the evening. Second, wearing a funny
costume implies for Mr. Pickwick that hiding your real face from others. Having two faces or disguising is an ill-mannered
virtue that cannot be tolerated by a gentleman like Mr. Pickwick. Here, Jingle appears again disguised as Mr.
FitzMarshall. Mr. Pickwick, who really wants to expose him, becomes the victim of his witty joke again and he finds
himself in another awkward situation. Although they were supposed to be careful not to trust them, Mr. Pickwick and Sam
believe Job, Jingle’s servant and accept his plan. As benevolence becomes Mr. Pickwick’s inseparable gentlemanly
virtue, he wants to help one of the young ladies in the boarding school. Mr. Pickwick goes there at night does everything
according to the plan. But unfortunately, he cannot bare the storm outside and escapes from the natural storm outside to
the hysterical women’s storm inside the boarding school. Again nobody believes his story and he is rescued by Sam and
Mr. Wardle who was there for a hunting expedition. After this incident, Mr. Pickwick’s health is affected and he has to
spend some time in bed. At that moment, they promise each other to expose Jingle’s and Job’s real faces. Their witty
joke becomes an honor issue for both Mr. Pickwick and Sam. Sam becomes also the other party who has been fooled in
this awkward situation. With this experience, he learns that there are still professionally disguised dishonest gentleman
and he shares Mr. Pickwick’s emotions. The positive point is that they become closer like father and son.
Dickens also portrays how ‘anger’ or ‘jealousy’ affects the attitudes of the gentleman using different incidents in the
novel. The woman, whose room has been mistakenly occupied for a while by Mr. Pickwick, appears to be the future wife
of his friend, Mr. Peter Magnus who has asked some advice from Mr. Pickwick on the way to Ipswich. When they meet
again to be introduced by Mr. Magnus, the young lady gets shocked and gives a loud scream. Mr. Magnus asks both
parties how they have known each other but none of them would prefer to explain the fact as it is a sensitive case. The
more Magnus asks for an explanation from Mr. Pickwick as a result of his jealousy, the more the dispute becomes
irresolvable. So he threatens Mr. Pickwick with a duel, which is used for the second time by Dickens in this novel to mock
the idea of dueling which used to be a common way to restore their gentlemanly honor. But none of the dueling takes
place as Dickens never approves it as a kind of solution when a dispute appears between gentlemen. Meanwhile, the
lady takes the case to the local justice stating that a dueling will take place in Ipswich and gives Mr. Pickwick’s and
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Tupman’s names. Having great difficulty in believing such a dispute will happen in their territory, they decide to
investigate the dispute. Mr. Pickwick and Tupman are arrested and at the court they are punished by the judge, Mr.
Nupkin. Mr. Pickwick asks for a private talk with him and explains him honestly why they have come to this town. Having
learned that a scoundrel, Mr. Fitzmarshal or Jingle, has been flirting with his own daughter, Mr. Nupkin cancels the fine
and asks Mr. Pickwick to tell everything to his own family with Jingle’s presence. In the end, Mr. Pickwick’s honesty is
rewarded and Jingle’s dishonesty is punished by Dickens. In fact, this is the actual result that usually happens in the
social life; as ‘honesty is always the best policy’ and ‘sooner or later the truths appear, and the lies cannot be hidden
forever.’ Mr. Pickwick’s determination to find Jingle and to prevent his evil plans is one of his gentlemanly behaviors that
a real gentleman has to be at least as ambitious as the fake gentlemen who destroy the lives of innocent people.
4. Mr. Pickwick’s Troubles with Women
Mr. Pickwick’s examinations with women continue in the novel. This time, he finds out that Mrs. Bardell sues him for the
compensation due to the fact that he has destroyed her feelings with the proposal. Mr. Pickwick refuses to pay any
money and acts out according to his own principles. It seems that Mr. Pickwick has a stubborn character but in fact,
Dickens has a couple of aims in this particular attitude. First, the people like Jingle, Dodson and Fogg really have
dishonored him and he (-and also Dickens himself) believes that something has to be done to stop their wrong-doings.
Second, accepting to pay even a penny means the admission of his being dishonest and this quality never matches with
a real gentleman’s character. Third, the more people close their eyes to these greedy people, the richer they become and
the more lives they destroy. While some dishonest people like Dodson and Fogg use the laws according to their own
benefits in a legal but dishonest way, ordinary people in the society not knowing the details about the laws become the
victims of their evil plans. Fourth, Dickens also plans to describe the wretched conditions of the people living in prisons.
As he himself stayed in prison because of his father’s debt, he knows the life there better than many contemporary
writers and he uses it as a chance to satirize the laws related to the debtors’ imprisonment. So Dickens shapes his plot
as a result of these factors; he wishes to send Mr. Pickwick to prison. More than these factors, Dickens has a plan to
show Sam’s loyalty to his master and their mutual caring and respect. He also shows us how a real gentleman should
behave when he meets his worst enemy in a very wretched situation. Instead of taking revenge, Mr. Pickwick prefers to
show his benevolence and generosity even to his worst enemies. This particular gentlemanly attitude of Mr. Pickwick is
probably the most important behavior that Dickens portrayed in this novel. The gentility and morality he imposed on this
main character is noticeable and highly appreciated by the Victorian readers.
Before Mr. Pickwick is sent to prison, he attends another ball. From Mr. Pickwick’s attitude, readers can see that
Mr. Pickwick really dislikes the things happening in the aristocratic world. Here, as an individual coming from a lower
class, Dickens takes the chance to satirize the foolishness, empty conceit, bootlicking, matchmaking and nastiness of the
high society. Mr. Pickwick’s gentlemanly character is not portrayed in such balls or in fancy dress parties. We can see
Mr. Pickwick’s enthusiasm and his jolly atmosphere in other places such as Mr. Wardle’s feasts. For instance, Dickens
portrays Pickwick’s being the centre of fun, joy and respect during his attendance to Mr. Wardle’s daughter’s marriage
ceremony.
It is easily sensed that Mr. Pickwick is in his good mood when he is among his dear friends. He is always
generous, energetic, the source of joy and the centre of attention in this kind of gatherings. His juvenile energy and
readiness to help his friends when he is needed, has to be noted that the gentlemanly virtues – benevolence and
friendship – are also some of the qualities Dickens give a special importance to. In the later chapters, we also observe
that although Winkle’s own father refuses to support his own son in his marriage, Mr. Pickwick behaves more than a
close friend and he takes over the role of the parent. Mr. Pickwick travels a long way to another town not only to talk with
Arabella, Winkle’s love, to check her confirmation and determination, but also to give a financial aid to Winkle. He talks
with Winkle to figure out if they are really serious in their decision like a father. As soon as he becomes sure that they are
really serious about the marriage, this time Mr. Pickwick works a lot to convince Winkle’s parents in terms of Winkle’s
need for parental support in this sensitive matter. In time, Winkle’s parents realize that they really need to respect their
son’s choice and to support him.
Dickens also includes a much more touching relationship between Mr. Pickwick and Samuel Weller to show that
real gentlemen should possess the qualities such as generosity, friendship and self-sacrifice in their relations. When Mr.
Pickwick is sent to the prison, Sam makes himself to be arrested and to be sent to Fleet Prison next to his master. Mr.
Pickwick becomes a little bit upset that Sam has made himself to be sent to the prison as a result of his debt. Most
probably, Dickens himself has seen and felt these similar scenes in his own life. Because it is not quite is easy to suffer
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hard conditions in the prison, Mr. Pickwick insists on paying the amount for Sam’s release but he cannot succeed to
persuade him. Because Sam really believes that old Mr. Pickwick needs special care in the harsh conditions of the
prison. Sam’s loyalty and his self-sacrifice are beyond their friendship. Sam’s father who witnesses his son’s and Mr.
Pickwick’s mutual loyalty and kindness, gives Mr. Pickwick a huge amount of money the he has inherited from his death
wife. He asks Mr. Pickwick to take care of the money as a result of his trust in the very near end of the story. At first Mr.
Pickwick does not want to receive the money but later he takes it just to use and spend it for the sake of Sam and his
family to live in better conditions.
During their imprisonment, to their surprise they find out that Jingle and Job also stay in the other poor side of the
prison which has worse conditions than theirs. Mr. Pickwick and Sam go to this part of the prison and pay them a visit.
They immediately forget their revenge as soon as they see them in that miserable situation.
The general aspect of the room recalled him to himself at once; but he had no sooner cast his eye on the figure of
a man who was brooding over the dusty fire, than, letting his hat fall on the floor, he stood perfectly fixed and immovable
with astonishment.
Yes; in tattered garments, and without a coat; his common calico shirt, yellow and in rags; his hair hanging over
his face; his features changed with suffering, and pinched with famine-- there sat Mr. Alfred Jingle; his head resting on
his hands, his eyes fixed upon the fire, and his whole appearance denoting misery and dejection! (The Pickwick Papers,
612)
Instead of just laughing at them or cursing at them or showing any contentment or satisfaction, Mr. Pickwick
shares their sorrow. And instead of leaving them in that miserable condition, Mr. Pickwick financially helps them that they
can buy some necessary things for their living.
'Good fellow,' said Jingle, pressing his hand, and turning his head away. 'Ungrateful dog--boyish to cry--can't help
it--bad fever--weak--ill--hungry. Deserved it all--but suffered much--very.' Wholly unable to keep up appearances any
longer, and perhaps rendered worse by the effort he had made, the dejected stroller sat down on the stairs, and,
covering his face with his hands, sobbed like a child.
'Come, come,' said Mr. Pickwick, with considerable emotion, 'we will see what can be done, when I know all about the
matter. Here, Job; where is that fellow?' (The Pickwick Papers, 614)
Mr. Pickwick’s goodness, kindness, generosity and benevolence really touch Jingle’s and Job’s hearts and they
change their way of life after they are released with the help of Mr. Pickwick. They decide to live in another country as it
shows their determination to begin a new life with a new start. Although they have been representing devious gentlemen
at the beginning of the story, Dickens does some modifications in their characters implying that the opportunities always
exist in life for everybody as long as they wish to behave in a better way. With this incident, Dickens portrays the real
gentleman through Mr. Pickwick character that forgiveness, benevolence, empathy, good-heartedness and generosity
are also their inseparable and indispensable qualities.
Mr. Pickwick also proves that he is a true gentleman forgiving Mrs. Bardell when he sees her in the Fleet Prison.
Sam is the key person who brings everybody together – Perker, Arabella and the Pickwickians – and prepares all the
conditions which Mr. Pickwick cannot refuse to pay the cost of her lawyers demand. In order to help the ladies – to assist
Mrs. Bardell’s release and to convince Arabella’s brother and Winkle’s parents about the marriage - and to make
everybody happy with his returning to his social circle again, he accepts the conditions his lawyer, Perker, suggests. The
Fleet prison becomes a temporary place for Mr. Pickwick that he has seen the reality of life and his innocence and
vindication is approved by his landlady. It has a positive function for Jingle as his evil character changes into a good one.
It functions as a kind of slap for Mrs. Bardell that she needs to be awakened from her dream. Although Dodson and Fogg
are not punished with imprisonment in the novel, Mr. Pickwick’s last words function as a good slap or punishment for
them.
'Do you know that I have been the victim of your plots and conspiracies?' continued Mr. Pickwick. 'Do you know that I
am the man whom you have been imprisoning and robbing? Do you know that you were the attorneys for the plaintiff, in
Bardell and Pickwick?'
'Yes, sir, we do know it,' replied Dodson.
'Of course we know it, Sir,' rejoined Fogg, slapping his pocket --perhaps by accident.
…
'You are,' continued Mr. Pickwick, resuming the thread of his discourse--'you are a well-matched pair of mean, rascally,
pettifogging robbers.'
'Well,' interposed Perker, 'is that all?'
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'It is all summed up in that,' rejoined Mr. Pickwick; 'they are mean, rascally, pettifogging robbers.' (The Pickwick Papers,
768-769) (Bold mine)
These are the worst adjectives which are used in throughout novel by Mr. Pickwick – in fact by Dickens – to
describe villainous people. If all the characters in the novel are put in order from good to bad Dodson and Fogg take the
worst position as they never get ashamed of what they have done. While the qualities such as selfishness, dishonesty
and immorality best describe these wicked gentlemen – albeit their appearance and way of speaking – the qualities such
as benevolence, honesty, trustworthy, and reliability best describe the real gentlemen as they can be easily noticed in
these characters; especially Dodson & Fogg verses Mr. Pickwick.
As it has been mentioned before, Mr. Pickwick first helps Winkle in their marriage and then he pays the debts of
Jingle to be released from the Fleet Prison. Mr. Pickwick – and of course the readers – has a chance to observe the dark
side of life (in prison) and humans during his stay there. At the end of the story, Mr. Pickwick arranges Snodgrass’s and
Sam’s marriages and before that he decides to close down the Pickwick Club saying to the members that;
'I shall never regret,' said Mr. Pickwick in a low voice, 'I shall never regret having devoted the greater part of two
years to mixing with different varieties and shades of human character, frivolous as my pursuit of novelty may have
appeared to many. Nearly the whole of my previous life having been devoted to business and the pursuit of wealth,
numerous scenes of which I had no previous conception have dawned upon me--I hope to the enlargement of my mind,
and the improvement of my understanding. If I have done but little good, I trust I have done less harm, and that none of
my adventures will be other than a source of amusing and pleasant recollection to me in the decline of life. God bless you
all!' (The Pickwick Papers, 814-815)
5. Conclusion
In fact, we learn the real aim of Dickens writing this novel which can be mainly summarized as to see the variety of
human characters through the amusing and pleasant – or comic – adventures in the life. This is also one of the reasons
why we have named, Mr Pickwick as the Comic Gentleman. Mr. Pickwick – and of course Dickens himself – wants to be
remembered as the gentleman who has done little good – although a lot due to his modesty – and who has not harmed
anybody during his life. Mr. Pickwick devotes his life to happiness of the whole people in the town and is admired a lot by
the whole people who know him.
He is known by all the poor people about, who never fail to take their hats off, as he passes, with great respect.
The children idolise him, and so indeed does the whole neighbourhood. Every year he repairs to a large family merrymaking at Mr. Wardle's; on this, as on all other occasions, he is invariably attended by the faithful Sam, between whom
and his master there exists a steady and reciprocal attachment which nothing but death will terminate. (The Pickwick
Papers, 819-820)
Dickens’s message at the end is that a true gentleman like Mr. Pickwick should be respected and admired by the
people he is in contact with as a result of his honesty, patience, benevolence, and reliability.
References
Primary Resources
Dickens, Charles. The Pickwick Papers The Pennsylvania State Univeristy, Electronic Classics Series, USA. 2007
Secondary Resources
Bloom, Harold. Bloom’s Classical Critical Views: Charles Dickens, Bloom’s Literary Criticism, Infobase Publishing. 2008,
Castronovo, David. The English Gentleman: Images and Ideals in Literature and Society, The Ungar Publishing Company, New York.
1987
Gregory, Marshall Ethical Engagements over Time: Reading and Rereading David Copperfield and Wuthering Heights, Narrative,
Vol.12, No.3 (October 2004), The Ohio State University
Davis, Paul. Critical Companion to Charles Dickens, A Literary Reference to His life and Work, Facts On File, Inc. New York. 2007
Maclean, H. N. Mr. Pickwick and the Seven Deadly Sins, Nineteenth-Century Fiction, Vol.8 No.3 (Dec., 1953) University of California
Press
Tharaud, Barry. Form As Process in The Pickwick Papers: The Structure of Ethical Discovery, Dickens Quarterly, Vol.24, No.3
September 2007.
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Role of Education in Development in and after the Transitional Period in Kosovo
Prof. Dr. Vjollca Dibra
Prishtina, March 2015, Professor, Faculty of Education, “Hasan Prishtina” Public University
dibravjollca@gmail.com
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2015.v5n1s1p143
Abstract
The topic of the paper is focused on the education condition, in all its levels (preschool, elementary, high school, higher
education and post-university studies), after the last war in Kosovo, as well as after transition period.There will be analyzed two
key education functions, as basis of development: General education, as a concept of personality, and Professional skills
based on contemporary trends of social, economical and technological development.Following the introduction section, where
the methodology and structure of the paper will be presented; the paper will put its emphasize on the state of education,
restructuring and reformatting of the education system, based on the new world expertise of the field, and also the paper will
examine direct general social and economical indicators. The article will be closed by conclusion section, where conclusions
and suggestions based on paper research study will be presented, in order to help the improvement of the education system of
the country.
Keywords: Role, Education, Development, Transitional Period, Kosovo
1. Introduction
There is no doubt that social activity identified by notion education, is one of most important events. With implications for
many plans, especially with specific role and weight in the development of a society or of a country, education therefore
has found primary treatment. Perhaps this phenomenon has spread from the first steps of awareness of humanity, in a
cultivated form comes to us from antiquity of the Far East, Near and the Middle East extending everywhere.
Without claiming to treat historical aspect of education development, the prism of my interest is focused on its role
during these fifteen years in Kosovo, seen in the transitory phase and afterwards. This way of observation takes
character of a non-monograph panoramic presentation because the factors are subject to specific circumstances.
However, when we talk about education in Kosovo, a look becomes inevitable, even if it is short, to prior
development. As any other activity, the education has an interdependence position with concrete historical and social
circumstances of Albanian society development. We just need to remind ourselves of opening of the first Albanian school
(Korçë, 7 March 1887), the Congress of Albanian alphabet (Manastir, 14-22 November 1908) and University of Prishtina
(15 February 1970).
I mentioned these educational nodes that come as a result of the work of early Albanian intellectuals and
especially the ranks of the Renaissance who were moulded with European ideas of the Enlightenment. It is no
coincidence that, like the main figure of renaissance, the writer Naim Frasheri (1846 - 1900) had made the monogram
formula "And only light of knowledge forward will lead us"!
If, after periods of centuries of oppression, after eagerness for education and knowledge, a light appeared in the
horizon of 1970, it suddenly, after two decades (in 1990) almost extinguished, when the Serbian regime with abolition of
the autonomy of Kosovo practically suppressed the Albanian education.
It is already known that it however survived, using clandestine forms of organization and in almost impossible
circumstances. The strong will of for education encouraged the education employees that even in war circumstances find
ways to keep it alive.
2. The First Years After the Last War
There is no doubt that in an organized society with state structure, there are government bodies that can take the
decision-making role in the development plan of the economy, culture, education and others. In the first period after the
war, the administration of the educational activity was taken over by Kosovo Interim Government, together with
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administration bodies, temporary as well, of the Security Council, known by the acronym UNMIK. Such a structure mixed
with internationals and locals hard to adjust the criteria, norms and standards, moreover when it lacked basic element,
the legal infrastructure. Although the system of education here, despite systematic and social, political, economic and
legal refractions, it had preserved at least something from an experience of instituted empirical development and had the
necessary professional potential for teaching, the infrastructure was almost totally ruined.
At the scene of organization, there came the so-called Applicable Laws, which in fact were nothing but an
amalgam of different elements of systems full of contradictions. Therefore it was not strange that, for example, being two
co-ministers of education (one local and the other international), despite their professional level, contests would start
about competencies. Such a fate, to say tragicomic, was also faced by common Primer for all Albanian-speaking areas,
which was "victimized" for several years, due to introduction of discrepancies of co-administrating concepts.
In a few words, this was the situation in the field of education, almost until the declaration of Kosovo as an
independent state (17 February 2008). In such circumstances, two basic functions of education (vocational education
and training), as preconditions of impact in the economic and social development of the country come too reduced.
In all this jumble, a large tribute is paid to the lack of planning, harmonization with social and economic
development plans of the country. Thus, seen from an aspect there is a hyper-production of educated cadres, whereas
on the other hand, there is no economic absorption capacity for such an enormous potential. As it rarely happens
anywhere in the world, here they wander in vain, unemployed, even doctors and engineers, lawyers and economists, and
many other professional profiles.
What can be considered innovation and bearing on this transitional period?
Innovations are not few. For the first time in the process of education in Kosovo, in the spirit of pluralism and
democratization, depoliticizing of the education process happens, getting rid of ideology of teaching content, and above
all the free competition.
Thus, besides public educational institutions, beginning with kindergartens, preschools and to the university, the
private ones are allowed and are licensed as well.
Paradoxical phenomenon seems inevitable, that even in this area, light-shade structures appear. On one hand, as
expected with reason, would be constructive competition and race for promotion of values and criteria in the field of
knowledge, education and vocational training, in parallel with new achievements in the field of information technology; on
the other side greed also found space for material gain thus degenerating this sensitive process as production of
diplomas.
Treating here the aspect of the impact of education in development, in and during the transition, we ascertain that
education impacts directly in two directions simultaneously, through the process of vocational education and training.
3. General Education as a Concept of Personality
When talking about education, usually this phenomenon comes as a syntagm, coupled with vocational education and
training.
Why we can say so?
As it is generally known, all the sciences of knowledge define man as being social creatures, which, unlike the
other living beings is characterized with consciousness and awareness, with the process of logical thinking. As such, the
man undoubtedly is considered as one of the main resources of this planet. Depending on its psychophysical and social
level, all the developments in society and in nature come, for better or worse.
The first task of education, educating is right here. In humanist profiling of human character. Moulding it with the
right character and logical virtues, with knowledge and culture, with work habits, with a will to justice and progress, selfconfidence and sustainability in achieving the goals and progressive aspirations, basic preconditions are created for a
complete personality.
In our circumstances, here in Kosovo, when we are dealing with a society of newly emerged from the war,
experiences of survival furrows on the road to freedom, with frustrations in many areas with the absences of all kinds, I
think it is necessary that in a move to turn to re-actualisation of values of enlightenment also in the field of education.
I remember as if it happened today, when I was an elementary school student, the Reading Book opened as usual
with a text fragment, titled in vocative case Education! Never in life I heard within the spirit, with as much intensity, divine
spirit with a breeze of spring. However, it was a text in prose which spontaneously was remembered just as rhythmic
verses of a lyrical poem. I remember even now fragments of sentences. Then I didn't know anything about its author and
imposition of its name, Rabindranat Tagore (1861 - 1941), not that it wasn’t easy, but it seemed completely
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onomatopoeic. However, all figuration, tropes and metaphors of that text raised with light, sun, dawn of humanity,
coolness, other rays coming through education.
Later on, I felt the same spirit of the verses of our men of the Renaissance, especially from Naim Frasheri (1846 1900) and onwards. Something refreshing and lighting being internally. I would have much time and readings to capture
the meaning of the lighting phenomenon, illuminate. Now, even today, definition seems to me incomplete which is given
in Wikipedia - the free encyclopaedia: “Enlightenment was a philosophical and cultural movement that spread to Europe
from the beginning of 18th century until French Revolution, which was carved by efforts of liberation through reason from
thought, from insistence, imagination, prejudices and inherited ideologies of heritage of new and gained knowledge”.
I consider it necessary to give on this occasion an interpretation of enlightenment notion , according to Prof. Dr.
Masar Stavileci, according to the explanation in the introduction of his study including “ . . . semantic process from
lumiere revelee /discovered light or the light of god/ to lumiere de la raison emancipee / light of emancipated reason/. . . ”
(Stavileci, M. Age of Enlightenment in the Albanian National Renaissance Literature, Rilindja, Prishtina 1990, p. 11).
Being a movement with a focus mainly in formation in the Age of Enlightenment in 18th century, for one thing, it
would be completely anachronistic for our time, or the historical documentary value, with the development of cultural,
artistic, social, moral and philosophic studies. I would probably suppose so if the study was not so serious as "The spirit
of Enlightenment" from the essayist, historian, philosopher and theoretician of literature, Cvetan Todorov (Tzvetan
Todorov 1939). Todorov, dealing with the interpretation of Memoars of the thinker of 18th century, Condorcet, we will
quote him in context of approval: "In general, any rule, of any kind of nature, in any hands to be given, in any way to be
discussed by the nature, is an enemy of enlightenment" (Todorov. Tzvetan, The Spirit of Enlightenment, Buzuku,
Prishtina 2009, p. 61).
So, why it happens this way?
The reason for this ascertainment looks simple: the more individuals are enlightened, the more are able to act
independently and would be less inclined to submit to power in blind way. That is why, rightfully, Todorov insists: "Age of
Enlightenment belongs to the past, since there has been a century it existed: however it cannot be considered as a past
yet, because it is no longer a denominator of doctrine dated to history, but an attitude towards the world". (Ibid, page
111).
Based on that, today we hit colonialism, genocide, the reigning lovelessness, knowing that everlasting enemies of
enlightenment are not only obscurantism, arbitrary authority, fanaticism and others. Todorov, spurred by the answer to
the question from Kant: Are you experiencing a period of enlightenment, a really bright period? - No, but a period in
process of lighting, proposes the phenomenon called Relighting of enlightenment.
Our opinion is that this transitional period in the field of education in our country needs this relighting. Personality
moulded with this content is an irreplaceable effective in the development of the country in almost every area of action.
4. Vocational Training on Contemporary Bases
As stated above, that parallel with the process of education is also conceived the vocational training. That vocational
training has unavoidable impact, not to say crucial role in the development of the country, such a thing as to be put into
question and doubt. Although these two processes of education are almost entirely indivisible, vocational training has
direct impact on development, in terms of immediate time. While the whole education process lies along all instances of
education, vocational training has other grading.
Following this issue in detail, and based on personal experience in the field of education for several years, I can
state that even in this plan, there have been, and there will be difficulties, in the platform, planning of legal reform, as well
as on profiling structure of economic and social development of today's Kosovo.
When speaking of the period immediately after the war, the most sought cadres for work were language
translators, and this phenomenon caused chaos in the learning process, in teaching, because it came out as professors
and teachers of English language evaporated.
Meanwhile, seeing the direct and immediate benefit in the plan of material benefits, language courses opened in
almost every village neighbourhood or within the city.
This disturbance of equilibrium parameters under the influence of the temporary circumstances did not pass
without influence in the field of further development of the process of vocational training.
I think that impact of vocational training, respectively of education in economic and social development of a
country has been rightly seen by Anemonë Zeneli, at an observation published by KIPRED:
"From the theoretical viewpoint, there are at least three mechanisms through which education may have an impact
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on economic growth.
Initially, the micro perspective, education increases essential human capital in the workforce, thus increasing
labour productivity and thus will result in economic growth steadily towards a higher level of balance of production.
Secondly, education may increase the innovative capacity of the economy, as well as new knowledge about
technology, the new products and processes that promote growth.
Thirdly, education can facilitate dissemination and transmission of knowledge required to understand the new
information and for the successful implementation of new technology drafted by others, which again promote economic
growth". (Anemonë Zeneli: KIPRED (Education Center), Role of education in the country's economic development,
August 2013).
5. Conclusion
Being a small and a poor country, just coming out of a terrible war, with almost entire destruction of educational
infrastructure, another paradox appears. Similar to some sectors of the economy, as well as in the field of business, for
example in trading of petroleum products, when disloyal and unfair competition squeeze even ourselves, even in
educational plan of vocational training, this obstructing phenomenon appears. If we consider the fact that in a country
with a population of approximately two million, number of students in figures between 30 to 50 thousand and add this
figure even twice or more of young scholars in elementary and high school education (see, Accreditation Agency of
Kosovo: http: //www. akreditimi-ks. org), it appears that with this resource, we could not even turn out to have balanced
the countries with much more advanced economy than ours.
Hence, to achieve the appropriate harmonization of right between needs, demands and offers; to have tangible
effects in the development of the country, a series of measures by institutional structures are required, first by the
Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, such as:
- Careful planning,
- Ongoing reform of educational process,
- Short-term and long-term investments,
- The cooperation with similar international organizations etc.
However, the human potential is a promising prerequisite, moreover when it is known that Kosovo, according to
the percentage of the population in Europe, holds the main place regarding the number of young people.
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Student Engagement in Fostering Quality Teaching in Higher Education
Dražena Gašpar
Faculty of Economics - University of Mostar, Matice Hrvatske Bb
drazena.gaspar@sve-mo.ba
Mirela Mabić
Faculty of Economics - University of Mostar, Matice Hrvatske Bb
mirela.mabic@sve-mo.ba
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2015.v5n1s1p147
Abstract
Student engagement should be one of the most powerful drivers for improvement of quality teaching in higher education. As
students are direct beneficiaries of quality teaching, they are able to provide crucial feedback not only on what works well but
also on what they would like to be done differently and how. The paper presents results of research related to students'
perception of course Accounting Information Systems (AIS) and way of its implementation at the Faculty of Economic University of Mostar. At this course lectures include many opportunities for active student engagement through cooperative
learning activities (debates, team work, and presentation of project results). The authors developed two questionnaires in order
to investigate the students' understanding of AIS course at the beginning and at the end of lectures. At the first class students
completed a questionnaire about their expectations from AIS lectures (content, their engagement, learning activities, learning
outcomes, assessment) and at the last class they completed another questionnaire about their real experiences related to AIS
lectures. Research has been conducted for last two years and it enabled authors to use its results to tailor lectures in
accordance with student's expectation and accordingly to improve teaching process.
Keywords: student survey, student evaluation of teaching, teaching quality, student engagement.
1. Introduction
Last decades it has become obvious that citizens of an increasingly complex community, country and globalized world
need the skills, critically reflective processes and creative approaches in order to cope successfully. Education
institutions are urged to prepare students for entry into this competitive environment by equipping them with
appropriate skills, knowledge, values and attributes. There is a strong drive to build and create knowledge together with
an understanding of working life and reformulate the concept of knowledge in education institutions. Namely,
education institutions, especially higher education institutions, are bound to provide quality teaching that leads to learning
outcomes and, above all, added value for their students.
In Learning and Teaching, the traditional teacher centred, transmission model of learning adopted by the ‘sage on
the stage’ (McWilliam, 2007; referenced by Martin, 2010) has gradually begun to change to a more facilitative approach
to teaching that is learner centred and where the teacher becomes the ‘guide on the side’. Barr and Tagg (Barr, Tagg,
1995; referenced by Martin, 2010) see this shift from an ‘instructional’ to a ‘learning’ paradigm as changing the role of
higher education institutions (HEI) from a ‘place of instruction’ to a place to ‘produce learning’. Given greater democracy
in learning, McWilliam (McWilliam, 2007; referenced by Martin, 2010) suggests that the teacher can become the cocreator of new meaning making.
Today’s higher education institutions are complex organisations under high pressure from different directions and
fostering quality teaching is a daily challenge for them. Although most universities have developed teaching and learning
strategies, they still struggle to implement them and effectively assess their impact on the learning experience. It is
hard to find way to match overall learning needs of students with curriculum development and to ensure programmes are
relevant for students living in a globalised world.
Quality teaching is a complex issue and it requires the overall commitment of the entire institution:
- Institution level - policy development, support for organisation and internal quality assurance systems.
- Programmes level - comprising actions to measure and enhance the development, content and delivery
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of academic programmes.
Individual level - initiatives that help teachers achieve their mission, encouraging teachers to innovate and
support improvements to student learning and adopt a learner-oriented approach.
In the framework of international project Tempus CCMLL (Curricula Modernisation and Long Life Learning Centre),
University of Mostar developed Handbook for teaching programme and curricula development. Handbook consists of two
parts. In the first part are explained and described learning outcomes, competence and student oriented teaching. In the
second part is presented methodology for development of teaching programme and curricula at University of Mostar.
Model of teaching programme development at University Mostar includes following elements (Rezić & Višekruna, 2012):
- Existence of appropriate resources.
- Existence of need for specific teaching programme identified through consultations with internal and external
stakeholders (academic staff, students, business, public institutions, non-governmental organizations and so
on).
- Well defined profile of teaching programme.
- Defined set of expected learning outcomes expressed as field and generic competences.
- Defined end described academic content (knowledge, understanding and skills) and structure (modules and
credits).
- Adequate strategies of teaching, learning and identification of achievement in order to realise expected
learning outcomes.
- Adequate system of evaluation and quality assurance, especially focused on coherence of teaching
programme and its compatibility with qualifications framework.
The research presented in this paper is result of process of evaluation and quality assurance related to teaching
process, especially focused on students' perception of course Accounting Information Systems (AIS) and way of its
implementation at the Faculty of Economic - University of Mostar.
-
2. Student Engagement in Teaching Process
The field of student engagement encompasses theory, practice and policy. It is huge and varied, with a significant history
of publications in academic journals, published syntheses of literature (Trowler 2010; Trowler and Trowler 2010
referenced by Healey et al. , 2014); edited anthologies of case studies and articles (Nygaard et al. 2013; Bryson 2014;
Dunne and Owen 2013a; Solomonides, Reid and Petocz 2012; Little 2011 referenced by Healey et al. , 2014); and
nationally commissioned studies and reports (Little et al. 2009 referenced by Healey et al. , 2014).
As a concept, “student engagement” is ambiguous and contested (Healey et al. , 2014). Within learning and
teaching it can be divided into two broad areas:
- Student engagement as the way in which students invest time and energy in their own learning,
- Ways in which students are involved and empowered by institutions to shape their learning experiences, both
inside the classroom and beyond (Kuh et. al. , 2007 referenced by Fry et al. , 2015).
Kahu argues that problems in the definition of engagement stem partly from the conflation of the state of
engagement, its antecedents, and its consequences (Kahu, 2013 referenced by Fry et al. , 2015). Engagement involves
the student, the teacher, the institution and the learning context. It is a “meta-constructor” that brings together various
threads of research on student success (Fry et al. , 2015).
The common strands around student engagement are (Fry et al. , 2015):
- Institutional characteristics,
- Student characteristics,
- Setting high expectations,
- Identity, belonging and social interaction,
- Students managing their learning,
- Feedback and assessment,
- Teaching.
There is a strong correlation between these different strands (Kahu, 2013 referenced by Fry et al. , 2015).
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Figure 1. Engaging students (Fry et al. , 2015)
In Figure 1. is presented the continuum of student and institutional efforts to improve engagement, from clear institutional
responsibilities at one end, importantly student responsibilities at the other, and joint engagement in the middle (Fry et al.
,2015). Figure 1. shows that it is not all down to the teacher, or to the student, or to the institution.
3. Student Engagement and Quality Teaching
Many authors stressed that teachers are key players in fostering student engagement (Akey, 2006; Garcia-Reid et al. ,
2005). They work directly with the students and typically are the most influential in a student’s educational experience.
Creating a culture of achievement in their classroom, developing interactive and relevant lessons and activities, and
being encouraging and supportive to students are all ways in which teachers can foster student engagement in the
classroom.
Also, student engagement is most powerful as a driver of quality teaching when it involves dialogue, and not only
information on the student’s experience. As students are the intended beneficiaries of quality teaching, they are able to
provide crucial “customer feedback” not only on what works well but also on what they would like to be done differently
and how (Hénard & Roseveare , 2012).
In order to ensure that student engagement will lead to quality teaching, HEI should encourage and define a clear
role of students in fostering quality teaching. One of the first steps on that way is building up trust between HEI and
students by involving students in developing the teaching and learning framework and ensure that it incorporates
what quality teaching means for them. Also, it is necessary to develop the capacity of student bodies to become
reliable partners when consulted on teaching matters or when serving as representatives on relevant committees.
Institutions should develop reliable instruments and techniques for gathering and using student feedback and
convince students that institution will acted upon their feedback. When the teachers are in question, HEI should provide
professional development for teachers to learn how to use student feedback most effectively to improve their
teaching practice and provide incentives for programmes that implement methods to engage students in relevant
and active learning, e. g. new curriculum, project-based learning, new methodologies, active learning classes,
cooperative programmes, etc. (Hénard & Roseveare , 2012).
4. Research Methodology
During the two academic years (2013/2014 and 2014/2015) the authors conducted empirical research on a convenience
sample of bachelor students at Faculty of Economics University of Mostar who attended the course Accounting
Information System (AIS). The aim of research was to investigate the students' perception of AIS course and way of its
implementation. The authors developed two types of questionnaires and students fulfilled one at the first class – at the
beginning of lectures, and the second at the last class – after the lectures and all activities related to continuous students'
assessment (tests, project and seminar activities) were finished. The first questionnaire was about students’ expectations
from AIS lectures (content, their engagement, learning activities, learning outcomes, assessment), while the second
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questionnaire was about their real experiences related to AIS lectures. Data were analyzed in Microsoft Office Excel
2007 and expressed in absolute and relative frequencies (%).
5. Research Results
5.1 The initial questionnaire – Students’ expectations of the course AIS
In the first questionnaire students were asked to express their opinion about the course content. The question was openended. Also, through this questionnaire authors tried to find out whether the students looking for information about the
course, either by asking older colleagues about course, or by themselves browsing Internet and looking for information
about AIS. Distributions of students according to researched items in the years of research and in total are shown in the
Table 1.
Table 1. Distributions of students
Group of students
n
Students looking information about
the AIS course, generally
the modalities of assessment at AIS
the teaching materials for AIS
the literature for AIS
A type of instruction at AIS
the necessity of AIS’ class attendance
2013/2014
46
yes
no
25
21
20
26
16
30
9
37
10
36
16
30
2014/2015
45
Yes
no
25
20
20
25
15
30
16
29
23
22
20
25
Total
91
yes
50
40
31
25
33
36
no
41
51
60
66
58
55
Results presented in Table 1. Shows that slightly less than half of the respondents did not even asked other about the
course and they were expecting to be introduced with everything during lectures. It is interesting that when it comes to
looking for information about AIS on the Internet almost all students have said no. Only six students stated that they had
used Google for collecting information about "Accounting Information System" and 9 indicated that they are looking for
other materials related to the course, too.
Expectations related to the teachers and the course is examined through the open questions. Some of the
answers are shown in the Table 2.
Table 2. Some of students’ expectations
Expectations of teachers (professor and assistant)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
To be accessible for consultation
Try to explain everything and help us with ambiguity
Transfer their course knowledge to us on the best way,
the lecture are interest and supported by examples from
practice
Good clarifications
Do not be boring
To be interesting
The performers are friendly and collegial
Help in learning course content
A lot of new information and interesting things
To be fair and do not require much of us students
A lot of new information and interesting things
To be fair and do not require much of us (students)
To clarify and approach the subject matter of the course
Sufficient engagement and collaboration with students
To strive, to be always available and to have an
Expectations of teaching (lectures and exercises)
• Teaching is understandable to all students so they would
be able to successfully pass this course
• Introduction of accounting on practice
• Understanding of the course and acquire new knowledge
of AIS
• To understand the content through practical examples
• To learn and to master everything we needed for exams
• Expect interesting lectures and exercises, team work,
practical work
• Successfully pass examination
• To master the teaching material of the course
• Lectures should be as specific and interesting as
possible, and the exercises should adequately prepare
me for the exam
• To learn as much as possible
• Facilitate understanding of the course
• Much knowledge and practice
• Passing exam
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understanding
Clearly explain without 20 lessons in a one lecture
Cooperation and delivering of quality knowledge
The fair and proper attitude towards the subject and
students and to help students to increase their
knowledge
A quality approach in the form of interesting and useful
lectures
Detailed and understandable explanation
Professional approach and help
In order to see their desire to teach us something new
That will teach us by presenting their practical
experience
To be patient
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
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The acquisition of basic knowledge of AIS
That it will arouse interest for further investigation, study
and learn about the AIS
Easily mastering accounting by using IT
Full schedule
Acquire new knowledge
To be interesting
More practical work on computers
As it is evident from the above responses, part of them refers to the substance of the AIS, and part on the communication
and interaction of stakeholders - teacher, assistant and students. The students were also asked about their opinion
related to the organization of teaching process. They asked what kind of activities they expect in lectures and exercises:
ex-cathedra lectures, practical work, a combination or something else. The majority of students, in both generations,
pointed out that they expected combination (84. 8% in generation 2013/2014 and 75. 5% in generation 2014/2015). In
accordance with this, only few students stated ex-cathedra lectures and practical work separately (approximately 12%),
even none in the generation 2013/2014. More than 90% of students from both generations indicated that they expect the
lectures abound with numerous practical examples through which is easier to understand the theory. Related to
involvement of students, most of them expected a combination of individual and team work. Of course, there are a few of
them who were only for individual work, and those who would like to settle all in the team. According to the students’
opinions, the ratio of individual and team work should be 40%: 60% and the ratio of theory and practice 50%: 50%. From
these ratios we can indicate the responsibility of students, because they recognize the importance of individual work and
theory, not only teamwork and practical examples. It shows that their aim is not only to pass the exam but to acquire
knowledge and skills that they will use in their future career after graduation.
5.2 The final questionnaire - rating and review of course AIS
As highlighted in the methodology of the survey, after the end of the semester students through the second questionnaire
have expressed their views about the realization of teaching process - they have commented organization, teachers,
their success, and quality, what they learned and so on. At the second questionnaire the students were asked whether
AIS course met their expectations and why. More than 90% of students answered yes. They believe that continuous work
and their involvement are essential for successful realization. Students pointed that fact that at the beginning of AIS class
they were asked about the expectations and organisation of the lectures and exercises, means a lot to them. It showed
them that they are active stakeholders in the educational process.
According to the students' responses, the most common reasons for their high satisfaction with AIS course were:
1) because I learned something new, 2) because I could participate in class and prepare for the final exam, 3) because at
the end of the semester I had passed the exams and get good mark, 4) because we worked differently than on the other
courses, 5) because the continuous work is more interesting and different from the realization on the other courses, 6)
because I had low expectations, but now I have a general information regarding AIS and realized its importance for
company, 7) because we have taken the exam on interesting and unusual way, 8) because we were able to actively
participate and present our ideas, 9) because there was no ex-cathedra lectures, students were constantly involved in
the work and communication, 10) because in the team were only acquaintances not friends so working with them I made
new friends. Last reason was worth additional explanation. Namely, one of the goals was that through the active and
continuous work and collaboration, students learn to work in teams. Teachers started from the assumption that after
graduation, when find the work, students will be in contact with different people (active, slow, innovatory, lazy, disciplined,
etc. ) and they will need to cooperate with them if they want to succeed in their jobs. At the beginning of AIS class teams
of five students were formed randomly. Their good grades and successfully passed the examination show that students
managed to organize and collaborate well.
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Of course, some students have pointed out what they didn’t like, what is the lack of this kind of work and what
should be improved for future generations. Among the disadvantages they mentioned: the physical space and a weekly
schedule of lectures.
Weekly schedule is related to the organisation of lecturers at the level of the entire faculty and it is hard to
influence on it. But, physical organization is a good observation. The classrooms are mainly organized for ex-cathedra
lectures. Professor standing in front of students and teachers. Since the course is based on student involvement, the hall
should be organized in another way. The goal would be that all see each other, but considering that the group has about
50-60 people it is a little difficult. So it would be nice to make work-tables for each team that would enhance their internal
interaction in lectures.
In order to understand the expectations and desires of students, they were asked to evaluate their satisfaction with
the realization of the AIS course. The results are shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Students' satisfaction with the realization of the course AIS
No
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Item
Group
Course content
The content of exercises
Course Organization
Organization exercises
Examination method
Grading standards
Practicality of Course
The independence of students
Satisfaction with College
The degree of fulfillment of expectations
2013/2014
3,94±0,53
4,28±0,58
4,00±0,63
4,06±0,64
4,21±0,98
4,04±1,00
4,04±0,69
4,17±0,70
3,96±0,75
4,04±0,78
M±SD
2014/2015
4,36±0,34
4,38±0,32
4,45±0,56
4,45±0,55
4,64±0,45
4,41±0,70
4,56±0,61
4,78±0,59
4,59±0,57
4,58±0,59
Total
4,15±0,43
4,33±0,45
4,23±0,59
4,26±0,59
4,43±0,71
4,23±0,85
4,30±0,65
4,48±0,65
4,27±0,66
4,31±0,68
Graph 1 was used to better present the differences in means (Table 3. ).
Graph 1. Students' satisfaction with the realization of the AIS
From the data presented in the Table 4, and even better from the Graph 1, it can be seen that the means are relatively
high, all above the mark 4. Comparing the ratings for the two analyzed years, it is evident that the means increased in
2014/2015. Namely, after the first year in which a new way of realization of the course (continuous student engagement)
was introduced, the survey results were analysed in detail. Accordingly, some changes were made for the next year
(2014/2015): more detailed practical work was introduced, students were more involved in the discussion, students got
greater freedom in preparing their presentations, and direct student engagement was raised. Also, students got for more
detailed instructions for their tasks and structuring tutorials by lessons which each group solves, so they were better
prepared than former generation. Therefore higher students’ satisfaction with AIS course in the year 2014/2015 could be
expected.
6. Conclusion
The findings of conducted research confirm the importance of students’ engagement in teaching process. Also, results of
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research stressed the necessity of surveys among students, related to measures of students’ satisfaction with quality of
teaching process, with way of organisation and realisation of lectures and with a teachers’ approach to course. But,
surveys could not be an end in itself. The results of surveys should be carefully analyzed and appropriate actions taken.
There is one interesting fact related to presented research – the questionnaires were better filled and students freely
expressed their opinions in 2015 than in the first research conducted in 2014. The reason could lay in fact that in 2014
students had no experiences in such kind of surveys and they were unsure about potential consequences of hearty
answers. Research showed that students asked their colleagues about their experience related to AIS course, so
information through word of mouth obviously encourage students to freely express their opinions in 2015.
Research showed that students were looking for and appreciate when they were asked about teaching process
and ways of its realisation, and of course, when saw that their opinions were analyzed and respected, meaning when
saw that teacher tries to adapt teaching process and adjust it with their expectations and abilities.
Obviously, it is necessary constantly be alerted to students opinions and attitudes and ensure their engagement in
teaching process, starting from course planning till the final realisation and assessment.
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Communicative Language Teaching and Its Impact on Students’ Performance
PhDc. Hysen Kasumi
English Faculty, AAB University, Prishtinë, Kosovë
hysen_kasumi@hotmail.com
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2015.v5n1s1p155
Abstract
Communicative Language Teaching as a method of 21st century in terms of learning foreign languages undoubtedly takes a
very important place, if not central place in Kosovo curriculum for high schools. In our research, we did a literature review
regarding the Method of Communication, in the regional countries, Europe Union and beyond. Initially it is studied Kosovo
curriculum and then application of this method in Kosovo schools. Since, CLT shows a number of advantages compared with
other standard methods, its impact on students’ performance and motivation. Moreover, it was conducted a research by
observing some of the schools in urban and rural areas, to see how this approach is implemented in our schools. Furthermore,
there was also conducted an empirical research of student performance based on the four language skills such as reading,
writing, speaking and listening. It was also used the experimental method to see the differences of students’ performance, of
those who are taught using the Communicative Language Teaching Method and those who are taught with other standard
methods.
Keywords: Communication Language Teaching- Method, teaching, Motivation, Kosovo Curriculum.
1. Introduction
Method, according to Harmer is the practical implementation of approach (Harmer, 2003). The user of a method reaches
a decision about the type of action, role of the teachers and students, the type of material that will assist teaching and
some models for organizing a Syllabus.
Methods of teaching and learning have been written by different authors, in which, they use different names for
different time periods. Some of the methods, used before are almost fallen into oblivion, but there are such others which
achieved success and are still used and well known.
For our research were studied the Communicative Language Teaching as a method of Constructivism, and
application of this method and its impact on motivation compared to other used methods in rural and urban area of
Republic of Kosovo. At the same time it is studied the Kosovo Curriculum, especially its communicative competences.
A significant number of public school students continue to gain knowledge of English languages, at private school
of foreign language courses. So, it was obvious that we should make a research about what makes these students obtain
knowledge in private schools when the same knowledge, based on Kosovo curriculum, should be taken in their public
schools. Teachers can use the curriculum to run it right into material selection and preparation of a syllabus in detail to
achieve its goals towards a better performance of their students. However, the question arises how to make Kosovo
curriculum impendent in our public schools these days?
Therefore, it was necessary to investigate the theoretical aspect regarding curricula, in particular Kosovo
curriculum of English language. Moreover, it cae done a literature review about the Communicative Language Teaching
before conducting the research on students’ performance in English language classes by implementing the CLT
Syllabus.
2. Kosovo Curriculum and Communicative Competences
The essence of CLT is the engagement of learners in communication in order to allow them to develop their
communicative competence. The elaboration of what we know as CLT can be traced to concurrent 20th-century
developments in linguistic theory and language learning curriculum design both in Europe and in North America.
(Savignon, 2006). According to the Framework of Kosovo curriculum, a good curriculum is a system highly dependent on
the environment. It may consist of completely different elements, such as teacher training, qualification standards,
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political expectations and traditions (Ministry of Education, 2011). Kosovo curriculum strongly emphasizes the CLT and
(Task - Based Learning). This relates to the (laissez- faire) curriculum, where the student is independent to communicate
and to optimize the topic or situation to talk about, but at the same time it has a relationship with critical curriculum where
specific emphasis is on learning the language with the sole purpose of using it in situations outside school, such as
airports, restaurants, shops, streets.
Competencies include an integrated and coherent system of knowledge, skills and attitudes applicable and
transferable, which will help students to face the challenges of the digital era, the free market economy and based on
knowledge, in a world of interdependent relationships. Competences provided by the Curriculum Framework are derived
from the overall goals of undergraduate education and define key learning outcomes, which should reach by students in
a progressive and sustained during undergraduate education system. (Ministry of Education, 2011)
Key Competencies that students must own during the undergraduate education are:
1. Competence of communication and expression
1. Effective communicator
2. Thinking competency
2. Creative / Critical Thinking
3. Learning competency
3. Successful Student
4. Competence that has to do with work, life and environment
4. Productive contributor
5. Personal competence
5. Healthy individual
6. Civic competence
6. Responsible citizen
(Ministry of Education, 2011)
Competence of communication and expression are:
•
Communication through mother tongue
•
Communication through foreign languages
•
Cultural expression through symbols, signs and other artistic expressions
•
Communication through Information Technology
•
The commitment and contribution for productive dialogue
•
Respect the rules of communication
•
Giving and accepting constructive feedback
•
The expression of tolerance in communication o Initiate constructive actions
The competences of communication and expression, thinking competencies and learning competencies are
instrumental nature: they are the basis for other competencies, which are more related to the circumstances and with
certain content, such as necessary competences to private lives, public and professional.
The competences of communication and expression ("Effective communicator"), means that children and young
people should be developed as personalities, learn and participate actively in society, it is important to understand
messages to who are directed and adequately expressed through languages, symbols, signs, codes and artistic forms.
To communicate effectively, students are encouraged to utilize independent, critical and creative tools and possibilities of
communication and expression.
Curriculum Degree 5 - General Education and Professional Education includes classes X and XI .aims to confront
students with further studies and more specialized learning, in terms of academic preparation for higher education and /
or to enter in the labor market. Students were faced with challenges that enable: developing self-confidence; deeper and
more specialized studying, by engaging the skills to use different sources, with a critical approach to various data
available; development of the desire for commitment and stamina to higher achievements in terms of learning and
preparation for careers and personal, professional and public life; preparing to take responsibility for their lives, to actively
participate in social life as responsible citizens and competent and successfully compete in the job market. Development
as individuals and members of society, to be able and to have capacities needed for life and work to cope with the
changes of the local and global economy and learn how to solve problems in different situations in personal and
professional life; preparation for life, to live independently and work on the challenges and opportunities offered by
modern society and take responsible actions and decisions on the situation, and to be well informed throughout their
lives.
3. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
Speaking about CLT characteristics (Richards, 2006), emphesis that people learn one language when thet use it to do
things, rether than by studying its functions, we have a lot of different examples where students learned a second foreing
language because of their needs for that king of language. According to this, we can say that the students’ motivation to
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learn a specific language was because of the need.
Communication method is a method which does not stress practicing the rules. According to scholars of this
method it is important to speak a language but not to tell me how language works. There are a lot of people who use the
language in real communication and most of them did not follow even a single foreign language course which means that
they lack a significant structural and grammatical rules of the language but as Jack Richard points out, mistakes are not
important so they are tolerated, the most important thing is to use communication or to speak a language and to
understand each other in order to communicate.
English of twenty-first century should be the English of communication, where people want to be able to
communicate among themselves and therefore researchers of English language when speaking about English language
pronunciation and terminology, use different names for their English language speaking, such as: American English,
British English, Chinese English, Albanian English, Russian English, etc. People are not interested in how they are
stressing the word or a sentence, they want to be understood. Therefore, (Richards, 2006) states that language
competence is, its usage to the purposes and functions.
4. How do Students Learn a Language?
Most authors, stated that learning a foreign language in the past considered as mechanical. They also put emphasis on
precision and accuracy of a language. This means that students had to compile grammatically correct sentences without
even a single grammatical mistake in morfology and syntactic. My opinion is that this method makes student highly
dependent from the teacher, not giving much opportunities to students to communicate in a relaxed way, among
teachers and students, as well as students themselves. Students would learn things by heart, which they can be known
at present but not to be able to produce knowledge at the moment they needed.
The consructive theory with the method of communication has a different point of view compared to some other
methods where the student becomes the centre of the class and where the teacher is only a faccilitator.
(Richards, 2006) edescribes learning through Communication method as follows:
•
Interactivity between language learners and speakers.
•
Creating a colaburalist (cooperative) meaning.
•
Establish a meaningful interactivity through a language.
•
Learning through a student participation fitbeck when they learn or use a language.
•
Being carefully about the language they hear (the input) and attempt to incorporate new forms with anyone
who develops communicative competences.
•
Attempt of useing the language and experiment with various forms the language.
The broad aim of CLT is to apply theoretical perspective of communicative approach making communicative
competence a purpose of teaching and accepting interconnection of a language and communication (Diane, 2000).
(Richards, 2006) when speaking about his experienxe in a class where is used CLT, he speaks according to his
class observations. Based on these observations he comes out with the following principles:
Whenever possible "authentical language" should be used – a language that is used in a real context.
Being able to convay the goals of speaker and writer, is part of being competent in communication.
English as (target language) is a tool for communication in the classroom, and not just the object of study.
A function may have different linguistic forms. Since the focus of the course is the real use of language, then it is
presented along with a wide range of varieties of linguistic forms. We should emphasis the process of communication but
not on language forms.
Games are important, as they have clear features, shared with real communicative events.
Also, the speaker takes immediate/instant feet back by the listener, no matter if he / she have made a successful
communication.
As activity as a goal has the fluency of a language, the teacher does not correct the student but takes notes for the
students mistakes and later discusses with the class
5. Seven Principles of the Principled Communicative Approach (PCA)
I have argued in this paper that the real challenge for language teaching methodology is to specify the nature of the
optimal cooperation between explicit and implicit learning processes in a principled manner. Working out the details of a
new, principled communicative approach (PCA) is clearly an ongoing process, but based on the research conducted over
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the past decade, we can formulate some key guiding principles for the approach. I would like to conclude this paper by
offering seven key – and somewhat overlapping – principles that are in accordance with the state of the art of our
research knowledge of instructed second language acquisition.
1. The personal significance principle: PCA should be meaning-focused and personally significant as a whole.
This has been the basic tenet of student centered, communicative language teaching for the past 25 years,
and I believe that this principle is just as valid now as when it was first formulated.
2. The controlled practice principle: While the overall purpose of language learning is to prepare the learners for
meaningful communication, skill learning theory suggests that – similar to the training of musicians or athletes
– it should also include controlled practice activities to promote the automatisation of L2 skills. The purpose of
this practice should be clearly explained to the learners and the content/format should be made as motivating
as possible within the tasks’ inherent constraints.
3. The declarative input principle: To provide jump starts for subsequent automatisation, PCA should contain
explicit initial input components. This declarative input can be offered in several ways, including the potential
utilization of accelerated learning techniques and rote-learning.
4. The focus-on-form principle: While maintaining an overall meaning-oriented approach, PCA should also pay
attention to the formal/structural aspects of the L2 that determine accuracy and appropriateness at the
linguistic, discourse and pragmatic levels. An important hallmark of good teaching is finding the optimal
balance between meaning-based and form-focused activities in the dynamic classroom context.
5. The formulaic language principle: PCA should include the teaching of formulaic language as a featured
component. There should be sufficient awareness raising of the significance and pervasiveness of formulaic
language in real-life communication, and selected phrases should be practiced and recycled intensively.
6. The language exposure principle: PCA should offer learners extensive exposure to large amounts of L2 input
that can feed the learners’ implicit learning mechanisms. In order to make the most of this exposure, learners
should be given some explicit preparation in terms of pre-task activities (e.g. pre-reading/listening/watching
tasks or explanations of some salient aspects of the material) to prime them for maximum intake.
7. The focused interaction principle: PCA should offer learners ample opportunities to participate in genuine L2
interaction. For best effect, such communicative practice should always have a specific formal or functional
focus, and should always be associated with target phrases to practice.
In sum, the essence of the principled communicative approach that I am advocating is the creative integration of
meaningful communication with relevant declarative input and the automatisation of both linguistic rules and lexical items.
In instructed SLA, the more is not the merrier if it is not focused. (Dörnyei, 2009)
6. Research Methodology
The research question in this article is how much is CLT implemented in public schools in Republic of Kosovo?
We used the observation method to see the implementation of CLT, the compulsory method that teachers should
be using according to Kosovo curriculum.
An experiment in urban and rural classes was conducted by applying the CLT syllabus to see the changes in
student performance while teaching with CLT and with other methods that use textbooks, which are ESA and PPP.
A sample of 150 students was part of the experiment for our experimental and control groups in urban school
"Hivzi Sylejmani" in Fushë Kosovo and rural school "Ulpijana" in Gadime – Lypjan.
At the beginning of the academic year the students of tenth grade were tested with KET test (Key English Test), as
a transition class, from a lower middle school to an upper middle school, measuring the performance of students before
applying the CLT. This testing was applied to see if the students of tenth grade have the necessary knowledge which is
required for the tenth grade according to Kosovo curriculum. At the end of the academic year, students’ knowledge was
tested again, with PET test (Preliminary English Test) not only to measure the students’ performance after applying CLT,
but to compare the experimental group’s performance who were taught using CLT and control croup’s performance, who
were taught using ESA or PPP.
7. Results
The methods applied in order to realize the tasks set out in this paper, descriptive statistical methods (parameters of
central tendency, dispersion and correlation), and scientific methods of condensation and transformation of the results.
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Results are processed by the computer program SPSS version 17.0.
Level descriptive analysis of the variables involved in the research was conducted with the help of these methods:
Descriptive statistics parameters included:
- Arithmetic average (central tendency calculation results)
- Standard Deviation (distribution of results from their average value)
- Minimum and maximum score (range between two extreme values)
- Skewness, (normality of the distribution of results)
- Kurtuosis (level of homogeneity of the group) and
8. Interpretation of Basic Statistical Parameters for KET Test
In Table .1. are presented the values of basic statistical parameters of the results of students in lower secondary schools,
"Hivzi Sulejmani" and "LUARASI" as urban schools tested with KET test. The table value of central tendency analyzed
the results and measurements of the distribution of results about their arithmetic average and the normality of the
distribution of these results. Based on the values of the arithmetic mean can be concluded that all variables have normal
distribution of results since Skewness values are smaller than 1. The high degree of heterogeneity in the outcome is
shown in the variable where the value of Skewness Listening is - .651 and this distribution with negative bias means that
most of the results are smaller than their arithmetic average.
Also, the value of Kurtosisit which shows the level of homogeneity of the groups, which within normal limits should
not exceed the value of 3 in our case shows that we are dealing with very homogeneous groups.
The average value of the results expressed in percentage was 10.9 Reading in writting 8.97, at 14:10 Listening
and Speaking 14. 30. From these results we can see that the students of this school as a percentage realized the best
result in the test Listening and Speaking while Reading tests, especially in test Writinig realized lower results.
Table 1. Values of basic statistical parameters for variables under investigation KET Urban Testing
Reading
Writing
Listening
Speaking
Total
Valid N (listwise)
N
104
104
104
104
104
104
Range
22.14
23.00
23.00
25.00
85.43
Minimum
.00
.00
.00
.00
.00
Maximum
22.14
23.00
23.00
25.00
85.43
Mean
10.0962
8.9712
14.1058
14.3029
47.4760
Std. Deviation
5.82943
6.53958
6.00149
5.49113
17.85118
Skewness
.149
.187
-.651
-.051
-.033
Kurtosis
-.619
-1.122
.067
-.141
-.082
In Table. 2. are shown the values of basic statistical parameters of the results of students in lower secondary school,,
Ulpijana "as rural school test test KET. Based on the values of the arithmetic mean can be concluded that all variables
have normal distribution of results since Skewness values are smaller than 1, except for the Writing skill that has the
value 1.014. High degree of heterogeneity of the outcome is shown in the variable where the value of Skewness
Listening is - .825 reading value - .325 and this distribution with negative bias means that most of the results are smaller
than their arithmetic average.
Po ashtu, vlera e Kurtosisit e cila tregon për nivelin e homogjenitetit të grupeve, e cila brenda kufijve normal nuk
duhet ta tejkaloj vlerën 3, në rastin tonë tregon se kemi të bëjmë me grupe mjaftë homogjen.
Vlera mesatare e rezultateve të shprehura në përqindje në Reading ka qenë 8.96, në Writting 5.26, në Listening
12.07 dhe Speaking 7. 92. Nga këto rezultate mund të shohim se nxënsit e kësaj shkolle në bazë të përqindjes kanë
realizuar rezultat më të mirë në testin Reading dhe listening ndërsa në testet e listening sidomos në testin Writinig kanë
realizuar rezultate më të dobëta.
The average value of the results expressed in percentages in Reading was 8.96, in writting 26.05, in Listening
12.07 and Speaking 7. 92. From these results we can see that the students of this school based on percentage realized
the best result in the test Reading and listening while listening tests especially in test Writinig realized lower results.
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Table 2. Values of basic statistical parameters for variables under investigation KET Rural Testing
Reading
Writing
Listening
Speaking
Total
Valid N (listwise)
N
38
38
38
38
38
38
Range
17.14
20.00
21.00
25.00
83.14
Minimum
.00
.00
.00
.00
.00
Maximum
17.14
20.00
21.00
25.00
83.14
Mean
8.9662
5.2632
12.0789
7.9276
34.2359
Std. Deviation
4.46441
5.75013
6.31764
6.95228
16.99211
Skewness
-.325
1.014
-.825
.774
.362
Kurtosis
-.489
-.079
-.161
.025
1.193
9. Interpretation of Descriptive Statistics for PET Testing
In Table. 3. are shown the values of basic statistical parameters of the results of students in lower secondary schools,
"Hivzi Sulejmani" and "LUARASI" urban schools as control group tested with PET test. The table value of central
tendency analyzed the results and measurements of the distribution of results about their arithmetic average and the
normality of the distribution of these results. Based on the values of the arithmetic mean can be concluded that all
variables have normal distribution of results since Skewness values are smaller than 1, except for the Writing skills with
the value of 1.35. High degree of heterogeneity of the outcome is shown in the variable where the value of Skewness
Listening is - .568 and this distribution with positive bias means that most of the results are larger than their arithmetic
average.
The average value of the results expressed in percentages in Reading is 8.52, writing 2.98, Listening 8.25 and
Speaking 10.85. From these results we can see that the students of this school as a percentage realized the best result
in the test Listening, Reading and Speaking while on tests conducted in Writing have worse results.
Table 3. Pet Controller Group
Reading
Writing
Listening
Speaking
Total
Valid N (listwise)
N
51
51
51
51
51
51
Range
13.57
14.00
19.00
20.00
50.93
Minimum
3.57
.00
.00
.00
10.29
Maximum
17.14
14.00
19.00
20.00
61.21
Mean
8.5294
2.9804
8.2549
10.8578
30.6225
Std. Deviation
3.15068
3.42631
3.45163
4.50340
9.29893
Skewness
.744
1.353
.839
-.568
.985
Kurtosis
.752
2.246
2.576
.045
2.976
In Table. 4. are shown the values of basic statistical parameters of the results of students in lower secondary schools,
"Hivzi Sulejmani" and "LUARASI" as urban schools experimental group tested with PET test. The table value of central
tendency analyzed the results and measurements of the distribution of results about their arithmetic average and the
normality of the distribution of these results. Based on the values of the arithmetic mean can be concluded that all
variables have normal distribution of results since Skewness values are smaller than 1, except for the Writing skills
valued 1:00. High degree of heterogeneity of the outcome is shown in the variable where the value of Skewness
Speaking is - .279 and this distribution with positive bias means that most of the results are larger than their arithmetic
average.
The average value of the results expressed in percentages in Reading was 12.68, in writing 20.04, 11.71 in
Listening and Speaking 18.65. From these results we can see that the students of this school as a percentage realized
the best result in the test Reading, Listening and Speaking specifically while Writing tests have realized with lower
results.
Table 4. PET Experimental Group
Reading
Writing
Listening
Speaking
Total
Valid N (listwise)
N
53
53
53
53
53
53
Range
14.29
12.00
20.00
15.00
56.71
Minimum
6.43
.00
.00
10.00
18.86
Maximum
20.71
12.00
20.00
25.00
75.57
160
Mean
12.6819
4.2075
11.7170
18.6557
47.2621
Std. Deviation
3.67142
3.73321
4.04008
4.56556
12.41994
Skewness
.686
1.006
.011
-.279
.407
Kurtosis
-.519
-.325
.440
-.969
-.198
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10. Discussion and Conclusion
As a conclusion we can say that the outcomes of testing the students with KET or Elementary level were slightly better in
Urban rather than Rural area. This had to do with the teacher’s role and the implementation of ESA (Engage – Study –
Activate) method. While, in rural area the teachers used behavior theory with the direct method which did not contribute
with so good performance.
On the other hand, discussing the implementation of CLT syllabus with experimental groups again was productive,
as with CLT was gained much satisfied result and according to statistics both experimental Urban as well as Rural group
was highly, significantly better in performance compared to controlled urban and rural groups.
Finally, we can conclude that implementation of CLT in our schools will be productive and we as teachers should
implement Kosovo Curriculum as a framework of our success as teachers and the successful performance for our
students.
References
Diane, L. (2000). “Techniques and Principles in language Teaching”. Published by: Oxford University press 2000.
Dörnyei, Z. (2009). The 2010s Communicative language teaching in the 21st century The ‘principled communicative approach’. 34th
National 3. Convention of TESOL , 33- 42.
Harmer, J. (2003). “ how to Teach English” ( An introduction to the practice of English language teaching). Malaysia.: Pearson Education
Limited.
Ministry of Education, S. a. (2011, August 29). http://www.masht-gov.net. Retrieved February 09, 2015, from http://www.masht-gov.net/
advCms/#id=1348: http://www.masht-gov.net/advCms/documents/Korniza%20e%20Kurrikules11.pdf
Richards, J. C. (2006). Communicative Language Teaching Today. 32 Avenue of the Americas, New York,: © Cambridge University
Press 2006.
Savignon, S. J. (2006). Beyond communicative language teaching:What’s ahead? Journal Of Pragmatics , 207-220.
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Investigating the Influence of Distributed Leadership on School Effectiveness:
A Mediating Role of Teachers’ Commitment
Hairuddin Mohd Ali
International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM),
hairuddin@iab.edu.my, hairuddin@iium.edu.my
Salisu Abba Yangaiya
Department of Educational Foundation, Isa Kaita College of Education Dutsinma, Katsina State, Nigeria
yangaiya@yahoo.com, yangaiya1965@gmail.com
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2015.v5n1s1p163
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of distributed leadership (DL) on school effectiveness (SE) in junior
secondary schools in Katsina state, Nigeria. The study also investigates if teachers’ commitment (TC) mediates the
relationship between DL and SE. The study sampled three hundred and one (301) teachers. SPSS version (16.0) and Analysis
of Moment Structure (AMOS) version (16.0) were used to analyze the data collected. The results indicated that there is a
statistically significant relationship between DL and SE (with standardized coefficient .68). In addition, TC influences SE (with
standardized coefficient 0.38). Moreover, TC mediates the relationship between DL and SE (standardized coefficient 0.22).
The implication of the study is that all stake holders; head teachers, zonal office staff, ministry officials among others are now
better informed about the mediating role of TC on DL and SE. The results contributes to the existing body of knowledge in
Nigeria. Very few studies investigate the relationship between DL and SE, in Katsina state in particular, and Nigeria in general.
Keywords: Distributed leadership, School effectiveness, Teachers’ commitment, Structural Equation Modeling.
1. Introduction
No matter from whose and from what perspective, what so called a “leader” was dominantly and gloriously enriching the
leadership literature for centuries. From Western perspective however, Daft (1999) argues the need and significance of a
strong, purposeful and dynamic leadership in any organizations due to its ability to influence the success and or failure of
any organization (Yukl, 2002; Lok & Crawford 2004; Megginson et al., 1983 & Lunenburg, 1995). As from another
conception of leaders and leadership, Islamic observes and stresses the importance of appointing a leader “When three
men travel together, they should make one of them their leader”.(Prophet ‫ ﷺ‬, narrated by Abu Dawud, Vol. 2, No.
2273 on the authority of Abu Sa’id Al-Khudri). And about the importance of appointing competence leaders, the Prophet
‫ ﷺ‬further says, “Whoever delegates a position to someone whereas he sees someone else as more competent (for
the position), verily he has cheated Allah and His Apostle and all the Muslims”. (cited in Sahih Muslim, Vol. 3, No. 1013).
Leadership has also long been seen as a key factor in organizational effectiveness, but the interest in educational
leadership area has increased over the recent decades due to the political changes to the education system such as the
growth of school-based management in many countries (Mujis, 2011). Regrettably, when new leadership theories have
been formulated, it was then packaged and successfully sold to schools without adequate scrutiny or testing (Harris,
2008a) resulting in too many “war stories” of educational leadership. Moos, Krejsler, Kofod and Jensen (2005) note that
leadership in a school setting moves among the principal, deputy or vice principals, head of departments, head of
sections, teachers as well as students, and this set up makes a school a community where the interactions and
reciprocity of all members thrived on. Leithwood et al. (2004) note that instances can be cited of school facing some
challenges being reformed with the support of a good, knowledgeable and effective leader. They further argues that
there may be some factors that may help in the transformation, but nonetheless, the leader is the most important. In
addition, Pont, Nusche, and Moormen (2008) note that in each individual school, leadership can contribute to the
improvement of students by providing the conditions as well as climate in which effective teaching and learning can
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thrive. It has been established that apart from classroom teaching, there is hardly anything that positively or negatively
affects students’ learning than leadership. Besides, Storey (2004) argues that irrespective of the problems schools face
their solutions rested squarely with leadership.
Previously, the responsibility of moving an organization towards its realization of aims and objectives rest squarely
on the “solo”, “focused” or “heroic” leader. But, of recent there has been a challenge to the ability of a single leader to
successfully run an organization (Oduro 2004, Ross & Gold 2005). This challenge is more pronounced in school setting,
as a result of the rise in demand for educations, parents’ expectations, government policies, and principals’ turnover to
mention just few. In addition, Nieman and Kotze (2006) argue that the presence of ineffective schools clearly indicates
the need towards making school leadership effective is long overdue and the culture that improves effective teaching and
learning in those schools need to reviewed. Precisely, there is a need to critically review the ways all schools are being
run in realizing their objectives of effective teaching and learning. Moreover, critical areas that need to be reformed in
order to enhance effective teaching and learning in schools can no longer be handled single handedly by the head
teacher (Spillane 2006, Harris 2008a). It has been argued that student’s outcomes are more likely to improve if
leadership is distributed in school and teachers collective decisions related to teaching are taken into consideration
(Silins & Mulford 2002).
Leadership is also means an interaction of all members of the organization for the purpose of promoting the
shared purpose or set of goals that should be pursued and realized for the organization to achieved its objectives (Harris,
Day, Hopkins, Hadfield, Hargreaves & Chapman, 2005). Robbinson (2008) equally notes that leadership means leaders’
influence on organizational members which is linked to goals and objectives of the organization. Gronn (1999, 2000,
2002a, 2002b & 2008) stresses that there has been increasing dissatisfaction and disagreement with the domination of a
single or solo (hero?) leader in most of the leadership literature, but very little rigorous studies on leadership alternatives
were conducted in those days. However, time has changed whereby more studies on the alternatives of solo or focused
leadership have cropped up and more studies are beginning to support the role of distributed as opposed to solo
leadership in term of performance (Iles & Feng, 2011). Distributed leadership (DL) as an alternative to the solo or
focused leadership is considered leaning towards the importance of the leadership-followership relationships where the
literature observes the 80:20 ratio of the followers contribution towards the organizational success (Kelly, 1992). But, we
cannot deny that every great leaders is also a great follower (Bailey, 2013).
2. Leadership Types that Affect Educational Outcomes
We accept every argument and criticism over the results of the relationship between leadership and student achievement
and outcome, but please let this article to highlight some of the leadership effects on educational outcomes. Mujis (2011)
lays his claim that the leadership literature tends to be quite prescriptive in nature, and factors such as transformational
rather than transactional leadership, instructional rather than administrative leadership, and leadership rather than
management have all been posited as key elements of organizational effectiveness. Transformational leadership (TL) is
usually described as leadership that transforms individuals and organizations through an appeal to values and long term
goals. This popular leadership is engaged with hearts and minds, and it is therefore popular in education sector as it is
seen as better able to cope with complex situations and together with instructional leadership found to be a characteristic
of effective leaders (Hallinger & Heck, 1996, 1998, & 2010) and hence providing some evidence in the literature that TL
has positive organizational impacts. Further, Mujis (2011) argues that, although transformational leaders are considered
successful, difficulties arise when this “heroic” person leaves the organization or when not all followers get inspired,
leading to problems being stored up for the future.
Instructional leadership (IL) is also identified as a key component of effective schools (Teddlie & Reynolds, 2000).
Hallinger and Heck (1996, 1998 & 2010) coin IL as being concerned with hands-on involvement with teaching and
learning processes where the principal plays his leadership roles as leader with regard to pedagogy and instruction to
promote growth in student learning and making instructional quality the top priority of the school and brings the vision to
realization. Mujis (2011) stresses that, in many cases instructional leaders start the school improvement process by
implementing a particular initiative promoting a teaching strategy. The relationship between IL and educational outcomes
is quite long established where Heck et al. (1990) found an indirect relationship between three latent variables and
principal IL such as school governance, instructional organization and school climate affected student achievement. This
evidence is still true and accepted until Hallinger (2011) reviewed it 15 years later. However, as stresses by Mujis (2011),
we can question the extent to which IL is still feasible due to the quests of principals taking on new roles currently.
The weaknesses of traditional views of TL and IL have enticed many researchers and practitioners to advocate
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distributed forms of leadership involving all staff levels in leading their organization and this definitely contradicts the
views that TL in particular can reside in all members of an organization (Mujis, 2011). This is why, increasingly,
researchers and policymakers have called for a move towards a more distributed forms of leadership, that is distributed
leadership (DL). Distributed leadership indicates that the practice of leadership is stretched within and across the
organization and there are high degrees of involvement of all staff in the practice of leadership (Spillane et at., 2001).
Due to this, Gronn (2000) identifies DL as an emergent property of a group or network of individuals in which group
members pool their expertise. Fletcher and Kaufer (2003) affirmed that DL is enacted by people at all levels rather than a
set of personal characteristics and attributes located in people at the top. It is a form of leadership practice where
individuals collaborate in order to extend and enhance the leadership capacity within or across organizations.
3. Distributed Leadership (DL) as an Alternative Factor for Student Outcomes and School Effectiveness
Gronn (2002), Burke et al. (2003), Manz and Sims (1990, 1991 & 1993) claimed that the recent interest in the field of DL
has to some degree been fueled by its association with certain organizational benefits. Other than that, the lacking of
other forms of leadership in solving effectively the ever increasing challenges facing in educational organizations, paved
the way for the emergence of leadership practice alternatives known as stretched, dispersed, shared and or DL.
Furthermore, it has been argued that the future of school leadership as its presently formed does not look good,
consequently, the need for entirely different approach to leadership practice cannot be over emphasized, considering the
challenges the schools in different parts of the world are facing (Harris 2008b). The most contemporary interpretation of
DL theory was contributed by Spillane (2006). DL is a post- heroic leadership model, where the organizational activities
are shared among organizational members (Hulpia, Devos & Keer, 2010). Oduro (2004) argues that post-heroic
leadership encourages teamwork, participation, empowerment, risk-taking and de-emphasized control over others. Ross
et al. (2005) look at DL as a collective effort of members of the organization whereby leadership is the responsibility of all
members of the organization, not necessarily restricted to those with leadership and managerial position, In addition,
Harris (2008b) looks at DL as any form of stretched, collaborative or dispersed leadership practice in schools. According
to Heck and Hallinger (2011) DL can be viewed as collaboration practiced by the head teacher, teachers and other
members of the school’s improvement team for the purpose of improving the school in terms of effective teaching and
leaning.
Unfortunately, Robinson (2008) stresses that the studies on DL has not been tightly focused on students outcomes
where she claims that about one thousand published studies of educational leadership, less than 30 have empirically
tested the relationship between leadership and student academic outcomes. What worries the educational leadership
fraternity is in fact due to the National College of School Leadership (NCSL) report that there are no empirical data on
effectiveness of DL in terms of pupil or student achievement (Bennet et al., 2003 & Hartley, 2007). This statement
contradicts to Southworth and Doughty’s (2006) assertion that three decades of school effectiveness and school
improvement research across the world have shown that leadership matters. It is also contradicted to Mujis (2011) where
leadership has a significant indirect impact on student outcomes although he also argued that the research base suffers
from significant weaknesses such as dualism, over-prescribed, lack of international research, limited methodologies plus
poor measurement. Silins and Mulford (2002) who comprehensively studied the leadership effects on student learning,
concluded that student outcomes are more likely to improve when leadership sources are distributed throughout the
school community and when the teachers are empowered in areas of importance to them. As a result Harris (2005) and
Camburn et al. (2003) and other scholars appealed for more investigation of DL impact on student outcomes.
Harris et al. (2007), Harris (2008a,b) stress that DL cannot be accepted at face value due to critical questions
which require serious empirical research. Distributed leadership is beyond a single talented and influential leader who
changes an organization, it is a stage where the leadership is stretched and shared to most organizational members for
the betterment of the organization (Angelle 2010). According to Spillane (2006) distributed leadership provides another
way of looking at leadership in schools, by emphasizing the aspect of leadership practice and assuming that leadership
practice is the product of interactions between leaders, followers and situations. While there is some evidence of showing
a positive relationship between distributed forms of leadership and learning out comes (Mujis & Harris, 2003; Hallinger &
Heck, 1996, 1998 & 2010), this evidence base is still emerging (Leithwood et al. 2006a, 2006b & Harris, 2008a,b). A
range of other studies such as Portin (1998) and Blasé and Blasé (1999) also found positive relationship between
organizational change and distributed forms of DL practice. These research consistently underline the importance and
significance of teachers involvement in decision making- process and the contribution of collegial relationship to positive
school improvement and change.
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In educational setting, school effectiveness studies started off in the early 1970s as an important and excellent
movement to go beyond the existing pessimism with regard to the impact of schools and education on students’
educational achievement and or performance (Mujis, 2006). School effectiveness can be viewed as the place of a school
academically, which is usually explained in terms of output of the school. Furthermore, the output is mostly expressed in
terms of average academic achievements of the students in that school at the end of certain period of their formal
schooling (Scheerens, 2000). OCPS (n.d) argues that school effectiveness has seven dimensions particularly safe and
orderly environment, climate of high expectations for success, instructional leadership, opportunity to learn and student
time to task, clear and focused mission, frequent monitoring of students progress, and last but not the least home-schoolrelation.
There are a number of factors that influence the school effectiveness including environment, teacher
empowerment, to mention just few. However, it has been argued that the most critical and important factor that
influences school effectiveness is leadership practices. According to Huber and Mujis (2010), leadership has since been
identified as a critical and important factor that influences organizational effectiveness. In addition Leithwood et al.
(2006) opines that it’s an undisputable fact that educational leadership makes a difference in enhancing students’
learning.
Notwithstanding the arguments advanced by scholars regarding the influences of distributed leadership on
teachers and school effectiveness, empirical studies regarding the influence is scarce (Harris et al. 2007). However, the
studies available indicate that distributed leadership directly and indirectly influences school effectiveness. Mascall et al.
(2008) in their study on distributed leadership and teachers academic optimism which in turn affects school performance
found that planned approach to distributed leadership positively and significantly influences teachers’ academic optimism
which in turn affects school performance. Additionally, Heck and Hallinger (2011) in their study on distributed leadership
and school improvement and growth in Math achievement found that schools where teachers perceived that leadership is
distributed appeared better able to enhance their academic capacity. Similarly, in her study on distributed leadership and
students’ achievement Angelle (2010) found that there is distal link between distributed leadership and increase students
achievement. Moreover, the study found that organizational outcome like; job satisfaction, teacher efficacy, among others
increase in a school where leadership is distributed. Salfi (2011) in his study found that 76% of principals in successful
schools encourage distribution of leadership and work with and through other staff in order to improve their schools.
There are at least two studies that tried to explore the relationships between DL and student outcomes, one was
by Leithwood et al. (2006b) and the other is by Silins and Mulford (2002). Leithwood et al. concluded that distributing a
larger proportion of leadership activity to teachers has a positive influence on teacher effectiveness and student
engagement. They also agreed that the teacher leadership has significant effect on student engagement and far
outweighs the principal leadership effects after taking into account home and family background. Particularly in Australia,
Sillins and Mulford found cumulative confirmation of distributed kind of leadership influence student learning outcomes.
Similarly, a study by Harris and Mujis (2004) also found the positive relationship between the degree of teachers
involvement in decision making and student motivation and self-efficacy. The findings also reveal that the effects and
impacts of DL on organizational outcomes depends upon the pattern of leadership distribution such as spontaneous
collaboration, intuitive working relations, institutionalized practice (Gronn, 2002), planful alignment, spontaneous
alignment and anarchic alignment (Leithwood et al., 2007). Although we tried our very best to claim the significant
positive effects of DL on student achievement and organizational change but we have to admit that DL is not a panacea
or a “one size fits” all forms of leadership practice (Fletcher & Kaufer, 2003). Spillane (2006) and Fullan (2001 & 2007)
asserts that DL is one potential contributor to positive change and transformation in schools and educational system.
This articles explores, mainly the evidence of relationship between DL and school effectiveness (SE). In addition,
this article also explores if teachers’ commitment (TC) mediates the relationship between DL and SE. It is hoped that
alternative models of lateral and DL which are now promoted as ways to harness the energy, will motivate the
professional learning of teachers and school leaders in securing sustainable innovation and improvement (Hargreaves &
Fink, 2008).
4. Teachers’ Commitment (TC) and School Effectiveness (SE).
In general, organizational commitment means, organizational members wish to be active players in that organization,
have an influence on what is happening in it, feel that their standing in that organization is high and are ready to put in
their best effort beyond what is expected of them (Bogler & Somech, 2004). Mowday, Steers and Porter (1979) looked at
commitment as the relative strength of an individual’s identification with and involvement in a particular organization while
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Meyer and Allen (1991) proposed that organizational commitment is categorized into three components particularly,
affective commitment, continuance commitment and normative commitment.
Razak et al. (2009), stressed that quality education just cannot be realized without the effort and contribution of
dedicated and committed teachers. Additionally, Graham (1996) argues that teachers’ commitment is an important factor
that influences effective teaching and learning in schools. According to Razak et al. (2010) teacher commitment is
believed to be an important factor that affect positively on school effectiveness and the success of education system.
According to Eginli (2009) committed teachers who have the support of their colleagues and leaders experience the
fulfillment of their professional work as a result of their ability to reach every student. Eginli, further noted that committed
teachers may likely to stay in the profession and continue to have positive impacts on students’ achievement.
In their study on commitment and effectiveness Wiener and Verdi (1980) found that job commitment was strongly
related with indices of effort and performance effectiveness. Furthermore, Suliman (2002) in his study on mediating role
of commitment on work relation and performance found that organizational commitment mediates the relationship
between work climate and performance. In another scenario, Sezgin (2009) found that psychological hardiness is
significantly and positively associated with identification and internalization dimensions of teacher commitment.
Figure 1 exhibits the hypothesized model of the study where it is hypothesized that there is a statistically direct
significant relationship between DL and SE, a statistically direct significant relationship between TC and SE. Lastly, TC is
statistically mediating the relationship between DL and SE. Hence, based on the hypothesized model of the study, the
following research hypotheses are presented for testing:
H1. There is a statistically direct significant relationship between distributed leadership (DL) and school
effectiveness (SE).
H2. There is a statistically direct significant relationship between teachers’ commitment (TC) and school
effectiveness (SE).
H3. Teachers’ commitment (TC) mediates the relationship between distributed leadership (DL) and school
effectiveness (SE).
e6
e10
e11
1
e7
1
e8
1
e9
1
1
1
TC2
TC4
TC5
TC6
TC8
TC10
e19
1
TC14
1
e5
e4
e3
e2
e1
1
1
1
1
1
e20
COLT
1
SOE
TC
1
PDCM
INST.L
PRIN.L
ART
CHES
DL
SE
1
1
TC.L
e21
OLSTT
CFM
FMSP
HSR
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
e12
e13
e14
e15
e16
e17
e18
Figure 1. The Hypothesized Model of Study
5. Methodology
5.1 Quantitative approach
The study employed survey method to get the needed information from the sample of the study. McMillan (1992) and
Hutchinson (2004) argue that information obtained from surveys can be used for descriptive purposes or for investigating
the relationship between variables. The data was analysed quantitatively using a computer software SPSS (version 16.0)
and full fledged structural equation modelling (SEM) software i.e. analysis of moment structures (AMOS) versions 16.0.
SEM was employed for this study because SEM is the most effective technique when the study involves multiple
constructs, each represented by many measured variables, and these construct are differentiated based on whether they
are exogenous or endogenous (Hair et al., 2010).
5.2 Sampling
The instruments used in this study were administered to 450 junior secondary students in Katsina state, Nigeria. A total
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of 330 or 73% of the questionnaires were returned. Out of the questionnaires returned 20 or 6% were partially filled and
hence were excluded prior to data analysis (Creswell, 2010; Sekaran & Bougie, 2010). Additionally nine out of the 310
retained cases were discovered to be multivariate outliers and consequently, they were removed from the data set.
5.3 Instrumentation
In this study, the DL scale inventory was adopted from Hulpia et. al. (2010) and Davis, (2009). It is multi-dimensional,
with five dimensions particularly: cooperation of leadership team (COLT), participative decision making (PDCM), principal
leadership (PRIN. L), teacher leadership (TC. L) and artifact (ART). The first three dimensions were adopted from Hulpia
et al. (2010), while the remaining two were adopted from Davis (2009) respectively. The validity and reliability of the
instruments were confirmed by the owners. Some of the items of the scale include: “There is well functioning leadership
team in our school”, “Leadership is broadly distributed in this school”, “The principal provides leadership in improving
academic achievement”, “Informal school leaders play an important role in the school in improving the performance of
their colleagues”, and “Teachers in my school discuss strategies and share materials”.
The school effectiveness scale was adopted from Oregon County Public Schools (OCPS). The scale is a 36 item
instrument with seven dimensions particularly: safe and orderly environment (SOE), climate of high expectation for
success (CHES), instructional leadership (INST.L), opportunity to learn and student time to task (OLSTT), clear and
focused mission (CFM), frequent monitoring of student progress (FMSP) and home-school relation (HSR). The owner of
the scale claimed that its content validity is good as it was constructed by a panel of expert. Some of the items of the
scale are: “School conduct, rules, and procedures are taught and constantly implemented in the classroom”, “All cultures
including my own are treated fairly and with respect in this school”, “Teachers have access to variety of resources which
assist them in being successful with students’ achievement”, “The principal is perceived as a coach, partner and cheer
leader in the instructional process”, “The school mission uses ‘learning for all’ as the basic premise”, and “Parents
actively participate in school activities and Teachers feel comfortable communicating with different parents”.
The last scale used in this study, organizational commitment questionnaire (OCQ) is adopted from Mowday et al.
(1979). It is fifteen (15) item instrument. Six of the items were negatively worded, while the remaining nine items were
positively worded. In using the scale, the authors argue that the researcher can either use the 15 item at a go, or use
only nine positively worded items. According to Mowday et al. the validity and reliability of either the 15 item or positively
nine item are almost the same. It should be noted that the study uses the short version (positively worded items) of
Mowday et al. organizational commitment questionnaire. Some of the items read: “I talk up this organization to my friend
as a great organization to work for”, “I am proud to tell others that I am part of this organization” and “I feel very little
loyalty to this organization (R)”.
All the instruments used were rated on seven points Likert scale: 1= strongly disagree (SD), 2 = moderately
disagree (MD), 3 = disagree (D), 4 = Neither agree nor disagree (N), 5 = agree (A), 6 = moderately agree (MA) and 7 =
strongly agree (SA). Table 1 below shows the scales and sub-scales used in the study.
Table 1: Scales and Sub-scales used in the study
Variable (s)
Type of Variable Sub-Scale
Distributed
Exogenous
Cooperation of the leadership team
Leadership (DL)
Participative decision-making
Artifacts
Teacher leadership
Principal leadership
School
Endogenous
Safe and orderly environment
Effectiveness
Climate of high expectation for success
(SE)
Instructional leadership
Opportunity to learn and student time to task
Clear and focused mission
Frequent monitoring of students’ progress
Home school relation
Affective Commitment
Teacher’s
Mediating
Commitment
(TC)
Total
3
13
No.of items Total
Sources
10
31 Davis, M. W. (2009),
6
Hulpia, H. (2010).
4
6
5
6
35
OCPS (n. d)
6
4
3
5
8
3
15
15 Mowday et al. (1979).
81
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5.4 Statistical analysis
The study uses Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), with Maximum Likelihood Estimation (MLE) to analyze the data
collected from junior secondary school teachers in Katsina state, Nigeria. The analysis was conducted using Analysis of
Moment Structures (AMOS) version 16.0 software. The study uses SEM because, it is more versatile compared to other
multivariate methods. Moreover, it is possible with SEM to realize multiple dependant relationship between variables
simultaneously (Hoe, 2008). In analyzing the data, full fledge SEM model was specified and the model was assessed
using both absolute and comparative fit indices. In all, six fit indices were used particularly: CMIN (X2), p value, degrees
of freedom (DF), CMIN/DF, RMSEA and CFI.
6. Results
6.1 Respondents background
Table 2 below depicted the background characteristics of the sample of the study. The table showed that 196 or 65% of
the sample were male while 105 equivalent to 35% were female. On the age of the respondents 120 equivalent to 40%
were within the age bracket of 20-30 years, 82 or 27% were 31-40 years old and 99 or 33% were 41 years and above.
Moreover, the age of the respondents ranged from 20-62 years with an average of 35 years. With regards to working
experiences, 91 equivalent to 30% have 6-10 years working experience, 88 or 29% have 11 years and above working
experience. The working experiences of the respondents ranged from1-35 years with an average of nine years.
Table 2: Respondents Background Characteristics
SN
1
2
3
Characteristics
Gender
Male
Female
Total
Age
20-30
31-40
41+
Total
Working Experience
1-5
6-10
11+
Total
Frequency
Percentage
196
105
301
65.1%
34.9%
100%
120
082
099
301
39.9%
27.2%
32.9%
100%
122
091
088
301
40.6%
30.2%
29.2%
100%
6.2 Specifying the Measurement Model of the latent constructs.
Before specifying the Structural Model (SM), we specified the Measurement Model (MM) of the latent variables (DL, SE
and TC) of the study. This method is known as two steps Structural Equation Modeling procedure (Hair et al 2010).
Additionally, Hair et al. (2010) argue that if the MM is specified and fitted well, fitting the SM will be easier. Figure 2
below shows the specified MM.
The fit indices used to assess the model showed that CMIN = 336.031, p = .000 with 149 degrees of freedom. This
result indicates that the model failed to fit the sample data as indicated by p value of .000. However, as argued by
scholars, CMIN is always sensitive to sample size, hence, other fit indices need to be examined before concluding on
whether the model fit to the data or not. Consequently, by examining CMIN/DF (2.25), CFI (.922) and RMSEA (.065),
indicate that the model moderately fit the sample data. Moreover, the CMIN/DF, CFI and RMSEA were all within the
minimum threshold value of 3.0, .90 and .08 as recommended by scholars (Hair et al. 2010).
6.3 Specifying the Structural Model
Figure 3 below shows the structural model specified in order to test the three hypotheses postulated for this study. The
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model was assessed using fit indices, standardized coefficients, Squared Multiple Correlation (SMC) among others. With
regards to fit indices, Table 2 above and Figure 3 below indicate that the specified Structural Model fit the sample data
moderately well. The X2 (CMIN) value = 336.031, with .000 p values and 149 degrees of freedom. Assessing the model
using X2 indicates that the model did not fit the sample data. However, as indicated earlier the X2 statistics is highly
sensitive to sample size. Besides, other fit indices; CMIN/DF (2.25), CFI (.922) and RMSEA (.065) indicate that the
model fit the sample data fairly well, taking into consideration the cutoff point of ≤ 5, ≥.9, and ≥ .08 recommended for
CMIN/DF, CFI and RMSEA respectively. With regards to factor loadings and SMC the model can also be said to
reasonably fit the model data fairly well.
CMIN 336.031
p .000
DF 149
CMINDF 2.255
CFI .922
RMSEA .065
e6
e7
e8
.59
TC2
.65
TC4
.77
e5
e4
e3
e2
e1
.38
.35
.59
.41
.19
ART
.77
.64
e10
.63
TC6
.79 .73
.75
TC
e11
.54
TC8
.71
TC10
DL
.48
TC14
.69
.37
SOE
.89
.68
e19
.51
.36
.60
.62
.60
PDCM
PRIN.L
TC5
.80
e20
COLT
e9
.57
SE
.43
CHES
.65
.49
.75
INST.L
.67
.57
.60
.45
TC.L
e21
OLSTT
CFM
FMSP
HSR
.42
.24
.56
.45
.32
.35
.21
e12
e13
e14
e15
e16
e17
e18
Figure 3: The Specified Structural Model of Study
Table 3 and Figure 3 show that DL influences SE (standardized coefficient .68), TC also influences SE (standardized
coefficient .36) and TC mediates the relationship between DL and SE (standardized coefficient .22). This result supports
all three hypotheses developed for this study.
Table 3: Summary of supported hypotheses
SN
1
2
3
Hypothesis
There is a statistically direct significant relationship between distributed
leadership (DL) and school effectiveness (SE).
There is a statistically direct significant relationship between teachers’
commitment (TC) and school effectiveness (SE).
Teachers’ commitment (TC) mediates the relationship between distributed
leadership (DL) and school effectiveness (SE).
Decision Justification
Supported Standardized Coefficient (.68)
Supported Standardized Coefficient (.36)
Supported Standardized Coefficient (.22)
7. Discussions
The main objectives of this study are to examines the influence of distributed leadership on school effectiveness among
secondary school teachers in Katsina state Nigeria moreover, the study investigates whether teachers commitment
mediate the relationship between distributed leadership and school effectiveness.
The study adopted and adapted the relevant survey instruments/questionnaires (as discussed in methodology) to
get the required data from the respondents (sample teachers) in the sampled secondary schools in Katsina state. The
data collected was analyzed using Special Package for Social Science Research (SPSS) and SEM to establish the
relationship between the variables of the study. SEM was employed and used extensively because it is one of the most
effective techniques of establishing relationship between endogenous and exogenous variables (Hair et.al. 2010).
The findings as depicted in the specified structural model of the study (Figure 3) above indicate that DL is
positively and directly influences SE (standardized coefficient .68). It should be stressed that a standardized path
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coefficient greater that .50 indicates a large effect size (Kline, 2010). This implies that teachers in the sampled schools
(Katsina State) believed that leadership is to some extent is being distributed effectively in their respective schools and
consequently affect positively how the school is governed effectively. This result also revealed that the sampled schools
are to some extent effective compared to those schools where leadership is not being distributed or shared between
various levels in the organization. The results of the study supports the finding of Pont et al. (2008) who opined that DL
across members will reduce the problems that the schools are facing and consequently enhanced the school
effectiveness.
The findings of this study also support the earlier findings by Silins and Mulford (2002) that the more distributed
form of leadership is practiced the more it influences student outcomes. Moreover, the results of this study concur with
that of Leithwood et al. (2006) who found in Canada that distributing high percentage of leadership activities to teachers
at all levels has a positive influence on teachers’ effectiveness and students engagement (as cited in Harris 2008b).
Additionally Harris (2012: 9) argued that “distributed leadership is increasingly been seen as a contributor to
organizational growth and success”.
Additionally, the specified structural model as depicted in Figure 3 above indicates that TC positively and directly
influence SE. It has been established that staff who are committed both organizationally and professionally tend to
perform better than those who are less committed and their behavior improves overall organizational effectiveness
(Aranya & Ferris, 1984). Moreover, the result also supports the findings of Graham (1996), Eginli (2009) and Razak et al.
(2009). Conclusively, the findings indicate that TC mediates the relationship between DL and SE. According to Hallinger
and Heck (1998) mediated effects gives a concrete indication of possible ways through which leadership may affect
school outcomes and effectiveness.
It is worth noting that the findings of this study is equally supporting the Islamic perspective of leadership which
always encourages the Islamic leaders to consult their followers widely before taking critical decisions regarding the
overall development of the organization. This is due to if the followers were involved in the decision making, they will
demonstrate better commitment towards in implementing the decisions, compared to the situation if they were excluded.
This is supported by God that (Al Quran: Surah Al- shura: 38) “Those who harken to their Lord and establish regular
prayer; who (conduct) their affairs by mutual consultation”. Further, Allah says, "And those who answer the Call of their
Lord, and to worship none but Him alone, and perform their prayers, and who conduct their affairs by mutual
consultation, and who spend of what we have bestowed on them." Quran 42:38. The Islamic Leadership Model and the
principles associated with it offer a leadership alternative which can open the door of excellence and achievement.
As for the implications the study brought to the fore the necessity for educational stake holders, especially,
educational administrators at the school and ministry level to come up with more avenues of enhancing teachers’
commitment and leadership distribution in secondary schools. The educational leaders at school level need to ensure
that enhancing teachers commitment should be one of its priorities as far as strategic planning for school is concerned
(Fiedler, 1989). The schools’ change management process would be in greatest trouble if the teachers’ commitment
factor is neglected by the management. Developing and improving the process of organizational learning also is
somewhat pertinent in regard to teachers’ commitment. This will go along way in enhancing junior secondary school
effectiveness. Moreover, the study has theoretically contributed to the existing literature, considering the fact that
previously, most of the studies conducted on distributed leadership and school effectiveness were conducted in the West
and Asian countries, with few or none in the continent of Africa in general and in the Republic of Nigeria in particular. In
addition the study managed to propose a model of distributed leadership and school effectiveness, which is a significant
theoretical contribution to the existing literature and indigenous body of knowledge.
8. Conclusion
Notwithstanding, the above contributions, this study has some limitations. First, the study was conducted in public junior
secondary schools, as it does not include private junior secondary schools and senior secondary schools. As such, there
is need for caution in generalizing the result to the entire secondary schools in Katsina state, Nigeria. Secondly was time
consumption factor. The third reason is the problem of the cooperation from the respondents and participants of the
study. They just refused to cooperate in some cases. To ensure that the study get enough respondents, certain steps
needed to be taken such as giving a token of appreciation to the participants. As for generalization, more studies need to
be to be conducted in senior secondary schools as well as junior and senior private secondary schools in future.
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Pedagogical Content Knowledge among the Teachers of Special Classes of
Reading and Memorizing the Qur’an (KKQ) in Kuala Lumpur
Azmil Hashim
Faculty of Human and Science, Sultan Idris University of Education
azmil@fsk.upsi.edu.my
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2015.v5n1s1p175
Abstract
This study aims to examine the level of pedagogical content knowledge among the teachers of Special Classes of Reading
and Memorizing the Qur’an (KKQ) in teaching the Quranic Tajweed in the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur. The
implementation of this study involves two groups of respondents, i. e. the group of teachers and the students of KKQ. Data
from both groups of respondents were collected using two sets of questionnaires developed by the researchers. Content
validity of the questionnaires was conducted by setting up an expert reference panel. Cronbach’s alpha reliability values for all
parts of the questionnaire were high (> 0. 9). Quantitative data were analyzed by descriptive and inferential using IBM SPSS
V20 to obtain the frequency, percentage, mean, standard deviation, differences and correlations. Overall, KKQ teachers found
to have high level of pedagogical content knowledge in the Quranic Tajweed lessons. The difference analysis showed that
significant difference exist on the level of pedagogical content knowledge of KKQ teachers in demographic aspect based on
their university background and teaching experience. Meanwhile, correlation analysis found that there was a significant
relationship between teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge and the student achievement in the Quranic Tajweed lessons
of KKQ. The positive findings on the level of knowledge of the contents should be maintained or increased from time to time,
as well as identified differences factors should be handled systematically, whereas those aspects that are found to have a
relationship with the educational achievements of recitation of the Qur'an must be improved.
1. Introduction
Teaching is a process of transmission of knowledge from teacher to student. This process typically involves a variety of
activities such as planning, implementation, evaluation and feedback (Shahabuddin, Rohizani & Mohd. Zohir, 2003). It
should be planned properly (Mohd Yusuf, 2000) to produce effective teaching thus be able to establish effective learning
in the classroom (Al-Shaibani, 1991).
As Muslims, we believe that the Prophet Muhammad PUBH is the greatest teacher and educator of all time (Abdul
Fattah, 2011). The process of teachings undertaken by him easily understood by the mind and gives an impact to the
heart of every student. He did not have one specific method and technique that can be applied in every teaching rather it
depends on the reality of student that has been taught (Mohd Yusuf, 2004). This approach makes it easier for students to
accept and understand the knowledge presented by him. Furthermore, a good value or a thing for an individual does not
necessarily give a good impression if applied to other individuals (Yusuf Al-Qardhawi, 2003)
Among the important factors that are often considered by him in the teaching is the pedagogical content
knowledge factor to ensure the teaching session runs smoothly and effectively (Abdul Fattah, 2011). This approach has
been demonstrated by his exemplary, mainly because he is a good example in all aspects, including in the methods of
teaching (Ibrahim Mamat, 1997).
2. Research Background
The existence of Quranic Tajweed learning as one of the most important components in KKQ classes was aims to give
students the exposure to the various methods of controlling the letters and verses of Qur’an in accordance with the rules
of recitation. Students who mastered this skill will be able to read the Qur’an correctly according to the methods and
procedures which should be read (JAPIM, 2005). The teaching of the Qur’an recitation should be implemented in the
form of instruction, demonstration and student errors fixing (Shahabuddin, Rohizani & Mohd. Zohir, 2003) since this
lesson exists in the form of skills (Ministry of Education, 2004). The effectiveness of teaching in this subject depends on
the level of pedagogical content knowledge possessed by teachers of KKQ themselves. Therefore, KKQ teachers need
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to prepare with the content of the subjects taught and are aware of the reality of students, as well as proficient in
adapting a form of pedagogy in accordance with the level of content and the condition of the students of KKQ (Shulman,
1987).
The implementation of KKQ had spanned for 27 years and continues to face various weaknesses and
shortcomings in terms of knowledge content of Qur’an recitation among teachers of KKQ. The result findings show this
weakness is not limited to the Religious Stream Classes (KAA) but also applies to all schools in Malaysia that has KKQ
(Aderi, 2011). The role of the Qur’an is important for all Muslims in reality that this should not have happened. The KKQ
teaching system of the Quranic Tajweed particularly, needs to be improved to enhance the students’ proficiency of the
knowledge of Quran. Definitely that one of the methods to achieve this is by increasing the pedagogical content
knowledge of KKQ teachers in the Quranic Tajweed learning.
3. Problem Statement
The understanding of students in the Quranic Tajweed is closely related to the level of pedagogical content knowledge of
KKQ teachers for this subject. This is because the effective teaching of a subject depends on some knowledge including
the pedagogical knowledge (Gudsmundsdottir, 1990). Proficiency of this knowledge allows the teachers to shape the
development of the students’ knowledge including the Quranic Tajweed (Magnusson et al. , 1994). The existence of
pedagogicalcontent knowledge is one of the most important components of teachings and is generally known by
teachers but most were found to have poor possession of this knowledge (Verloop & Vos, 1998).
Usually, KKQ teachers face problems related to pedagogical content knowledge in teaching Qur’an Tajweed as
they do not have the training or the exposure to enhance the knowledge (Mohd. Safwan, 2007; Eadil, 2010). As a result,
there are some teachers do not skill in the content of Quranic Tajweed (Islamic and Moral Education Department, 2005).
This problem can be seen through the presence of a number of teachers who do not perform teaching in line with the
objective of KKQ teaching including in the actual Qur’an recitation (Mohd. Safwan, 2007). This negative practice causes
the objectives of Qur’an recitation is not reached (Ahmad Sahli, 2008).
Preliminary studies show that teachers who lack in mastering the pedagogical content knowledge affect the way of
teaching in the classroom. They are bound to teach briefly (Akmariah & Sofiah, 2010) and more likely to use traditional
teaching methods which often leads to the limited usage of educational resources (Dorahim & Ab. Halim, 2011). This
negative tendency usually affects the interest of students toward the Quranic Tajweed learning in KKQ. Students will feel
bored, less active and passive attitude towards the teaching carried. As a result, the teaching process takes place in a
bland and uninteresting surrounding in which it offers a direct negative impact on the effectiveness of teaching and the
students’ attainment in KKQ subject, including in the lessons of recitation of the Quranic Tajweed (Islamic and Moral
Education Department, 2005).
4. Research Objectives
This study specifically aims to achieve the outlined objectives as follows:
i. To determine the level of KKQ teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge in teaching recitation of the Quran.
ii. To identify the different levels of pedagogical content knowledge of KKQ teachers by the following
demographic aspects such as:
a) Gender
b) The background of the university
c) Sanad Certificate (Sanad)
d) Location of school
e) Teaching experience
iii. To identify the correlations between the level of pedagogical content knowledge with the achievement of
Quranic Tajweed among the students of KKQ.
5. Research Methodology
5.1 Research Design
This research was a quantitative study in the form of descriptive and inferential using the survey method as a method of
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data collection. The survey method was used as the data collected by using this method are frequently accurate
(Kerlinger, 1986) and can be used to collect data from a large group of subjects such as teacher and student (Ary, 2002).
The questionnaires used in this study are selected results as it contains questions or statements that come in together
with the proposed stimulus and response answers (Mohd. Majid, 2005). The researchers used a five point Likert scale
responses of respondents to every statement contained in the questionnaire to collect data. This scale is suitable to
measure the views expressed by respondents in a particular area on an ongoing basis about a perceptions practice and
behaviours (Cohen et al. , 2000). To answer the questionnaire is by checking one of the numbers from 1 to 5, based on
the evidence in each of these numbers, i. e. ; Strongly Disagree is given a score of 1 to Strongly Agree given a score of
5.
5.2 Validity and Reliability
The validity of the questionnaire instruments content was determined by establishing an expert reference panel. They
consist of four qualified individuals who have expertise in the field of Islamic education, an expert in the field of research
and experience in the field of education of the Qur’an to ensure content validity and face validity. The reliability of the
research instrument refers to the internal consistency of the items used in the instrument (Gall, Gall & Borg, 2005). In the
context of this study, the internal consistency of each instrument item was obtained by using Cronbach’s alpha
coefficient. Results of the analysis indicate that all the instruments in this study have the high reliability (> 0. 90). Thus,
these instruments can be used in the actual study.
Table 1. Reliability Index Classification
Indicator
Very High
High
Moderate
Low
Cronbach’s alpha value
0. 90-1. 00
0. 70-0. 89
0. 30-0. 69
0. 00-0. 30
Source: Brymen & Cramer (1999)
5.3 Research Respondents
This study was conducted on teachers and the Form Four students of KKQ in 17 Religious Stream Classes (KAA)
schools in Kuala Lumpur. The study population consists of 18 teachers, covering the entire 17 KAA schools in Kuala
Lumpur. The population of students is 180 students, applied only on schools with Form Four KKQ students in six KAA
schools. The sampling method for teachers are calculated using the entire population (Mohamad Najib, 1999) while for
the sample of students; Krejcie and Morgan method (1970) is used with a count of each sample were 18 teachers and
123 students. For the sampling of teachers, studies were carried out in Putrajaya and Selangor to meet the criteria of
quantitative research which was more than 30 samples (Hishamuddin, 2005). To avoid such errors of incomplete
questionnaires or were not returned, the researchers determined the number of samples for teachers and their students
amounted to 50 teachers and 150 students. The final numbers of respondents involved in this study were 43 teachers
and 134 students.
The quantitative data analysis in this study was performed by descriptive and inferentially using the IBM SPSS
V20 software. Descriptive analysis is described by using the tables of effective behavioural mean interpretation by
Nunally (1978) as shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Interpretation Mean of Effective Behavioural Dimensions
Mean score
4. 01-5. 00
3. 01-4. 00
2. 01-3. 00
1. 01-2. 00
Interpretation
High
Moderately High
Moderately Low
Low
Source: Stufflebeam (1971)
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Inferential statistical analysis was used to obtain statistical inference from a sample of the entire population. In the
context of this study, inferential analysis was conducted based on the procedures of Independent-Samples T Test and
One-Way ANOVA to test the significance level for the mean score comparison of the independent variable i. e. teachers
demographic. Meanwhile, the correlation analysis was conducted using Bivariate Correlations procedures to measure the
strength of correlation between the used dependent variable. In the context of this study, Spearman (r) correlation model
was used because the data is not distributed normally.
Table 3. The Correlation Coefficient Value
The Correlation Coefficient Value (r)
1. 00
0. 70-0. 99
0. 50-0. 69
0. 30-0. 49
0. 10-0. 29
0. 01-0. 09
Interpretation
Perfect
Very High
Strong
Moderate
Low
Negligible
Source: Davies (1971)
6. Research Findings
6.1 KKQ Teachers’ Profiles
Based on Table 4 below, it was found that a total of 43 teachers were involved in this study. The details number based
on gender ratio indicates that respondents of male teachers (26 males = 60. 5%) were more than female respondents (17
females = 39. 5%). From the aspect of universities background it shows that the teacher respondents’ which graduated
from the local universities (29 people = 67%) was more than the number of teacher respondents’ that graduated from
foreign universities (14 people = 32. 6%). In the aspect of sanad certificate, the number of respondents who have sanad
certificate (11 people = 25. 6%) was less than the number of respondents who did not have the sanad certificate (32 =
74. 4%). The finding from the teaching experience aspect was found out to be more balanced. The respondents from
among the experienced teachers who teach more than 10 years amounted to 14 people (32. 6%). While the respondents
of teachers who has 5-10 years of teaching experience was 15 people (34. 9%). This amount was not that much of a
difference from the number of respondents who has teaching experienced in a period of 1-5 years, i. e. 14 people (32.
6%).
Table 4. KKQ Teachers’ Profiles
Items
Gender
University background
Sanad Certificate
School location
Teaching experience
Male
Female
Local
Abroad
Yes
None
City
Rural
More than 10 Years
5-10 Years
1-5 Years
Frequency
26
17
29
14
11
32
25
18
14
15
14
Percentage
60. 5%
39. 5%
67. 4%
32. 6%
25. 6%
74. 4%
58. 1%
41. 9%
32. 6%
34. 9%
32. 6%
6.2 KKQ Students’ Profiles
In this study, KKQ students’ profile was limited to only one aspect which was gender as this was the only aspect involved
in the implementation of the study. The data for KKQ students’ profile can be referred in Table 5 below. The findings
showed that the number of respondents among the male students (64 people = 47. 8%) was less than the number of
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female students (70 people = 52. 2%). This shows that most respondents involved in this study were the female students.
Table 5. KKQ Students’ Profiles
Items
Gender
Male
Female
Frequency
64
70
Percentage
47. 8%
52. 2%
6.3 Pedagogical Content Knowledge Level of KKQ Teacher’s in Quranic Tajweed Teaching
Table 6 represents the mean, standard deviation and interpretation for each constructs of KKQ teachers’ pedagogical
content knowledge in teaching Quranic Tajweed based on the perception of them. The total mean score of constructs
was 4: 44, standard deviation was 0: 39 and the interpretations were high. The highest mean earning is the construct of
the readiness of teachers (mean = 4. 61, sd = 0. 39), followed by the construct of perception of KKQ (mean = 4. 59, sd =
0. 52). The constructs of knowledge and syllabus content (mean = 4: 52, sd = 0. 47), followed by constructs of other
knowledge and related disciplines (mean = 4. 49, sd = 0. 46), syntactic knowledge (mean = 4: 37, sd = 0. 50) and the
lowest is the constructs of substantive knowledge (mean = 4. 36, sd = 0. 50).
The total mean score for the pedagogical content knowledge constructs based on student perceptions was 4. 65,
the standard deviation was 0. 21 and the interpretation was at high level. Construct with the highest mean score value
was the construct of the readiness of teachers (mean = 4. 70, sd = 0. 35), followed by the construct of pedagogical
content knowledge and the syllabus (mean = 4. 69, sd = 0. 32). Next is the perception construct of KKQ (mean = 4. 67,
sd = 0. 32), substantive knowledge (mean = 4. 67, sd = 0. 34), syntactic knowledge (mean = 4. 65, sd = 0. 35) and the
construct with the value of the lowest mean score is the construct of mastery in other relevant discipline (mean = 4. 63,
sd = 0. 33).
Table 6. Pedagogical Content Knowledge Level Based on Perception of Teachers and Students
Pedagogical Content knowledge
Teacher readiness
Perception towards KKQ
Substantive knowledge
Syntactic knowledge
Mastery in content knowledge and syllabus
Mastery of other relevant discipline
Total Mean
Teachers’ Perceptions
Mean
S. D
Interpretation
4. 61
0. 39
High
4. 59
0. 52
High
4. 36
0. 50
High
4. 37
0. 50
High
4. 52
0. 47
High
4. 49
0. 46
High
4. 44
0. 39
High
Students’ Perceptions
Mean
S. D
Interpretation
4. 70
0. 35
High
4. 67
0. 32
High
4. 67
0. 34
High
4. 65
0. 35
High
4. 69
0. 32
High
4. 63
0. 33
High
4. 65
0. 21
High
6.4 Mean Score Differences of Pedagogical Content Knowledge Level Based on Teachers’ Demographic
The T-test analysis results in Table 7 below shows that there is no significant difference in mean scores (P = 0. 241, p>
0. 05) of KKQ teachers' pedagogical content knowledge based on male gender ratio (min = 4. 580, sd = 0. 337) and
female (mean = 4353, sd = 0. 427). There was also no significant difference of the mean score (P = 0. 116, p> 0. 05) in
the aspects of sanad certificate that is exist (mean = 4. 633, sd = 0. 306) compared with none (mean = 4441, sd = 0.
404). However, the t-test analysis from the aspect of universities background found the difference in mean scores were
significant (P = 0. 054, p <0. 05) among the KKQ teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge based on the educational
background from the local university (mean = 4494, sd = 0. 426) with the foreign universities (min = 4. 482, sd = 0. 303).
Next, the t-test analysis based on the school location showed that there is no significant difference in mean score (P = 0.
626, p> 0. 05) between cities (mean = 4515, sd = 4,456) and rural areas (mean = 4456, sd = 0. 397).
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Table 7. T-test for Differences Level of PCK Based on Demographic
Teachers’ Demography
N
Gender
26
Male
Female
17
Universities background
29
Local
14
Abroad
Sanad certificate
11
Yes
32
None
School Location
25
City
18
Rural
*Significant at the level of p <0. 05
Mean
SD
t Value
Sig. P
4. 580
0. 337
1. 945
0. 241
4. 353
0. 427
1. 850
4. 494
4. 482
0. 426
0. 303
0. 095
0. 107
4. 633
4. 441
0. 306
0. 404
1. 432
1. 641
0. 116
4. 515
4. 456
0. 385
0. 397
0. 489
0. 487
0. 626
0. 054*
The results of one-way analysis of variance in Table 8 below shows a significant mean difference (P = 0. 050, p <0. 05)
on KKQ teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge based on the aspects of teaching experience. Further, post-hoc
Scheffe test was carried out to identify the differences between the scores of different groups of teaching experience.
The test results are shown in Table 8.
Table 8. One Way ANOVA Level of PCK Based on Teaching Experience
JKD
Among Groups
0. 876
In Group
5. 405
Total
6. 281
*Significant at the level of p <0. 05
DK
2
40
42
MKD
0. 438
0. 135
F
3. 240
Sig. P
0. 050*
The results of post-hoc Scheffe test as in Table 9 below indicates that there is a significant difference in mean scores (P
= 0. 050, p <0. 05) in pedagogical content knowledge of the teachers with more than 10 years teaching experienced
(mean = 4. 673, sd = 0. 280) with experienced teachers teaching within the period of 1-5 years (mean = 4. 325, sd = 0.
370).
Table 9. Scheffe Post Hoc Test Level of PCK Based on Teaching Experience
Teachers’ Demography
More than 10 years
5-10 Years
1-5 Years
*Significant at the level of p <0. 05
N
14
14
15
Mean
4. 673
4. 485
4. 325
More than 10 years
0. 410
0. 050*
5-10 Years
0. 410
1-5 Years
0. 050*
0. 509
0. 509
6.5 Correlation between Teachers Pedagogical Content Knowledge with Students’ Quranic Tajweed Achievement
Table 10 shows the Spearman correlation analysis (r) between teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge and Quranic
Tajweed achievement of KKQ students. The results show that there is a significant relationship between the four
constructs of pedagogical content knowledge with the achievement of Quranic Tajweed of KKQ students. These
construct are teachers’ readiness (r = 0. 190, p <0. 05), substantive knowledge (r = 0. 290, p <0. 05), syntactic
knowledge (r = 0. 236, p <0. 05) and mastery of other relevant discipline (r = 0. 292, p <0. 05). There are two constructs
that do not show a significant relationship with the achievement of Quranic Tajweed, i. e. student's perception towards
KKQ (r = 0. 253, p> 0. 05) and the acquisition of knowledge and syllabus content (r = 0. 236, p> 0. 05). As a whole, there
is a significant relationship between content knowledge on lower levels (r = 0. 221, p <0. 05) and the achievement of the
Quranic Tajweed recitation among KKQ students.
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Table 10. The Correlation between Content Knowledge Pedagogical with Students’ Quranic Tajweed achievement
Teacher readiness * Student’s achievement
Perception towards KKQ * Student’s achievement
Substantive knowledge * Student’s achievement
Syntactic knowledge * Student’s achievement
Mastery in content knowledge and syllabus
* Student’s achievement
Mastery of other relevant discipline
* Student’s achievement
Content knowledge * Student’s achievement
** Correlation is significant at the level of p <0. 05 (two-tailed)
N=134
r
0. 190
0. 253
0. 290
0. 236
Sig. P
0. 028*
0. 100
0. 001*
0. 006*
0. 260
0. 292
0. 098
0. 001*
0. 221
0. 017
7. Discussion
7.1 KKQ Teachers’ Level of Content Knowledge in Teaching Quranic Tajweed
The research findings show that teachers of KKQ have a high level of preparedness of teaching the Quranic Tajweed. It
is clear through the acquisition mean scores for both groups of respondents, where; teachers and students was at a high
level respectively (mean = 4. 61, sd = 0. 39) and (mean = 4. 67, sd = 0. 36). This show, teachers of KKQ have become
proficient in theoretical background and have a deep understanding of education as well as able to identify the behaviour
of students in the classroom of Quranic Tajweed (Abdul Halim, 1999). Apart from improving students' understanding of
the Quranic Tajweed lessons, this knowledge is also important as a consideration factor in the teachers’ planning
process of teaching (Fraser, 1990).
Teachers of KKQ also found to have a good perception of the lessons that is included in the subject of the Quranic
Tajweed. This finding also indicates that teachers of KKQ are capable in delivering content of Quranic Tajweed lessons
effectively and easily understood by students (Davis & Newstrom, 1985). At the same time, they are clear about the
outlined objectives of the subject and have high awareness to take the responsibility as a teacher of recitation of the
Qur'an. The awareness towards the responsibility is vital as teaching the content of the Qur’an lies within the teachers
themselves (al-Qabisi, 1955).
Apart from being highly knowledgeable in both aspects mentioned, the KKQ teachers are also highly
knowledgeable in the area of substantive knowledge. This also shows that the KKQ teachers are proficient in theories
and concepts of each Quranic Tajweed subject and construct them into a more clear and rich way for the understanding
of the students. Knowledge of teachers towards the construct of syntactic knowledge showed that the KKQ teachers
implement instructional recitation of the Qur’an in accordance to the requirements of the syllabus provided (TurnerBisset, 2009). In addition, KKQ teachers are highly skilled in presenting appropriate examples of each topic that is being
taught and highly knowledgeable in choosing the teaching aids used to be applied in teaching to enhance students’
understanding of the lesson content that are being delivered (Turner-Bisset, 2009; Ahmad Yunus, 2011).
The research findings show that KKQ teachers have depth information in the aspect of content knowledge and
syllabus and this gives the impression that they have acquired all of the topics covered in the modules of Quranic
Tajweed. The in-depth knowledge that the teachers have acquired makes it easier for them to construct questions on the
Quranic Tajweed. Apart from having the expertise in constructing questions, teachers of KKQ also have high knowledge
on the relevance of each topic in the Quranic Tajweed subject. Knowledge is important as it help teachers in delivering
new information on the lessons of recitation of the Qur'an based on the existing knowledge acquired by students.
In the meantime, the findings of the final constructs showed that teachers of KKQ have high proficiency in the
aspects of related knowledge discipline with Quranic Tajweed lessons. They are not only proficient in the Quranic
Tajweed lessons but are well versed in the other Quranic lessons such as Qur’an tarannum, qiraat Sab'ie and many
others. Being proficient of these skills implies that the teachers of KKQ are also experts in Quranic Tajweed subject as
this is the foundation of other skills in the Qur’an. A person could not consider to be well versed in the Qur’an tarannum if
they are weak in Quranic Tajweed skills, and so it goes.
The research findings showed that there is no significant difference in the level of KKQ teachers' content
knowledge in teaching Quranic Tajweed based on demographic aspects such as gender, sanad certificate and school
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location. Further results revealed that KKQ teachers have different level of content knowledge in teaching Quranic
Tajweed based on the aspect of university background and teaching experience. Details of these findings, found that
KKQ teachers from local universities have higher content knowledge of Quranic Tajweed than the ones graduated from
foreign universities. In terms of teaching experience, teachers with experienced of more than 10 years were found to
have higher level in content knowledge of Quranic Tajweed subjects than the teachers with teaching experienced in a
period of 1-5 years.
As a whole, there is a significant correlation at low levels between pedagogical content knowledge with the
achievement of the Quranic Tajweed in KKQ students. This finding indicates that this knowledge does not attribute a big
impact to the achievement of students in the Quranic Tajweed teachings. This does not apply in the context of the
Quranic Tajweed lessons alone, but also occurs in the studies on correlation between pedagogical content knowledge
and students' achievement in academic aspect (Nik Mohd Rahimi, 2012). However, this knowledge could not be ignored
or taken lightly as it is one of the most important considerations in managing and planning the process of teaching
(Ferrell, 1995).
Detailed findings for each construct found that there are only four constructs showed a significant relationship with
the achievement in Quranic Tajweed of KKQ’s students which are the construct of readiness of teachers, substantive
knowledge, syntactic knowledge and mastery of other relevant disciplines. Meanwhile, two other constructs; the
perception towards KKQ and the proficiency in pedagogical content knowledge and syllabus had no significant
relationship with students’ achievement in the Quranic Tajweed.
8. Research Implication
The overall findings of the study indicated that the KKQ teachers have the high level of pedagogical content knowledge in
Quranic Tajweed lessons. The knowledge level should be maintained or enhanced by implementing the appropriate
activities from time to time. For example, via organizing educational courses related to Quranic Tajweed lessons by
authorities such as the school administration. For the KKQ teachers, they need to give full commitment by attending
related courses regarding the subject. This is because the unilateral efforts alone is not effective for the improvement in
pedagogical content knowledge of teachers in Quranic Tajweed lessons as this effort needs both parties involved which
are the organizers and the teachers themselves.
Analysis of the differences found that the level of KKQ teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge in Quranic
Tajweed lessons for graduated teacher from the local universities was higher than the ones who graduated from
universities abroad. Therefore, it is acceptable to increase the number for the recruitment of teachers that graduated from
local universities. Furthermore, they usually acquire the study in the field of Quranic education specifically during their
time in universities. The findings also shows that KKQ teachers with more than 10 years teaching experienced were
found to have higher pedagogical content knowledge of Quranic Tajweed compared to the teachers who teach within 1-5
years. This implies that the teaching experience influences the level of KKQ teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge in
Quranic Tajweed lessons. Meaning that the KKQ teachers who has been teaching in a longer period have a higher level
of knowledge in pedagogical content knowledge and so it goes.
The implementation of correlation analysis found that there was several constructs of pedagogical content
knowledge that needs to be addressed in improving students’ achievement in Quranic Tajweed lessons. These
constructs are; the readiness of teachers, substantive knowledge, syntactic knowledge, and mastery of other relevant
disciplines. Aspects of substantive knowledge and mastery of other relevant disciplines should be given a special
emphasis because both constructs have the greatest influence on KKQ students’ achievement in Quranic Tajweed
lessons.
9. Conclusion
In general, KKQ teachers have a high level of knowledge in pedagogical content knowledge of the Quranic Tajweed
lessons. However, the level of knowledge is viewed differently in the demographic aspect of teachers based on the
university background and teaching experience. The findings show that KKQ teachers which graduated from a local
university and experienced teaching for more than 10 years have a higher level of pedagogical content knowledge than
those who graduated abroad and experienced teaching within 1-5 years period.
Pedagogical Content knowledge is influenced towards the students’ achievement in the Quranic Tajweed lessons.
Correlation analysis for each construct of pedagogical content knowledge pedagogy showed two constructs that have the
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greatest influence on the achievement which are the construct of substantive knowledge and the mastery of other
relevant discipline.
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Evaluation of Prophet Muhammad’s Techniques in Managing Misbehaviors:
Application in Primary School Classrooms
Wan Mazwati Wan Yusoff
International Islamic University Malaysia
wanmazwati@iium.edu.my
Asyraff Hafdzan Abdullah
Islamic Science University Malaysia
asyraffdini@gmail.com
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2015.v5n1s1p185
Abstract
Studies have shown that there is a correlation between troublesome classroom behaviors and a gamut of antisocial,
aggressive-disruptive behaviors and psychiatric problems.Student classroom misbehavior is linked to student disengagement
which correlates with alienation by peers and truancy. Students who misbehaved were reported to perform worse academically
which escalated to other severe problems such as dropping out of school and delinquency. Researchers and academicians
have designed and implemented intervention programs to reduce this problem. Good intervention program should meet the
set criteria. This study aims to discover whether the techniques used by Prophet Muhammad in correcting mistakes of his
companions could be applied in managing misbehaviors of primary school students during teaching and learning process; and
to determine whether these techniques met the criteria of a good intervention program. Six relevant hadith on correcting
mistakes were selected and analyzed to formulate techniques of managing misbehaviors which were implemented in two
primary school classrooms by a trained teacher. This qualitative research examined and analysed journals written by the
teacher; and the verbatim transcriptions of two one-hour interview sessions with the teacher to assess teacher’s correct
application of the techniques and to discover the impact of the techniques on students’ behaviors. Findings revealed that the
techniques used were effective in reducing classroom disruptive behaviors; easy to implement; not disrupting the normal
classroom activities; and parsimonious. This study contributes to production of knowledge from Islamic worldview; and
contributes to the relevantization project which is the mission of International Islamic University Malaysia.
Keywords: Classroom misbehaviors, classroom management, relevantization, hadith application, behavior management techniques
1. Introduction
Disruptive behavior is defined as “an activity that causes distress for teachers, interrupts the learning process, and
activity that lead teachers to make continuous comments to the student” (Arbuckle & Little, 2004: 60) or any “activities
which disrupt and impede teaching and learning processes” (Thompson, 2009: 43). Most common classroom
misbehaviors are being late for class; disengaged during teaching and learning process; talking out of turn; making
distracting noises; arguing with other students; easily angered by others; losing temper; moving around the classroom
unnecessarily; and disobeying teacher’s instructions (Bowen, Jensen, & Clark, 2004; Wakschlag, Leventhal, BriggsGowen, Danis, Keenan, & Hill, 2005). Serious behavior problems occur less frequently but difficult to handle. Instances
of serious misbehavior include stealing; fighting; bullying; and verbally abusing teachers and other students (Sullivan,
Johnson, Owens, & Conway, 2014). However, the pervasive classroom disruptive behaviors are mostly trivial and lowlevel disturbances. But, the loss of time and the difficulty to manage the misbehaviors have led teachers to stress and
burnout. What is more, research findings have revealed that classroom behavior problem is a predictor for a myriad of
social, behavioral, and psychiatric problems; such as antisocial behaviors, violence, high-risk sexual behavior, drug,
alcohol, and tobacco abuse (Kellam, Brown, Poduska, Ialongo, Wang, & Toyinbo, 2008; Kellam, Mackenzie, Poduska,
Wang, Petras & Wilcox, 2011).
Teachers have applied strategies and techniques which they were familiar with to manage classroom
misbehaviors. Some of the strategies used were to ensure student compliance by using punitive measures such as
controlling students behaviors through negative and coercive interactions (Patterson, Reid, & Dishion, 1992; Slee, 1995),
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referrals, suspensions, calling parents (Wakschlag, et al., 2005), more strict school rules (Way, 2011), reprimands and
redirections (Madsen, Becker, & Thomas, 2001; Wan Yusoff & Mansor, 2014), sanctions (Kohn, 2006; Maguire, Ball, &
Braun, 2010), and disciplinary strategy through step system. This disciplinary strategy applies intensification of negative
corrective measures beginning with, for instance, giving warning, in-class time out, out of class time out, redirection to a
school leader, in-school suspension, out-of-school suspension, and the most extreme punishment is permanent
exclusion from school (Raby, 2010). The assumption underpinnings step system is that when bad behavior is corrected,
student learning will also be enhanced (Maguire, Ball, & Braun, 2010). However, studies indicated that punitive
measures and harsh punishment may create unruly, boisterous and disordered classroom environment (Madsen,
Becker, & Thomas, 2001); cause disobedience and rebelliousness among certain students (Way, 2011); reinforce
student hostility and destructive behaviors (Rinke & Herman, 2002); lead to negative outcomes including being dismissed
by peers, academic failure, and further deterioration of antisocial behavior (Patterson, Reid, & Dishion, 1992); and
contribute to defiance and detachment, common misbehavior, and school violence (Angus et al., 2009). Even though
studies have provided evidences against using punitive measures, however this practice is still prevalent especially in
schools where teachers were not given formal training in pedagogy (Wan Yusoff & Mansor, 2014).
The ineffectiveness of the strategies used and the detrimental effects of unresolved classroom misbehaviors have
prompted researchers and academicians to develop and evaluate classroom behavior management strategies and
intervention programs. Teacher could choose strategies that work for them and that have the following criteria: the
strategies are effective, that is, they reduce and prevent the occurrence of disruptive behaviors; easy to implement, which
means they would not require any structural changes and outside of school support, would not take much time to
prepare, and can be easily accessible; the strategies used should not take much class time and disrupt the normal
classroom activities (Guardino & Fullerton, 2010; Cholewa, Smith-Adcock, & Amatea, 2010); and cost effective.
Studies have shown that some evidence-based intervention programs were effective in reducing classroom
disruptive behaviors and met the criteria of good intervention program. These intervention programs were evaluated by
researches in a number of studies. Some examples of effective intervention programs are Good Behavior Game (Kellam
et al., 2008; Kellam et al., 2011; Donaldson, Vollmer, Krous, Downs, & Berard, 2011); Fast Track Program (CPPRG,
1999; CPPRG, 2002); Raising Healthy Children (Brown, Catalano, Fleming, Haggerty, & Abbott, 2005; Hawkins,
Kosterman, Catalano, Hill, & Abbott, 2005); and The Incredible Years program (Webster-Stratton & Hammond, 1997;
Scott, Spender, Doolan, Jacobs, & Aspland, 2001; Webster-Stratton et al., 2008). Research findings also confirmed
various practical behavior management techniques such as general praise; behavior specific praise; and stating clear
rules met the criteria of good strategies. These simple techniques were shown effective to promote student classroom
engagement and may decrease disruptive classroom behaviors (Gable, Hester, Rock, & Hughes, 2009; Henly, 2010;
Kerr & Nelson, 2010; Wheeler & Richey, 2010; Pisacreta, Tincani, Connell, & Axelrod, 2011; Wan Mazwati Wan Yusoff,
2012).
Even though these intervention programs were proven effective but they were never tested in Muslim settings.
Perhaps these programs may be effective in Muslim settings as well, however human creativity prescribes that we should
continue researching for different ways of solving problems. Those who are complacent and stop looking would lose the
opportunity to find even better solutions. While evaluating the above mentioned programs, several questions arose.
Such questions are: Are there simpler techniques and easier to implement? Are there techniques that can become
second nature to teachers that they do not need to prepare? Are there techniques that blend well into the psyche of
Muslims who are motivated by knowledge that comes out of Islamic worldview? Besides, good strategies and
intervention program should cost the least but produce the best effect. But more importantly, taking into consideration
cultural differences and Muslims’ religious conviction that the Qur’an and Prophet Muhammad’s Traditions (herein after
would be referred to as hadith) are the two primary sources of knowledge which provide prescriptions for human
behavioral problems, rigorous analysis of hadith for application in classroom settings were conducted . Equally
significant, this research project is to realize the mission of International Islamic University Malaysia to make Islamic
revealed knowledge “relevant to contemporary human and social issues and highly useful or indispensable for solving
individual, social, national and international problems and issues” (Kamal Hasan, 2009: 120). Islamic revealed
knowledge is knowledge that comes out of the Qur’an and Prophetic Tradition.
1.1 Prophet’s Methods of Handling Misbehaviors
Prophet Muhammad is the archetype of perfect moral character who demonstrated to mankind the practical aspect of
Islam. He set the precedent of excellent behavioral conduct which was followed by and become custom of Muslims
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across time and space. The doings and practices; verbal and nonverbal communication; and consent of Prophet
Muhammad were reported and recorded in hadith. Hadith is replete with historical evidences which demonstrated that
Prophet Muhammad had succeeded in motivating positive behavioral change among the Arabs at his time. This is further
substantiated by the style of living of his companions which were also recorded in hadith literature. This means that data
from hadith is full with strategies, methods, techniques, tools and procedures to promote good behavior. How to extract
these from hadith is depended on how we frame the questions when we interact with hadith. The process of making
hadith relevant to contemporary human and social issues involved continuous exegetical interpretation of the Qur’an and
hadith (Ibrahim Zein, 2012).
The styles of living of Prophet Muhammad and his companions were a continuation of life before Islam except
what have been delineated clearly by the Qur’an. The precedent of new tradition started when problems occurred and
the Muslims went to the Prophet for guidance. Therefore, we can conclude that there are significant amount of hadith
that dealt with how Prophet Muhammad handled various types of misbehaviours ranging from simple common mistakes
committed by newcomers to Islam and grave mistakes committed by people of knowledge in Islam (al-Munajjid, 2008).
Besides, making mistakes is innate in human, however the best wrongdoers are those who repent (Ibn Majah, hadith no.
4251). This paper delimits its analysis on common mistakes relevant for application in primary school setting. We have
selected six authentic hadith reported and authenticated by prominent scholars of hadith, namely Imam al-Bukhari (d.
870 A.D.) and Imam Muslim (d. 875 A.D.). Hadith is considered authentic when it met all the stringent criteria set by
scholars of sciences of hadith. Sciences of Hadith is a vast field of knowledge which will not be discussed in this paper.
Rigorous analysis of these six hadith revealed principles and techniques that can be applied to handle misbehaviors in
classroom. The following section states and discusses the selected hadith.
1.2 Dealing with Mistakes by Explaining the Rules
Anas ibn Malik reported: “While we were in the mosque with the Messenger of Allah, a bedouin came and stood urinating
in the mosque. The companions of the Messenger of Allah said, ‘Mah! Mah! (harsh way of rebuking)’ But the Messenger
of Allah said, ‘Do not interrupt him; leave him alone.’ So they left him until he had finished urinating, then the Messenger
of Allah called him and said, ‘These mosques are not a place to throw any kind of filth, urinate or defecate; they are only
for remembering Allah, praying and reading the Qur’an.’ The he commanded a man who was there to bring a bucket of
water and throw it over the urine, and he did so.” Hadith number 285 recorded by Imam Muslim.
Mu'awiya ibn al-Hakam said: “While I was praying with the Messenger of Allah (may peace be upon him), a man
sneezed. I said, ‘Allah have mercy on you!’ The people stared at me with disapproving looks, so I said, ‘Woe be upon
me, why is it that you stare at me?’ They began to strike their hands on their thighs, and when I saw them urging me to
observe silence (I became angry) but I said nothing. When the Messenger of Allah (may peace be upon him) had
finished the prayer (and I declare that neither before him nor after him have I seen a leader who gave better instruction
than he for whom I would give my father and mother as ransom). I swear that he did not scold, beat or revile me but
said, ‘Talking to persons is not fitting during the prayer; prayers are for glorifying Allah, declaring his Greatness and
reciting the Qur'an or words to that effect.” Hadith number 1094 recorded by Imam Muslim.
Two persons mentioned in the hadith above were in the process of learning how to practice Islam. They just
entered the fold of Islam, which means that they were ignorant in many practices of Islam. In dealing with these two,
Prophet Muhammad did not reprimand, use harsh words, criticize, making sarcastic remarks and he also did not punish
or beat them. The Prophet’s practice is contrary to the practices of many teachers in Malaysia including Islamic studies
teachers (Wan Yusoff & Mansor, 2014). Instead, Prophet Muhammad was very patient and gentle; and he never
embarrassed anyone who made mistakes (al-Munajjid, 2008). This hadith can be applied to students since they are in
the process of learning and acquiring new knowledge. The mistakes done by these two persons were not serious
mistakes. Urinating and talking are part of being human but to urinate and talk at wrong place and time is wrong; and
need to be corrected. Similarly, students are allowed to talk but it is wrong to talk while teacher is teaching. When
dealing with common misbehaviors, teacher should be more patient and gentle; and avoid scolding, screaming at
students, punishing or beating them.
The two hadith mentioned above revealed techniques that Prophet Muhammad used in handling misbehavior. If it
is deemed necessary to wait for the wrongdoer to finish what he is doing, then wait before correcting his mistake. When
correcting mistakes:
• Use precise words in just one or two sentences.
• Be general and do not specifically mention the wrongdoer’s name or the word “you”. This means the reminder
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or information is meant for all not just the wrongdoer.
Clearly explain the rule of what is not allowed and what is allowed.
For exampe, to correct the mistake of a student who is talking while teacher is teaching, just say, “Students are not
allowed to talk while teacher is teaching; teachers are to be respected, listened to and learned from.”
•
1.3 Ignoring Small Mistakes
Anas ibn Malik reported: “A man came panting and entered the row of worshippers and said, ‘Praise be to Allah, much
praised and blessed.’ When the Messenger of Allah (may peace be upon him) finished the prayer he said, ‘Who
amongst you uttered these words?’ The people remained silent. He (the Holy Prophet) again said, ‘Who amongst you
uttered these words? He said nothing wrong.’ Then a man said, ‘I came panting, so I uttered them.’ He replied, ‘I saw
twelve angels facing one another as to who will take those words up (to Allah).” Hadith number 1247 recorded by Imam
Muslim.
Anas ibn Malik reported: “The Prophet was with one of his wives when another of Prophet wives sent a big vessel
full of food to him. The wife in whose house the Prophet was struck the hand of the servant, and the vessel fell and
broke into two pieces. The Prophet picked up the pieces and put them together, then he gathered up the food that had
been in vessel and said, ‘Your mother is jealous.’ Then he asked the servant to wait and gave him a whole vessel
belonging to the wife in whose house he was, and kept the broken vessel in the house of the one who had broken it.”
Hadith number 5225 recorded by Imam Bukhari.
Sometimes mistakes are best to be ignored and teacher should focus on good behaviors because human cannot
run away from making mistakes. For those who make mistakes to gain attention of teachers, ignoring the person who
make mistakes could solve this problem. The hadith above illustrate how a man came late for congregational prayer but
he still was able to perform congregational prayer with the Prophet. He was so thankful that he uttered those words loud
enough that people could heard him. Talking loudly while others were praying is another mistake done by this man. But
The Prophet was not angry at the man and he did not reprimand or punish him for coming late to perform the prayer.
Prophet ignored the mistakes done by this man and focus on the good words that the man has uttered. Similarly, when
one of the Prophet’s wives broke a bowl owned by his other wife, he just ignored the wife’s misbehavior and focus on
cleaning up the mess. However, the Prophet replaced the broken bowl to be fair.
Ignoring common mistakes and focus on good behavior has shown to motivate students to change from
committing mistakes to practicing good behaviors (Wan Mazwati Wan Yusoff, 2012). In the above hadith, Prophet
Muhammad mentioned specifically the good words that the man uttered and also the value or impact of those words.
This was done in public at the mosque among the well known and closed companions of the Prophet. Even
though the hadith did not mention the Muslims who were praying at that time but it is common knowledge that Prophet’s
companions never missed congregational prayers at the mosque in Madinah. Therefore, when students made mistakes
but at the same time performed good behaviour, teacher should focus on good behaviour and reinforce the good
behavior by mentioning the positive value or impact of the good action.
1.4 The techniques used by Prophet Muhammad in dealing with common mistakes are:
•
•
•
•
•
Ignore the mistakes done out off ignorance.
Focus on the good behaviors.
Reinforce the good behaviors, good effort, and good outcomes by mentioning specifically the good behaviors,
effort and the outcomes of their effort.
Mention the impact of the good behavior to the doer and others
When the good behaviors were performed in public, mention them in public but avoid referring to the doer to
stress on the actions not the person. In other words, do not praise the person but praise the good actions or
outcomes. This may encourage others to emulate the good behavior. For instance, when a student answered
all questions correctly, do not say, “You are clever” but say, “Good, your answers are correct”.
1.5 Giving Solution to Rectify Mistakes
Abdullah Ibnu Mas'ud reported: “A person came to Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him) and said, ‘Allah's
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Messenger, I sported with a woman in the outskirts of Medina, and I have committed an offense short of fornication.
Here I am (before you), kindly deliver verdict about me which you deem fit’. Umar said, ‘Allah concealed your fault. You
had better conceal it yourself also’. Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him), however, gave no reply to him. The man
stood up and went away and Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him) sent a person after him to call him and he recited
this verse, ‘And observe prayer at the ends of the day and in the first hours of the night. Surely, good deeds take away
evil deeds. That is a reminder for the mindful’ (al-Qur’an, Hud: 114). A person amongst the people said, ‘Allah’s Apostle,
does it concern this man only?’ Thereupon he (the Holy Prophet) said, ‘No, but the people at large’.” Hadith number
6658, recorded by Imam Muslim.
Abu Hurairah reported: “A person came to the Apostle of Allah (may peace be upon him) and said, ‘Messenger of
Allah, I am doomed!’ He (the Holy Prophet) said, ‘What has brought about your ruin?’ He said, ‘I have had intercourse
with my wife during the day in the month of Ramadan’. Upon this he (the Holy prophet) said, ‘Can you find a slave to set
him free?’ He said, ‘No’. He (the Holy Prophet again) said, ‘Can you observe fast for two consecutive months?’ He said,
‘No’. He (the Holy Prophet) said, ‘Can you provide food to sixty poor people?’ He said, ‘No’. He then sat down and
(meanwhile) there was brought to the Apostle of Allah (may peace be upon him) a basket which contained dates. He
(the Holy Prophet) said, ‘Give these (dates) in charity’. He (the man) said, ‘Am I to give to one who is poorer than I?
There is no family poorer than mine between the two lava plains of Medina’. The Apostle of Allah (may peace be upon
him) laughed so that his molar teeth became visible and said, ‘Go and give it to your family to eat’.” Hadith number 2457
reported by Imam Muslim.
Two men in the above hadith had committed serious mistakes according to Islamic codes of ethics. However,
Prophet Muhammad was patient and compassionate when dealing with these wrongdoers. He did not pass judgement
on them and called them sinners. He did not scold or punish them to teach them a lesson. From this hadith, it is
apparent that Prophet Muhammad did not investigate or ask why these men committed such serious mistakes. Further,
he did not want to know the woman who was involved with the man for probing for more information would certainly
tarnish the good name of the woman’s family. Anas ibn Malik said that, “I served the Apostle of Allah for nine years but
he never said to me about a thing which I had done why I did that, or about a thing I had left as to why I had not done
that” (Hadith number 5724 reported by Imam Muslim).
To deal with the misconduct, Prophet Muhammad suggested a solution for the man to do good deeds because
good deeds cleansed the sins of evil deeds. As for the married man who had intercourse during the day in the month of
Ramadan, Prophet Muhammad asked him to choose among three alternatives. Since the man said that he had no
capability to do any of the alternatives, Prophet Muhammad gave him a basket of dates to be distributed to the poorest in
Madinah. Since the man who had committed the serious mistakes was the poorest in Madinah, the dates were given to
his family. This incident proved how compassion and sympathetic Prophet Muhammad was.
The application of these hadith is suitable in situation where students committed mistakes which do not involved
public property and safety. The serious mistakes committed are personal. The important principles that could be
extracted from these hadith are:
• Do not ask probing questions to investigate why students behave the way they do.
• Suggest possible solutions to help correct the mistakes done by students.
• Help students to perform one of the alternatives suggested to them.
Prophet Muhammad used various techniques to correct mistakes done by his companions and Muslims who live in
his time. The strategies and techniques used by the Prophet were depended upon the context within which the
misconduct were committed and the background of the individuals who committed the mistakes. However, only three
methods of correcting misbehaviors were selected for this study. This study aim to validate the techniques used by
Prophet Muhammad in correcting mistakes; whether they were effective to reduce classroom misbehaviors and met the
criteria of good intervention program.
2. Method of Study
This qualitative research collected data through two one-hour semi-structured interview sessions with the teacher. One
session was conducted at the teacher participant’s home and another one at the researcher’s place. The interviews
were audio-taped and transcribed verbatim. The teacher participant had a bachelor degree in Islamic Shari’ah and arabic
language was teaching Islamic Studies, reading and writing in Arabic alphabets and Arabic Language to primary five
students in Kajang, Selangor. She has more than four years experience in practicing Prophet Muhammad’s techniques
in handling classroom misbehaviors. She was trained by the researchers in 2011 and was awarded as a certified
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practitioner and trainer by an authorized body which was given sole authority to train those who are interested in
application of Prophet Muhammad’s techniques in solving behavioral problems in various settings. The participant was
asked to write a teacher’s journal to record how she applied the techniques in details and her experiences, feelings, and
observations of students’ behavior prior to application, immediate effects right after application and after six months of
continuous application of Prophet Muhammad’s techniques. The journal was an important source of information to
determine that the participant had applied the techniques correctly as trained to ascertain that the data was fit for
analysis. Forty-two journal entries were collected for analysis. In addition, classroom artifacts such as video-recordings of
selected classroom sessions and pictures of students during teaching and learning process were also collected for
analysis. Since the aim of this study was to determine the effectiveness of the techniques used in handling classroom
misbehaviors, the analysis of the data was guided by hypothetical categories. The frequently used and repeated words
and phrases were coded and labeled under specific categories which were compared with the hypothetical categories.
The same procedures were also done on the classroom artifacts.
3. Findings
The students involved in this study were 48 11-year old students from two classes of low achievers who went to a
religious school located in Kajang, Selangor. Malaysian schools practice streaming students according to academic
ability. Students in the last class were labeled as stupid, failures and had no future by school administrators, teachers
and peers. The students who participated in this study had accepted the labels that were given to them. They displayed
common characteristics of low achievers; they had low interest in learning indicated by poor engagement in classroom
and low task interest; low self-esteem and had disciplinary problems such as high absenteeism. Students from these two
classes were also labeled as the naughtiest and the most stubborn in the school. Some of them could not read and write
Malay Language written in Arabic script, while some had difficulty in reading and writing in Malay Language in Arabic
script. They had committed various common classroom misbehaviors such as disobeying teacher’s instructions;
disrespectful of teachers; making distracting noises; walking around in class or to friends desks; disturbing friends;
coming late to class; talking while teachers were teaching; playing with friends while teachers were teaching; refusing to
do or to complete tasks given by teachers; not interested in lessons; losing focus in teaching and learning processes; and
sleeping in class. In terms of Islamic religious obligations, these students would performed their religious obligations after
being reminded and some students would not perform their religious duties.
The teacher participant reported that she was given the low achievers’ class on the day she reported for duty. She
took this as a challenge and was thankful also for given an opportunity to practice Prophet Muhammad’s techniques of
promoting good behaviours and handling misbehaviours in classroom. Prior experiences in applying Prophet’s methods
made her confident to handle the given classes. However, the first day of school was nerve wrecking for her when she
found a classroom full of students running around making loud noises and disturbing others. At that moment she felt she
wanted to scream and scold those students, however she remembered the training in Prophet Muhammad’s methods.
She took a deep breath and reminded herself to be sincere, patient, gentle, and compassionate like the Prophet.
Before she entered the class, she decided to ignore the commotion without asking accusative questions and focus on
good behaviors only; however mistakes which cannot be ignored must be dealt with by explaining the rules; and she was
determined to provide as much assistance to her students to solve their learning and behavioral problems.
3.1 Implementation in Classroom
From the analysis of the collected data, it is confirmed that the teacher participant has become highly skilful in applying
Prophet Muhammad’s techniques of correcting mistakes. She had succeeded in applying the three methods explained
this paper in primary school’s classrooms. The first few weeks of class, the teacher would explain the rules of the class
and also reminded the students of the school rules. This was done in conformity with the methods used by Prophet
Muhammad.
The teacher explained, “The first few days of classes, I observed students were talking, playing with friends,
disturbing others, and sleeping. I did not scold, punish, or argue with them. I was not angry at all. I ignored their
mistakes and started to look at them one by one until they all stopped doing what they were doing. Then I explain to
them the rules they had to follow. I said, ‘When teacher is ready to start a lesson, students are not allowed to do several
things. First, Students are not allowed to talk while teacher is teaching except given permission by teacher. Teacher is
to be respected, listened to, learn from. Second, classrooms are not the place for playing alone or with friends;
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classrooms are the place to learn new things. Third, disturbing friends are not allowed during lessons; pay full attention
during lessons. Fourth, Sleeping is not allowed in the classroom. Classroom is a place to learn and experience new
things’. Of course we cannot expect they would obey right away. They will still talk, play, sleep, do many other things but
we must know what mistakes to ignore and what mistakes to correct”.
Further, the teacher applied several techniques together to correct mistakes and to reinforce good behavior. She
agreed, “Most of the time I ignore the common and insignificant mistakes like talking and making loud noises. As long as
they completed the tasks given to them, I would ignore minor mistakes. For instance, I conducted my Qur’an
memorization class at the school library. Students walked in lines but they were talking, laughing and making distracting
noises along the way. However, they came early and right on time. I ignored their little mistakes and reinforce their good
behavior. I said, ‘Indeed I am happy, most of you came early and on time to class today. Allah like those who are
punctual’. The students smiled and started to do their memorization and amazingly, the next day, more students came
early to class”.
When students made mistakes, the teacher did not investigate and ask them accusative questions, that is, why
questions which appeared to be more of making accusation then asking for reasoning. She did not ask why you were
late; why you did not finish your homework; why you disturb your friends; why you always cut school? But instead, she
would offer to help the students. Instances of not asking probing question were plenty in the data. A few times, when
students handed in incomplete homework or did not do their homework at all, she would not question the students,
reprimand or punish them. Instead she would offer to help the students to complete their homework. The teacher said, “I
would offer to help them by asking, ‘Do you want if I help you with your homework?’ Of course of majority of the students
would answer in affirmative. Then, I would tell them to meet me at the teachers’ room during break time where I guided
them to finish their tasks”.
3.2 Effectiveness of the Techniques
Analysis of the data revealed that the Prophet Muhammad’s techniques of correcting mistakes were effective in reducing
classroom misbehaviours when they were applied daily, that is, in every teaching and learning sessions; and outside the
classroom whenever teacher has contact with students. However, the time taken to correct the misbehaviors varies
according to types of misbehaviours and some common misbehaviors, teachers have to ignore and accept that human
has certain personality traits that cannot be changed. For certain disruptive classroom behaviors, the impact of using the
techniques was immediate. For example, at one time, the students were not motivated to learn because the majority of
classes were cancelled. Most teachers and students were involved in a big school program. Other classes which were
not involved continued lessons as usual. Students of this class tried to persuade the to cancelled the class and go home;
and some were playing and running around the classroom. However, girls were sitting down, getting ready to start doing
the task given by the teacher. The teacher ignored boys disruptive behaviors and made a positive comment on girls
good behavior. She said, “Wow, Good! I am pleased that girls are starting to work. I am confident that they will finish
their tasks in time. Since the girls obeyed their teacher, lets give them a big round of applause; and they gave a big
round of applause for the girls…Amazingly, the boys walked to their desks and began to work on their tasks. Once again
I praised their good behaviour the same way and asked all students to give themselves a big round of applause.”
Before the teacher was trained in application of Prophet Muhammad’s techniques, she was like any other teacher
who use punitive methods to force students’ compliance. She was convinced the techniques were effectives after she
did few tests. After three weeks applying these techniques daily, she asked her students to hand in their homework the
next day. Previously only three, sometimes four students would submit their homework. After experiencing positive
changes in her students’ behavior, she would expect one or two students would not finish their homework. She was
surprised the next day when she found on her table, all students had submitted their assignment.
The teacher admitted that she was “really touched with the students changes, they were labeled as stupid and
naughty. But after only few weeks of applying these techniques daily, there was no more incomplete tasks, both in class
or homework; all of them were fully engaged in completing their class work; there was no more running around in class
and playing; without asking, they would get into groups during Qur’an memorization class; amazingly, low achievers can
collaborate well when they were given group work; they help each other to complete their tasks”…”and the best gift my
students gave to me was they beat the first class in national examination when 100% of the students passed the exam”.
However, the students still talk in class and sometimes they made loud noises but they knew when to talk and make
noises.
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3.3 Ease of Preparation and Application
After applying these techniques for few weeks, the teacher reported that she became quite skilful and spent less time to
prepare before class. The time taken to prepare for application was between 30 minutes to one hour during the first
week, after that the time spent decreased as the teacher become more skilful. After four years practicing Prophet
Muhammad’s methods, the teacher did not need to prepare at all. She has acquired the skills and become second
nature to her. As for ease of application, the techniques were easy to apply however it required teachers to be patient,
compassionate and sympathetic as well as sincere so that teachers would not revert to the old habit. With determination
to see changes in students’ negative behaviors, application would be easy. Applying these techniques only took about
one or two minutes of class time. This means that these techniques would not disrupt the normal class activities.
“Applying the Prophet methods is nothing but changing your way of interacting with students. If we used to give
negative comments, scold and punish change them to these techniques”, said the teacher. Obviously, scolding and
punishing students took up more class time than applying the Prophet’s techniques. Finally, the investment to go for
training in Prophet Muhammad’s techniques of correcting mistakes was very minimal. The teacher spent less than
USD35.00 to go for one full day training. The teacher further commented that she felt privileged for practicing and
continuing the tradition of Prophet Muhammad. “To know that we hold on and practice teachings of the holy Prophet is
emotionally and spiritually satisfying. As Muslims we must refer to our sources of knowledge to solve our problems”,
commented the teacher.
4. Conclusion
Studies have revealed that using punitive measures to deal with classroom misbehaviors were ineffective and may
reinforce negative behaviors. Realizing that hadith provides empirical evidences of the effectiveness of Prophet
Muhammad’s methods and techniques of correcting misbehaviors, the researchers made rigorous analysis of hadith to
discover principles and techniques for application in primary school classroom. This study aims to evaluate the
effectiveness of the application of Prophet Muhammad’s techniques in handling misbehaviors in primary school
classrooms. From the analysis of six selected authentic hadith, four techniques of correcting mistakes were discovered.
The techniques were dealing with mistakes by explaining the rules; ignoring small mistakes and reinforcing good
behavior; rectifying problems by giving solutions; and avoiding asking investigative questions. Findings of this study
revealed that the Prophet techniques were effective to reduce classroom misbehaviors; did not consume time for normal
classroom activities; easy to prepare and apply; and parsimonious. To ease the application of these techniques, teacher
should be sincere, patient, gentle, compassionate and sympathetic. Moreover, teachers should avoid negative criticism
and harsh words, reprimand, punishment and making sarcastic remarks when dealing with student misbehaviors in the
classroom.
This study provides literature for the relevantization project which is the mission of International Islamic University
Malaysia. It may guide others who are interested in doing empirical research to provide evidences of relevancy of hadith
for solving contemporary human problems and issues. The result of this study provide confidence for those who choose
to refer to Islamic sources to provide solutions to their problems.
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Preferred Strategies for Female and Male Initiators İn Romantic Relationship Initiation:
The Role of Stereotypes Related to Romantic Relationships,
Rejection Sensitivity and Relationship Anxiety
Mediha Ömur Barhana
medihaomur@gmail.com
Ayda Büyükşahin-Sunal
Ankara University
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2015.v5n1s1p195
Abstract
The aim of this study is to evaluate the associations between preferences about which strategy (e.g. direct, indirect or pasive
strategies) should be used by women and men in order to initiate relationship, attitudes toward stereotypes related to romantic
relationships, rejection sensitivity and relationship anxiety. It is also aimed to evaluate to what extent rejection sensitivity and
relationship anxiety determine the stereotypical attitudes concerning men’s initiation in relationships. The sample of the study
included 373 participants (228 women - 145 men) between the ages of 18 - 37 (X = 22.08, SD = 2.18). The questionaire that
consisted of demografic information form, Relationship Fear/Anxiety Subscale of Multidimensional Relationship Scale,
Attitudes Toward Stereotypes Related to Romantic Relationships Scale and Rejection Sensitivity Scale were administered to
the participants in person as printed forms or by internet as online forms. Findings showed that both female and male
participants mostly supported indirect strategy for female initiators, and direct strategy for male ones. Female participants’
support for direct strategy was found to be greater than male participants’ support for direct strategy where the initiator was
male (p < .05). Conversely males’ support for direct strategy was greater than female participants’ support for direct strategy
where the initiator was female (p < .05). Relationship anxiety, attitudes toward stereotypes related to romantic relationships
and rejection sensitivity were found to be differed in the basis of different strategy preferences for female and male initiators.
Female participants who supported indirect strategy for female initiators were more in favor of stereotypes concerning men’s
initiation and men’s dominance in relationships than female participants who supported direct strategy for female initiators (p <
.01). These participants were also found to have more rejection sensitivity than the other female participants group by a
marginal significance level (p = .051). Male participants who supported direct strategy for female initiators were found to have
more relationship anxiety than male participants who supported indirect strategy for female initiators (p < .01). Male
participants who supported indirect strategy for male initiators were observed as more supportive of stereotypes concerning
men’s dominance in relationships (p < .01). In women sample, supporting stereotypes concerning men’s initiation was
explained by the number of individual’s own initiations and rejection sensitivity. Findings of the research were discussed within
the framework of gender roles, stereotypes related to romantic relationships and rejection sensitivity theory.
Keywords: Romantic Relationship, Relationship Initiation, Rejection Sensitivity, Stere
The beginning of a relation in which couples get to know each other is a duration that is of paramount importance in the
development of the relationship (Berscheid & Garizano, 1979; Snyder, Berscheid & Glick, 1985). As Clark, Shaver and
Abrahams (1999) suggested, even though many studies concerning maintanence of relationships are carried out, the
number of studies, in which the initiation of these relationships are of concern, are very limited This study aims to
investigate the associations between the views about the strategies that men and women are supposed to follow and the
stereotypes involving romantic relationships, rejection sensitivity and relationship anxiety In addition, an investigation
into the extend to which rejection sensitity and relationship anxiety predicts the stereotypical attitudes associated with
men being supposed to be active and initiative is aimed.
The expression relationship initiation refers to the beginning stage of close relationships (Sprecher & Guynn,
2009). According to Clark and colleagues (1999), during the realtionship initiation period, individiuals employ different
strategies to interact or deepen their interaction with people they like or are attracted to. These are:
(a) becoming emotionally involved (revealing personal information), (b) directly initiating a relationship (making
physical contact, directly asking a potential partner to start a relationship), (c) signaling indirectly (hinting, talking
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generally about romance), (d) manipulating the situation (making the setting romantic, maintaining close physical
contact), (e) joking (teasing, playfully insulting), (f) demonstrating resources (gift-giving, showing off possessions), (g)
using third parties to initiate a relationship (getting friends or family members to assist), and (h) acting passively (waiting
for the other person to make the first move) (p. 712).
These strategies might be both direct or indirect and the person might even choose to remain completely inactive
and wait. (Clark et. al. 1999, Vorauer & Ratner 1996)
When the studies involving relationship initiation periods are analysed, it is possible to see that the main focus of
attention has been on gender. In studies by Clark and colleagues (1999) it has been observed that while men are more
active, employing direct strategies, women tend to be more passive, employing indirect strategies. Findings suggesting
that men are more active initiative than women while woman employ more indirect ways have been observed in some
other studies as well (i.e., Berger, 1987; Kelley & Rolker-Dolinsky, 1987; MacGregor & Cavallo, 2011). The expectation
that men are supposed to initiate the relationship and exhibit dominance while women employ coyness and inhibition to
sex, can be commonly observed in Turkey as well as many western cultures (Eaton & Rose, 2011; Sakallı & Curun,
2001; Sakallı-Uğurlu, 2003; Schleicher & Gilbert, 2005). Even when couples define themselves as equalitarians they
tend to follow more traditional methods (Ganong & Coleman, 1992). These findings point to the extend to which these
stereotypes involving relationship initiation and other periods are effective. In addition, Sakallı and Curun (2001) claim
that stereotypes concerning relationships involve two dimesions, male dominance and male assertiveness, and that
women are more in favour of male assertiveness when it comes to relationship initiation. In studies conducted in Western
cultures, the view that men should be assertive has been found to be more favoured among women (Schleicher &
Gilbert, 2005).
Sensitivities regarding rejection may be of influence on why the stereotypes about the man being the initiator has
been embraced more by women. Both men and women may prefer the opposite side to be more assertive in order to
avoid the threat and anxiety of rejection. Therefore, the stereotypes that suggest man should be initiators may find more
support among women. Even though it is known that sensitivities about rejection may inhibit indivuals from being
initiators (Vorauer & Ratner, 1996), no research investigating how these sensitivities support the stereotype of the man
being assertive has been done.
Some claim that sensitivities about rejection form based on the relationship with primary caregivers (Downey,
Bonica & Rincon, 1999; Feldman & Downey, 1994). According to the rejection sensitivity theory (Downey et. al.,1999;
Feldman & Downey, 1994) that includes this view, the experiences of rejection and neglect in interactions with the
primary caregiver may cause the individual to be over sensitive to clues of rejection as well as being in a nervous
expectation concerning rejection in their later relationships. On the other hand London, Downey, Bonica & Paltin (2007)
suggested that rejection sensitivity is related to social anxiety and withdrawal. This function of rejection sensitivity may
cause the individual to prefer the opposite sex to be assertive in initiation of a romantic relationship. Therefore, women’s
being highly in favour of the stereotypes involving men’s initiation assertiveness may be due to their rejection sensitivites.
In addition to rejection sensitivity, anxieties and fears towards developing an intimate relationship may also affect
relationship initiation assertiveness. These anxieties concerning relationship initiation have been studied in terms of
attachment styles in attachment theory studies (Hazan & Shaver, 1987; Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991). According to
this theory, secure attachment style is when a positive and consistent relationship has formed during infancy with the
primary caregiver which in turn reflects in adulthood as forming and maintaining positive relationships. Insecure
attachment styles such as anxious-avoidant attachment (Hazan & Shaver, 1987) and fearful attachment (Bartholomew &
Horowitz, 1991) suggest negative and inconsistent relationships with the primary caregiver in infancy and maintaining
these fears and anxities about relationships in adulthood. Individuals with secure attachment style may be expected to be
more assertive in intimate relationships (Hazan & Shaver, 1987). In that case, relationship anxiety which is a reflection of
insecure attachment style, might be expected to negatively affect assertiveness in initiating the romantic relationship.
However, findings are required to validate this expectation.
Towards the elimination of these shortcomings mentioned earlier in relationship initiation studies, this study aims
to investigate the romantic relationship initiation strategies that are deemed appropriate for male and female initiators in
terms of stereotypes, rejection sensitivity and relationship anxiety. In addition, an investigation into whether some
demographic variables, attitudes towards stereotypes suggesting men are to be dominant, rejection sensititvity and
relationship anxiety predict the stereotypes that suggest men are to be assertive, is aimed. This way, the reasons why
women are more in favour of the stereotype that men are supposed to be more assertive in relationship initiation, has
been investigated.
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5. Method
5.1 Participants
The sample included 373 university students from different public and private universities in Turkey between the ages of
18-37 of which 61,1% were women (n = 228), and 38,9% were men(n = 145). The mean age was 22,08.
5.2 Materials
Personal Information Form: This form was consisted of questions about age, university, bereducational levels of the
parents, the number of previous romantic relationships and the number of romantic relationships which participant
himself/herself initiated. Additionally, this form included questions concerning preferred strategies for male and female
initiators (direct, indirect or passive strategies).
The Relationship Fear/Anxiety Subscale of The Multi-Dimensional Relationship Questionaire: This questionaire
was developed to assess several psychological experiences related to intimate relationships by Snell, Schicke and
Arbeiter (2002). Turkish adaptation of this questionaire was conducted by Buyuksahin (2005). The Relationship
Fear/Anxiety Dimension is a subscale of this questionaire and includes ten items which can be scored from 1 to 5.
Attitudes Toward Stereotypes Related To Romantic Relationships Scale: First form of this scale which had 12
items was developed by Sakallı and Curun (2002). The scale was shortened to 10 items by Sakallı in 2003. The short
form assesses the supportive attitudes toward stereotypes relevant to male assertiveness and male dominance in
romantic relationships. In this study, both dimensions (male assertiveness and male dominance) were used. Items of the
scale can be scored from 1 to 7.
Rejection Sensitivity Questionaire: This questionaire was developed to measure individuals’ levels of rejection
sensitivity by Downey and Feldman (1996). Erözkan (2004) adapted this questionaire to Turkish culture. The
questionaire has 18 items that can be scored from 1 to 8. Total score of the questionaire provides the rejection sensitivity
level.
5.3 Procedure
Firstly, Ethical Committee Approval was obtained from Ankara University and then the questionaires were distributed via
internet or by hand. Printed questionaire forms were administered in Ankara University Language-History and Geography
Campus and in a elective psychology course at Aydin University. The participants who took the printed questionaire
forms were presented with an Informed Consent Form and requested to sign it after reading. The link of the website
which lead participants to online form was announced through a social medium (facebook). In order to prevent repeated
participations the users which had the same IP numbers were removed from the data. It took 10-15 minutes to fill in the
whole research questionaire.
6. Results
The main aim of this study was to evaluate the preferred strategies for female and male romantic relationship initiators.
For this purpose, firstly, most preferred initiation strategies for females and males were investigated. Secondly, it was
examined whether these preferences differentiated in terms of gender. Finally, the variables which predict the supportive
attitudes toward stereotypes relevant to male dominance in romantic relatonships were explored through a stepwise
regression analysis because of the main concern of the study.
7. Findings of Demographic Variables
Gender comparisions of parental educational levels were performed through a Mann-Whitney U test because the
independent variable is ordinal. Findings showed no gender difference concerning educational level of the participants
mothers (U = 15397, p < .05, r = -.98). Similarly, male and female partcipants did not differ in educational levels of the
fathers (U = 16052, p < .05, r = -.08).
The female (X = 3,43) and the male participants (X = 3,92) were found to not have significantly different number of
previous romantic relationships (t [366] = -1,1, p < .05). However, the number of the relationships which was initiated by
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participant himself/herself was found to be greater in males (X = 2,73) than females (X = 0,66) (t [159,58] = -6,95, p <
.001). Additionally, female participants (X = 23.56) were found to be more supportive of male initiation than male
participants (X = 21.79) (t [369] = 3.17, p <.01); while male participants (X = 25.06) were more supportive of male
dominance in romantic relationships than female participants (X = 17.29) (t [365] = -10.66, p <.01). No significant
difference was found in terms of rejection sensitivity between female (X = 54.84) and male participants (X = 52.72) (t
[361] = 1.24, p >.05). However, marginally significant gender difference was observed in relationsip anxiety variable (t
[362] = 1.83, p =.07). That is, female participants (X = 23.03) scored higher than male ones (X = 21.54).
7.1 Finding of Preferred Strategies For Female and Male Initiators
It was shown that indirect strategy (e.g. “to stimulate desired potential partner to make the first move”) was mostly
preferred for female initiators both by female and male participants. Eighty-one percent of females and 62,1% of males
agreed that women should stimulate men to make the first move. Least preferred initiation strategy was found to be
passive strategy (e.g. “ just to wait doing nothing”) for women initiators ( 5,3% in females and 5,5% in males).
For male initiators, direct strategy (to make the first move asking out) was the most preferred strategy by both
female and male participants. Ninety-four percent of the female participants and 81,4% of the male participants
supported the idea of making the first move to initiate a relationship with the desired potential partner. Passive strategy
was the least preferred way of initiation for male initiators among both female (0,4%) and male participants (4,1%). It was
also found that the preference of direct strategy for female initiators was more common in male participants (z [371] = 4,09, p < .05); while the preference of direct strategy for male initiators was more common in female participants (z [371]
= 3,47, p < .05).
Data of the participants who preferred the passive strategy for male or female initiators was not included in the
comparisons of rejection sensitivity, attitudes toward sterotypes related to romantic relationships and relationship anxiety
in terms of preferred strategies for male and female initiators because of the insufficent sample size to perform the
necessary analyses. So, the data which belonged to 12 females and 8 males was removed in the comparision of these
variables in terms of pereferences for male initiators; and the data which belong to 1 female and 6 males was removed in
the comparision of these variables in terms of pereferences for female initiators. The data of the rest of the participants
who preferred indirect or direct strategies was used to evaluate associations between different strategy preferences and
rejection sensitivity, attitudes toward sterotypes related to romantic relationships and relationship anxiety variables.
The female participants who preferred the indirect strategy for female initiators were found to be more supportive
of both stereotypes of male assertiveness (U = 2026.50, p <.01, r = -2.75) and male dominance (U = 1147, p <.01, r = 5.50) in romantic relationships than the other female participants who preferred the direct strategy for female initiators.
These participants were also found to be more sensitive to rejection in a marginal level of significance (U = 2256, p =
.051, r = -1.95) than the ones who preferred direct strategy for female initiators. No significant difference was found in
relationship anxiety between the females who preferred the direct and indirect strategies (U = 2552, p >.05, r = -1.07).
Male participants who preferred the indirect strategy for female initiators scored lower in relationship anxiety than
those who preferred the direct strategy for female initiators (U = 1594.50, p <.05, r = -2.10). Male participants showed no
significant difference in rejection sensitivity (U = 1995.50, p >.05, r = -.13), attitudes toward male assertiveness (U =
1947.50, p >.05, r = -.36) and male dominance (U = 1818.50, p >.05, r = -1.25) in romantic relationships in terms of
preferences of the direct or indirect strategies for female initiators.
No significant difference was found in the women sample in relationship anxiety (U = 1204, p >.05, r = -.66),
rejection sensitivity (U = 1172, p >.05, r = -.81), attitudes toward male assertiveness (U = 1039.50, p >.05, r = -1.51) and
dominance (U = 1189.50, p >.05, r = -.80) in romantic relationships in terms of preferences of the direct or indirect
strategies for male initiators. The male participants who preferred the direct or indirect strategies for male initiators did
not show any significant difference in relationship anxiety (U = 1017.50, p >.05, r = -1.15), rejection sensitivity (U =
1098.50, p >.05, r = -.66) and attitudes toward male assertiveness (U = 1000.50, p >.05, r = -1.36) in romantic
relationships. However, male participants who prefferred the indirect strategy for male initiators were found to be less
supportive of attitudes toward male dominance (U = 1594.50, p <.01, r = -2.198) than those who preferred the direct
strategy.
7.2 Findings of Regression Analyses
For exploration of the predictors of attitudes toward stereotype concerning male assertiveness in romantic relationships,
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stepwise hierarchical regression analyses were performed both for all participants together and males and females
seperately. On these analyses, age, educational level of the mother and father, the number of previous romantic
relationships and the number of previous romantic relationships which was initiated by the participant himself/herself
were entered in the regression first. Relationship anxiety and rejection sensitivity variables were entered in the second
block.
The results of the regression analysis which were performed for all of the participants regardless of heir gender are
presented in Table 1. As can be seen in Table 1, the number of previous romantic relationships which was initiated by
the participant were found to be a significant predictor of the dependent variable (F[1, 343] = 13.22; R2 = .04, β = -.19, t
[343] = -3.64; p < .01). In the second block, rejection sensitivity significantly predicted the dependent variable (F[1, 342] =
9.93; R2 = .06, β = .14, t [342] = 2.54; p < .01). The number of previous romantic relationships which was initiated by the
participant explained 4% of the variance and the addition of rejection sensitivity variable raised explained variance to 6%.
The results of the regression analysis which was performed for only the female participants are presented in Table
2. As seen in Table 2, the number of previous romantic relationships which were initiated by the participant were found
to be a significant predictor of the dependent variable (F[1, 208] = 9.41; R2 = .04, β = -.21, t [208] = -3.07; p < .01). In the
second block, rejection sensitivity significantly predicted the dependent variable (F[1, 207] = 22.62; R2 = .07, β = .16, t
[207] = 2.38; p < .01). The number of previous romantic relationships which were initiated by the participant explained 4%
of the variance and with the addition of rejection sensitivity variable explained variance rose to 7%. In the regression
analysis which was performed only for the male participants, none of the first and second block variables had a
significant predictive role in attitudes toward men’s assertiveness in relationships.
8. Discussion
Findings involving the demographic variables investigated in the study show that the number of relationships in which
men are initiators are more than those that women initiate. This shows that the stereotypes (Eaton & Rose, 2011; Sakallı
& Curun, 2001) which suggest men are to be initiators in romantic relationships, affect actual dating behaviours.
Moreover, the finding that the male assertiveness stereotype which involves the view that men are supposed to be
initiators finds more favour among women is consistent with prior studies (Sakallı & Curun, 2001; Sakallı-Uğurlu 2003).
In literature concerning intimate relationships, findings which suggest females have higher rejection sensitivity
have been observed while there were no differences between genders involving relationship anxiety (Büyükşahin, 2005;
Erözkan 2004). In this study, however, different results about rejection sensitivity and relationship anxiety have been
found. Rejection sensitivity not changing among genders while relationship anxiety is observed to be more among
women in a marginally significant manner point to a possibility that the relation between these variables and gender may
change over time.
In the study, both men and women have supported the view that when women like someone, they should enable
the opposite sex to make the first move. The view that men should make the first move in initiation period was the most
preferred strategy for male initiators among both men and women. In other words, there is a consensus that women
should act indirectly and men have to act directly. This shows that, as stated in Eaton and Rose (2011), traditional
gender roles which put the active role in initiation to men is still widely accepted in our time. Furthermore, while the view
that women should be more direct in initiation has found favour more among men, the view that men should be more
direct in initiation has found more favour among women. This can be interpreted as both men and women want the
opposite sex to be more assertive in relationship initiation. As mentioned earlier, the stereotype involving male
assertiveness to be more favourable among women also points out to this.
Analyses concerning the roles of relationship anxiety, attitudes towards stereotypes related to romantic
relationships and rejection sensitivity in preferred initiation strategies for men and women have resulted differently among
men and women.
For women who prefer indirect strategies for other women, supporting male assertiveness and dominance in
romantic relationships is in relation with the negative views of stereotypical attitudes involving relationships towards a
woman making the first move. In addition to stereotypical attitudes, rejection sensitivity has been observed to be lower
with women who support a more direct strategy for other women. This finding suggests that women’s not supporting
other women to make the first move is influenced by the fear of rejection. Fear of rejection may stop the individual from
disclosing to the person they like or from taking the first step (Vorauer & Ratner, 1996). The view that men should take
the first step not women could be due to women’s fear of rejection. As McDaniel (2005) mentioned earlier, women more
advocate traditinal role of men in initiating relationships because this allows them tol essen the risk of rejection.
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Accordingly, the results of the stepwise regression analysis predicts that the rejection sensitivity in women supports the
male assertiveness stereotype in relationships.
For men who had different preferences involving female initiation strategies, no significant difference has been
noted on their attitudes towards stereotypes involving relationships or on rejection sensitivity. On the other hand, men
who think women should employ a more direct strategy for initiation are found to have higher relationship anxitey
compared to the men who believe women should employ a more indirect strategy. These findings show that for men ,
seeing it appropriate for a woman to take the first step is related to the fears and anxieties related to having a
relationship. This is not suprising, however, when it is considered that individuals with secure attachment are more
assertive in intimate relationships compared to those who have insecure attachement and that relationship anxiety is a
reflection of insecure attachment. Supporting assertiveness in the opposite sex could be considered an indicator of the
persons own lacking in assertiveness and this lacking could be a reflection of the attachment style.
The initiation strategies that men prefer for other males is found to be in relation with only supporting the
stereotypes which suggest men are to be dominant. Accordingly, more support for the stereotype which suggests man
are to be dominant is observed among males who believe other males should employ direct strategies, compared to
those who believe other males should employ indirect strategies. Attitudes towards stereotypes that suggest man should
be assertive, rejection sensitivty and relationship anxiety were found to have no relation to the strategies preferred by
men for other males.
Although the stereotype that suggets men are supposed to be assertive in a relationship includes the view that
men are supposed to take the first step, interestingly, the values obtained from this variable is not higher in men who
prefer a direct strategy for other This shows that the attitudes towards male assertiveness in a relationship and the
attitudes towards whether a man takes the first step when he likes someone or not are not the same. The first
represents a must for a romantic relationship while the latter is an expression of attitudes on what must be done when
someone is liked. The individual might believe it to be a good idea to take the first step when someone is liked, although,
he may at the same time not support the idea that its a man’s duty to initiate. In literature, a man wanting a woman to be
more assertive has been interpreted as a wish to reduce their burden in the relationship (Scharlott & Christ, 1995; Sakallı
& Curun, 2001). The findings of this study show that, this wish of men doesn’t necessarily mean that they will avoid
taking the first step when they like someone.
As it is known, the well established gender roles in society encourage men in romantic relationships to be sexually
active while making it known, comfortably approach the person they like and show dominant behaviour in the relationship
(Eaton & Rose, 2011; Schleicher & Gilbert, 2005). In romantic relationships, supporting male dominance and prefering
direct strategies for other males can be related to each other in terms of the courage that the gender roles provide men
with. Keeping this in mind, this courage does not stop men from wanting the opposite sex to be more assertive and share
the burdens of the relationship (Scharlott & Christ, 1995; Sakallı & Curun; 2001).
References
Bartholomew, K. & Horowitz, L. M. (1991). Attachment styles among young adults : A test of a four- category model. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 226-244.
Berger, C. R. (1987). Planning and scheming: Strategies for initiating relationships. In R. Burnett, P. McGhee & D.Clarke (Ed.),
Accounting for relationships: Social representations of interpersonal links (pp. 158-174). London: Methuen.
Berscheid, E. & Graziano, W. G. (1979). The initiation of social relationships and interpersonal attraction. In R.L. Burgess ve TL Huston
(Ed.), Social Exchange in Developing Relationships. London: Academic Pres.
Büyükşahin, A. (2005). Çok boyutlu ilişki ölçeği: Geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması. Türk Psikiyatri Dergisi, 16(2), 97-105.
Clark, C. L., Shaver, P. R. & Abrahams, M. F. (1999). Strategic behaviors in romantic relationship initiation. Personality and Social
Psychology Bulletin, 25, 709–722.
Downey, G., Bonica, C. & Rincon, C. (1999). Rejection sensitivity and adolescent romantic relationships. In W. Furman, B. Brown ve C.
Feiring (eds.), The development of romantic relationships in adolescence (pp. 148-174) New York: Cambridge Press.
Downey, G. & Feldman, S. (1996). Implications of rejection sensitivity for intimate relationships, Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 70(5), 1327-1343.
Eaton, A. A. & Rose, S. (2011). Has heterosexual dating become more egalitarian? A 35-year review using Sex Roles. Sex Roles, 64
(11-12), 843-862.
Erözkan, A. (2004). Romantik ilişkilerde reddedilmeye dayalı incinebilirlik bilişsel değerlendirme ve başaçıkma, Unpublished Doktorate
Thesis, KTÜ-SBE, Trabzon.
Feldman, S. & Downey, G. (1994). Rejection sensitivity as a mediator of the impact of the childhood exposure to family violence on
adulthood attachment behavior. Developmental Psychopathology, 6, 231-247.
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Ganong, L. & Coleman, M. (1992). Gender differences in self and future partner expectations. Journal of Family Issues, 13, 55-64.
Hazan, C. & Shaver P. (1987). Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
52, 511-524.
Kelley, K. & Rolker-Dolinsky, B. (1987). The psychosexology of female initiation and dominance. In D. Perlman ve S. Duck (Ed.),
Intimate relationships: Development ,dynamics, and deterioration (pp. 63-87). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
London, B., Downey, G., Bonica, C. & Paltin, I. (2007). Social causes and consequences of rejection sensitivity. Journal of Research on
Adolescence, 17(3), 481-506.
MacGregor, J. C. D. & Cavallo, J. V. (2011). Breaking the rules: Personal control increases women's direct relationship initiation. Journal
of Social and Personal Relationships, 28(6), 848-867.
McDaniel, A. K. (2005). Young women’s dating behavior: Why/why not date a nice guy? Sex Roles, 53, 347–359.
Sakallı, N. & Curun, F. (2001). Romantik ilişkilerle ilgili kalıpyargılara karşı tutumlar. Tecrübi Psikoloji Çalışmaları, 22, 31-45
Sakalli-Uğurlu, N. (2003). How do romantic relationship satisfaction, gender stereotypes, and gender relate to future time orientation in
romantic relationships? Journal of Psychology, 137(3), 294-303.
Scharlott, B.W. & Christ, W. G. (1995). Overcoming relationship-initiation barriers: The impact of a computer-dating system on sex role,
shyness, and appearance inhibitions. Computers in Human Behavior, 11(2), 191-204.
Schleicher, S. S. & Gilbert, A. L. (2005). Heterosexual dating discourses among college students: Is there still a double standard?
Journal of College Student Psychotherapy, 19(3), 12-13.
Snell, W. E. Jr, Schicke, M. & Arbeiter, T. (2002). The multidimensional relationship questionnaire: psychological dispositions associated
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Snyder, M., Berscheid, E. & Glick, P. (1985). Focusing on the exterior and the interior: Two investigations of the initiation of personal
relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 1427-1439.
Sprecher, S. (1985). Sex differences in bases of power in dating relationships. Sex Roles, 12, ss. 449–462.
Vorauer, J. D. & Ratner, R. K. (1996). Who’s going to make the first move? Pluralistic ignorance as an impediment to relationship
formation. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 13(4), 483-506.
Tables
Table 1. Results of The Stepwise Hierarchical Regression Analysis For The Predictors of Attitudes Toward Stereotypes Related To
Male Assertiveness in Romantic Relationships (All Participants)
Variables (According to enterance order)
Step I (Demografic Variables) Personally initiated relationships
Step II Rejection sensitivity
B
R2 s.d. F
.04 1-343 13.22 -.40
.06 1-342 9.93 .05
StandartError β t
.11
-.19 -3.64
.02
.14 2.56
Table 2. Results of The Stepwise Hierarchical Regression Analysis For The Predictors of Attitudes Toward Stereotypes Related To
Male Assertiveness in Romantic Relationships (Female Participants)
Variables (According to enterance order)
Step I (Demografic Variables) Personally initiated relationships
Step II Rejection sensitivity
201
R2 s.d.
F
B Standart Error β
t
.04 1-208 9.41 -.97
.32
-.21 -3.07
.07 1-207 7.65 .06
.02
.16 2.38
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Teacher’s Suggestions for Recycling and Sustainable Environment:
Reflections on Diaries1
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Dilek Erduran Avci
Mehmet Akif Ersoy Universitiy, Education Faculty, Science Education Department, Burdur, Turkey
dilek924@gmail.com
Assist. Prof. Dr. Huriye Deniş Çeliker
Mehmet Akif Ersoy Universitiy, Education Faculty, Science Education Department, Burdur, Turkey
huriyedenis@mehmetakif.edu.tr
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2015.v5n1s1p203
Abstract
There has been great increase in the amount of waste as a result of consumption habits of humankind. Having a sustainable
environment is possible by recycling and providing the reuse these wastes. But it is encountered with some conditions which
may negatively affect all living creatures because of leaving wastes into the nature without any process. Education of
sustainable environment has a key role in reducing these problems. Science is one of the lessons which may give this
education in Turkey. In this view science teachers should have a well-informed, conscious and positive attitude about subjects
of recycling and sustainable environment. Based on this matter, a project named “look forward and recycle: Recyclist teacher”
was performed. This project was actualized in Burdur between 17-23 August 2014 with the support of the Scientific and
Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK) and Mehmet Akif Ersoy University. Totally 23 activities were applied
within the project. During this process, teachers who attended this project kept diaries about assigned subjects when they
completed their activities. Diary subjects were determined in a way to allow participants for expressing their feelings and
thoughts related with the activity content of each day. Throughout five days, suggestions of participants for recycling and
sustainable environment in written diaries were analyzed. When diaries are examined it is seemed that suggestions of science
teachers are collected under five main categories for recycle and sustainable environment. These are precautions on the basis
of state, economic extent, education, written and visual media, and precautions on the basis of nature. Results of research are
considered to be a guide for future works.
Keywords: teacher’s suggestions, recycling, sustainable environment, diaries
1. Introduction
People and environment they live in are an inseparable whole. People’s interaction with nature is inevitable within the
scope of this wholeness. But this interaction has been turning solution into tough problem when it is unidirectional for only
human interests without considering nature (Kocatas, 2003). It is remarkable that struggle between human and nature
will turn into power struggle between ecology and economy and as a result of these people will eventually destroy
themselves (Atasoy, 2006). The negative effects of human activities on nature are increasing rapidly (Yıldız, Sipahioğlu
and Yılmaz, 2005; Kışlalıoğlu and Berkes, 2003). People, who think that consumption will especially increase life quality,
have been consuming much more (Kilbourne, 2006), the more consumption increases the more waste increases and it
will cause more environmental pollution. Wastes, which are one of the causes of these negative effects, have grown to
such an extent that they threaten the lives of our generation and the future generations (Güler and Çobanoğlu, 1994;
Özek, 1994; Ongley,1996).
Recycling which is one of the most important attitude for environment is the process that puts various waste
materials (glass, paper, aluminum, cell, motor oil, accumulator, concrete, organic wastes and electronic wastes etc. ) into
recycling by turning into secondary material with various physical and/or chemical treatments (Buyuksaatci, Kucukdeniz,
Data of this work was prepared during the process of the project Look Forward and Recycle: Recyclist Teacher with the number
213B704 that was supported within the scope of TÜBİTAK (The Scientific And Technological Research Council Of Turkey) 4004 –
Nature and Science Schools in 2014.
1
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and Esnaf, 2008). Recycling contributes to protection of natural sources in environment and to reducing the amount of
solid waste. Recycling contributes as economically and environmentally besides reducing the amount of solid waste
(Oom Do Valle, Reis, Menezes, and Rebelo, 2004). Consequently it is seemed as an important part of sustainable future
(Hopper and Nielsen, 1991; Oskamp, 1995; Valle, Reis, Menezes, and Rebelo, 2004).
According to expressions of Kaya and Tomal (2011) in their works, sustainability was used for the first time as
political and economic concept in 18th century by Georg Ludwig Harting. The concept was described as “sustainable use
of resources” in Rio de Janeiro United Nations World Environment Summit Meeting in 1992. In the sense of protecting
environment the sustainability can be described as displaying attitude which can keep environment in its most natural
shape, and being in activities of recycling environment which is damaged or vanished as a result of human activities
(Yavuz, 2010). Sustainable development has been addressed both economic growth and ecological balance and been
described as being attentive to provide future generations’ necessities in today without risking their necessities in the
future (Karalar and Kiraci, 2011).
Sustainable environment and efficient recycling can only be obtained by focusing on educated consumption
attitudes. Individuals have duties and responsibilities in reducing the amount of wastes, separating wastes from its
sources and recycling. This can only be managed by individuals with conscious, sensitive and awareness (Karatekin,
2003).
Education has an important role in raising individuals with conscious, sensitive and awareness about sustainable
environment and recycling. Science class is one of those classes which this education may be given. In the sense of both
vision indicated in the science class curriculum of Ministry of National Education (2013) and acquisitions in its content,
Science class and science teachers have an important role in raising a generation adopted recycling. In order to perform
this role science teachers should be well-informed and have positive attitude for waste and recycling. Because teachers
have an important place in students’ information source about recycling (Çimen and Yılmaz, 2012). Based on this, “Look
Forward and Recycle: Recyclist Teacher” project, which was supported within the scope of Scientific and Technological
Research Council of Turkey (STRCT) 4004 – Nature and Science Schools, was actualized by science teachers. The
project comes to the forefront with an activity program including information and application of participants, as both
individuals and teachers, about sustainable environment and recycling. The aim of this work is to present suggestions of
science teachers, participated this project, for sustainable environment and recycling.
2. Method
This work is a qualitative research.
The participants comprise 20 science teachers who work in secondary schools from different provinces of Turkey.
13 female and 7 male teachers participated to the project. The participants were chosen according to the information
they have provided on application form. In application form, participants were asked about their seniority, graduated
school and department, province which they are living, whether allergic and chronic illness they have or not, what they
think and what they do relating to waste and recycling, reasons why they want to get involved in this project. Participants
were selected according to assessment criteria. Participants' willingness to participate in the project was also taken into
consideration.
Teachers’ diaries are used as data collection tool. Teachers’ suggestions for recycling and sustainable
environment are tried to be presented with a content analysis from their expressions in dairies. Themes and sub-themes
obtained as a result of content analysis are supported by quoting teachers’ expressions in diaries. Nicknames of
participants are used instead of their names while quoting.
2.1 The project of “Look forward and recycle: Recyclist teacher”
“Look forward and recycle: Recyclist teacher” project was prepared for gaining this awareness and it was supported by
TUBİTAK 4004 Nature education and science schools’. Project conducted between 17-23 August 2014. The primary
purpose of this project was to show the participants the effects of wastes on human, animals, plants and the others; by
getting them to involve to the recycling activities. Another purpose of this project was to improve the scientific
understanding of the participants on this subject and finally make them gain a positive attitude towards recycling.
In this project 23 different activities were carried out. These activities were “Meeting (creative drama), Is The Life
Possible Without Waste?, Waste And Creative Abilities, Writing Time: Diary, Track Of Wastes, Biodegradation, How To
Enable The Conversion Of Biodegradations, A Trip To Hobby Garden, Making Compost And Having Biogas, Effect Of
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Domestic And Agricultural Waste To The Lake, Livings Around The Water Resources I-II, Where Is Our Waste Going?,
Designing Education Activities, Presentation And Discussion About Educational Activities Which Were Designed, A Trip
to History I-II, We Remember Our Experience, Sharing Time.
During this process teachers wrote diaries about assigned subjects when they completed their activities. Diary
subjects are determined in a way which allows participants for expressing their feelings and thoughts about activity
content of each day. Diaries of participants are examined with respect to teachers’ suggestions for recycling and
sustainable environment.
3. Findings
When science teachers’ suggestions for recycling and sustainable environment in diaries were examined, five main
themes showed up. These themes are precautions on the basis of state, economic extent, education, written and visual
media, and precautions on the basis of nature. In table-1 themes which took place in teachers’ diaries and its distribution
are given.
Table 1. Themes which took place in teachers’ diaries and its dissemination with respect to recycling and sustainability.
Themes
Precautions on the basis of state
Economic extent
Education
Written and Visual Media
Precautions on the basis of nature
N
14
14
13
7
4
3.1 Precautions on the basis of state
Most of science teachers, participated the project activities, mentions about precautions on the basis of state for
sustainable environment in their diaries. As regarding these precautions sub-categories are that penal sanction should be
set, legal regulations should be made, incentive pays should be given, awarding should be actualized, recycling and
sustainability should be turned into government policy. Some of the expressions in teachers’ diaries are like:
As long as there are not hefty sentences, I do not think that waste problem will end. (Inci)
In order to turn waste materials into energy industrialists should be promoted and facilities which will be established
should be excised if it is necessary. (Doruk)
I think that amount of waste production should be reduced in order to solve Turkey’s waste problem. I also consider this
situation should be a government policy. (Ayse)
…. municipalities, district governorship, governorates and government should handle with this situation. Subjects
related to recycling-regaining of environment and wastes should be in regulated constitution provisions. (Nil)
Factories which use wastes should be established in Turkey and these should be promoted with state incentives.
(Meltem)
We should take this subject to parliament and present our suggestion to representatives. . Parliament should promote
people by making law about this matter. (Okan).
Politicians may promote people to recycle their wastes by making legal regulations and establishing foundations to
follow-up. People may earn some financial income with respect to their wastes or collecting wastes may be provided by
presents. (Ilhan)
…Immigration from undeveloped nations should be prevented. Migrations which overburden cities should be prevented.
(Zeki)
For example, just saying “recycling products such as plastic, glass, paper and cell should be collected in schools” is not
enough. Collected wastes should be taken in periods by municipalities. (Gorkem)
3.2 Economic extent
Science teachers who are project participants emphasize on economic extent for providing recycling in aimed level and
sustainable environment. An adequate budget is needed in order to provide enough recycling banks, to develop facility
and systems of recycling, to support scientific research and projects related to the subjects. Some expressions of
teachers related to economic extent are like:
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State institutions and organizations should be mobilized and enough recycling banks should be put in related places,
adequate budget should be formed, and sanctions should be made. (Nehir)
If we arrange funds in environment projects for country wide person and organizations, we can promote them. (Orhan)
Adequate containers of metal, glass, cell and domestic wastes should be put in neighborhoods. (Zehra)
Adequate budget should be formed in order to make recycling boxes, facilities, collect units, and facilities of wastewater utilization. (Ayse)
… interdisciplinary works and projects should be given an opportunity. (Ilhan)
Factories in which recycling materials can be recycled should be established in every city. (Hasan)
In schools, houses, workplaces, hospitals there should be enough waste boxes which we can categorize our wastes.
(Gunay)
3.3 Education
Most of science teachers stated that education is important for sustainability. In education category they emphasized that
there should be classes related to the subject, conscious consumption attitude should be developed, individuals should
gain a habit to collect wastes separately, and community should become conscious. They also mentioned about
educations of families, children, adults and moral educations. Some expressions of teachers about education are like:
Ending Turkey’s garbage can only be possible with completing related education and lack of conscious. Community can
only become conscious with education. (Evren)
People should be informed about waste material and how these materials damage environment. In this respect schools
should be given education and if it is necessary “recycling classes” should be arranged. (Doruk)
I firstly say that education is an obligation to solve this problem. (Ayse)
Ending garbage is possible by informing people…Informing people and especially students is so important. (Inci)
All people should become conscious. (Damla)
Families should be informed about recycling. (Meltem)
In our country citizens should become conscious from early ages. (Zeliha)
We can start our struggle by ending garbage in the head of children in home and students in school. After they became
conscious we had already brought solutions slowly. Our children produce so original ideas that I believe they will start
the biggest development. In time, people, families will become conscious. After the country will become conscious and
there will not be garbage or waste problem in Turkey. (Gunay)
The biggest lack in the management of waste is unconsciousness of families. As a beginning families should become
conscious and applications should be made about this matter. When these applications became a habit, it would reflect
on children. There may be a lesson about environmental consciousness and children can be informed about this
subject. (Munevver)
…it should be told that being happy with consumption is not normal. (Irmak)
Students should be informed not to use gift package and people should be promoted to use rummage materials. Open
buffet, all in systems should be either removed or limited. (Hasan)
3.4 Written and Visual Media
Some of science teachers who are project participants emphasize on the importance of written and visual media for
recycling and sustainable environment. In this view, they stated that press, social media, poster, public services or
cartoons may be used, campaigns may be arranged, and also advertisements including negative consumption attitudes
should be avoided. Some of teachers’ suggestion expressions for written and visual media are like following:
…cartoons should be used to educate young in this way. Very popular cartoon hero would be a good garbage collector.
In this way a community who collect garbage will come out. (Damla)
In houses and streets precautions which are galvanizer for separating wastes should be taken. For this purpose written
and visual media can be benefitted. (Meltem)
Several people are not even aware of how wastes, they threw, pollute environment. So awareness should be created
by putting up a poster where people can easily see. (Ilhan)
Public service ad and reading texts in the books should be used in order to make people conscious. (Gunay)
Campaigns may be initiated (“develop your neighborhood with your own waste”) like building park, astroturf, wedding
saloon for neighborhood. Treeplanting campaigns: build your own forest. Just like a tree for a kilo of cell, a tree for a kilo
of metal, bring paper and take your tree. (Zehra)
…by creating awareness a consciousness can be created on people about recycling through putting up posters at
where people may see. (Orhan)
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…reducing pollution may be provided by maintaining campaigns until creating a conscious. (Gorkem)
3.5 Precautions on the basis of nature
Few of science teachers offered suggestions for sustainable environment with precautions on the basis of nature such as
creating protection zones, protecting water sources, planting plants which do not consume much water. Some
expressions of teacher are below:
Planting plants which do not need much water like rose, levanter will be so useful to the process. (Ayse)
Water sources should not be hired to companies for income, city wastes should not be left on the way of these sources.
(Inci)
…protection areas should be created. (Ibrahim)
4. Results and Discussion
When diaries of teachers, who participated the project “Look Forward and Recycle: Recyclist Teacher” and wrote
throughout the project, are examined, their suggestions related to recycling and sustainable environment are collected
under five main categories: (1) precautions on the basis of state, (2) economic extent, (3) education, (4) written and
visual media, (5) precautions on the basis of nature. Legal regulations, laws and common policies, serving services such
as mass transportation and collecting containers for recycling, reaching opportunity for eco-friendly alternative products,
role of environmentalist groups in social consciousness, advertisements, press and news about the subject can be
counted between exterior sustainable factors which affect individual attitudes (Kilbourne et al. , 2002; Stern, 2000). As a
result of analysis which science teachers presented, it is seemed that content of reached categories and sub-categories
includes exterior factors which effect individual attitudes mentioned above.
For sustainable environment and recycling most of science teachers emphasized on precautions on the basis of
state that penal sanctions should be set, legal regulations should be made, incentive pays should be given, awarding
should be actualized, recycling and sustainability should be turned into government policy. When the effects and
necessities of public support on creating aimed effect of legal regulations such as sanctions, penalties and taxations
which is applied to reduce overconsumption of sources within property are considered, the importance of role of local
governments under environmental management comes again to forefront (Sengul, 2002; Brown and Cameron, 2000).
Local governments contribute to protecting and healing environment by providing attendance of individuals into
environmental management (Üste, 2005). Örten (2009) listed down the main duties of local governments on individual
consumption attitudes as: creating environmental consciousness, presenting required substructure services, following up
incentive policies and performing legal sanctions. A sustainable system consists of political responsibility and attendance
(Holmberg and Sandbrook, 1992). As regarding legal regulations and sustainable government policy Colakoglu (2010)
emphasized that countries’ creating unique environment right in national constitutes and giving this right a place is
important for sustainable environment. When it is considered that sustainable environment is connected with sustainable
consumption; Veenhoven (2004), who said that sustainable consumption both takes place in political decision making
bodies and is a fact based on convincing consumers with powerful tool, emphasized on the importance of decision
makers. According to Cooper et al. (1998), governments can direct consumption attitudes of individuals with campaigns,
services, incentives or sanctions aimed at individuals as well as providing an environmental development on
consumption attitudes as a result of legal sanctions they applied. As a result of meetings which is made to present the
role of local governments on individual sustainable consumption, Örten (2009) stated that they indicated the necessity of
making laws and consolidating penal sanctions in order to prevent individual attitudes caused pollution and damaged
environment after given required education to people about environment and constituted substructure. Correspondingly
science teachers emphasized on penal sanctions and legal regulations. Some of science teachers state that immigration
which overburdens cities and countries should be prevented and increasing of population is something negative for
sustainability. In other words Schaefer and Crane (2005) stated that the rate of increase in population should be reduced
as a way of reducing high rate in consumption.
Again most of science teachers emphasized on economic extent for providing recycling at aimed level and
sustainable environment. An adequate budget is needed for providing enough recycling banks, developing recycling
facilities and systems, supporting scientific research and project related to the subject.
Another factor which science teachers emphasize for sustainable environment is education. They emphasized that
there should be classes about environmental education, conscious consumption attitude should be developed,
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individuals should gain a habit to collet wastes separately and people should become conscious. They also mentioned
about education of families, children, adults and moral education as related do the subject. Education is an important
extent for sustainable environment when it is considered that environmental education is important to understand habits
such as understanding, skill, attitude and thought about environment, to understand natural relations took place between
human, society and natural systems and to know how we can make these relations more sustainable, and this system
consists of the process which is being successfully active, helps to make right decisions about environment and turns
these decisions into eco-friendly attitudes (O’Brien, 2007; Kışoğlu, 2009). One of the subcategories of education, which
came out as a result of teachers’ suggestions, is to develop a conscious consumption attitude. Consumption habits of
individuals who constitute the society directly or indirectly cause the consumption of natural sources and deterioration of
ecological environment (Munksgaard et al. , 2002). In order to make people gain sustainable consumption habits Karalar
and Kiraci (2010) mentioned about implementations as product sharing systems should be created, individuals should be
encouraged to display sharing habits against buying products, recycling boxes should be put in several places of city, we
should be organized to collect used dresses, book etc. , bicycle roads should be built in the city. It is seemed that there
are some similar examples between science teachers’ suggestions. It is seemed that teachers’ expressions about
making people conscious are parallel with expressions of Karatas and Aslan (2012) that family, education organizations,
mass communication tools and nongovernmental organizations have important roles in developing environmental
conscious.
A part of science teachers who are project participants emphasized on written and visual media for recycling and a
sustainable environment. At this stage, they have indicated that press, social media, posters, public service ads or
cartoon films can be used and campaigns can be formed. They also indicated that advertisements including negative
consumption attitudes should be prevented. Such as to support the using of written and visual media Selanik Ay (2010)
stated that students’ benefiting from media product in gaining environmental conscious contributes to having information
about environment, to gain environmental conscious, to develop their skills in searching, to realize environmental issues,
to keep them being up to date, to make learning process an interesting thing, and to increase their sensitiveness to
environment. Alim (2006) stated that according to the result of a research made in the United States of America students
in primary and middle schools gets their environmental information mostly from written and visual media, then school and
last their family and friends. The role of written and visual media on environmental education which science teachers
emphasized in their suggestions has been presented also by researches. According to Barkan and Eroglu (2004),
educators use written and visual media in education process in order to make learning permanent. There are hundreds of
works which tests educational values of pictures, television, slide, film strip, records and other educational media. The
results obtained from these tests, effective using of these kind of media has a great value in education process. Although
science prospective teachers indicated the positive aspect of written and visual media, they have also mentioned to avoid
from advertisements including negative consumption attitudes. Karalar and Kiraci (2011) emphasized the negative
effects of advertisements by stating that cultural norms, created with the support of advertisement, cause to make wrong
decisions in consumption which is based upon lack and partial information of consumers.
A few of science teachers offered suggestions for sustainable development with precautions on the basis of nature
such as creating protection areas, protecting water sources and planting plants which do not need much water. One of
the important points of sustainable consumption is that we need to provide our necessities in today by considering the
opportunities of next generations to provide their own necessities without overconsuming natural sources and destroying
environment (Mortensen, 2006). Sustainable consumption means reducing used natural sources and protecting in
developed countries at least (Cooper, 2005).
As a result of this work, most of suggestions which reflect on diaries of science teachers, participated the project
about recycling and sustainable environment, are parallel with related literature in great parts. It is considered that
research results will be pathfinder for new works. Also research results may be examined by executive units, education
organizations, parents, written and visual media organizations.
Several works present that projects have positive effects (Erduran Avcı, Deniş Çeliker, 2015; Balkan Kıyıcı, Atabek
Yiğit, Selcen Darçın, 2014; Balım, Deniş Çeliker, Türkoğuz and Kaçar, 2013; Tekbıyık, Şeyihoğlu, Sezen Vekli and Birinci
Konur, 2013; Karataş and Aslan, 2012; Cappellaro, Ünal Çoban, Akpınar, Yıldız and Ergin, 2011; Erdoğan, 2011; Keleş,
Uzun and Varnacı, 2010; Güler, 2009; Ozaner, 2004).
In this sense, performing projects with the content of sustainable environmental education is important. It is
obvious that a necessity giving an importance to nature education projects, which are supported by various organizations
to develop regaining with recycle and to create a sustainable natural environment, comes out (Erdogan, 2011; Ulucinar
Sagir, Aslan and Cansaran, 2008). It can be stated that similar projects with teacher-centered whose aims are to raise
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next generations or with different participant in its center should be actualized and disseminated in order to provide
important gains.
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