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Biological Wastewater
Treatment in Warm
Climate Regions
Marcos von Sperling and
Carlos Augusto de Lemos Chernicharo
Department of Sanitary and Environmental Engineering
Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil
VOLUME ONE
Published by IWA Publishing, Alliance House, 12 Caxton Street, London SW1H 0QS, UK
Telephone: +44 (0) 20 7654 5500; Fax: +44 (0) 20 7654 5555; Email: publications@iwap.co.uk
Website: www.iwapublishing.com
First published 2005
Reprinted 2006
C 2005 IWA Publishing
Copy-edited and typeset by TechBooks, India
Printed by TJ International, Padstow, UK
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as
permitted under the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act (1998), no part of this publication may
be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in
writing of the publisher, or, in the case of photographic reproduction, in accordance with the terms of
licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK, or in accordance with the terms of
licenses issued by the appropriate reproduction rights organization outside the UK. Enquiries
concerning reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to IWA Publishing at the
address printed above.
The publisher makes no representation, expressed or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the
information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for errors or
omissions that may be made.
Disclaimer
The information provided and the opinions given in this publication are not necessarily those of IWA
or of the editors, and should not be acted upon without independent consideration and professional
advice. IWA and the editors will not accept responsibility for any loss or damage suffered by any
person acting or refraining from acting upon any material contained in this publication.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
ISBN: 1 84339 002 7 (this volume and set)
Contents
Volume One
Preface
Dedication
The authors
List of authors by chapter
xi
xv
xvii
xix
PART ONE INTRODUCTION TO WASTEWATER
CHARACTERISTICS, TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL
1 Introduction to water quality and water pollution
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Uses of water
1.3 Water quality requirements
1.4 Water pollution
2 Wastewater characteristics
2.1 Wastewater flowrates
2.2 Wastewater composition
3
3
5
5
8
11
11
30
3 Impact of wastewater discharges to water bodies
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Pollution by organic matter and stream self purification
3.3 Contamination by pathogenic microorganisms
3.4 Eutrophication of lakes and reservoirs
3.5 Quality standards for wastewater discharges and waterbodies
79
79
79
125
133
152
4 Overview of wastewater treatment systems
4.1 Wastewater treatment levels
4.2 Wastewater treatment operations, processes and systems
4.3 Preliminary treatment
165
165
166
180
v
vi
Contents
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
Primary treatment
Secondary treatment
Removal of pathogenic organisms
Analysis and selection of the wastewater treatment process
181
182
217
217
5 Overview of sludge treatment and disposal
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Relationships in sludge: solids levels, concentration and flow
5.3 Quantity of sludge generated in the wastewater treatment
processes
5.4 Sludge treatment stages
5.5 Sludge thickening
5.6 Sludge stabilisation
5.7 Sludge dewatering
5.8 Sludge disinfection
5.9 Final disposal of the sludge
244
244
248
6 Complementary items in planning studies
6.1 Preliminary studies
6.2 Design horizon and staging periods
6.3 Preliminary design of the alternatives
6.4 Economical study of alternatives
279
279
281
283
283
251
254
257
258
260
270
274
PART TWO BASIC PRINCIPLES OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT
7 Microbiology and ecology of wastewater treatment
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Organisms present in water and wastewater
7.3 Biological cells
7.4 Energy and carbon sources for microbial cells
7.5 Metabolism of microorganisms
7.6 Energy generation in microbial cells
7.7 Ecology of biological wastewater treatment
297
297
298
299
280
301
302
306
8 Reaction kinetics and reactor hydraulics
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Reaction kinetics
8.3 Mass balance
8.4 Reactor hydraulics
319
319
320
327
330
9 Conversion processes of organic and inorganic matter
9.1 Characterisation of substrate and solids
9.2 Conversion processes of the carbonaceous and nitrogenous
matters
9.3 Time progress of the biochemical oxidation of the
carbonaceous matter
9.4 Principles of bacterial growth
9.5 Modelling of substrate and biomass in a complete-mix reactor
367
367
373
377
380
392
Contents
vii
10 Sedimentation
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Types of settling
10.3 Discrete settling
10.4 Flocculent settling
10.5 Zone settling
421
421
423
425
433
436
11 Aeration
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Fundamentals of gas transfer
11.3 Kinetics of aeration
11.4 Factors of influence in oxygen transfer
11.5 Oxygen transfer rate in the field and under standard conditions
11.6 Other aeration coefficients
11.7 Mechanical aeration systems
11.8 Diffused air aeration systems
11.9 Aeration tests
11.10 Gravity aeration
457
457
458
464
466
470
470
474
477
478
482
PART THREE STABILISATION PONDS
12 Overview of stabilisation ponds
495
13 Facultative ponds
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Description of the process
13.3 Influence of algae
13.4 Influence of environmental conditions
13.5 Design criteria
13.6 Estimation of the effluent BOD concentration
13.7 Pond arrangements
13.8 Sludge accumulation
13.9 Operational characteristics
13.10 Polishing of pond effluents
502
502
503
505
508
512
518
532
533
534
534
14 System of anaerobic ponds followed by facultative ponds
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Description of the process
14.3 Design criteria for anaerobic ponds
14.4 Estimation of the effluent BOD concentration from the
anaerobic pond
14.5 Design of facultative ponds following anaerobic ponds
14.6 Sludge accumulation in anaerobic ponds
540
540
541
542
545
547
547
15 Facultative aerated lagoons
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Description of the process
15.3 Design criteria
552
552
552
553
viii
Contents
15.4
15.5
15.6
15.7
15.8
Estimation of the effluent BOD concentration
Oxygen requirements
Aeration system
Power requirements
Sludge accumulation
554
557
558
558
560
16 Complete-mix aerated lagoons followed by sedimentation ponds
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Description of the process
16.3 Design criteria for the complete-mix aerated lagoons
16.4 Estimation of the effluent BOD concentration from the
aerated lagoon
16.5 Oxygen requirements in the aerated lagoon
16.6 Power requirements in the aerated lagoon
16.7 Design of the sedimentation pond
564
564
565
566
17 Removal of pathogenic organisms
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Process description
17.3 Estimation of the effluent coliform concentration
17.4 Quality requirements for the effluent
17.5 Design criteria for coliform removal
17.6 Removal of helminth eggs
578
578
578
579
590
592
604
18 Nutrient removal in ponds
18.1 Nitrogen removal
18.2 Phosphorus removal
610
611
615
19 Ponds for the post-treatment of the effluent from anaerobic reactors
617
20 Construction of stabilisation ponds
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Location of the ponds
20.3 Deforestation, cleaning and excavation of the soil
20.4 Slopes
20.5 Bottom of the ponds
20.6 Inlet devices
20.7 Outlet devices
621
621
621
623
623
626
627
630
21 Maintenance and operation of stabilisation ponds
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Operational staff
21.3 Inspection, sampling and measurements
21.4 Operation start-up
21.5 Operational problems
632
632
633
633
633
638
22 Management of the sludge from stabilisation ponds
22.1 Preliminaries
644
644
567
569
570
570
Contents
22.2 Characteristics and distribution of the sludge in
stabilisation ponds
22.3 Removal of sludge from stabilisation ponds
ix
645
646
PART FOUR ANAEROBIC REACTORS
23 Introduction to anaerobic treatment
23.1 Applicability of anaerobic systems
23.2 Positive aspects
659
659
661
24 Principles of anaerobic digestion
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Microbiology of anaerobic digestion
24.3 Biochemistry of anaerobic digestion
24.4 Environmental requirements
663
663
664
667
681
25 Biomass in anaerobic systems
25.1 Preliminaries
25.2 Biomass retention in anaerobic systems
25.3 Evaluation of the microbial mass
25.4 Evaluation of the microbial activity
697
697
697
700
702
26 Anaerobic treatment systems
26.1 Preliminaries
26.2 Conventional systems
26.3 High-rate systems
26.4 Combined treatment systems
709
709
710
716
726
27 Design of anaerobic reactors
27.1 Anaerobic filters
27.2 Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactors
728
728
740
28 Operational control of anaerobic reactors
28.1 Importance of operational control
28.2 Operational control of the treatment system
28.3 Start-up of anaerobic reactors
28.4 Operational troubleshooting
774
774
777
791
799
29 Post-treatment of effluents from anaerobic reactors
29.1 Applicability and limitations of the anaerobic technology
29.2 Main alternatives for the post-treatment of effluents from
anaerobic reactors
805
805
810
Preface
The implementation of wastewater treatment plants has been so far a challenge
for most countries. Economical resources, political will, institutional strength and
cultural background are important elements defining the trajectory of pollution
control in many countries. Technological aspects are sometimes mentioned as
being one of the reasons hindering further developments. However, as shown in
this book, the vast array of available processes for the treatment of wastewater
should be seen as an incentive, allowing the selection of the most appropriate
solution in technical and economical terms for each community or catchment
area. For almost all combinations of requirements in terms of effluent quality, land
availability, construction and running costs, mechanisation level and operational
simplicity there will be one or more suitable treatment processes.
Biological wastewater treatment is very much influenced by climate. Temperature plays a decisive role in some treatment processes, especially the natural-based
and non-mechanised ones. Warm temperatures decrease land requirements, enhance conversion processes, increase removal efficiencies and make the utilisation
of some treatment processes feasible. Some treatment processes, such as anaerobic
reactors, may be utilised for diluted wastewater, such as domestic sewage, only in
warm climate areas. Other processes, such as stabilisation ponds, may be applied in
lower temperature regions, but occupying much larger areas and being subjected to
a decrease in performance during winter. Other processes, such as activated sludge
and aerobic biofilm reactors, are less dependent on temperature, as a result of
the higher technological input and mechanisation level. The main purpose of the
book is to present the technologies for urban wastewater treatment as applied to the
specific condition of warm temperature, with the related implications in terms of
design and operation. There is no strict definition for the range of temperatures that
fall into this category, since the book always presents how to correct parameters,
xi
xii
Preface
rates and coefficients for different temperatures. In this sense, subtropical and even
temperate climate are also indirectly covered, although most of the focus lies on
the tropical climate.
Another important point is that most warm climate regions are situated in
developing countries. Therefore, the book casts a special view on the reality of
these countries, in which simple, economical and sustainable solutions are strongly
demanded. All technologies presented in the book may be applied in developing
countries, but of course they imply different requirements in terms of energy, equipment and operational skills. Whenever possible, simple solutions, approaches and
technologies are presented and recommended.
Considering the difficulty in covering all different alternatives for wastewater
collection, the book concentrates on off-site solutions, implying collection and
transportation of the wastewater to treatment plants. No on-site solutions, such as
latrines and septic tanks, are analysed. Also, stronger focus is given to separate
sewerage systems, although the basic concepts are still applicable to combined
systems, especially under dry weather conditions. Furthermore, emphasis is given
to urban wastewater, that is, mainly domestic sewage plus some additional small
contribution from non-domestic sources, such as industries. Hence, the book is
not directed specifically to industrial wastewater treatment, given the specificities
of this type of effluent. Another specific view of the book is that it details biological treatment processes. No physical–chemical wastewater treatment processes
are covered, although some physical operations, such as sedimentation and aeration, are dealt with since they are an integral part of some biological treatment
processes.
The book’s proposal is to present in a balanced way theory and practice of
wastewater treatment, so that a conscious selection, design and operation of the
wastewater treatment process may be practised. Theory is considered essential
for the understanding of the working principles of wastewater treatment. Practice
is associated with the direct application of the concepts for conception, design
and operation. In order to ensure the practical and didactic view of the book,
371 illustrations, 322 summary tables and 117 examples are included. All major
wastewater treatment processes are covered by full and interlinked design examples
which are built up throughout the book, from the determination of the wastewater
characteristics, the impact of the discharge into rivers and lakes, the design of
several wastewater treatment processes and the design of the sludge treatment and
disposal units.
The 55 chapters are divided into 7 parts, namely: (1) Introduction to wastewater characteristics, treatment and disposal; (2) Basic principles of wastewater
treatment; (3) Stabilisation ponds; (4) Anaerobic reactors; (5) Activated sludge;
(6) Aerobic biofilm reactors; and (7) Sludge treatment and disposal.
Part 1 (Introduction to wastewater characteristics, treatment and disposal)
presents an integrated view of water quality and wastewater treatment, analysing
wastewater characteristics (flow and major constituents), the impact of the discharge into receiving water bodies and a general overview of wastewater treatment
and sludge treatment and disposal. Part 1 is more introductory, and may be used
Preface
xiii
as teaching material for undergraduate courses in civil engineering, environmental
engineering, environmental sciences and related courses.
Part 2 (Basic principles of wastewater treatment) is also introductory, but at a
higher level of detailing. The core of this part is the unit operations and processes
associated with biological wastewater treatment. The major topics covered are:
microbiology and ecology of wastewater treatment; reaction kinetics and reactor
hydraulics; conversion of organic and inorganic matter; sedimentation; aeration.
Part 2 may be used as part of postgraduate courses in civil engineering, environmental engineering, environmental sciences and related courses, either as part of
disciplines on wastewater treatment or unit operations and processes.
Parts 3 to 6 are the central part of the book, being structured according to the
major wastewater treatment processes (stabilisation ponds, anaerobic reactors,
activated sludge and aerobic biofilm reactors). In each part, all major process
technologies and variants are fully covered, including main concepts, working
principles, expected removal efficiencies, design criteria, design examples, construction aspects and operational guidelines. Similarly to Part 2, Parts 3 to 6 can
be used in postgraduate courses in civil engineering, environmental engineering,
environmental sciences and related courses.
Part 7 (Sludge treatment and disposal) covers in detail sludge characteristics,
production, treatment (thickening, dewatering, stabilisation, pathogen removal)
and disposal (land application for agricultural purposes, sanitary landfills, landfarming and other methods). Environmental and public health issues are fully
described. Possible academic uses for this part are same as those from Parts 3 to 6.
Besides being used as a textbook at academic institutions, it is believed that the
book may be an important reference for practicing professionals, such as engineers,
biologists, chemists and environmental scientists, acting in consulting companies,
water authorities and environmental agencies.
The present book is based on a consolidated, integrated and updated version of a
series of six books written by the authors in Brazil, covering the topics presented in
the current book, with the same concern for didactic approach and balance between
theory and practice. The huge success of the Brazilian books, used at most graduate
and post-graduate courses at Brazilian universities, besides consulting companies
and water and environmental agencies, was the driving force for the preparation
of this international version.
In this version, the book aims at presenting consolidated technology based on
worldwide experience available from international literature. However, it should
be recognised that a significant input comes from the Brazilian experience, considering the background and working practice of all authors. Brazil is a large country
with many geographical, climatic, economical, social and cultural contrasts, reflecting well the reality encountered in many countries in the world. Besides,
it should be mentioned that Brazil is currently one of the leading countries in
the world as regards the application of anaerobic technology to domestic sewage
treatment, and the post-treatment of anaerobic effluents. Regarding this point, the
authors would like to show their recognition for the Brazilian Research Programme
on Basic Sanitation (PROSAB), which, through several years of intensive, applied,
xiv
Preface
cooperative research has led to the consolidation of anaerobic treatment and
aerobic/anaerobic post-treatment, which are currently widely applied in full-scale
plants in Brazil. Consolidated results achieved by PROSAB are included in various
parts of the book, representing invaluable and updated information applicable to
warm climate regions.
Parts 1 to 5 were written by the two main authors. The book counted with the
invaluable participation of Cleverson Vitorio Andreoli and Fernando Fernandes,
who acted as editors for Part 7, and of several specialists, who acted as authors
in the chapters in Parts 6 and 7. The authors of these chapters are: Aderlene Inˆes
de Lara, Deize Dias Lopes, Dione Mari Morita, Eduardo Sabino Pegorini, Hilton
Fel´ıcio dos Santos, Marcelo Antonio Teixeira Pinto, Maur´ıcio Luduvice, Ricardo
Franci Gon¸calves, Sandra M´arcia Ces´ario Pereira da Silva, Vanete Thomaz Soccol.
Technical review of the English version of Part 7 was made by Hilton Fel´ıcio dos
Santos. Financial support for the translation of Part 7 was provided by SANEPAR
(Paran´a Water and Sanitation Company, Brazil).
Many colleagues, students and professionals contributed with useful suggestions, reviews and incentives for the Brazilian books that were the seed for this
international version. It would be impossible to list all of them here, but our heartfelt appreciation is acknowledged.
The authors would like to express their recognition for the support provided
by the Department of Sanitary and Environmental Engineering at the Federal
University of Minas Gerais, Brazil, at which the two authors work. The department
provided institutional and financial support for this international version, which is
in line with the university’s view of expanding and disseminating knowledge to
society.
Finally, the authors would like to show their appreciation to IWA Publishing, for
their incentive and patience in following the development of this book throughout
the two years of hard work.
Marcos von Sperling
Carlos Augusto de Lemos Chernicharo
To
Paulo and Margarida von Sperling,
Vanessa and Bruno Guerra de Moura von Sperling
and
Jair and Dinorah Chernicharo
Adriana, J´ulia, Daniel and Guilherme Chernicharo
The authors
BOOK AUTHORS
Parts 1, 2, 3, 5 and 7
Marcos von Sperling
PhD in Environmental Engineering (Imperial College, University of London, UK).
Senior lecturer at the Department of Sanitary and Environmental Engineering,
Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil. Consultant to governmental and private
companies in the field of water pollution control and wastewater treatment.
marcos@desa.ufmg.br
Parts 4 and 6
Carlos Augusto de Lemos Chernicharo
PhD in Environmental Engineering (University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK).
Senior lecturer at the Department of Sanitary and Environmental Engineering,
Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil. Consultant to governmental and private
companies in the field of wastewater treatment.
calemos@desa.ufmg.br
ASSOCIATE EDITORS (PART 7)
Cleverson Vit´orio Andreoli, PhD. Federal University of Paran´a (UFPR). Paran´a
Water and Sanitation Company (SANEPAR), Brazil.
c.andreoli@sanepar.com.br
Fernando Fernandes, PhD. Londrina State University (UEL), Brazil.
fernando@uel.br
xvii
xviii
The authors
CHAPTER AUTHORS (PARTS 6 AND 7)
Aderlene Inˆes de Lara, PhD. Paran´a Water and Sanitation Company (SANEPAR),
Brazil. aderlene@funpar.ufpr.br
Deize Dias Lopes, PhD. Londrina State University (UEL), Brazil. dilopes@uel.br
Dione Mari Morita, PhD. University of S˜ao Paulo (USP), Brazil.
dmmorita@usp.br
Eduardo Sabino Pegorini. Paran´a Water and Sanitation Company (SANEPAR),
Brazil. epegorini@sanepar.com.br
H´ılton Fel´ıcio dos Santos, PhD. Consultant, Brazil. hfsantos@uol.com.br (also
acted as technical reviewer to Part 7)
Marcelo Antonio Teixeira Pinto, MSc. Federal District Water and Sanitation
Company (CAESB), Brazil. marcelo.teixeira@persocom.com.br
Maur´ıcio Luduvice, PhD. MSc. Federal District Water and Sanitation Company
(CAESB), Brazil. luduvice@br.inter.net
Ricardo Franci Gon¸calves, PhD. Federal University of Esp´ırito Santo, Brazil.
franci@npd.ufes.br
Sandra M´arcia Ces´ario Pereira da Silva, PhD. Londrina State University (UEL),
Brazil. sandra@uel.br
Vanete Thomaz Soccol, PhD. Federal University of Paran´a (UFPR), Brazil.
vasoccol@bio.ufpr.br
List of authors by chapter
Part
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Chapter
1 to 6
7 to 11
12 to 22
23 to 29
30 to 41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
Author
Marcos von Sperling
Marcos von Sperling
Marcos von Sperling
Carlos Augusto de Lemos Chernicharo
Marcos von Sperling
Ricardo Franci Gon¸calves
Carlos Augusto de Lemos Chernicharo, Ricardo Franci Gon¸calves
Ricardo Franci Gon¸calves
Ricardo Franci Gon¸calves
Marcos von Sperling, Cleverson Vit´orio Andreoli
Marcos von Sperling, Ricardo Franci Gon¸calves
Sandra M.C.P. da Silva, Fernando Fernandes, Vanete T. Soccol,
Dione M. Morita
Maur´ıcio Luduvice
Ricardo Franci Gon¸calves, Maur´ıcio Luduvice, Marcos
von Sperling
Marcelo Teixeira Pinto
Fernando Fernandes, Deize D. Lopes, Cleverson V. Andreoli,
Sandra M.C.P. da Silva
Cleverson V. Andreoli, Eduardo S. Pegorini, Fernando Fernandes,
Hilton F. dos Santos
Maur´ıcio Luduvice, Fernando Fernandes
Aderlene I. de Lara, Cleverson V. Andreoli, Eduardo S. Pegorini
xix
Biological Wastewater
Treatment in Warm
Climate Regions
Marcos von Sperling and
Carlos Augusto de Lemos Chernicharo
Department of Sanitary and Environmental Engineering
Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil
VOLUME TWO
Associate editors (Part VII):
Cleverson Vitorio Andreoli and
Fernando Fernandes
Published by IWA Publishing, Alliance House, 12 Caxton Street, London SW1H 0QS, UK
Telephone: +44 (0) 20 7654 5500; Fax: +44 (0) 20 7654 5555; Email: publications@iwap.co.uk
Website: www.iwapublishing.com
First published 2005
Reprinted 2006
C 2005 IWA Publishing
Copy-edited and typeset by TechBooks, India
Printed by TJ International, Padstow, UK
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as
permitted under the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act (1998), no part of this publication may
be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in
writing of the publisher, or, in the case of photographic reproduction, in accordance with the terms of
licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK, or in accordance with the terms of
licenses issued by the appropriate reproduction rights organization outside the UK. Enquiries
concerning reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to IWA Publishing at the
address printed above.
The publisher makes no representation, expressed or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the
information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for errors or
omissions that may be made.
Disclaimer
The information provided and the opinions given in this publication are not necessarily those of IWA
or of the editors, and should not be acted upon without independent consideration and professional
advice. IWA and the editors will not accept responsibility for any loss or damage suffered by any
person acting or refraining from acting upon any material contained in this publication.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
ISBN: 1 84339 002 7 (set); 1 84339 107 4 (this volume)
Contents
Volume Two
PART FIVE ACTIVATED SLUDGE
30 Activated sludge process and main variants
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Variants of the activated sludge process
839
839
842
31 Principles of organic matter removal in continuous-flow activated
sludge systems
31.1 Preliminaries
31.2 Sludge age in activated sludge systems
31.3 Suspended solids concentration in the reactor
31.4 Calculation of the reactor volume
31.5 Substrate removal
31.6 Soluble BOD and total BOD in the effluent
31.7 Sludge digestion in the reactor
31.8 Recirculation of the activated sludge
31.9 Production and removal of excess sludge
31.10 Oxygen requirements
31.11 Nutrient requirements
31.12 Influence of the temperature
31.13 Functional relations with the sludge age
855
855
857
857
859
862
865
869
872
877
886
893
896
897
32 Design of continuous-flow activated sludge reactors for organic
matter removal
32.1 Selection of the sludge age
32.2 Design parameters
32.3 Physical configuration of the reactor
32.4 Design details
906
906
908
909
912
v
vi
Contents
33 Design of activated sludge sedimentation tanks
33.1 Types of sedimentation tanks
33.2 Determination of the surface area required for secondary
sedimentation tanks
33.3 Design details in secondary sedimentation tanks
33.4 Design of primary sedimentation tanks
915
915
916
937
939
34 Design example of an activated sludge system for organic
matter removal
34.1 Introduction
34.2 Model parameters and coefficients
34.3 Design of the conventional activated sludge system
34.4 Summary of the design
942
942
943
944
957
35 Principles of biological nutrient removal
35.1 Introduction
35.2 Nitrogen in raw sewage and main transformations
in the treatment process
35.3 Principles of nitrification
35.4 Principles of biological denitrification
35.5 Principles of biological phosphorus removal
959
959
961
965
978
986
36 Design of continuous-flow systems for biological nutrient
removal
36.1 Biological nitrogen removal
36.2 Biological removal of nitrogen and phosphorus
997
997
1015
37 Intermittent operation systems (sequencing batch reactors)
37.1 Introduction
37.2 Principles of the process
37.3 Process variants
37.4 Design criteria for sequencing batch reactors
37.5 Design methodology for sequencing batch reactors
37.6 Design example of a sequencing batch reactor
1023
1023
1023
1026
1031
1034
1035
38 Activated sludge for the post-treatment of the effluents from
anaerobic reactors
38.1 Design criteria and parameters
38.2 Design example of an activated sludge system for the
post-treatment of the effluent from a UASB reactor
1045
39 Biological selectors
39.1 Introduction
39.2 Types of selectors
1055
1055
1057
40 Process control
40.1 Introduction
40.2 Basic concepts of process control
1061
1061
1063
1042
1042
Contents
40.3 Dissolved oxygen control
40.4 Solids control
40.5 Monitoring the system
41 Identification and correction of operational problems
41.1 Introduction
41.2 High concentrations of suspended solids in the
effluent
41.3 High BOD concentrations in the effluent
41.4 High ammonia concentrations in the effluent
vii
1065
1066
1073
1074
1074
1075
1098
1103
PART SIX AEROBIC BIOFILM REACTORS
42 Basic principles of aerobic biofilm reactors
R.F. Gon¸calves
42.1 Introduction
42.2 Classification of aerobic biofilm reactors
42.3 Formation, structure and behaviour of biofilms
43 Trickling filters
C.A.L. Chernicharo, R.F. Gon¸calves
43.1 Description of the technology
43.2 Design criteria
43.3 Construction aspects
43.4 Operational aspects
44 Rotating biological contactors
R.F. Gon¸calves
44.1 Introduction
44.2 Description of the technology
44.3 Design criteria
44.4 Construction aspects and characteristics of
the support medium
45 Submerged aerated biofilters
R.F. Gon¸calves
45.1 Introduction
45.2 Description of the technology
45.3 Design criteria
45.4 Construction aspects
45.5 Operational aspects
1113
1113
1114
1115
1119
1119
1123
1130
1131
1135
1135
1135
1137
1140
1142
1142
1142
1150
1152
1153
PART SEVEN SLUDGE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL
46 Introduction to sludge management
M. von Sperling, C.V. Andreoli
1167
viii
Contents
47 Sludge characteristics and production
M. von Sperling, R.F. Gon¸calves
47.1 Sludge production in wastewater treatment systems
47.2 Sludge characteristics at each treatment stage
47.3 Fundamental relationships in sludge
47.4 Calculation of the sludge production
47.5 Mass balance in sludge treatment
48 Main contaminants in sludge
S.M.C.P. da Silva, F. Fernandes, V.T. Soccol, D.M. Morita
48.1 Introduction
48.2 Metals
48.3 Trace organics
48.4 Pathogenic organisms
1170
1170
1172
1178
1182
1194
1197
1197
1198
1205
1206
49 Sludge stabilisation
M. Luduvice
49.1 Introduction
49.2 Anaerobic digestion
49.3 Aerobic digestion
1214
50 Sludge thickening and dewatering
R.F. Gon¸calves, M. Luduvice, M. von Sperling
50.1 Thickening and dewatering of primary and biological sludges
50.2 Sludge thickening
50.3 Sludge conditioning
50.4 Overview on the performance of the dewatering processes
50.5 Sludge drying beds
50.6 Centrifuges
50.7 Filter press
50.8 Belt presses
50.9 Thermal drying
1242
51 Pathogen removal from sludge
M.T. Pinto
51.1 Introduction
51.2 General principles
51.3 Mechanisms to reduce pathogens
51.4 Processes to reduce pathogens
51.5 Operation and control
52 Assessment of sludge treatment and disposal alternatives
F. Fernandes, D.D. Lopes, C.V. Andreoli, S.M.C.P. da Silva
52.1 Introduction
52.2 Sustainable point of view
52.3 Trends in sludge management in some countries
1214
1215
1233
1242
1244
1247
1256
1257
1265
1273
1280
1284
1286
1286
1287
1289
1293
1310
1315
1315
1316
1316
Contents
52.4 Aspects to be considered prior to the assessment
of alternatives
52.5 Criterion for selecting sludge treatment and final
disposal alternatives
52.6 Sludge management at the treatment plant
53 Land application of sewage sludge
C.V. Andreoli, E. S. Pegorini, F. Fernandes, H.F. dos Santos
53.1 Introduction
53.2 Beneficial use
53.3 Requirements and associated risks
53.4 Handling and management
53.5 Storage, transportation and application of biosolids
53.6 Operational aspects of biosolid land application
53.7 Landfarming
54 Sludge transformation and disposal methods
M. Luduvice, F. Fernandes
54.1 Introduction
54.2 Thermal drying
54.3 Wet air oxidation
54.4 Incineration
54.5 Landfill disposal
55 Environmental impact assessment and monitoring of
final sludge disposal
A. I. de Lara, C.V. Andreoli, E.S. Pegorini
55.1 Introduction
55.2 Potentially negative environmental impacts
55.3 Monitoring indicators and parameters
55.4 Monitoring plan
Index
ix
1318
1321
1326
1328
1328
1329
1335
1343
1352
1357
1367
1373
1373
1374
1375
1378
1381
1392
1392
1393
1396
1398
1409