1. pets
2. aquariums

372
NOTE / NOTE
Why is group size correlated with the size
of the host sea anemone in the false clown
anemonefish?
Jeremy S. Mitchell and Lawrence M. Dill
Abstract: When social groups monopolize discrete habitat patches, group size may be positively correlated with patch
size. The correlation can be a direct consequence of limited resources. Alternatively, it can be an indirect consequence
of patch-size effects on a dominant group member. We asked which of these two mechanisms was responsible for a
positive correlation between the group size of false clown anemonefish (Amphiprion ocellaris Cuvier in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1830) and that of the host sea anemone Stichodactyla gigantea (Forskål, 1775). We argue that some false
clown anemonefish groups may have reached the carrying capacities of their hosts, but that the group size : patch size
correlation in the population as a whole is best interpreted as an indirect consequence of a positive relationship between anemone size and the length of the dominant group member. The dominant’s length in turn limits group size because dominant group members inhibit the growth of their subordinates. Thus, a correlation between group size and
patch size need not imply resource limitation of subordinate group members.
Résumé : Lorsque des groupes sociaux monopolisent des parcelles séparées d’habitat, la taille du groupe peut être en
corrélation positive avec la taille de la parcelle. La corrélation peut être une conséquence directe des ressources limitées. En revanche, elle peut aussi être une conséquence indirecte des effets de la taille de la parcelle sur un individu
dominant du groupe. Nous avons vérifié lequel de ces deux mécanismes explique la corrélation positive qui existe entre
la taille du groupe chez le poisson clown à trois bandes (Amphiprion ocellaris Cuvier en Cuvier et Valenciennes, 1830)
et celle de l’anémone hôte Stichodactyla gigantea (Forskål, 1775). Notre argumentation est que certains groupes de
poissons clowns ont atteint le stock limite de leurs anémones hôtes et que la corrélation taille du groupe : taille de la
parcelle dans la population dans son ensemble s’explique mieux comme une conséquence indirecte d’une relation positive entre la taille de l’anémone et la longueur de l’individu dominant du groupe. La longueur du poisson dominant limite à son tour la taille du groupe, car les membres dominants du groupe inhibent la croissance des subordonnés.
L’existence d’une corrélation entre la taille du groupe et la taille de la parcelle n’implique donc pas nécessairement une
limitation des ressources pour les membres subordonnés du groupe.
[Traduit par la Rédaction]
Mitchell and Dill
376
Introduction
In various reef fish species, individuals live in social
groups. Each group monopolizes, and is restricted to, a discrete habitat patch. Group size and patch size are often positively correlated (e.g., Sale 1972; Fricke and Holzberg 1974;
Fricke 1980; Donaldson 1989; Fautin 1992; Kuwamura et al.
1994). The correlation may result from a density-dependent
process. For example, larger patches may be able to shelter
more fish or may provide more foraging opportunities. A
correlation between patch size and group size can also result
from effects of patch size on a dominant group member
alone, even in the absence of resource competition. This
possibility arises because the individuals occupying a habitat
patch constitute a single social group, the composition of
which may be dictated by the dominant group member.
In this study, we illustrate the effects of both mechanisms,
but particularly the latter, on the group size of false clown
anemonefish, Amphiprion ocellaris Cuvier in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1830. Anemonefish live in obligate associations
Received 28 October 2004. Accepted 27 January 2005. Published on the NRC Research Press Web site at http://cjz.nrc.ca on
29 April 2005.
J.S. Mitchell1,2 and L.M. Dill. Behavioural Ecology Research Group, Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University,
Burnaby, BC V5A 1S6, Canada.
1
2
Corresponding author (e-mail: jmitchel@sfu.ca).
Present address: P.O. Box 734, Summerland, BC V0H 1Z0, Canada.
Can. J. Zool. 83: 372–376 (2005)
doi: 10.1139/Z05-014
© 2005 NRC Canada
Mitchell and Dill
with sea anemones (reviews in Allen 1972; Mariscal 1972;
Fautin 1991; Fautin and Allen 1992). Fish are not stung by
their host anemone, and take refuge from predators among
its tentacles. Anemones usually occur as isolated individuals, each occupied by a small group of anemonefish. With the
exception of high-latitude populations (e.g., Moyer 1980), unoccupied anemones are typically rare. Thus, for anemonefish, an anemone constitutes a discrete habitat patch that
provides a necessary and limiting resource. The number of
anemonefish groups in an area is limited by the number of
anemones (Allen 1972; Fricke 1979; Fautin 1992; Elliott
and Mariscal 2001; but see Schmitt and Holbrook 2000). At
a finer spatial scale, a positive correlation between anemonefish group size and host anemone size is a recurring theme
in ecological studies of various anemonefish species (Allen
1972; Ross 1978; Fricke 1979; Hattori 1991, 2000; Fautin
1992; Elliott and Mariscal 2001), leading some researchers to
conclude that space is limiting on an anemone and that larger
anemones have a greater carrying capacity for anemonefish
(Allen 1972; Ross 1978; Fricke 1979; Fautin 1992).
However, a correlation between group size and anemone
size can also result from effects of anemone size on the
dominant member (hereinafter referred to as α) of an
anemonefish group. An anemonefish group is a size-based
dominance hierarchy (reviews in Allen 1972; Mariscal 1972;
Fautin 1992; Fautin and Allen 1992). When a juvenile
anemonefish settles on an anemone following a planktonic
larval stage, it joins the resident group as the smallest, lowest
ranking member. Subsequent growth, sexual maturation as a
male, and male-to-female sex change are inhibited by the
presence of larger, more dominant group members (Allen
1972; Fricke 1974; Fricke and Fricke 1977; Moyer and
Nakazono 1978; Ross 1978; Hattori 1991; Buston 2003a).
Since each group member’s length sets an upper limit on the
length of the next lower ranked group-mate, and since there
will be a minimum size at which juveniles settle from the
plankton, α’s length will set an upper limit on group size
(Fautin 1992). If αs are smaller on smaller hosts (e.g., Fautin
1992; Elliott and Mariscal 2001; this study), then group size
will tend to increase as host size increases, even if resources
for the group are not limiting.
We asked whether a correlation between the size of a false
clown anemonefish group and the size of the host sea anemone Stichodactyla gigantea (Forskål, 1775) arises because
larger anemones can support more anemonefish (the carrying capacity explanation) or because dominant group members tend to be larger on larger anemones (the group
structure explanation). To answer this question, we included
both anemone size and the length of α as predictors of group
size in a multiple regression. The carrying capacity explanation predicts that, when α’s length is included in a regression
model, anemone size will continue to be positively correlated with group size. The carrying capacity explanation further predicts that, after controlling for the effect of anemone
size, the correlation between group size and α’s length will
be negative, because a larger α uses more of the available resources. The group structure explanation predicts that group
size will increase with α’s length and will be unaffected by
variation in anemone size. We began by running this analysis using a “full” data set. We then re-ran the analysis using
the subset of groups considered most likely to be approach-
373
ing the hypothetical carrying capacities of their host anemones. (The rationale for the latter analysis is presented in the
Results.)
Methods
We monitored false clown anemonefish groups occupying
S. gigantea anemones at Bunaken Island, North Sulawesi,
Indonesia, from September 1997 to March 1998. Population
monitoring consisted of (at least) weekly visits to each anemone from September to March. Group size at each anemone was noted on each visit. In October and again in March,
the residents of each anemone were captured using a hand
net and measured (total length ± 1 mm). Stichodactyla
gigantea occurred in near-shore seagrass, backreef rubble,
and on the reef crest. These are all lower intertidal or marginally subtidal habitats. Stichodactyla gigantea did not
extend down the reef face into deeper water. With the exception of a single juvenile Amphiprion clarkii (Bennett, 1830),
no other anemonefish species was observed occupying
S. gigantea.
The long and short axes of each anemone’s oral disc were
measured on three occasions in February and March 1998.
Under the assumption that oral discs are approximately elliptical, we estimated anemone diameter as the geometric
mean of the lengths of the two axes (Hattori 1991). The largest of the three estimates was used as the estimate of an oral
disc’s expanded diameter. Unoccupied anemones were excluded from the analyses because we did not know whether
their prolonged vacant status was a consequence of their size
or of some other variable. Anemone species that harbour
anemonefish are long-lived and slow-growing (Fautin and
Allen 1992), so we have assumed that anemone growth was
negligible over the course of the monitoring period. Over
longer time frames, anemonefish can have a positive effect
on the growth of their hosts (Schmitt and Holbrook 2003;
Porat and Chadwick-Furman 2004). Such an effect would
not alter our central conclusion (see Discussion).
We conducted less frequent surveys of a second study site,
approximately 4 km from the primary study site described
above. At the second site, there was no relationship between
group size and anemone size, or between α’s length and
anemone size. Data for the second study site are not presented for two reasons. First, because the second site was
not monitored as intensively as the first, we cannot make
meaningful comparisons between the two sites. Second, our
objective is to contrast two mechanisms that can give rise to
the same positive correlation between group size and patch
size. Data from a site at which there is no correlation cannot
contribute to that contrast. Note that, given the distance separating the two sites, the exclusion of the second site is not
equivalent to the inclusion of a biased subset of anemones
from a single study site.
Results
We began by establishing the pairwise relationships between initial group size, anemone diameter, and the length
of α. The initial group size was defined as the number of
false clown anemonefish occupying an anemone on the date
that the fish were captured and measured in October. We
© 2005 NRC Canada
374
Can. J. Zool. Vol. 83, 2005
Fig 1. Pairwise relationships between (a) false clown anemonefish, Amphiprion ocellaris, group size (number of individuals occupying
an anemone) and anemone diameter, (b) group size and the length of the dominant group member (referred to in the text as α), (c) the
length of the dominant group member and anemone diameter, and (d) the summed length of all group members and anemone diameter.
used group size in October rather than time-averaged group
size, because the length, and in some cases the identity, of α
changed at some anemones during the course of the field
season. Initial group size increased with anemone diameter
(F[1,58] = 13, p < 0.001, R2 = 0.17) (Fig. 1a). Group size was
also larger when α was longer (F[1,58] = 40.1, p < 0.001, R2 =
0.40) (Fig. 1b). The length of α increased with increasing
anemone diameter (F[1,58] = 38, p < 0.001, R2 = 0.39)
(Fig. 1c). The summed lengths of false clown anemonefish
group members also increased with anemone diameter. This
relationship was considerably stronger than that using initial
group size (F[1,58] = 27, p < 0.001, R2 = 0.31) (Fig. 1d). (The
summed lengths of group members have been used as an index of group size in several previous studies (Allen 1972;
Ross 1978; Hattori 1991; Fautin 1992; Elliott and Mariscal
2001; Buston 2003b).) Thus, group size, α’s length, and
anemone diameter were “tangled”. However, correlations
were not so strong that they could not be teased apart by
multiple regression. The multiple regression of group size in
October on anemone diameter and on the length of α reduced to the simple linear regression of group size on the
length of α (Fig. 1b). Anemone diameter did not add additional predictive power, either as an interaction with α’s
length (t[1,56] = 1.5, p = 0.15) or as a main effect (t[1,57] =
0.3, p = 0.74).
We repeated the multiple regression analysis using group
composition data from March and excluding anemones at
which either group size or α’s length decreased between October and March. (The latter situation arose at some anemo-
nes where the identity of the dominant individual changed
during the course of the field season.) The intent of these restrictions was to limit the data set to groups that potentially
approached the hypothetical carrying capacities of their
hosts. If anemones have a carrying capacity for
anemonefish, then a group that was smaller in March than it
was in October was not at the carrying capacity of its host at
the time of the March sample, whereas a group that was as
large, or larger, on the second sampling date may have been
approaching the carrying capacity of its host. Thirty-two
groups met these criteria.
The result of this analysis was quite different from that
using the October data. Using the March data, variation in
group size was best explained by following model:
Group size = 2.02 – 0.05(α’s length (mm))
+ 0.15(anemone diameter (cm))
This model was statistically significant (F[2,29] = 4.5, p =
0.02) and explained 19% of the variation in group size. The
interaction between anemone diameter and α’s length was
nonsignificant (t[1,28] = 0.4, p = 0.66). Anemone diameter itself, though, was a useful predictor of group size (t[1,29] =
3.0, p = 0.006) — controlling for the effect of α’s length,
groups were larger on larger anemones. The effect of α’s
length remained significant (t[1,29] = 2.0, p = 0.05), but the
coefficient was negative — after controlling for the effect of
anemone diameter, group size decreased as α’s length increased.
© 2005 NRC Canada
Mitchell and Dill
Thus, the data from March suggest that anemones do have
a carrying capacity for anemonefish. However, patterns of
variation in group size in October indicate that most groups
in the study population did not approach the carrying capacities of their host anemones. Instead, group size was limited
by the length of α.
Discussion
Analysis of the March data indicates that it is possible for
false clown anemonefish groups to reach a point at which resources become limiting. Among groups considered most
likely to be approaching the carrying capacities of their hosts,
group size was positively correlated with anemone diameter
and negatively correlated with the length of the dominant
group member, just as the carrying capacity explanation
would predict. However, differences in anemone carrying capacities were not responsible for the variation in group size
in the population as a whole. Instead, a positive correlation
between group size and anemone diameter in the full (October) data set was best attributed to the underlying correlations of both variables with α’s length. Anemone diameter
was not a significant predictor of group size when α’s length
was included in the regression model.
The greater strength of the relationship between summed
lengths of group members and anemone diameter, compared
with that between number of group members and anemone
diameter, is consistent with this interpretation. Summed
length incorporates both the effect of anemone size on α’s
length and the separate effect of α’s length on the size, and
hence number, of subordinate group members. The theoretical rationale for using summed lengths as an index of group
size has been that summed lengths better account for the
greater resource requirements of larger fish (Allen 1972;
Buston 2003b). That rationale rests on the assumption that
the group as a whole, including subordinates, is resource
limited. The results of this study do not support that assumption. The empirical justification for using summed lengths
has been that anemone size is more strongly correlated with
the summed lengths of group members than with the number
of group members (Allen 1972; Ross 1978; Hattori 1991;
Fautin 1992; Elliott and Mariscal 2001; Buston 2003b).
Overall (i.e., in the October analysis), false clown anemonefish at Bunaken followed that pattern. But the strength of the
summed length correlation reflected underlying relationships
with α’s length, not resource limitation of subordinates. A relationship between summed lengths of group members and
anemone size is not evidence that patch size (directly) limits
group size.
We emphasize the importance of group structure because
it explains some of the variation in group size in our study
population and, more importantly, because we would like to
see the role of group structure given greater consideration in
work with other systems. However, our results do not exclude carrying capacity as an explanation for variation in
group size in other circumstances. Rather, our results demonstrate that both mechanisms can bring about the same correlation between group size and patch size. Patterns of
variation in group size in other anemonefish species further
illustrate this point. Fautin (1992) found that group size of
Amphiprion percula (Lacépède, 1802) was correlated with
375
Heteractis magnifica (Quoy and Gaimard, 1833) anemone
diameter but not with α’s length, and that α’s length was not
correlated with anemone diameter. In contrast, Elliott and
Mariscal (2001) found that α’s length did increase with
anemone diameter in A. percula. (Elliott and Mariscal
(2001) did not assess the possibility that this relationship
was responsible for a correlation between group size and
anemone size.) Both Fautin (1992) and Elliott and Mariscal
(2001) also examined variation in group size in Amphiprion
perideraion Bleeker, 1855. Fautin (1992) concluded that, as
in this study, the correlation between group size and anemone diameter in A. perideraion resulted from the correlation
of both variables with α’s length. Elliott and Mariscal (2001)
reported that A. perideraion group size was strongly correlated with anemone size, even though the relationship
between α’s length and anemone size was weak and nonsignificant. Thus, whether anemone size or α’s length limits
anemonefish group size can vary both among and within
species. Group size can also vary independently of both
anemone size and α’s length — at our secondary study site,
we found no relationship between group size and either
anemone size or α’s length. Even at our primary study site,
much of the variation in group size remains unexplained.
Predicting the pattern of variation in group size in a particular species and habitat requires some understanding of
the processes responsible for that pattern. We do not yet
have a clear understanding of the nature of space limitation
on an anemone. Anemones clearly provide their residents
with protection from predators, so a plausible interpretation
of anemone carrying capacity is that refuge space itself, i.e.,
oral disc surface area, is a limiting resource. However,
anemone size may also affect food availability; an anemonefish may require a minimum length of the oral disc margin
of its host as a foraging station. When α’s length determines
group size, as in this study, understanding the process responsible for a correlation between anemone size and α’s
length is equally important. The pattern of variation in a relationship that involves the growth rate of α may be quite
different from that of a relationship that involves the dominant member’s risk of mortality. Finally, we have assumed
that an anemone’s size affects the number or size or resident
anemonefish, but the direction of causation can also be reversed: anemonefish can affect the growth rate of their host
sea anemone (Schmitt and Holbrook 2003; Porat and
Chadwick-Furman 2004). Our central argument (that interactions between α and its subordinates can result in correlations between group size and anemone size in cases where
no direct causal link exists) applies regardless of how a correlation between anemone size and α’s length comes about.
We have shown that, in false clown anemonefish, a correlation between group size and patch size results, not from
density dependence, but from interactions among group
members. We conclude by observing that the importance of
social structure is not limited to anemonefish. Size structure
is evident within social groups of many species. Moreover,
while size differences facilitate the description of group
structure, the more general argument does not require sizestructured groups. If a dominant individual can dictate group
size, and if patch size affects that dominant individual, then
a correlation between group size and patch size can result
even when resources on a patch are not limiting.
© 2005 NRC Canada
376
Acknowledgements
This study was approved by the Simon Fraser University
(SFU) Animal Care Committee (proposal No. 572B). The
Eastern Indonesia University Development Project (EIUDP)
and Universitas Sam Ratulangi, Manado, provided logistic
support during the field season. The EIUDP, Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (operating grant A6869 to L.M.D. and postgraduate scholarship to
J.S.M.), the Canada – Association of Southeast Asian Nations Centre, SFU, the Garfield Weston Foundation, BC
Packers, and the Steele Foundation all assisted with research
or personal (J.S.M.) funding. Kodak Canada and Bonica Precision donated field equipment. B.J. Crespi, D.G. Fautin,
D.J. Green, S.J. Holbrook, D.B. Lank, and anonymous reviewers offered insightful comments on earlier drafts of the
manuscript. B. Pratasik introduced the field site to us.
References
Allen, G.R. 1972. The anemonefishes: their classification and biology. T.F.H. Publications, Neptune City, N.J.
Buston, P.M. 2003a. Size and growth modification in clownfish.
Nature (Lond.), 424: 145–146.
Buston, P.M. 2003b. Forcible eviction and prevention of recruitment in the clown anemonefish. Behav. Ecol. 14: 576–582.
Donaldson, T.J. 1989. Facultative monogamy in obligate coraldwelling hawkfishes (Cirrhitidae). Environ. Biol. Fishes, 26:
295–302.
Elliott, J.K., and Mariscal, R.N. 2001. Coexistence of nine anemonefish species: differential host and habitat utilization, size and recruitment. Mar. Biol. (Berl.), 138: 23–36.
Fautin, D.G. 1991. The anemonefish symbiosis: what is known and
what is not. Symbiosis, 10: 23–46.
Fautin, D.G. 1992. Anemonefish recruitment: the roles of order
and chance. Symbiosis, 14: 143–160.
Fautin, D.G., and Allen, G.R. 1992. Field guide to anemonefishes
and their host sea anemones. Western Australian Museum, Perth.
Fricke, H.W. 1974. Eco-ethology of the anemonefish Amphiprion
bicinctus (field studies in the Red Sea). Z. Tierpsychol. 36: 429–
512.
Can. J. Zool. Vol. 83, 2005
Fricke, H.W. 1979. Mating system, resource defence and sex change
in the anemonefish Amphiprion akallopisos. Z. Tierpsychol. 50:
313–326.
Fricke, H.W. 1980. Control of different mating systems in a coral
reef fish by one environmental factor. Anim. Behav. 28: 561–
569.
Fricke, H.W., and Fricke, S. 1977. Monogamy and sex change by
aggressive dominance in coral reef fish. Nature (Lond.), 266:
830–832.
Fricke, H.W., and Holzberg, S. 1974. Social units and hermaphroditism in a pomacentrid fish. Naturwissenschaften, 61: 367–368.
Hattori, A. 1991. Socially controlled growth and size-dependent
sex change in the anemonefish Amphiprion frenatus in Okinawa,
Japan. Jpn. J. Ichthyol. 38: 165–177.
Hattori, A. 2000. Social and mating systems of the protandrous
anemonefish Amphiprion perideraion under the influence of a
larger congener. Austral Ecol. 25: 187–192.
Kuwamura, T., Yogo, Y., and Nakashima, Y. 1994. Population dynamics of goby Paragobiodon echinocephalus and host coral
Stylophora pistillata. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 103: 17–23.
Mariscal, R.N. 1972. Behavior of symbiotic fishes and sea anemones. In Behavior of marine animals. Vol. 2. Edited by H.E. Winn
and B.L. Olla. Plenum Press, New York. pp. 327–360.
Moyer, J.T. 1980. Influence of temperate waters on the territorial
behavior of the tropical anemonefish Amphiprion clarkii at
Miyake-Jima, Japan. Bull. Mar. Sci. 30: 261–272.
Moyer, J.T., and Nakazono, A. 1978. Protandrous hermaphroditism
in six species of the anemonefish genus Amphiprion in Japan.
Jpn. J. Ichthyol. 25: 101–106.
Porat, D., and Chadwick-Furman, N.E. 2004. Effects of anemonefish
on giant sea anemones: expansion behavior, growth, and survival.
Hydrobiologia, 530/531: 513–520.
Ross, R.M. 1978. Territorial behavior and ecology of the anemonefish Amphiprion melanopus on Guam. Z. Tierpsychol. 36: 71–83.
Sale, P.F. 1972. Effect of cover on agonistic behavior of a reef fish:
a possible spacing mechanism. Ecology, 53: 753–758.
Schmitt, R.J., and Holbrook, S.J. 2000. Habitat-limited recruitment
of coral reef damselfish. Ecology, 81: 3479–3494.
Schmitt, R.J., and Holbrook, S.J. 2003. Mutualism can mediate
competition and promote coexistence. Ecol. Lett. 6: 898–902.
© 2005 NRC Canada