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2014
Vol. 37. No. 3
© Copyright by Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek
Toruń 2014
ISSN 1732-6729
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CONTENTS
Stanisław Juszczyk
Editor’s Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
GENERAL DIDACTICS
Ana María Ortiz Colón, Jairo Pontes de Oliveira,
Juan Manuel Trujillo Torres
Implementation of the M@IVES Website in Postgraduate Education . . . . . 19
Ivo Machar, Jan Činčera,Olga Vránová, Vilém Pechanec, Helena Kiliánová,
Jitka Málková
Innovation in Biology and Environmental Education Didactics
in Pre-Graduate Training of Secondary Biology Teachers in the
Context of Current Changes in the Education System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Zoran Kalinic, Slavko Arsovski, Zora Arsovski, Vladimir Rankovic
The Eﬀectiveness and Students’ Perception of an Adaptive Mobile
Learning System based on Personalized Content and Mobile Web . . . . . . . 43
Moon Hyoung-jin, Nam Jong-ho, Kim Yong-deog
New Measures for the Improvement of History Education
for Chinese Students in South Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Enrique Sánchez Acosta, Juan José Escribano Otero, Gabriela Christie Toletti
Peer Review Experiences for MOOC. Development and Testing of
a Peer Review System for a Massive Online Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Yun Eun Kyeong
Teaching Arabic to Korean Students Using Films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
SOCIAL PEDAGOGY
Shwu Ming Wu, Cheng Hong Yang, Wan Chen Hsu
Validation of School Core Competence Scale for Undergraduates:
Empirical Findings of Taiwan Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4
Contents
Anna Młynarczuk-Sokołowska
Intercultural Non-formal Education Issues on the Agenda of Polish
Non-governmental Organizations – a research report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Vincent Charles, Tatiana Gherman
Factors inﬂuencing students’ choice of a B-school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Eva Machů, Hana Červinková
Social Intelligence of Gifted Pupils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Dalliane Vanessa Pires Andrade, Jamerson Viegas Queiroz,
Fernanda Cristina Barbosa Pereira Queiroz, Gustavo Henrique Silva de Souza,
Nilton Cesar Lima, Jamil Ramsi Farkat Diógenes
The Importance of Total Quality Management Systems for Managers
of Brazilian Universities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Mariola Chomczyńska-Rubacha
Psychosocial and Organizational Aspects of Didactic Achievement:
Sex, School-type, and Self-esteem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Bing-Yuh Lu, Jin-Shin Lai, Ming-Chia Lin
An Experience of the Evergreen Elder University in Taiwan:
Perspectives On The Mobile Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
PEDEUTOLOGY
Katja Depolli Steiner
Teachers’ Pedagogical Beliefs as Predictors of Teacher Burnout . . . . . . . . . 177
E. Martínez-Figueira, M. Raposo-Rivas
Mentoring Student Training: What do mentors do? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Ahmet Tekbıyık
Science Teachers’ Expectatitons from Parents: To What Degree Do
Parents Think They Satisfy Such Expectations? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Maja Matrić, Katja Košir
Perceived Autonomy Levels among Elementary School Students and
Their Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Šárka Portešová, Marie Budíková, Dana Juhová
Myths about Gifted Learners from the Perspective of Teachers . . . . . . . . . 229
Contents
5
Beata Pituła, Agnieszka Wilczyńska
Teacher as an Authority? Supporting the Student’s Sense of Belonging
to the School Community as a Condition for Their Development and
the Teacher’s Success in Educating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
CHOSEN ASPECTS OF PSYCHOLOGY
Lada Kaliská
First Results from Veriﬁcation of Psychometric Properties of
D. Lennick’s and F. Kiel’s MCI Questionnaire for Measuring Moral
Intelligence in Slovak Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Liliana Ciascai, Lavinia Haiduc
Thinking Metacognitively: Metacognitive Skills and Science
Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Lenka Kollerová, Pavlína Janošová, Pavel Říčan
Moral Disengagement from Bullying: The Eﬀects of Gender and
Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Simona Prosen, Helena Smrtnik Vitulić
Strategies of emotion regulation in students – future human relations
professionals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Rode Danuta, Bolek Magdalena, Cugowski Mikołaj
Individual and Educational Risk Factors for Violence Perpetration.
Prophylactic Aspects of Pedagogization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
CONTRIBUTORS
Arsovski Slavko
(Prof., PhD.)
Faculty of Engineering, University of
Kragujevac, Sestre Janjic 6, 34000
Kragujevac, Serbia
e-mail: cqm@kg.ac.rs
Arsovski Zora (Prof., Faculty of Engineering, University of
PhD.)
Kragujevac, Sestre Janjic 6, 34000
Kragujevac, Serbia
e-mail: zora@kg.ac.rs
Bing-Yuh Lu (PhD.)
Department of Electronic Engineering,
Tungnan Universtity 152, Sec. 3, Bai-Sheng
Road, Sheng-Keng Dist. New Taipei City,
Taiwan, (ROC)
e-mail: franklinlu888@
hotmail.com
Bolek Magdalena
(MA)
Institute of Psychology, University of Silesia, e-mail: magdalena.bolek@us.
Katowice, Poland
edu.pl
Budíková Marie
(PhD.)
Department of Mathematics and Statistics,
Faculty of Science, Masaryk University,
Kotlářská 2, Brno, Czech Republic
Červinková Hana
(Bc.)
Department of Pedagogical Sciences,
Faculty of Humanities, Tomas Bata
University in Zlín, Czech Republic
Cheng Hong Yang
(Prof.)
National Kaohsiung University of Applied
Sciences, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
e-mail: chyang@cc.kuas.
edu.tw
Chomczyńska-Rubacha Mariola
(Prof. PhD. Dr Sc)
Faculty of Educational Sciences, Nicolaus
Copernicus University, Gagarina Street No
9, 87-100 Toruń, Poland
e-mail: maja@umk.pl
Ciascai Liliana
(Prof.)
Associate Professor, Department of
Psychology and Educational Science,
Babes-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca,
Romania
e-mail: liliana.ciascai@mail.
ubbcluj.ro
Činčera Jan
Faculty of Education, Technical University
of Liberec, Voroněžská 1329/13, 460 01
Liberec, Czech Republic
e-mail: jan.cincera@tul.cz
Cugowski Mikołaj
(MA)
Institute of Psychology, University of Silesia, e-mail: mikolaj.cugowski@us.
Katowice, Poland
edu.pl
Depolli Steiner Katja University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Arts,
(PhD.)
Ljubljana, Slovenia, Department of
Psychology, Aškerčeva 2, 1000 Ljubljana,
SI-Slovenia
e-mail: budikova@math.
muni.cz
website: http://www.math.
muni.cz/~budikova
e-mail: katja.depolli-steiner@
ﬀ.uni-lj.si
8
Contributors
Escribano Otero Juan Division of Languages, Mathematics, and
José (PhD.)
Sciences – Tidewater Community College,
Spain
e-mail: juanjose.escribano@
uem.es
Eun-Kyeong Yun
(PhD.)
Department of Arabic, Hankuk University
of Foreign Studies, 270 Imun-Dong,
Dongdaemun-Gu Seoul 130-791, Korea
e-mail: nabilayun@hufs.ac.kr
Farkat Diógenes
Jamil Ramsi
(M.Sc)
Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, e-mail: farkatt@gmail.com
Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil
Gherman Tatiana
School of Business and Economics,
Loughborough University, Leicestershire
LE11 3TU, UK
e-mail: tatiana.gherman@
gmail.com
Haiduc Lavinia (MA) Department of Psychology and Educational e-mail: lavinia_haiduc@
Science, Babes-Bolyai University, Clujyahoo.com
Napoca, Romania
Hyoung-jin: Moon
(PhD.)
Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, 81,
Oedae-ro, Mohyeon-myeon, Cheoingu,Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do, 449-791, Korea
e-mail: subugwi@hanmail.net
Janošová Pavlína
(PhD. Dr. hab.)
Institute of Psychology, Academy of
Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague,
Czech Republic
e-mail: janosova@praha.psu.
cas.cz
website: http://www.psu.cas.
cz/people-contacts/index.
html
Jin-Shin Lai
(Prof.)
Department of Rehabilitation, National
e- mail: jslai@ntu.edu.tw
Taiwan University Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan,
ROC 7, Chung Shan S. Rd. (Zhongshan S.
Rd.), Zhongzheng Dist., Taipei City 10002,
Taiwan (ROC)
Jong-ho: Nam
(PhD.)
Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, 81,
Oedae-ro, Mohyeon-myeon,
Cheoin-gu,Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do,
449–791, Korea
Juhová Dana
Faculty of Social Studies, Masaryk
e-mail: dana.juhova@mail.
University, Joštova 10, Brno, Czech Republic muni.cz
Kalinic Zoran
(PhD.)
Faculty of Economics, University of
Kragujevac, Djure Pucara 3, 34000
Kragujevac, Serbia
Kaliská Lada
(PhD. PaedDr)
Department of Psychology, Faculty of
e-mail: lada.kaliska@umb.sk
Education, Matej Bel University, Ružová 13,
Banská Bystrica 974 11
Kiliánová Helena
Faculty of Education, Palacky University,
tř. 17. listopadu 1192/12 771 40 Olomouc,
Czech Republic
e-mail: leopard3@hanmail.net
e-mail: zkalinic@kg.ac.rs
e-mail: helena.kilianova@
upol.cz
Contributors
9
Kollerová Lenka
(PhD., PhDr.)
Institute of Psychology, Academy of
Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague,
Czech Republic, Hybernská 8, Prague 1,
110 00, Czech Republic
Košir Katja (PhD.)
Faculty of Education, University of Maribor,
Koroška cesta 160, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia
Lima Nilton Cesar
(PhD.)
Federal University of Uberlândia, Brazil
e-mail: cesarlim@yahoo.com,
website: http://www.facic.
ufu.br/
Machar Ivo
Faculty of Education, Palacky University,
Žižkovo nám. 5, 771 40 Olomouc,
Czech Republic,
e-mail: ivo.machar@upol.cz
Machů Eva
(PhD., MA)
Department of School Pedagogy, Faculty of
Humanities, Tomas Bata University in Zlín,
Czech Republic
Málková Jitka
Faculty of Science, University of Hradec
Králové, Jana Koziny 1237,
500 03 Hradec Králové, Czech Republic
Martínez-Figueira E. Faculty of Education and Sport Sciences,
(PhD.)
University of Vigo, Campus A Xunqueira
s/n 36005 – Pontevedra, Spain
e-mail: kollerova@praha.psu.
cas.cz
e-mail: jitka.malkova@uhk.cz
e-mail: esthermf@uvigo.es
Matrić Maja
Faculty of Education, University of Maribor,
Koroška cesta 160, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia
Ming-Chia Lin
(MBA)
Center of General Education, Catholic St.
e- mail: mellissa@smc.edu.tw
Mary’s Junior College of Medicine, Nursing,
and Management, Yi-Lan, Taiwan (ROC)
100, Ln. 265, Sec. 2, Sanxing Rd., Sanxing
Township, Yilan County 266, Taiwan (ROC)
MłynarczukSokołowska Anna
(MA)
University of Białystok, Faculty of Pedagogy e-mail: annamlynarczuk@
and Psychology, Chair of Intercultural
tlen.pl
Education
Ortiz Colón Ana
María (Pro.f)
Vicerrectora de la Universidad de Jaén.
e-mail: aortiz@ujaen.es,
Campus Las Lagunillas, 23071, Jaén, España website: http://www4.ujaen.
es/~aortiz/index.html
Pechanec Vilém
Faculty of Science, Palacky University,
tř. 17. listopadu 1192/12, 771 46 Olomouc,
Czech Republic
Pereira Queiroz
Fernanda Cristina
Barbosa (PhD.)
Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, e-mail: fernandacbpereira@
Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil
gmail.com
website: www.ufrn.br
Pires Andrade
Dalliane Vanessa
(M.Sc)
Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, e-mail: dallianevanessa@
Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil
yahoo.com.br
website: www.ufrn.br
e-mail: vilem.pechanec@
upol.cz
10
Contributors
Pituła Beata
(PhD. Hab)
Silesian University, Faculty of Pedagogy and e-mail: bpitula@o2.pl
Psychology, Department of General
Didactics and Pedeutology,
ul. Grażyńskiego 53, 40-126 Katowice,
Poland, tel.: +48 605 601 065
Pontes de Oliveira,
Jairo (Prof.)
Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência
e-mail: gabinete@ifma.edu.br
e Tecnologia do Maranhão, Avenida Getúlio website: http://www.ifma.
Vargas, 04 Monte Castelo,
edu.br
São Luís-Maranhão – Brasil
CEP: 65030-005
Portešová Šárka
(PhD., doc.)
Institute for Research on Children, Youth
and Family, Faculty of Social Studies,
Masaryk University, Joštova 10, Brno,
Czech Republic
Raposo-Rivas M.
(PhD.)
Faculty of Education Sciences, University of e-mail: mraposo@uvigo.es
Vigo, Campus As Lagoas s/n 32004 –
Ourense, Spain
Říčan Pavel
(CSc. Prof. PhD.)
Institute of Psychology, Academy of
Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague,
Czech Republic
Rode Danuta
(PhD. Hab.)
Institute of Psychology, University of Silesia, e-mail: rode.dan_xl@wp.pl
Katowice, Poland
Sánchez Acosta
Enrique
(PhD.)
Department of Information Technology,
Automation, and Communications,
European University, Spain
e-mail: esacosta@gmail.com
Shwu Ming Wu
(Prof.)
National Kaohsiung University of Applied
Sciences, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
e-mail: mingwu@cc.kuas.
edu.tw
Silva de Souza
Gustavo Henrique
(M.Sc)
Researcher at Federal University of Alagoas, e-mail: souza.g.h.s@hotmail.
Brazil
com.br
website: www.ufal.br
Simona Prosen
(PhD.)
University of Ljubljana, Faculty of
Education, Kardeljeva ploščad 16, 1000
Ljubljana, Slovenia
e-mail: simona.prosen@pef.
uni-lj.si
Smrtnik Vitulić
Helena
(PhD.)
University of Ljubljana, Faculty of
Education, Kardeljeva ploščad 16, 1000
Ljubljana, Slovenia
e-mail: helena.smrtnik@pef.
uni-lj.si
Tekbiyik Ahmet
(PhD.)
Department of Elementary Science
Education, Recep Tayyip Erdogan
University, Faculty of Education, Cayeli –
Rize, Turkey, Tel.: +90 0 464 5328454 / 2302,
Fax: +90 0 464 5328612,
e-mail: ahmet.tekbiyik@
erdogan.edu.tr
atekbiyik@gmail.com
website: http://akademisyen.
erdogan.edu.tr/akademisyen.
php?uyeid=p9y0b3g0e2o4r3a
3u3n6d0f5
e-mail: 2024@mail.muni.cz
website: http://www.
nadanedeti.cz
e-mail: rican@praha.psu.
cas.cz
website: http://www.psu.cas.
cz/people-contacts/index.
html
Contributors
11
Toletti Gabriela
Christie (PhD.)
Foreign Languages and Literatures
Department – Old Dominion University,
Spain
e-mail: gtoletti@tcc.edu
Trujillo Torres, Juan
Manuel (Prof.)
Universidad de Granada, Campus de
Cartuja s/n. 18071, Granada, España
e-mail: jttorres@ugr.es,
Website: www.jttorres.es
Viegas Queiroz
Jamerson (PhD.)
Adjuntc Professor at Federal University of e-mail: viegasqueiroz@
Rio Grande do Norte, Rio Grande do Norte, gmail.com,
Brazil
website: www.ufrn.br
Charles Vincent
CENTRUM Católica Graduate Business
School, PUCP, Lima, Peru, Calle Daniel
Alomía Robles 125-129, Los Álamos de
Monterrico, Santiago de Surco, Lima 33,
Peru
e-mail: vcharles@pucp.pe
Vránová Olga
Faculty of Education, Palacky University,
Žižkovo nám. 5, 771 40 Olomouc,
Czech Republic
e-mail: olga.vranova@upol.cz
Wan Chen Hsu
(PhD.)
Center for Teaching & Learning
Development, National Kaohsiung
University of Applied Sciences, Kaohsiung,
Taiwan
e-mail: wanchen@kuas.edu.tw
Wilczyńska
Agnieszka (PhD.)
Institute of Psychology, University of Silesia,
ul. Grażyńskiego 53, 40-126 Katowice,
Poland
Yong-deog: Kim
(Prof., PhD.)
Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, 81,
Oedae-ro, Mohyeon-myeon,
Cheoin-gu,Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do,
449-791, Korea,
e-mail: kimwielki@hanmail.
net
Stanisław Juszczyk
Editor’s Preface
The third number of The New Educational Review in 2014 is the thirty-seventh
issue of our journal since the start of its foundation in 2003. In this issue there are
mainly papers from: Brazil, the Czech Republic, Peru, Poland, Romania, Serbia,
the Slovak Republic, Slovenia, South Korea, Spain, Taiwan, and Turkey, because
our journal is open for presentation of scientiﬁc papers from all over the world.
In the present issue the Editors’ Board have proposed the following subject
sessions: General Didactics, Social Pedagogy, Pedeutology, and Chosen Aspects
of Psychology.
In the subject session “General Didactics” we publish six articles. The article
by Ana Maria Ortiz Colón and her co-workers describes implementation of the
M@IVES website in postgraduate education of students in Brazil. Ivo Machar
and his co-workers analyse the results of a survey conducted among graduates of
Master’s courses in Teacher Education in Biology to determine their opinions on
the importance of biology and environmental education didactics during their
pre-graduate studies. The study by Ahmet Tekbıyık aims to determine teachers’
expectations from parents for eﬀective science teaching and reveal parents’ beliefs
on how much they satisfy such expectations. The paper by Zoran Kalinic and his
co-workers presents the implementation and evaluation of the eﬀectiveness and
students’ attitudes toward an adaptive mobile learning system based on personalized content and mobile web. The objective of the research by Hyoung-jin Moon,
Jong-ho Nam and Yong-deog Kim is to ﬁnd a more eﬀective method for the teaching of history to Chinese students studying in South Korea universities. The paper
by Enrique Sánchez Acosta and his co-workers discusses the results obtained by
the most commonly used massive online course platforms, detailing their features
and limitations, as well as the experience in the implementation and use of a peer
review system for a course of more than 7300 students. The research described by
Eun-Kyeong Yun aims to study the application of using ﬁlms in teaching the Arabic
language to Korean students.
14
Stanisław Juszczyk
The subject session “Social Pedagogy” consists of seven articles. The study by
Shwu Ming Wu and his co-workers aims to validate the 25-items School Core
Competence Scale of the National Kaohsiung University of Applied Sciences in
Taiwan. The purpose of the article by Anna Młynarczuk-Sokołowska is to present
the results of the research on the issue discussed in the educational initiatives
undertaken by Polish non-governmental organizations. The research described
by Vincent Charles and Tatiana Gherman is a primary initiative in the Peruvian
literature for understanding the factors which inﬂuence undergraduate students’
choice of a B-school oﬀering a Master’s Degree in Business Administration. The
article by Eva Machů and Hana Červinková describes research whose aim was
to ﬁnd diﬀerences between the social intelligence structure of gifted children
and children with no diagnosed giftedness. The purpose of the paper by Dalliane
Vanessa Pires Andrade and her co-workers is to analyse, from the perspective of the
manager, the importance of the use of tools and concepts of quality management
in the Brazilian federal universities. The results of empirical studies presented by
Mariola Chomczyńska-Rubacha concern the relation between academic achievement and sex, type of school, and self-esteem, as well as self-esteem and sex, school
level, and academic achievement. Bing-Yuh Lu, Jin-Shin Lai and Ming-Chia Lin
describe the compared results of empirical research on senior persons in the UK
and in Taiwan who used the advanced mobile technologies to get the conveniences
of the elder’s living.
In the subject session “Pedeutology” we publish six articles. The study described
by Katja Depoli Stainer examines the relationship between teachers’ pedagogical
beliefs and their experience of burnout. In their paper, E. Martinez-Figueira and
M. Paposo-Rivas look into the role of mentors in student training given it is of
paramount importance and at times both unknown and undeﬁned. In order to
estimate perceived autonomy levels in the classroom, Maja Matrić and Katja Košir
decided to compare teachers’ perceptions with students’ ones, gaining a more
accurate idea of the autonomy levels present in the classroom. The aim of the
paper presented by Šárka Portešova and her co-workers is to ﬁnd out whether
Czech and Slovak teachers are aﬀected by myths about gifted learners. Beata Pituła
and Agnieszka Wilczyńska show the importance of the teacher’s authority in the
modern school.
In the subject session “Chosen Aspects of Psychology” we publish ﬁve articles.
Lada Kaliská describes the theoretical and empirical studies that verify the new
construct of moral intelligence. The study presented by Liliana Ciascai and
Lavinia Haiduc aims to identify the relations between metacognitive skills and
science performance. Lenka Kollerová and her co-workers examine the eﬀects of
Editor’s Preface
15
gender and classroom membership on moral disengagement cognitive justiﬁcations of detrimental conduct. In their article, Simona Prosen and Helena Smrtnik Vitulić describe selected emotion regulation strategies in students of primary
education in Slovenian schools. Danuta Rode and her co-workers explain the
issue of risk factors for high aggression of women taking action of a violent
nature.
We hope that this edition, like previous ones, will encourage new readers not
only from the Central European countries to participate in an open international
discussion. On behalf of the Editors’ Board I would like to invite representatives
of diﬀerent pedagogical sub-disciplines and related sciences to publish their texts
in The New Educational Review, according to the formal requirements placed on
our website: www.educationalrev.us.edu.pl – Guide for Authors.
General
Didactics
Ana María Ortiz Colón,
Jairo Pontes de Oliveira,
Juan Manuel Trujillo Torres
Spain & Brazil
Implementation of the M@IVES Website
in Postgraduate Education
Abstract
M@IVES research addresses the trajectory of Brazilian graduate students and
their attitude to the development of educational technology through a pretestposttest quasi-experimental process with experimental and control groups. It
has included the design methodology of research since the establishment of the
problem posed by the institutions of graduate work in guidance to course work.
It analyzes data gathered in the ﬁeld of research and in light of Brazilian reality.
It enhances the development of a new teaching methodology, supported by educational technology – M@ IVES – for research specialization courses Education
Area oﬀered in the city of São Luís. It demonstrates, by building Site M@IVES
and study developed, the limits and educational opportunities oﬀered by the new
methodology presented.
Keywords: postgraduate studies, educational technology, teaching methodology,
multimedia
Introduction
Over the last few years Brazilian universities have been facing a sharp growth of
mass education. This phenomenon has negatively inﬂuenced specialization courses
and has caused a signiﬁcant increase in the number of students per counselor. In
order to ﬁnd a response to the problem outside the political arena, a solution was
suggested from the area of pedagogy, with the use of new teaching methodology
and supported by virtual technologies.
20
Ana María Ortiz Colón, Jairo Pontes de Oliveira, Juan Manuel Trujillo Torres
The purpose of the investigation was analysis of the Methodology of Postgraduate Education supported by Educational Technology in order to solve problems
that arise during the orientation stage of ﬁnal course projects in Brazil. The investigation is centered around three main areas, where diﬀerent plans of action are
considered (Amador y Dorado, 2006) to address the objective: the area of scientiﬁc
investigation methodology, the area of web design in the framework of educational
technology and ﬁnally, the area of the educational process – learning through
virtual models (Ballesteros et al., 2010). In this paper we present the most relevant
conclusions of the research conducted on two groups (experimental and control)
and a pretest-posttest, with the new methodology in postgraduate education
utilized with one of the groups.
In terms of the area of methodology in scientiﬁc investigation, numerous
studies can be found (Rusavin, 1990; Baptista, Fernández y Hernández, 2003)
showing a tendency towards quantitative investigation – methodology, hypothesis,
variables, tables, graphs and epistemological models of investigation. Recently,
however, new models of a more qualitative nature have been observed, as in the
case of the studies by Fazenda (2002).
An adaptation of the model proposed by Area (2005) was decided upon during the creation of M@IVES in reference to the construction and use of websites
in university teaching. Building on line of multimedia work, a website has been
worked upon, with important advances made, particularly related to the graphical
layout in sequential forms of icons and the adaptation of the website to Brazilian
reality (Nó, 2005).
For Area (2005), various means of information technology represent the combination of what is referred to as new technologies, which are characterized by
developing, using and combining indistinctly any modality of symbolic codiﬁcation of information. The most salient point of the study is the historical recovery of
the project of Gros (1987), in reference to the evolution of computer programs, the
procedures of learning and the design of software and its application in education
(Area, 2005).
On the other hand, it is important to note that the large investment made in
universities to train professors in the ﬁeld of technology in educational practice
has not managed to ﬁll in large gaps in training among professors. In general,
training continues to be deﬁcient, and not just in the handling of technology or
devices, but more fundamentally in their didactic or educational use (Ballesteros
et al., 2010).
The main innovations in postgraduate education that the internet makes possible are related to the possibility of allowing students who for any reason can-
Implementation of the M@IVES Website in Postgraduate Education
21
not attend classes in person to enroll in academic studies. The instruction gains
dynamism since the knowledge is constructed from diﬀerent sources, selected and
mediated by students and teachers. A temporal discontinuity is allowed among the
individuals involved in the process of teaching and learning through the internet;
the physical limits of the university are extrapolated, favoring both internationalization and study promoted and mediated by the internet, giving students more
autonomy (Area, 2005).
In regard to the teaching-learning process through virtual models, the most
signiﬁcant advances in this area come from the perspective of the teacher, in
its application in courses of the investigative component of the curriculum in
a postgraduate degree in education (Salinas, 2008). This allows courses such as
Methodology of Scientiﬁc Investigation, Introduction to Pedagogical Investigation, Investigative Methods and Skills and Workshops I and II to focus on the
development of the Final Course Project (TCC).
As designed, the website will allow for the development of activities that assess
student autonomy, establish resources banks, make it possible to resolve doubts
in real time, or not in real time, break the traditional models of education that
are constrained by the geographical space of the university, allow virtual interaction (chat, forums, email, etc.) bringing us closer to face-to-face models of virtual
education (Casas y Stojanovic, 2013).
In reference to the construction of the M@IVES website, the proposal that was
developed is similar to the extensive work of important authors in similar ﬁelds:
Proença (1990), Area (2002), Cano (2001), Salinas (2005) y Ortiz (2011). Thus,
the M@IVES is grouped with the programs of Computer-Assisted Education and,
more precisely, the programs of demonstration (Cano, 2001), given its character of
education personalized to the real needs of each pupil in the developmental phase
of the TCC and, in some cases, those of simulation.
The theoretical basis that supports M@IVES is, in the perspective of the levels
established by Area (2005), between level III of blended courses and level IV of
Virtual Education. The nature of M@IVES is that of training with pedagogical
simulations, didactic materials, review activities, teaching programs and other
elements.
The activities of Project M@IVES address the concepts of Amador and Dorado
(2006) in terms of the evaluation phases of the diagnosis of training needs, the
concept of the technological model to develop the psycho-pedagogical guidelines
that support the creation of the M@IVES website, the analysis of both the viability
and social impact, the supervision of the design process and the production and
evaluation of the technological model.
22
Ana María Ortiz Colón, Jairo Pontes de Oliveira, Juan Manuel Trujillo Torres
From the approaches described and analysis of problems experienced in
departments of postgraduate studies in education in Institutions of Higher Education (IES), the following research problem was settled upon: Does educational
technology improve the orientation phase of Final Course Projects (TCC) in the
postgraduate courses in the ﬁeld of education?
Based on the aspects that were analyzed, the general aim of our study consisted of designing and applying a new methodology of instruction supported
by educational technology for the TCC stage of postgraduate courses. Along
these lines, the speciﬁc aims are: (1) to analyze the theoretical basis of the postgraduate courses of study supported by virtual models in Brazil; (2) to design
the M@IVES website on the methodology of higher education; (3) to implement
the new methodology of education with the M@IVES website at the Instituto
de Enseñanza Superior Franciscano (IESF). To reach the general aim, we suggest a hypothesis that postgraduate students exposed to the educational actions
supported by the M@IVES website present better epistemological foundation in
the production of Final Course Projects (TCC) than those within the traditional
system.
Research Methodology
Procedure
The investigation can be characterized, on the one hand, as a document study
and on the other hand as a semi-experimental pretest-posttest with experimental
and control groups. The study consists of the comparison of two methods of
postgraduate education: the traditional methodology and the new methodology
supported by educational technology.
A multivariate study has been outlined, which establishes two independent
variables (systemization of the set of operations of monographic orientation (x),
technological – educational web applications (y)) and four dependent variables
(command of creation of the theoretical foundations (a), command of the
methods and skills of scientiﬁc investigation (b), command of the standards
of the development of the TCC (c), speed in completing the TCC (d)). Once
the variables were deﬁned in their conceptual deﬁnition, working deﬁnition,
markers and scale, the presentation of a codebook and its matrix was necessary
in order to show the principal theoretical and/or practical elements of every
variable, as a guide to the data collection tools used with the subjects of the
investigation.
Implementation of the M@IVES Website in Postgraduate Education
23
Sampling
The taxonomy of Gresller (2003) was chosen for the deﬁnition of the sampling,
selecting a random-probability sampling type among professors, students and
alumni of the Institutos de Educación Superior (IES), which oﬀers postgraduate
courses in Ciudad de San Luis (Brazil). The size of the sample was deﬁned in
accordance with the formula proposed by Labes (1998) for the phase of diagnosis,
the invited Institutions were: FAMA, IESF, FSF, UNICEUMA, FACAM – MA,
UFMA and UEMA, with the resulting sample consisting of 66 teachers, 196
students and 284 alumni, with a margin of reliability of 95%, out of a total study
population of 79 teachers, 382 students and 973 alumni.
The sampling of the students in the semi-experimental study in the Instituto de
Educación Superior Franciscano (IESF), in the phase of application of the methodology of education, answered to intentional and not probabilistic selection, due
fundamentally to the accessibility of the group composed by 42 students, divided
into two subgroups, the experimental and control group, the students signed up in
a voluntary way, according to their knowledge of information technology, so two
subgroups of 21 students were formed.
Instruments
A diagnosis questionnaire of the data collection tools was applied to the selected
sample in order to analyze the principal diﬃculties of the teachers in the work
of TCC’s orientation. In the case of the students and alumni the purpose was
to detect the control of methods and necessary skills to elaborate the TCC. The
questionnaire is composed of 12 items in order to determine its reliability and
validity by means of the coeﬃcient of Cronbach’s internal consistency (. 90) and
reliability (. 93) across the test retest.
A Likert-type scale was developed to apply to the control and experimental
groups of the IESF at diﬀerent moments of the research: a) Pre-test, b) a test before
the experiment c) a test during the experiment (even with the control group) and
d) a post-experimental test) and to the specialized teachers of the Methodology
of the Investigation groups. The scale is composed of 22 items with the validity
obtained by Cronbach’s coeﬃcient (.89) and the reliability of the test-retest of 0.92.
The fundamental aim of the scale was to check the independent variable (y) of the
technological-educational website applied.
For document analysis, an information sheet of document observation
composed of 22 items was developed, which was designed to identify existing
Ana María Ortiz Colón, Jairo Pontes de Oliveira, Juan Manuel Trujillo Torres
24
foundations as to gather information that had already been disseminated as the
normalization of monographic work, the development of ongoing projects and
investigations, the methodology of the scientiﬁc work, didactics of higher education and multimedia technology.
Research Results
Firstly, the testing of the variables and the hypothesis are presented, collecting the values of each variable yielded by the research tools and then each of
the items that these tools contain. This allows for a contrast with the proposed
hypothesis to be seen. Next, we present the results obtained in the development
of the epistemological foundations related to the investigation, the construction
of the M@IVES website, and ﬁnish with the new teaching methodology based on
the M@IVES website and the results obtained in the pretest-posttest performed
on the experimental and control groups at the IESF.
Table 1. Values for tabulation and calculation of reliability variable (a).
(Prepared by authors)
Item
Correct answer
Incorrect answer
Concept FT
Value 1
Value 0
Function FT
Value 1
Value 0
Relevance FT
Value 1
Value 0
Item 4
Use of classics
Item 5
Update of the theoretical Foundation
Item 6
Coherence of the FT
Item 7
Use of non-specialized dictionaries
Item 8
Inappropriate sources
Item 9
< 2 Classics
From 2 to 4
Classics
> 4 Classics
20
10
20
50% (Equal to or less than
5 years)
50% (more than 5 years)
10
20
Coherent + 70%
Coherent – 70%
10
20
Less than or equal to 1
More than 1
10
20
Less than 2
More than or equal to 2
20
10
More than 8 references
Equal to or less than 8
references
25
Implementation of the M@IVES Website in Postgraduate Education
Item
Correct answer
Incorrect answer
10
20
Excessive reference to theory
Item 10
Excessive use of citations
More than 50%
(text)
Between 50%
and 20% (text)
Less than 20%
(text)
10
20
10
The following table gives detailed responses given by the students in the control
group (1 to 3) and the analysis of ﬁnished TCCs (4-10) relative to variable “a.”
The analysis of the behavior of the variable as well as the relationship between
the results of the experimental group and the control group are shown, with an
observed improvement of over 80% in the experimental group, which shows that
the variable is true.
Table 2. Model for variable testing, Theoretical and Practical dimension (a).
(Prepared by authors)
Items
Group
Average percentage of
correct answers
Result
1 to 10
Experimental group
91
True variable
1 to 10
Control group
68
False variable
Conditions
= or > 80% True variable
< 80% False variable
Next, a transposition of the average value achieved by the experimental group
and the control group was conducted. This can be observed in the following table,
according to the predetermined condition that variable “b” be considered a correct
answer on obtaining a value over 80%.
Table 3. Test of Theoretical and Practical dimension of variable (b).
(Prepared by authors)
Items
Group
Average percentage of
correct answers
Result
1 to 20
Experimental group
86.4
True variable
1 to 20
Control group
58.8
Condition
= or > 80% True variable
< 80% False variable
Ana María Ortiz Colón, Jairo Pontes de Oliveira, Juan Manuel Trujillo Torres
26
Additionally, a transposition of the average value achieved by the experimental
group and by the control group was performed. In the following table, based on
the predetermined condition, variable “c” was conﬁrmed as true, as the median
percentages obtained by the experimental group was averaged at over 80%.
Table 4. Test of the variable theoretical and practical dimension (c).
(Own elaboration)
Items
Group
Average percentage of
correct answers
Result
1 to 20
Experimental group
86
True variable
1 to 20
Control group
67
Condition
= or > 80% True variable
< 80% False variable
Subsequently, we contrasted variable “d,” as shown in the following table, observing changes in the variable in relation to the experimental and control groups.
These changes allow for the statement that the Final Course Projects of the experimental group, which were completed in less time, were superior to those of the
control group. Therefore the variable is true.
Table 5. Contrast of the variable (d). (Prepared by authors)
Group
Average time
Average mark of TCC
Result
Experimental
262
9.0
Superior
295
8.4
Inferior
Table 6. Synthesis of the results of the tests of variables. (Prepared by authors)
Variables
Experimental
G.
Control
G.
x
94.5
69.2
Exp. G > Control G. (+) result
No diﬀerence
Internal contrast teachers and students (+) result
(Scale from 0 to 1000)
y
810
Result
a
91
68
Exp. G > Control G. (+) result
b
86.4
58.8
Exp. G > Control G. (+) result
c
86
67
Exp. G > Control G. (+) result
d
262
295
Exp. G< Control G. (+) result
Implementation of the M@IVES Website in Postgraduate Education
27
Following the application of M@IVES, the median of the answers from the
experimental group was 89.4, with a standard deviation of 11.82, and from the
control group 65.8, with a standard deviation of 14.21. Comparing both groups
by means of an ANOVA analysis, there were statistically signiﬁcant diﬀerences
(p<0.0001).
In the study, we wanted to ﬁnd out if statistically signiﬁcant diﬀerences between
the object of the study groups really exist at the moments of the pretest and the
posttest. In the ﬁrst place, Leve’s Test was realized to analyze the possible existence of diﬀerences in the variance of the experimental and control groups. In the
pretest of the experimental group, p = 0.057 and in the control group, p = 0.595, in
both cases p > 0.01. In the posttest of the experimental group, p = 0.268 and of the
control group, p = 0.105, also p> 0.01, for which there are no signiﬁcant diﬀerences
in the homogeneity of the variance. In this way, both the control group and the
experimental group can be considered homogeneous.
The test for the independent variable X, of a practical and theoretical character,
was designed in order to obtain the perceptions of the students about the teaching
methodology applied in the experimental and control groups in relation to the
instruction and workshops on the Final Course Project in the didactics of higher
education course at the IESF.
Regarding variable Y, the test was not given to the control group, as the students
were not exposed to instruction through the M@IVES website. In terms of the
students of the experimental group, the test can be considered satisfactory.
Additionally, the tests performed with dependent variables a, b, c and d were
positive, conﬁrming the suggested hypothesis in this study.
It should also be emphasized that the description of the methods of study, the
presentation of the reliability of the sample based on a deﬁned population, as well
as the test related to the reliability and validity of the data collection methods, with
rigorous control of the common sources of mistakes in the experimentation, all
contribute in a signiﬁcant way to the results of this study.
As for the study of the methodology of education applied, we kept to the
methodology that would be applied in the experiment in terms of instruction
and workshops related to the investigation of the postgraduate course in
didactics of higher education at the IESF, with the main objective of improving
the quality of orientation in the TCC. The following courses of action stand out:
a) development of new plans and programs for ﬁelds of study, b) adaptation of
the curriculum from a multidisciplinary point of view, c) speciﬁcation of the
methods and skills to be applied, with special value placed on practical research,
d) presentation of the ﬁnal design of the teaching methodology, from diagnosis,
28
Ana María Ortiz Colón, Jairo Pontes de Oliveira, Juan Manuel Trujillo Torres
in reference to the aims, content, skills, capabilities, references, timelines and
other elements.
All the variables obtained results of over 80%, much higher than the results
obtained by the control group and quite signiﬁcant in relation to the information collected in the diagnostic study. The improvements shown in the study
of the variables and the experiences of the students exposed to epistemological
educational activities based on the website demonstrate a better epistemological
foundation in the development of the TCC.
Conclusions
In conclusion, we can aﬃrm that the students exposed to the epistemological
and educational actions, in the form of Systemization of the set of operations of
monographic orientation – (variable x), supported by the technological-educational
M@IVES website – (variable Y), demonstrate a better epistemological foundation
in the development of the TCC, with this premise being demonstrated by control
of the construction of the theoretical foundations (variable a); control of the
methods and skills of scientiﬁc investigation (variable b); control of the procedure
for the development of the TCC (variable c); and the speed in completing the TCC
(variable d).
In sum, the study presents the following signiﬁcant advances: from the theoretical point of view its principal contribution resides in presenting a plan of action for
postgraduate education aimed at the orientation and development of a TCC in the
specialized courses. From the methodological point of view, the study represents
an advancement in the conception of an innovative methodology of teaching and
learning by means of educational technology.
In reference to the tools of the M@IVES website, the forum and the chat, they
suppose a diﬀerential for the methodology of education, considering its potentials
of exchange of experiences, orientations and training for every work of conclusions of developed course.
The study tries to open the way for another more general study that involves
other Brazilian Institutions and that conﬁrms the ﬁndings exposed with a methodology and a web support relied on the educational Technology similar to the
exposed ones. It is considered necessary to continue research, going into detail
about each of the components of the M@IVES website, adapting it to the new
legislation both at the European level and international level.
Implementation of the M@IVES Website in Postgraduate Education
29
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Ivo Machar, Jan Činčera,
Olga Vránová, Vilém Pechanec,
Helena Kiliánová, Jitka Málková
Czech Republic
Innovation in Biology
and Environmental Education Didactics
in Pre-Graduate Training of Secondary Biology Teachers
in the Context of Current Changes
in the Education System
Abstract
The authors conducted a survey among graduates of Master’s courses in Teacher
Education in Biology to determine their opinions on the importance of biology and
environmental education didactics during their pre-graduate studies. Results of
the survey indicated some existing deﬁciencies in pre-graduate teaching of biology
and environmental education didactics and raised suggestions for innovation. The
survey of 119 respondents was conducted in 2009. Most respondents considered
the beneﬁt of their pre-graduate Teacher Education in Biology degree suﬃcient for
their own knowledge in biology, while considering the beneﬁt of a pre-graduate
course for their own pedagogic and didactic competencies a small one. The survey
proved that most graduates of Teacher Education in Biology studies ranked the
subject of biology didactics among the key modules of their pre-graduate degree
course and identiﬁed several strengths and weaknesses in the teaching of biology
didactics. The respondents who were professionally involved in Environmental
Education viewed the absence of special didactics of environmental education
and limited time allocation for teaching practice as shortcomings of their pregraduate course structure. Based on this research, two educational projects were
designed, allowing for the implementation of innovated didactics of biology and
environmental education together with specialized teaching practice for biology
teacher education students in collaboration with several Czech universities and
participating foreign lecturers.
Ivo Machar, Jan Činčera, Olga Vránová, Vilém Pechanec, et al.
32
Keywords: didactics of biology and environmental education, innovation, biology teachers.
Introduction
Subject-matter didactics plays an integral part in the curriculum of teacher
education (Shulman 1987), as the level of didactic knowledge of the curriculum
content and methods of its interpretation to students signiﬁcantly determine
the quality of a given teacher. Didactics of biology has seen, among other things,
a growing emphasis on the importance of research-oriented teaching of biology
and ecology (Činčera 2007).
In addition to their didactic knowledge of curriculum content, the eﬀectiveness
and quality of the teacher’s work is conditioned by their teaching skills which
reﬂect didactics to a signiﬁcant degree (Kyriacou 1996). Teachers should learn
the basics of their teaching skills during their pre-graduate studies. It is therefore
requisite to continually look for teaching practice innovation throughout the pregraduate training of future teachers.
The authors, motivated by their eﬀorts to look for optimum means of innovation in the didactics of biology and environmental education, conducted a survey
among graduates of Teacher Education in Biology to determine their opinions on
the importance of biology and environmental education didactics during their
pre-graduate studies. The aim of the paper is to present results of this research and
their application in project innovation of didactics of biology and environmental
education at Palacky University in Olomouc. The paper also discusses feedback
received from the participants in this project innovation in the context of current
changes in the education system.
Methods
Research on the target group of graduates of Master’s courses in Teacher Education in Biology at Palacky University Olomouc was conducted in 2009 in the form
of a questionnaire survey (Chráska 2007). The primary aim of the research was
to evaluate the beneﬁt of pre-graduate didactics of biology and environmental
education (EE) for teaching practice from the perspective of Master’s degree
graduates who work as secondary biology teachers teaching the 11 – 15 age range,
Innovation in Biology and Environmental Education Didactics
33
exceptionally also as biology teachers teaching the 16 – 19 age range, or working
as lecturers of Environmental Education (hereinafter EE).
A questionnaire with closed-ended questions was applied in the research
(Gnitecki 1993). The questionnaire was divided into two parts: (1) Basic information about the respondent, (2) Evaluation of the content and beneﬁt of the
completed courses of biology and EE didactics during the pre-graduate Teacher
Education in Biology studies with respect to its signiﬁcance for the current teaching practice of the respondent. The respondents were given the option to add
their own commentary to the closed-ended questions used in the questionnaire.
The questionnaire response rate was 64%. A total of 119 respondents took part in
the survey; all of them graduated from Teacher Education in Biology at Palacky
University Olomouc between 1999 and 2008.
To determine the degree of reliability of the questionnaire data, comparison
of data obtained from two equal samples, formed from the basic sample as a representative selection, was conducted. The rate of agreement between respondent
responses in both randomly generated samples was expressed using Cohen’s coefﬁcient (Mareš 1983):
κ=
p p − p0
1 − p0
(1)
where κ is the Cohen coeﬃcient, pp is the observed agreement and po is the
expected agreement. The test of statistical signiﬁcance of the calculated coeﬃcient
κ was calculated by a standardized normal variable using a criterion according to
the following formula:
u=
κ
p0
n.(1 − p p )
(2)
where u is the value of the standardized normal variable and the remaining symbols correspond to those in formula (1).
The analyzed survey results were used to design a project of innovation in didactics of biology and environmental education under the Operational Programme
Education for Competitiveness (OPEC) called “Environmental Education in Practice” (Machar 2011). Preparation of new study subjects (referred to as “courses” in
project terminology) drew on the accentuating activating teaching methods and
enhancing research-oriented instruction of biology in teaching practice.
34
Ivo Machar, Jan Činčera, Olga Vránová, Vilém Pechanec, et al.
At the end of every project course the course was evaluated by its participants –
pre-graduate students of Teacher Education in Biology – in the form of evaluation
questionnaires with closed-ended questions. The output of these evaluations served
as inspiration for the design of a follow-up project “Partnership for Enhancing
Communication in Nature Conservation (KONEV)” under OPEC. This project
facilitated the enhancement of pre-graduate courses in both Teacher Education
in Biology and Biological Sciences, speciﬁcally by including wider application of
subject-matter didactics in students’ teaching practice with potential employers.
Results
Determination of reliability of the survey results proved to be satisfactory, as the
calculated value of the Cohen coeﬃcient for the survey results obtained was 0.811
and as such may be considered satisfactory with respect to the agreement between
randomly selected respondents. This ﬁnding therefore meets the requirement for
reliability of the research methods applied. The value of standardized normal
variable 6.01 upon signiﬁcance level 0.01was higher than the critical value (2.58)
for the two-tailed test, it may be therefore noted that the calculated coeﬃcient
reveals a statistically signiﬁcant agreement between respondent responses in the
conducted survey.
Out of the set of 119 Teacher Education in Biology graduates who studied
during the monitored period 1999 – 2008 (Figure 1), most (72%) work in education at present. 69 persons (80%) work as biology teachers at lower secondary
schools, 5 persons (6%) work as EE coordinators and 12 persons (14%) work as
EE lecturers in non-proﬁt educational organizations. A relatively low number of
the respondents (12%) are out of work at present, yet had had a minimum of
three years of teaching practice prior to completing the questionnaire. A smaller
part of the respondents (16%) work outside the ﬁeld of their degree, mostly in
jobs requiring a university degree as a basic qualiﬁcation. This group of persons
has had no teaching practice since graduating and as such their responses in the
questionnaire section relevant to the evaluation of beneﬁts of pre-graduate courses
for teaching practice were not included in the research.
The beneﬁts of pre-graduate Teacher Education in Biology courses for knowledge competency in biology are considered suﬃcient by the majority of the
respondents (78%). In their comments on this question, the respondents (34%)
stated that the knowledge of biological terminology obtained during pre-graduate
studies is signiﬁcantly more extensive than the knowledge applicable in teaching
35
Innovation in Biology and Environmental Education Didactics
Absolute number of respondents
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Year of graduation from pre-graduate studies
Figure 1. Structure of the studied respondent sample based on the questionnaire response rate and
the graduation date in Teacher Education in Biology
practice at lower secondary schools. The most obvious weakness of their knowledge competency in biology, as the respondents see it, is the fact they have virtually
no opportunity to follow the latest trends in biological subjects. The following
reasons are considered key ones: a) lack of time in the working hours of lower
secondary school teachers, b) insuﬃcient funds at lower secondary schools limiting the possibility of journal subscription.
The evaluation of the beneﬁts which pre-graduate studies brought to the
respondents’ teaching and didactic competencies was altogether diﬀerent
(Figure 2). Only 4.2% of the respondents stated that pre-graduate studies in
Teacher Education in Biology provided them with all the necessary teaching and
didactic competencies for the profession of a biology teacher or EE lecturer. Most
respondents considered the beneﬁt of pre-graduate studies for their own teaching
and didactic competencies as limited (73.2%) or virtually non-existent (22.6% of
the respondents), requiring additional self-study.
Respondent evaluation of the importance of Didactics of Biology module in
pre-graduate courses was relatively unambiguous: most respondents (77.3%)
considered Didactics of Biology to be one of the key modules of their university
programme in Teacher Education in Biology. In their comments on this question,
Opinions of graduates in Teacher Education in Biology on the
shortcomings of Didactics of Biology in their pre-graduate studies
36
Ivo Machar, Jan Činčera, Olga Vránová, Vilém Pechanec, et al.
Absence of EEARC issues in the teaching
practice undertaken
27
Insufficient time allocated to observations
and teaching practice
6
Lack of opportunities to test how didactic theory
actually works in teaching practice.
30
Absence of courses on the methodology
of school project design
15
Limited attention paid to the didactics
of project-based learning
19
Absence of courses on internet info database
operation
6
Absence of subject-matter didactics
of EEARC
15
Insufficient time allocated to Didactics
of Biology
17
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Account of respondents
Figure 2. Analysis of shortcomings of the Didactics of Biology module in pre-graduate studies
in Teacher Education in Biology as viewed by the graduates
the respondents (34%) considered the Environmental Education and Science
Experiment Practice modules highly contributing. All the three modules listed
above are didactics-oriented. Four respondents gave identical comments, saying
that knowledge of manuals for laboratory science exercises gained in the Science
Experiment Practice module together with the knowledge of basic principles of
textbook evaluation provided by Didactics of Biology were greatly contributing to
their teaching practice. The remaining comments contained a wide range of the
respondents’ opinions about lecturers of individual modules. These opinions were
probably laden with subjective memories of unique personal experiences of individual respondents and as such were not subject to evaluation. Comments focusing on content deﬁciencies of the Didactics of Biology module provided valuable
information (Figure 2). A total of 17% respondents more or less agreed in their
37
Innovation in Biology and Environmental Education Didactics
responses that Didactics of Biology received insuﬃcient time allocation in their
pre-graduate course and that they would like this module to “be more in-depth
oriented”. Virtually all the respondents who are professionally involved in EE
would have welcomed special subject-matter didactics focusing on environmental
education during their studies. In their comments, the respondents also pointed
out that little attention was paid to educational projects, including the methodology of preparing school educational projects, seeing this as a shortcoming of
Didactics of Biology. In their comments regarding the importance of Didactics of
Biology, the respondents mentioned the teaching practice undertaken, where
didactics of biology was reﬂected. They considered the limited time allocated to
teaching practice in their pre-graduate course to be a shortcoming of the teaching
practice structure, saying that they would consider teaching practice more focused
on immediate application of biology didactics greatly beneﬁcial. Application of the
research results in the project innovation of subject-matter didactics of biology
and environmental education in biology teaching is shown in Figure 3.
Results
of questionnaire
survey
Identified
shortcomings
of Didactics
of Biology
Identified
deficiencies
in knowledge
of biology
Identified
teaching practice
shortcomings
Innovation
in the ENVIRUP
project
New courses
(Didactics of Forest
Pedagogy, etc.)
New textbooks
New courses
(Modern Trends
in Biology, etc.)
New courses
(Preparation
for Practice, etc.)
Evaluation
of innovated
courses
Innovation
in the follow-up
KONEV project
Involvement
of foreign experts
in education
Prolongation of
well-established
courses
Extending
internships
Figure 3. Application of survey results in the project innovation in subject-matter didactics of
biology and environmental education in the Teacher Education in Biology at Palacky University
Olomouc
38
Ivo Machar, Jan Činčera, Olga Vránová, Vilém Pechanec, et al.
The deﬁciencies in pre-graduate modules of biology didactics identiﬁed by the
research resulted in the introduction of four new subject-matter didactics courses
for students of Teaching Education in Biology: Didactics of Forest Pedagogy, The
introduction of Didactics of EEARC, Didactics of Care for the Environment and
Didactics of Nature Conservation.
Deﬁciencies in the biology teachers’ expert knowledge of new trends in biological sciences, as identiﬁed in our survey, inspired the publication of new study
materials and introduction of new courses: Modern Trends in Biology, Environmental Ethics and Global Learning and Development Education.
The respondents’ additional comments on the closed-ended questions of the
survey yielded interesting suggestions regarding teaching practice in pre-graduate
courses. Informed by them, a set of several modules was prepared under the
project innovation, signiﬁcantly extending the practical competencies of pregraduate students towards enhancing their future employability. The Preparation
for Practice module is a set of seminars led by experts from nature conservation
institutions and non-governmental organizations focusing on EE. This course is
popular with pre-graduate students. It is followed by the course EE in Practice,
which includes a long-term internship (4 weeks) with potential future employers
at EE centres. The second follow-up course EE and Forest Pedagogy Practice is
a two-week group workshop for pre-graduate students of Teacher Education in
Biology. It oﬀers them the chance to become acquainted with the basic principles
of forest pedagogy under the tuition of forest pedagogy lecturers.
Evaluation of student feedback on the innovated didactic modules informed
the design of the follow-up KONEV project. This project, whose primary focus
is to establish a collaboration network of six Czech universities with professional
practice, extends pre-graduate courses in both Teacher Education in Biology
and Biological Sciences, speciﬁcally by including new possibilities of subjectmatter didactics application in students’ teaching and professional practice. They
are given the opportunity to take long-term individual or team internships in
renowned nature conservation institutions which are actively involved in EE and
collaborate primarily with lower secondary schools. These internships focusing on
environmental education are mostly taken in national parks.
Discussion
The ongoing changes in education are naturally also reﬂected in subject-matter
didactics through curriculum changes (Walterová 1994). In relation to the trans-
Innovation in Biology and Environmental Education Didactics
39
formation of the education system, conceptual and content changes aﬀect biology
education signiﬁcantly as well. The pedagogical and psychological constructivist
and psycho-genetic principle must act as the cornerstone of biology education,
bearing in mind that far from all scientiﬁc biology ﬁndings may be applied in
the lower secondary biology curriculum (Švecová 2001). Owing to this, modelbased teaching will be increasingly applied in science education, demonstrating
biological knowledge on speciﬁc, didactically suitable selected examples while
applying activating teaching methods (Grecmanová, Urbanovská 2007). Future
teachers, however, need to learn how to use activating teaching methods in their
pre-graduate courses (Oravcová 2004). With the onset of a new millennium, learning and education cannot be properly implemented at schools without paying
attention to their environmental aspects (Orr 2004). The results of the presented
survey indicate that some biology teachers lack knowledge competencies in environmental education didactics. Didactics of environmental education stresses the
importance of the educational role of story-telling, play and project-based education (Eilam, Trop 2011). Some researchers (Gallová, Švecová 1996) indicate that
biology is the key subject in environmental education. The results of our survey
revealed that pre-graduate students of Teacher Education in Biology are aware
of their knowledge deﬁciencies with respect to the latest trends in the ﬁeld. With
this in mind, our project innovations deliberately focused on introducing new
modules and study materials which present students with the latest ﬁndings in the
modern biological applications in education and the corresponding subject-matter
didactics (Papáček 2006).
Nevertheless, the issue of the signiﬁcance and position of biology within
environmental education remains a subject of discussion. The evolution of
environmental education abroad followed approaches which aspired to pass on
the knowledge about nature, education in nature or education towards nature
protection (Disinger 2005). Starting with the 1970s, however, we have been able to
witness the trend of a gradual shift of environmental education focus “away from
nature” “towards society”.
Environmental education traditionally understands ecological knowledge as
one of its “target levels”, whereby the target attainment of this level should be to
“provide learners with suﬃcient ecological knowledge to permit them to make
ecologically sound decisions with respect to environmental issues” (Hungerford,
Volk 1990). The existing deﬁnition of horizontal issues in framework education
programmes stresses the importance of ecological knowledge. Future development of the ﬁeld in the Czech Republic will probably take place in the context of
a nation-wide discussion about the curriculum reform.
40
Ivo Machar, Jan Činčera, Olga Vránová, Vilém Pechanec, et al.
The accelerating process of globalization faces new challenges in conceptualizing biology education, which the didactics of global learning and education is
trying to reﬂect (Carvalho 2008). Our project innovation in didactics of biology
and environmental education echoes this process by introducing a new course
called “Global Learning”, for which new study support was prepared (Máchal et
al. 2012).
The conducted survey on the opinions of Teacher Education in Biology graduates helped to support the respondents’ professional self-reﬂection, which is an
integral skill of the teaching profession (Urbanovská 2004). The participants in the
research presented in this paper positively valued the importance of knowledge
of didactics of science laboratory work. The project innovation which followed
the research endeavoured to follow the modern trend of shifting the traditional
concept of science laboratory work towards research-oriented learning (Papáček
2010).
It is probable that without the possibility of ﬁnancial support from OPEC
projects the implementation of the relatively costly innovation in subject-matter
didactics would not have been possible. The same may be generally said about
all innovations in university education which primarily focus on enhancing the
employability of university graduates (Ryška et al. 2012). Educational projects
similar to those presented in this paper are being implemented at other universities
as well. Yet, the real eﬀectiveness of such projects has been very rarely evaluated
in expert publications (Koucký et al. 2008). The required sustainability of OPEC
projects after the termination of their funding will lead to a gradual downturn in
individual project activities. In this context, the importance of lifelong learning
should be stressed, as it may support the sustainable maintenance of teachers’
didactic competencies.
Conclusions
The current development of biological sciences steers towards gradual integration, which is reﬂected in the trend favouring modular teaching in the didactics of
biological subjects. Increasing demand for new attractive forms of biology learning
at lower secondary schools (research-oriented learning, cross-curricular projects)
together with accentuated horizontal application of environmental education
increases the demand for didactic skills in teachers. The results of the presented
research revealed that lower secondary biology teachers and EE lecturers view
didactics-oriented disciplines as key ones in their ﬁeld. The presented project
Innovation in Biology and Environmental Education Didactics
41
innovation in subject-matter didactics was implemented by a multi-disciplinary
team driven by their eﬀort to enhance the teaching competencies of future natural
science and environmental education teachers. The authors would appreciate it
if the results of their work contributed to the discussion about subject-matter
didactics of biological disciplines.
Acknowledgements
The paper was supported by the grant No. CZ.1.07/2.4.00/17.0073 at Palacky University
Olomouc.
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Zoran Kalinic, Slavko Arsovski,
Zora Arsovski, Vladimir Rankovic
Serbia
The Eﬀectiveness and Students’ Perception
of an Adaptive Mobile Learning System based
on Personalized Content and Mobile Web
Abstract
As the whole world is going mobile, application of mobile devices in education, also known as m-learning, is becoming one of the most popular areas of
educational research. This paper presents the implementation and evaluation
of the eﬀectiveness and students’ attitudes toward an adaptive mobile learning
system based on personalized content and mobile web. Personalization of learning
materials is based on the Felder-Silverman learning style model and the features
of the accessing mobile device were identiﬁed using the device library. The results
of the study conﬁrm students’ positive attitudes toward mobile learning and the
developed adaptive m-learning system. They also prove the eﬀectiveness of the
system and m-learning as an additional educational tool in terms of increasing
students’ knowledge and scores.
Keywords: personalized mobile learning, device adaptation, mobile web, content
adaptation.
Introduction
M-learning is usually deﬁned as a form of e-learning which can take place
anywhere, anytime, using mobile devices such as mobile phones and PDA devices
(Quin, 2000; Kadirere, 2009). Mobile learning has come to people’s attention because
mobile devices are portable, ubiquitous, accessible, and used by many people (Keskin
and Metcalf, 2011). Lower cost, transportability, and ﬂexibility are the advantages of
44
Zoran Kalinic, Slavko Arsovski, Zora Arsovski, Vladimir Rankovic
m-learning over the traditional and more expensive computer lab set-up e-learning
(Zurita and Nussbaum, 2004; Nedugandi and Raman, 2012).
The need for adaptation and proﬁling of the content for mobile use has been
widely recognized among researchers (Yang et al., 2004; Kinshuk et al., 2009;
Franklin, 2011; Nedugandi and Raman, 2012). By adapting course presentations
to individuals, students can learn more in less time because the materials comply
with their preferences (Paredes and Rodriguez, 2002). In addition to a great variety
of mobile devices, learners have diﬀerent preferences, motivations, abilities, and
knowledge, therefore diﬀerent learner proﬁles (learning styles and knowledge
levels) should be considered in designing personalized learning assistance.
An adaptive mobile learning system based on personalized content and mobile
web is presented in this paper. Personalization of the learning content is based on
students’ learning styles and the identiﬁed features of the accessing mobile device.
A study on the eﬀectiveness of the m-learning system and students’ attitudes
toward mobile learning has also been done.
The remainder of the paper is organized as follows: Section 2 gives literature
review of similar studies. In Section 3, a design of an adaptive mobile learning
system and the implementation of the learning experiment are presented. Section 4
discusses the results of the study on the eﬀectiveness and students’ attitudes toward
the tested m-learning system and m-learning in general. In the ﬁnal section, conclusions, limitations of the study, and further research directions are presented.
Literature review
Adaptation and personalization of the learning content in an e-learning environment is usually performed in accordance with students’ learning styles and
preferences. However, due to limitations of the mobile devices in the m-learning
environment, it is usually necessary to perform content adaptation based on the
features of the accessing mobile device.
Learning styles have been recognized as being an important human factor
aﬀecting students’ learning performance (Kinshuk and Lin, 2004; Filippidis and
Tsoukalas, 2009; Hwang et al., 2012; Dorca et al., 2013). In the literature, diﬀerent learning style models can be found (Paredes and Rodriguez, 2002), but the
dominant and widely accepted one is the Felder-Silverman model (Felder and
Silverman, 1998).
Huang et al. (2012) proposed an adaptive m-learning system, which exploited
Bayesian networks (for the identiﬁcation of individual learning styles based on
The Eﬀectiveness and Students’ Perception
45
the Felder-Silverman model) and content adaptation technologies to support both
learner and device adaptation, which allows each learner to construct a personalized and adaptive learning environment. Using the Felder-Silverman learning
style model, Park and Chungbuk (2005) described the design and development of
a mobile learning management system adaptive to students’ learning styles. Carver
et al. (1999) developed an adaptive learning system based on the sensing/intuitive,
visual/verbal, and sequential/global dimensions of the Felder–Silverman learning style theory. Filippidis and Tsoukalas (2009) developed a web-based adaptive
educational system based on the sequential–global dimension of the Felder–Silverman model, which provided diﬀerent versions of images to present the same
content with diﬀerent levels of details. The Felder-Silverman learning style model
in m-learning was also used by Kinshuk and Lin (2004), Huang and Hsieh (2008)
and Nagella and Govindarajulu (2008).
Dynamic adaptation in real-time generates the desired content based on the
speciﬁcations of heterogeneous devices. The major advantages of the dynamic
adaptation approach include great ﬂexibility in the support of diﬀerent learning
devices and avoidance of inconsistent contents that almost certainly appear in
multiple versions made for diﬀerent devices (Huang et al., 2012).
Zhao et al. (2008) presented a personalized adaptive content system based on
the learner’s experience, mobile device proﬁles, and characteristics derived from
the device repository, and concluded that the context-aware adaptive mobile learning system could increase learning eﬃciency and interest. Similar results were
presented by Jung, Park and Chung (2006). Yang (2012) reported positive attitudes
of students of English toward m-learning. Al-Fahad (2009) investigated students’
attitudes and perceptions of the eﬀectiveness of m-learning among students in
Saudi Arabia and discovered that m-learning was widely embraced by the student
community and that m-learning activities enabled students’ better involvement in
the learning process. The students in this study changed from passive to engaged
learners, who were intellectually, emotionally, behaviorally involved in their learning tasks.
The study
Design of adaptive mobile learning system
Although native mobile applications developed for speciﬁc mobile platforms
(such as Android or iPhone) are quite popular and oﬀer the best-in-class user
experience, it is not easy to port them to other mobile platforms (Fling, 2009).
46
Zoran Kalinic, Slavko Arsovski, Zora Arsovski, Vladimir Rankovic
On the other hand, almost all modern mobile phones have built-in mobile web
browsers and mobile websites and applications are easy to create, maintain, and
publish (Fling, 2009). Since the mobile web appears as the most scalable way to
develop and support multiple platforms (Nedugandi and Raman, 2012), it was
chosen as the platform for the development of the system, which was done at the
University of Kragujevac, Serbia.
The learning materials were structured in courses, modules, and lessons. The
lesson model allowed for the adaptation of the lesson structure in accordance
with the adaptation rules derived from the student learning style, which was determined using the Felder-Silverman model. According to the characteristics of each
dimension and category (Felder and Silverman, 1998), the adaptation rules were
deﬁned and implemented in the system, so each student could get a personally
tailored lesson based on his/her learning style. The lesson contained either mainly
visual or mainly verbal materials, gave examples ﬁrst and then theory, or vice versa,
started from easier to harder examples or opposite, gave summary at the beginning
or at the end of the lesson, etc.
The system also incorporated content adaptation in accordance with the
mobile device characteristics. Mobile devices come in a variety of forms and with
completely diﬀerent main characteristics (operational system, screen size, support to multimedia formats, etc.), hence it is almost impossible to create a single
mobile web solution suitable for them all (Fling, 2009; Firtman, 2010). The full
dynamic server-side content adaptation starts with the device detection and is
followed by adaptation of the content based on the identiﬁed characteristics
and adopted adaptation rules (Fling, 2009). To identify the important features of
a mobile device, it is common to use some of the device libraries (Zhao et al.,
2008; Firtman, 2010), and in this system, one of the most famous device libraries,
WURFL (WURFL, 2011), was implemented. The content was adapted in accordance with identiﬁed characteristics and the adaptation rules. For example, all the
pictures were dynamically resized to ﬁt the screen size and resolution, only supported multimedia ﬁles were presented in order to avoid the download of unsupported formats, the hyperlink font size was changed depending on whether the
device has a touch screen or not, etc. The two-step adaptation process is shown in
Figure 1.
In addition to lessons, students were able to access self-assessment tests. All
student activities (lesson readings, self-assessment tests and learning style tests
taken) were monitored and saved in the system database as user logs. More
details on the system development and implementation can be found in Kalinic
(2011).
The Eﬀectiveness and Students’ Perception
47
Figure 1. Two-step content adaptation process
Implementation of the learning experiment
The study population was composed of the ﬁrst-year undergraduate students
taking the course in Information Technology at the University of Kragujevac,
Serbia. Originally, 63 students joined the study voluntarily, but only 41 of them
actually took part in it. In order to evaluate the eﬀectiveness of the system, a control group of 41 students who did not use the system was formed. In this way,
it was possible to evaluate the mobile learning as an additional learning tool by
comparing the results of the experimental and control groups.
Having registered to the system, the students had one month to use the
m-learning system to prepare for the second exam test. Inside the university
building, the students had free Wi-Fi access, while in other locations they usually
used mobile networks for data transfer. The learning material was the same as the
oﬀ-line learning material and it consisted of two modules: Computer Networks
and the Internet. It included texts, images, audio (lesson readings), and video materials (PowerPoint presentations with narration, converted into videos), in formats
typically supported by mobile devices. Self-assessment tests for each lesson were
also available to the students to help them monitor their progress.
When the learning experiment ended, a satisfaction survey was performed
using a questionnaire with 5-point Likert scale questions, numerical assessments
of the system, and open questions on user attitudes. The objective of this survey
Zoran Kalinic, Slavko Arsovski, Zora Arsovski, Vladimir Rankovic
48
was to evaluate the students’ perceptions of the m-learning system and m-learning
in general, and to provide some information about their experiences during the
experiment. All the participants ﬁlled in the questionnaire at the end of the experiment.
Research Results
The data collected in this study include two test scores of the students from both
groups and the satisfaction questionnaire results of the students from the experimental group. In order to determine whether the two groups are comparable, ﬁrst
the results of test 1, which both groups did under the same conditions, using only
traditional learning methods, were analyzed. The results of test 1 are presented in
Table 1.
Table 1. T-test results of test 1
Experimental group (n = 41)
Control group (n = 41)
Test
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
No. 1
14.98
3.36
15.07
2.65
p
t
0.8842
–0.1461
The t test results (t = –0.1461, p>>.05) show that there was no signiﬁcant difference between these two groups, so it can be assumed that the groups comprise
similar students and therefore can be compared.
Test 2 was taken after the learning period. The scores of the experimental and
the control groups were then analyzed again using the t-test in order to determine whether there were signiﬁcant diﬀerences between them, which would
suggest that the use of the developed m-learning system improved the test
scores. Since the learning materials were organized in two modules, the scores
were calculated independently for each of them and the results of the analysis
are shown in Table 2.
Table 2. T-test results for test 2
Experimental group (n = 41)
Test
No. 2
* p < .05
Control group (n = 41)
Mean
SD
p
t
Module
Mean
SD
Module 1
5.49
1.58
4.63
1.93
0.0158* 2.1875
Module 2
5.56
2.35
4.61
2.38
0.0359* 1.1843
49
The Eﬀectiveness and Students’ Perception
The t-tests produced statistically signiﬁcant results (p<.05), indicating that there
was a considerable diﬀerence in the scores of the two groups. The improvement
in the mean score was +18.4% for Module 1 and +20.6% for Module 2, which
conﬁrms the eﬀectiveness of the proposed m-learning system and is compliant
with the ﬁndings of Jung, Park and Chung (2006). Since both groups attended the
same lectures and had the same tests, the only diﬀerence being that the experimental group used the m-learning system while the control group did not, it may be
concluded that personalized m-learning can be eﬀectively used to support other
forms of learning.
Analysis of the students’ activity showed that most of them used the system
at least once a day (29%) or a few times a week (56%), while the length of the
session was usually 5-15 minutes (58% of the students), which is compliant with
the general recommendations for m-learning design (Trifonova, 2006). Most of
the students used news (76%), texts with images (98%), and self-assessment tests
(83%). Due to relatively large ﬁles, no free Wi-Fi signal available outside of the
university building and slow and expensive data transfer via a mobile network
in developing countries, the use of audio (only 15% of the students) and video
materials (17% of the students) was limited.
After the second test had been taken, a survey on the students’ satisfaction was
carried out using a questionnaire designed to measure he students’ attitudes and
perceptions of the eﬀectiveness of mobile learning. It consisted of seven questions
evaluated based on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly
agree), and the results are shown in Table 3.
Table 3. The students’ attitudes toward m-learning and the tested system
Statement
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Mean
SD
The m-learning system can be a good supplement to traditional learning.
4.85
0.42
The system enables access to learning materials anytime, anywhere.
5.00
0.00
The m-learning system helped me to easier prepare myself for the test.
4.02
0.99
It would be nice if I could use the same system for other courses.
4.71
0.64
The m-learning system was easy to use.
4.88
0.33
I did not have any problems with the connection.
4.73
0.63
All materials were clear and precise.
4.93
0.26
The expressed positive attitudes toward mobile learning are in compliance
with the ﬁndings of Al-Fahad (2009), Huang et al. (2012) and Yang (2012). The
students also evaluated the quality of the materials presented in the two modules,
50
Zoran Kalinic, Slavko Arsovski, Zora Arsovski, Vladimir Rankovic
functionality of the system (menus, navigation, etc.) and general impression of
the system, and the marks (all ranging from 4.63 to 4.68) showed that they were
very satisﬁed with the tested m-learning system. The Cronbach alpha value of .814
indicates a good reliability of the questionnaire.
The questionnaire contained two open questions concerning the students’
positive experiences and the problems they encountered during the learning
experiment. As the main advantages of the system, they stressed the opportunity
to access the learning materials anytime, anywhere (e.g. “I could learn on the
bus without a book or a bunch of papers”), the easiness of use, the possibility
of learning during short breaks (e.g. “I used it even during TV commercials”),
the fast way to get notiﬁcations, etc. Only a few of the students said that they
had experienced some problems with the system. The complaints were mostly
related to the unavailability of WLAN signal, temporary problems in connections,
problems in accessing audio and video materials, etc.
Conclusions
The presented paper investigates the eﬀectiveness and students’ perceptions of
the adaptive mobile learning system based on personalized content and mobile
web. The adaptation mechanism of the system presented in this study was based
on adaptation rules derived from the Felder-Silverman learning style model and
technical speciﬁcations of the mobile devices used to access the system. The study
results conﬁrm that personalized m-learning may increase the test scores of the
students who use it as an additional form of learning. The analysis of the students’
perceptions reveals their positive attitudes toward m-learning in general and their
willingness to accept the introduction of m-learning to their education system.
The ﬁndings of this study are consistent with the ﬁndings of Al-Fahad (2009),Yang
(2012) and Huang et al. (2012).
The study was limited to only a group of students taking an undergraduate
course. Although the proposed personalized m-learning system has shown signiﬁcant eﬀectiveness in learning performance improvement, more experiments are
needed to extend the ﬁndings of this study to other study programs and courses.
The students’ learning styles were determined using the Index of Learning Styles.
Further improvement would be achieved by the introduction of an adaptive
learner model, which would enable dynamic determination (or at least adaptation) of learning styles based on learners’ behavior during the learning process
and based on the learning results (Kinshuk et al., 2009; Huang et al., 2012). In
The Eﬀectiveness and Students’ Perception
51
addition, in order to provide a more eﬀective learning environment, additional
factors related to personalization (e.g. prior knowledge, learning context, online
learning behavior, etc.) need to be taken into account.
Further improvements of the m-learning system may include introduction
of location-based services and SCORM standards for organization and transfer
of learning materials. In the near future, better mobile devices (primarily smart
phones and tablets) and cheaper and faster data transfer via Wi-Fi will enable the
use of more interactive and multimedia learning materials. In addition, a deeper
analysis of students’ perceptions of speciﬁc details of m-learning may be performed.
Acknowledgement
The research presented in this paper was supported by the Ministry of Education, Science
and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia, Grant III-44010, Title: Intelligent Systems for Software Product Development and Business Support based on Models.
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Moon Hyoung-jin, Nam Jong-ho,
Kim Yong-deog
Korea
New Measures for the Improvement
of History Education for Chinese Students
in South Korea*
Abstract
The objective of this research was to ﬁnd a more eﬀective method for the teaching of history to Chinese students studying in South Korean universities. Questionnaire surveys and interviews were conducted to investigate those students’
level of knowledge and perceptions of Korean history. Then, in history classes, four
teaching methods (comparative-historical, audiovisual, history and language, and
rote memorization) were applied over two weeks. Before the treatment, Chinese
students said that they liked the audiovisual teaching method the most, but after
taking the classes, they preferred the teaching method comparing Korean and
Chinese histories. Besides the ﬁnding that the comparative method was the most
popular, the responses also showed that it was the most eﬀective one in teaching
history to Chinese students.
Keywords: Chinese students, history knowledge, history teaching methods,
Korean history
Introduction
The number of Chinese students of university age studying in South Korea has
been rapidly increasing in recent years. Only 33,650 Chinese students were study* This paper was supported by the Hankuk University of Foreign Studies Research Fund
of 2014.
New Measures for the Improvement of History Education
55
ing in Korea in 2007, but this number had increased to 55,025 by 2009 and 60,935
by 2011 (Korean Educational Development Institute, 2012). These increases can be
attributed to the hallyu or “Korean cultural wave” and to the popularity of K-pop
(Korean pop music) in China. As of 2013, Chinese students accounted for 72.5%
of the total number of foreign students studying in Korea (Ministry of Justice,
Republic of Korea, 2012).
Chinese students studying in Korea can expect that they will need some basic
contextual knowledge of a social-scientiﬁc kind when learning the Korean language and that background knowledge about Korean history in particular will
help them communicate better with the Koreans and understand both Korean
society and the Korean language. Despite this need, Korean history education
has not been oﬀered systematically to these students. As a result, some 80% of
Chinese students in one study expressed the opinion that Korean history was not
interesting (Moon, 2013). They thought that Korean history textbooks were very
subjective, meaning that history education tended to be oﬀered from the Korean
perspective only, failing to consider the viewpoints of adjacent countries. Due to
such perceptions, Chinese students may devalue and lose interest in learning about
Korean culture as a whole, and their learning may be less eﬀective as a result. For
these reasons, it is urgent that Korean history education for Chinese (and other
foreign) students be improved.
Therefore, this study aims to identify the teaching method that most eﬀectively increases these students’ learning in Korean history by reducing conﬂicts
between their prior knowledge acquired from their history lessons and cultural
background in their own country and Korean history as taught in South Korea.
According to previous studies (Moon, 2011), Chinese students tend to experience
cultural conﬂicts in internalizing knowledge about Korea. This can be attributed to
a discrepancy between the students’ prior knowledge and the education that they
receive in Korea. Given these points, what kind of teaching method will be best
able to oﬀer a balanced form of history education for these students and contribute
to reducing such conﬂicts? This study was conducted to determine this, and to ﬁnd
eﬀective approaches to Korean history education for Chinese students.
Several studies have been conducted on this topic in relation to various education areas and methods. They have mainly focused on methods of teaching
Korean as a second language (Oh & Gyo, 2011) and the cultural and audiovisual
educational methods (Lee, 2004). A few studies have been conducted in the context of history education (Moon, 2011; 2012), but this area of investigation is still
at the beginning stage. Despite some insights garnered by previous studies, they
share the limitation that they have not presented analytical data showing what
56
Moon Hyoung-jin, Nam Jong-ho,Kim Yong-deog
kind of educational method was the most eﬀective. To resolve this limitation, the
presented study was conducted with the goal of identifying the most eﬀective
educational method for Chinese students of Korean history based on the analysis
of data collected from an actual educational setting.
Both quantitative and qualitative approaches were used in this study. Four
teaching methods were implemented in diﬀerent classroom settings to determine
which was the most eﬀective for Chinese students in each of the four years of
undergraduate study in Korean universities.
Methodology
Data was gathered on two diﬀerent occasions using two approaches: (1) a questionnaire survey and a qualitative investigation were conducted over one month,
November 2013; and (2) after this primary investigation, lectures were oﬀered to
students using four teaching methods (comparative-historical, audiovisual, history
and language, and rote memorization) over two weeks during December 2013. The
goal was to identify any change in students’ preferred teaching methods.
The rationale for this approach was to overcome the limitations of survey
research alone. In other words, this study assumes that students’ preferred educational method as found by the analysis of survey results is more likely based on
their past experiences, and therefore it is diﬃcult to assert that such a teaching
method is the most eﬀective. Accordingly, after implementing four teaching methods over two weeks, this study asked students once again which teaching method
they preferred the most.
A total of 200 Chinese students studying in universities in Seoul were selected
for this study. To investigate the students’ preferences regarding teaching methods,
50 students were selected from each academic year (ﬁrst, second, third, and fourth).
However, 20 subjects who did not answer all the items in the questionnaire or
those who chose the same alternative consistently were excluded from the analysis,
and so, ultimately, data obtained from 180 students were analyzed.
In the quantitative investigation, nine items were used to get a sense of the
students’ knowledge of Korean history in general, the eﬀectiveness of the Korean
history education they had experienced, and their preferred teaching methods.
For the qualitative investigation, six items assessed the students’ opinions on these
matters, yielding four preferred teaching methods. Each of these was used to teach
the students over two weeks, after which the students’ preferred teaching method
was again investigated.
57
New Measures for the Improvement of History Education
Analysis: Chinese students’ knowledge of Korean history
Given the preponderance of Chinese students in Korean universities, how
Korean history education should be oﬀered to these students is a pressing question, but before optimum methods can be identiﬁed, a picture of Chinese students’
general perceptions and knowledge of Korean history are needed. We investigated
them through a survey.
Table 1. Chinese students’ general perceptions of Korean history ( n=180)
①
Very
Much
②
Somewhat
③
Not
Much
④
Little
1. Korea was subordinate to China in ancient times.
58%
32%
10%
–
2. China inﬂuenced Korea in ancient times.
56%
38%
6%
–
Korea and China were closely related to each other
3.
historically.
60%
32%
8%
–
4. Your level of knowledge about Korean history is high.
8%
10%
65%
17%
There is a discrepancy between education in Korea and
5.
China in teaching the same historical facts.
38%
43%
19%
–
32%
45%
20%
3%
3%
17%
55%
25%
Question
6.
There is a discrepancy between Korean and Chinese
history textbooks in describing the same historical facts.
7. How much do you enjoy Korean history classes?
Table 1 shows that Chinese students tend to look at Korean history from the
perspective of Chinese history (Kim & Jeong, 2004; Yu, 2005). Nearly 90% of the
respondents thought that China had inﬂuenced Korea greatly in ancient times
(94%) and that Korea and China had been closely related historically (92%). Some
90% of the respondents thought Korea had been subordinate to China in ancient
times, and thus perceived the relationship between Korea and China as hierarchical rather than equal. This perception is attributable to the Chinese worldview,
which asserts that China is in the center of East Asia and that the surrounding
countries are inﬂuenced by it (Oh, 2001; Park, 2003).
In terms of the perceptions of Korean history education, the respondents
thought that there was a discrepancy between Korean and Chinese history textbooks (77%) and teachers (81%) describing the same historical facts. They experienced mental conﬂict accepting Korean history due to this perceived discrepancy
(National History Compilation Committee, 2007; Renmin Educational Publisher
History Oﬃce, 2004). As a result, the number of students who thought Korean
history classes were not interesting (80%) was higher than the number of those
Moon Hyoung-jin, Nam Jong-ho,Kim Yong-deog
58
who thought they were interesting (20%). These are possible reasons for the low
understanding of Korean history (demonstrated below).
To investigate the students’ understanding of Korean history in depth, 48 students were selected for individual interviews. They were asked to express their
opinions about Question 6 and the reasons for their opinions.
Table 2. Interviews on Korean history in general ( n=48).
Question
Correct
Answer
Incorrect
Answer
1.
How long a history does Korea have?
15%
85%
2.
How long did each Korean dynasty last on average?
30%
70%
3.
What was Korea’s original religion?
30%
70%
4.
What was the name of the war between Korea and the
Qing Dynasty?
58%
42%
5.
What was the March 1st Independence Movement?
53%
47%
6.
What was the Anti-American Pro–North Korean War?
65%
35%
As seen in Table 2, the Chinese students’ knowledge about Korean history was
found to be very low. In Question 1, the proportion of the students who answered
correctly by replying “5,000 years” was only 15%, while the proportion of students who answered incorrectly by replying “4,000 years” or “3,000 years” was
85%. Similar trends were found in Question 2: only 30% of the students correctly
answered “500 years,” while 70% answered incorrectly, choosing “300 years.” This
may be because the longest-lasting Chinese dynasty was around 300 years; the
respondents may have applied their Chinese preconceptions to Korean history.
Last, in Question 3, the proportion of the students who correctly answered “shamanism” (30%) was lower than the proportion of those who incorrectly answered
“Confucianism” (34%) or “Buddhism” (32%), hinting again that their Sinocentrism
had skewed their perspective on Korean history (Sim, 1997; Lee, 2005).
These ﬁndings show that the Chinese students in Korea tend to understand
Korean history based on their prior knowledge acquired in China and they lack
understanding of or exposure to the Korean perspective on Chinese history (Shin,
2005). However, the remaining answers indicate that the students did demonstrate
a reasonably high understanding of the aspects of Korean history covered in detail
in Chinese history textbooks. For instance, in Question 4, 58% of the students
knew the name of the war between the Korean Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910) and
the Chinese (strictly speaking, Manchu) Qing Dynasty (1636–1912). In Questions
5 and 6, respectively, regarding the March 1st Independence Movement (against
59
New Measures for the Improvement of History Education
the Japanese occupation of Korea) and the Korean War, more than half of the
respondents also gave correct answers. The term “Anti-American Pro-North
Korean War,” which is used in Chinese history textbooks to reﬂect that China
helped North Korea in its ﬁght against the United States, again reﬂects a Chinese
perspective.
Next, quantitative and qualitative investigations were conducted to explore
more eﬀective teaching methods for the Chinese students of Korean history. Table
3 shows the results of this investigation on four such methods: a comparativehistorical teaching method (CHTM), an audiovisual teaching method (AVTM);
a history and language teaching method (HLTM); and a rote memorization teaching
method (RMTM).
Table 3. Which teaching method was most eﬀective for you? (n=180).
Category
%
CHTM
30%
AVTM
38%
HLTM
27%
RMTM
5%
As seen in Table 3, the respondents preferred the AVTM (38%) and the CHTM
(30%) and did not prefer the RMTM. In other words, the students understood
Korean history and culture through the lens of their prior knowledge acquired in
China; also, they liked vivid audiovisual materials (Moon, 2013). Table 4 shows the
respondents’ preferences regarding the teaching methods broken down by year.
Table 4. Which teaching method did you like most? ( n=180).
Category
First-Year
Students
Second-Year
Students
Third-Year Students
Fourth-Year
Students
CHTM
19%
32%
33%
35%
AVTM
34%
43%
38%
33%
HLTM
37%
17%
25%
27%
RMTM
10%
8%
4%
4%
The ﬁrst-year students liked the HLTM most, possibly because this teaching
method helped improve their communication ability, whereas the second- and
third-year students preferred the AVTM, which perhaps stimulated their interest
in Korean history. These contrasting results are likely attributable to the fact that
the second- and third-year students were relatively conﬁdent in communicating in
60
Moon Hyoung-jin, Nam Jong-ho,Kim Yong-deog
Korean and thus preferred a teaching method that incorporated language education as well. In contrast, the fourth-year students preferred the CHTM, which can
highlight similarities and dissimilarities in views of history and history education
between countries, perhaps reﬂecting a desire to accommodate Korean attitudes
and reducing cultural conﬂicts between the two countries.
Results: The most eﬀective teaching method
To determine which of the four teaching methods was most eﬀective and to
investigate changes in the Chinese students’ preferences for the methods after
exposure to them, each method was used in a single two-hour class for the students of each academic year. For example, for the CHTM, a lecture was oﬀered on
each of the following four topics: (1) the Imjinweran or Japanese invasion of Korea
in 1592, as described in Korean and Chinese history textbooks (Choi & Moon,
2006); (2) the Donhak movement, a literary movement against European disciplines in East Asia; (3) the March 1st Independence Movement; and (4) the Korean
War. For the AVTM, videos were presented on (1) Gyeongbokgung (a palace of
the Joseon) and Zǐjìnchéng (a palace of the Qing); (2) a war between Goguryeo
(a dynasty in the northern part of the Korean Peninsula) and the Sui Dynasty
(in China); (3) the Opium War and Byeongin Yangyo (the French invasion of
Joseon in 1864); and (4) the Byeongja-Horan War (the Qing invasion of Joseon in
1626) and Crown Prince Sohyun (Joseon’s prince, who was taken hostage to the
Qing capital, Beijing). After the videos were viewed, their learning eﬀects were
evaluated. For the HLTM, the areas of politics (speciﬁcally, political structures),
economy (land systems), society (changes in social classes), and culture (initiation
ceremonies) were selected. Finally, for the RMTM, the ancient dynasties of Korea
were divided into four periods: the Three Kingdoms Period (57 BCE–918 CE), the
Goryeo Period (918–1392 CE), the Joseon Period (1392–1910), and the Japanese
Occupation Period (during which Japan occupied Joseon/Korea, 1910–1945), and
the characteristics of each dynasty and the life of the people within them were
described. Thus, for a total of 32 hours over two weeks, four teaching methods
were used in teaching Korean history. Afterwards, the students were asked which
method was most eﬀective.
61
New Measures for the Improvement of History Education
Table 5. Which teaching method was most eﬀective for you? ( n=180).
%
Category
Before the Study
After the Study
CHTM
30%
41%
AVTM
38%
30%
HLTM
27%
26%
RMTM
5%
3%
What is interesting here is that the students’ opinions on which teaching method
was most eﬀective changed as a result of the treatment. Beforehand, the students
had chosen the AVTM as the most eﬀective method (38%) for understanding
Korean history, while afterwards they chose the CHTM as most eﬀective (41%)
and the AVTM as second most eﬀective (30%).
Table 6. Which teaching method did you like most? (n=180).
Category
CHTM
First-Year
Students
Second-Year
Students
Third-Year
Students
Fourth-Year
Students
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
19%
30%
32%
45%
33%
42%
35%
46%
AVTM
34%
23%
43%
30%
38%
34%
33%
32%
HLTM
37%
42%
17%
22%
25%
20%
27%
19%
RMTM
10%
5%
8%
3%
4%
4%
4%
3%
Note: b = before the study, a = after the study
A similar change to that found in the students’ views of the most eﬀective
teaching method was also found in their preference regarding the teaching
methods. Among the ﬁrst-year students, the HLTM was preferred (42%), as
before the study. However, the initial second choice, AVTM, was reduced from
34% to 23%, whereas the CHTM increased from 19% to 30%, i.e., 11%, bringing
it into second place and constituting a larger increase than that for the HLTM
(5%). Both the second- and third-year students saw bigger changes: before the
treatment, they liked the AVTM most (second-year students: 43%; third-year
students: 38%). Afterward, they preferred the CHTM (second-year students:
45%; third-year students: 42%). Thus, while the AVTM appears to stimulate
these students’ interest to some degree, the CHTM seems most eﬀective in helping them understand both Korean and Chinese history. The fourth-year students
also preferred the CHTM on the posttest, with a rise of 11% to 46% from 35%
before the study.
Moon Hyoung-jin, Nam Jong-ho,Kim Yong-deog
62
Thus, the results of this study show that the comparative teaching method,
which compares the histories of two countries from both countries’ perspectives,
was found to be most eﬀective in helping the students understand the history of
neighboring countries, with which they may have had conﬂicts in the past, and
thereby it seems to raise hope for reducing cultural conﬂicts between countries.
According to the qualitative investigation, the Chinese students tended to
express an adverse reaction to the Korean history teaching method that emphasizes the superiority of Korean history, as their prior knowledge acquired in China
had led them to diﬀerent beliefs. However, after being taught with the use of the
CHTM, they became aware of discrepancies in the versions of Korean history
taught in Korea and in China, and as a result their understanding of Korean history was enhanced. These positive outcomes may have contributed to reducing
mental conﬂict regarding class material among the respondents and facilitated
their acquisition of the knowledge of Korean history. To ﬁnd out more about the
eﬀects of the CHTM, this study therefore asked the students why they preferred
this method.
Table 7. Why do you like the comparative teaching method most? ( n=180).
Category
%
The method helps me see discrepancies
21%
The method can reduce cultural conﬂicts
35%
The method helps me see history objectively
38%
The method broadens my viewpoint
6%
Table 7 shows that the respondents thought that the CHTM helped them understand history more objectively rather than seeing it from a subjective perspective
that reﬂected national ideology; in this way, it expanded their viewpoint to accommodate the perspectives of other countries. In summary, the comparative teaching method seems to have led to positive outcomes for these Chinese students’
understanding of Korean history.
Conclusions
This study was conducted to identify more eﬀective teaching methods for
improving Chinese students’ knowledge of Korean history, after a survey investigating the respondents’ knowledge of Korean history (and showing gaps in it)
and their preferred teaching methods. After the students (of all academic years)
New Measures for the Improvement of History Education
63
had had two weeks of lectures using each of the four teaching methods, an investigation was conducted to ﬁnd out (on the basis of pre- and post-data) which
teaching method the students preferred and which they felt was the most eﬀective
in helping them understand Korean history.
The results showed that the AVTM (for second- and third-year students), the
HLTM (ﬁrst-year students), and the CHTM (fourth-year students) were initially
preferred. However, after two weeks, the second- and fourth-year groups preferred
the CHTM; the ﬁrst-year students also showed an increased preference for the
CHTM, although the HLTM remained their favorite. This seems to indicate that
the CHTM was most eﬀective in helping these Chinese students to understand
Korean history and accommodate the Korean viewpoint. As discussed above,
history textbooks tend to describe a country’s own history from a self-centered
perspective, and history education also tends to emphasize the superiority of
“native” history. These approaches may lead to the delivery of conﬂicting information from the perspective of foreign students. This phenomenon can be observed
more often in countries that have or have had antagonistic relationships. Thus,
the results of this study also imply that discretion should be used when teaching Korean history to non-Korean students, particularly from the countries in
the same cultural sphere as Korea, which may have their own long-established
perspectives on historical events.
In ancient times, China and Korea sometimes had a cooperative relationship
and sometimes a relationship of conﬂict, even war. As a result, each country’s ways
of recording and telling this history have come to emphasize its own superiority,
which may hamper students from the other country (or third countries) from
accommodating the history at issue. According to this study, the CHTM holds
the most promise out of several teaching methods in helping Chinese students
accommodate the Korean view on history.
References
Baildon, M., Loh, K.S., Lim, I.M., Inanç, G., & Jaﬀar, J. (2013). Controversial history
education in Asian contexts. New York: Routledge.
Beauchamp, E.R. (2002). Comparative education reader. New York: Routledge.
Choi, G., & Moon, H. (2006). Descriptions of modern Korean history in Chinese
history textbooks (1949–2003). History & Culture Research, 24, 392–399.
Hans, N.A. (2012). Comparative education: A study of educational factors and
traditions. New York: Routledge.
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Kandel, I.L. (1959). The methodology of comparative education. International
Review of Education, 5 (3), 270–273.
Kim, J., & Jeong, Y. (2004). Korea and Korean history in recent Chinese history
textbooks for middle and high schools. Research on Contemporary Chinese History, 23, 178–179.
Lange, M. (2013). Comparative-historical methods, Washington DC: Sage Publications Ltd.
Lee, H. (2004). History education using audiovisual materials. Seoul: Hyeahn.
Lee, G. (2005). The trend of research on modern Chinese history, China’s Northeast
project and Sinocentrism. Seoul: Goguryeo Research Foundation.
Moon, H. (2011). Exploration of various educational measures for Chinese students in teaching modern and contemporary Korean history. Chinese Research,
51, 66.
Moon, H. (2012). The necessity and eﬀectiveness of teaching the history of Joseon
Dynasty to Chinese students studying in Korea. Chinese Research, 54, 66.
Moon, H. (2013). An investigation of diverse educational measures for the teaching
of Korean history to Chinese students studying in Korea. History and Culture
Research, 45, 300–301.
Ministry of Justice, Republic of Korea. (2013). Monthly statistical report on immigration foreign policy. Seoul: Ministry of Justice.
National History Compilation Committee. (2007). Korean history for high school.
Seoul: Gyohaksa.
Oh, B. (2001). Description styles and perception of history in history textbooks for
middle schools in China. History Education, 80.
Oh, J., & Gyo, J. (2011). Comparative linguistic research: Korean and Chinese languages as foreign languages. Seoul: Parkyijeong.
Park, J. (2003). History education on modern and contemporary Chinese history
and Sinocentrism 2: Focusing on the issue of integrating the nation during
the People’s Republic of China period. Research on Modern and Contemporary
Chinese History, 20.
Renmin Educational Publisher History Oﬃce. (2003). Modern and contemporary
world history (Vol. 1). Yanbian: Yanbian Educational Publisher.
Renmin Educational Publisher History Oﬃce. (2004). Modern and contemporary
world history (Vol. 1). Beijing: Renmin Educational Publisher.
Sim, H. (1997). Lectures on Korean Annuals of Legislation. Seoul: Samyoungsa.
Shin, J. (2005). Three countries’ perception of colonization: development or exploitation? The perception of modern history and history education by Korea, China, and
Japan. Seoul: Goguryeo Research Foundation.
New Measures for the Improvement of History Education
65
Yu, Y. (2005). Perception of Korean history and Sinocentrism in history textbooks
for universities in China. China’s Northeast project and Sinocentrism. Seoul: Goguryeo Research Foundation.
Enrique Sánchez Acosta,
Juan José Escribano Otero,
Gabriela Christie Toletti
Spain
Peer Review Experiences for MOOC.
Development and Testing of a Peer Review System
for a Massive Online Course
Abstract
Although at ﬁrst MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses) did not use peer
reviews, this kind of assessment has increasingly demonstrated the beneﬁts that it
can contribute to this type of course by improving the learning process, increasing
decisions making abilities, and developing several other academic skills. Other
MOOC assessment instruments do not provide students with these opportunities.
This paper discusses the results obtained by the most commonly used massive
online course platforms, detailing their features and limitations, as well as the
experience in the implementation and use of a peer review system for a course of
more than 7300 students. This study also comments on how evaluation rubrics are
created, along with the ﬁnal results, and the impact of the inclusion of this type of
evaluation in MOOC.
Keywords: MOOC, evaluation, peer, automatism, massive
It is ﬁrst necessary to deﬁne and frame the concept of peer review, currently
used by most scientiﬁc journals in the context of massive online courses. The
evaluation system of scientiﬁc work by community members called peer review
or referee system is a process that begins when a scientist submits an article to
a magazine editor with the intent of it being published. Then selected specialists
(referees) evaluate the quality of the work and determine if the product of research
has potential for the stated purpose, or if some additional work has to be done
before publication. (Mestaza and Cuevas, 2002)
Peer Review Experiences for MOOC
67
However, in massive online courses such types of assessment have been distorted. It can be seen from the above deﬁnition given by Cuevas and Mestaza, how
the word “specialist” is speciﬁed; however, in online courses students themselves
are often the ones who try to evaluate their peers. To demonstrate that these evaluations are equally valid as if they were conducted by a specialist, current MOOC
supported platforms are based on the large number of evaluations of an exercise
that these students can perform to determine a more accurate rating. Thus, virtually all platforms support these types of assessment, and they all allow for increasing the number of times some work is evaluated to a number superior to two.
It is diﬃcult to frame peer reviews within the assessment instruments used in
MOOC, therefore in order to better deﬁne the peer evaluation process, a division
of assessment instruments into three basic types is proposed:
Automation based tools
These tools or assessment instruments are based on automatic programs that
analyze the responses with tools that implement a default correction algorithm.
With these tools, reliability of correction is pursued so that the same answer will
receive the same evaluation every time it is subjected to automation. There are
diﬀerent types of instruments that can ﬁt in this category, but the key feature is
that they do not require human intervention, making them particularly suitable to
be used in MOOC. Examples might be: multiple choice tests, automatic evaluation
of problem sets, programming tasks, surveys and questionnaires, attitudes rating
scales, written exams, troubleshooting, comparison charts, and images. In free
writing responses, semantic analyzers can be used with or without dictionaries
and thesauruses.
MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) is conducting research (for their
Edx platform) on various Text Analysis Systems or AEG (Automated Essay Grading) (Markoﬀ, 2013) to allow for essays and written tests to be also automatically
evaluated.
This approach, of course, also has plenty of detractors like those grouped within
HumanReaders.org. This group has already gathered more than 4,000 signatures
of professionals from diﬀerent universities around the world. They are carrying
out a call to all schools and universities to stop using automatic correction tools
for written work, especially in the case of written exams or tests that are critical for student graduation. Their main argument is that computers cannot read
and cannot measure the essential elements of written communication such as:
68
Enrique Sánchez Acosta, Juan José Escribano Otero, Gabriela Christie Toletti
accuracy, reasoning, matching evidence, common sense, ethical stance, deciding if
an argument is compelling, organization of concepts, clarity, and accuracy, among
other things. (“Human Readers,” 2013)
However, there are several of these types of systems currently on the market and
we should not forget that machines are much more consistent and can evaluate
a larger number of items in a shorter period of time (Ezeiza, A, 2013). Currently,
these systems combine algorithmic methods of grammatical analysis with sematic
analysis, and holistic methods based on word searches. For example, the Summary
Street System (Steinhart, 2000) compares summaries with the original text, or the
Computer Learner Corpora (Granger, Hung, and Petch-Tyson, 2002) compiles
a database of students’ texts to compare and analyze other written work. The e-rater
(Attali and Burstein, 2006) combines statistical analysis and natural language
processing to contrast the results with its database; it examines grammar issues,
discourse markers, and lexical content using about 100 indicators. The results
are supposed to have a success rate between 84% and 94% compared to human
evaluators. This system is driven by ETS (Educational Testing Service) to develop
the Criterion program. ETS uses this system in well-known TOEFL tests (Test of
English as a Foreign Language), matching machine with human evaluator only for
some speciﬁc tests, which saves a signiﬁcant amount of money (Knoch, 2009).
Tools based on authority
These are the tools which involve a professional or a person skilled in the ﬁeld.
They are very diﬃcult to implement in a MOOC, mainly due to the large number
of students enrolled in the course, so this type of evaluation would require an
enormous amount of time from a professor or professors. However, sometimes
these corrections are delegated to dynamic adjunct instructors who energize
and support students. The problem of evaluation criteria disparity appears
when a large group of professors is in charge of correcting instead of just one
professor, this could make the same response receive very diﬀerent evaluations
depending on the faculty member evaluating and even depending on when the
faculty member performs the evaluation. To alleviate this problem, it is possible to
apply very sophisticated evaluation rubrics that determine more objective corrections, parameters, and descriptors. But in the end, human beings evaluate largely
based on intuition. Some authors argue that evaluators’ previous experience and
knowledge are more valuable and relevant than any descriptor or rubric. Therefore,
rather than spending hours and studies to build reliable and valid rubrics, they
Peer Review Experiences for MOOC
69
believe that it is more proﬁtable to spend that money and eﬀort on preparing
people who can evaluate tests, reach a degree of agreement, and handle scales
(Ezeiza, A, 2013). Some assessment activities that require evaluation tools based
on authority are: seminars, workshops, practice exams, interviews, debates, and
co-evaluation of activities in cMOOC. Tools based on social interaction
Undoubtedly, the communication potential of social networks is still largely
undiscovered and should be studied more in depth (Guerrero, 2010). Currently,
this potential is being introduced in the education system, maximizing the opportunities oﬀered by social networks not only in terms of MOOC, but also as a support tool for traditional classes. Some instruments that ﬁt in this system of social
interaction are: anecdotal evidence, portfolios, collaborative Wiki, gamiﬁcation or
motivation based on collaborative games, surveys and questionnaires, chats and
forums, projects, workshops, tasks, exercises, activities, and generated knowledge
or collaborative learning in cMOOC and xMOOC.
Based on this data, peer review based tools could be placed between social
interaction tools and authority-based tools. However, given that a key part of
authority-based tools is that the evaluator should be skilled in the subject matter, it
would be more accurate to say that peer review systems constitute MOOC assessment tools based on social interaction. Students are peers and therefore cannot be
considered authority. Furthermore, in the experience that will be detailed in this
study, many of the students commented on the forum about the diﬃculty involved
in evaluating work about something they were learning.
Need for the study
The MOOC high dropout rate makes it necessary to study how to keep those
students throughout the course and ensure their learning. But the question that
comes into play is whether it is better to decrease the dropout rate or to improve
the quality of learning, a question asked by most of the institutions that venture
into online teaching. The current abandonment rate of MOOC is hovering around
95%, but this may also be due to the “curiosity” that these online courses are generating. Many students register because they want to know what MOOC is and
current statistics do not show this data. It would be interesting to include in the
70
Enrique Sánchez Acosta, Juan José Escribano Otero, Gabriela Christie Toletti
records a checkbox to indicate if the student just wants to try or audit the course.
This could improve statistics, at least at these early stages in which MOOCs are
giving rise to so many expectations (Acosta, 2013).
Hypothesis
This experiment was performed to determine whether the use of the peer assessment tool is useful or not to reduce the high dropout rate currently experienced
in massive online courses.
Methodology
In order to ﬁnd a valid answer to the question in the hypothesis, a peer review
task was included in a MOOC about videogames with more than 7300 students.
Thanks to this broad and diverse sample of students (cf., Figures 1, 2, 3 and 4) the
possible extension of these results to other massive online courses can be ratiﬁed.
The experiment was conducted on a platform where many other Spanish
massive courses exist, some with tasks in pairs and others not. Studies on other
platforms (Jordan, 2013) show that most MOOC feature self-assessment (usually
relegated to a single type of assessment tool, such as multiple choice tests) and/or
peer reviews.
• 24 - MCQ (Multiple Choice Questions) and evaluation by peers
• 114 - MCQ (Multiple Choice Questions) only
• 10 – Evaluation by peers only
• 7 – Other
The course was divided into 6 modules with a series of about 10 lessons for
each module accompanied by a video for each lesson. The peer review task was
introduced in the second module and even though it was mentioned in the initial
plan of study or syllabus, several students had not noticed it and therefore they
were taken by surprise, which emphasized a decline in the performance of these
tasks during the ﬁrst weeks of the course.
Students were warned that completion and grading would be held during the
next two weeks following the beginning of a module and they had to assess at
least a student to be graded within the platform. Yet, there were many completion
problems because they thought they would have to complete the evaluation until
the end of the course.
Peer Review Experiences for MOOC
71
One of the main comments made by the students in the community of the
course concerned how to evaluate peers. Perhaps the assessment rubric was not
entirely precise and many options were left to interpretation. It is very important
for the rubric to be as speciﬁc as possible so that students are able to eﬀectively
evaluate their peers.
During week 6 course statistics were recorded to see the evolution of the activity
over time and a ﬁnal survey was conducted. Over 1200 students answered the
survey.
Results
Having seen the methodology used in the experiment and that the sample was
large enough to refute its reliability, the next step was to detail the most relevant
statistical data of the experiment in terms of the peer evaluation tool that was
being studied.
First, it seems relevant to compare the completion of the modules among each
other, because, as stated above, only one peer review technique was introduced in
Module 2. This may give an idea of the diﬀerence between this type of assessment
and others used in the course, such as multiple-choice questions (cf., Table 1).
It can be observed graphically (cf., Figure 5) how that type of evaluation causes
a slight deviation in the completion of the module. Still, it is much more interesting to look closely at this tool within Module 2, because if all modules are mixed,
it is possible that other lessons that do not contain peer reviews may mask the
statistics of this assessment instrument.
During the last week of the course, substantial diﬀerences could be observed
between the rest of the lessons and the one which contains the peer review (cf.,
Table 2), although perhaps more detail can be observed in Figure 6.
From this data, one can already draw interesting conclusions regarding this
type of assessment tool in relation to the completion rate of MOOC. Throughout the various stages at which the students had been completing the studied
activities, there had been a signiﬁcant decrease in the completion of peer evaluation activities. Upon completion, this course granted two types of certiﬁcates
supported by the platform and by the university oﬀering the course. One
of them was the certiﬁcate of participation, granted to all the students who
exceeded 75% of the course, while the other certiﬁcate of achievement was given
to those who completed 100% of all the activities. Therefore, all those who were
unable to complete the peer review task on time were left out of this certiﬁcate
72
Enrique Sánchez Acosta, Juan José Escribano Otero, Gabriela Christie Toletti
of achievement, decreasing by far what would have happened if this type of
evaluation had not been included. It should be noted that this certiﬁcate had cost
40 euros. These fees could fund course costs; therefore a decline could greatly
aﬀect the ﬁnancing of MOOC. With all these results one can get an idea of what
students are willing to do in order to complete a massive online course, however
at the end of this experiment a survey was sent with diﬀerent questions about
the course and some were highly signiﬁcant (cf., Figure 7 and 8), these questions
were answered by over 1200 students.
Conclusions
From the data obtained in the above study, one can respond negatively to the
hypothesis of this experiment. That is to say, the use of peer reviews adversely
aﬀects the completion rate of MOOC. This does not mean that learning is of
a higher or lower quality, but rather that if the objective is only to increase the
completion rate, it is best to avoid these types of assessment instruments.
This experiment also served to improve some course implementation guidelines
that are currently being considered for the next version of the course that will
begin shortly. For example, peer review activities should be maintained throughout the course as a way to accept and include students who get more interested in
the course during subsequent weeks. Many students began at weeks 3 and 4 and
therefore had basically no choice to perform the peer review task. Furthermore,
platforms should improve this type of assessment instruments. Many of them are
not taking into account that some students were not assessed because on some
occasions the students who were supposed to conduct the review did not do it.
When that happens the task should be given immediately to another student until
the work is assessed. It should not happen that students who perform a task are
not assessed.
Another point to consider is that the assessment rubric should be very accurate;
many students relied on their intuition to assess rather than using the rubric. Many
tasks were not properly evaluated because the students were not skilled in the
subject matter. The student should take the role of a “robot” that does not know
anything and needs to receive all the guidelines necessary to perform a proper
assessment. It must be assumed that the student is learning and therefore does not
know much. Better than a rubric, the student could receive a small algorithm to be
followed step by step to allow careful evaluation of the content, indicating, e.g., what
Peer Review Experiences for MOOC
73
constitutes minimum content, in how many parts content should be divided, what
to do if any of the main parts are missing, and what score to assign to each section.
References
Attali, Y., & Burstein, J. (2006). Automated essay scoring with e-rater® V. 2. The
Journal of Technology, Learning and Assessment, 4(3).
Cuevas, R.F., & Mestaza, M. (2002). La evaluación cientíﬁca y el sistema de revisión
por pares. CSI Boletín, 46.
Ezeiza, A. (2013). ¡Horror! ¡Me evalúa un Robot! Boletín SCOPEO No 85. Retrieved
from http://scopeo.usal.es/horror-me-evalua-un-robot/
Granger, S., Hung, J., & Petch-Tyson, S. (2002). Computer learner corpora, second
language acquisition, and foreign language teaching (Vol. 6). John Benjamins.
Guerrero, C.S. (2010). Aprendizaje cooperativo e interacción asincrónica textual
en contextos educativos virtuales. Pixel-Bit: Revista de Medios Y Educación, (36),
53–67.
Human Readers. (2013). Retrieved November 6, 2013, from http://humanreaders.
org/petition/index.php
Jordan, K. (2013). Synthesising MOOC completion rates. MoocMoocher. Retrieved
July 24, 2013, from http://moocmoocher.wordpress.com/2013/02/13/synthesising-mooc-completion-rates/
Knoch, U. (2009). Diagnostic writing assessment: The development and validation
of a rating scale (Vol. 17). Peter Lang.
Sánchez Acosta, E. (2013). MOOC: Resultados reales. Elearningeuropa.info.
Retrieved from http://elearningeuropa.info/en/article/MOOC:-Resultadosreales
Steinhart, D. (2000). Summary street: An LSA based intelligent tutoring system for
writing and revising summaries. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University
of Colorado.
74
Enrique Sánchez Acosta, Juan José Escribano Otero, Gabriela Christie Toletti
Tables
Table 1. Completion Statistics by Module
Design, Organization and Evaluation: Evaluation of videogames and gamiﬁcation. There were 7,386 registered users
5689 people started the course and 807 completed it
Number of
students who
started
Number of
students who
ﬁnished
Mo 0. Presentation of the course
4826
4825
Mo 1. History and development of videogames
5373
4211
Mo 2. Designing a videogame
4004
1349
Module
Mo 3. Roles within the industry
2782
2365
Mo 4. Funding and distribution: The long road
2254
1996
Mo 5. Game review and evaluation. Game as art
1929
1671
Mo 6. Gamiﬁcation and current trends
1521
1249
Table 2. Module 2 lesson statistics
Activity
Started Approved
Average
Grade
Topic 1: A reasonable doubt
3873
3870
100
Questionnaire: A reasonable doubt
3848
3776
99.683
Topic 2: What is NOT game design?
3833
3831
100
Questionnaire: What is NOT game design?
3773
3728
99.706
Topic 3: Establishing forms
3771
3769
100
Questionnaire: Establishing forms
3705
3662
99.836
Topic 4: What can we do with all this?
3674
3673
100
Questionnaire: What can we do with all this?
3624
3583
99.833
Topic 5: Generating decision making
3602
3599
100
Questionnaire: How to generate decision making
3565
3525
99.887
Topic 6: Let’s talk about design with a theoretician: Keith Burgun
3562
3561
100
Topic 7: Levels; the other side of design
3456
3456
100
Questionnaire: Levels; the other side of design
3421
3380
99.941
Topic 8: Miyamoto-San’s Master class
3425
3424
100
Questionnaire: Miyamoto-San’s Master class
3384
3348
99.91
75
Peer Review Experiences for MOOC
Activity
Started Approved
Average
Grade
Interview with Raúl Rubio
3378
3376
Interview with Lucas González
3209
3208
100
Peer2Peer Activity
1406
1360
86.186
Additional Documentation
2950
2947
100
Figures
Profile: Professor/
University researcher
8%
Profile: I still have
not started my
University studies
13%
Profile:
Administration staff
and University
services
1%
Profile: University
student
40%
my University studies
38%
Figure 1. Proﬁle of students to whom the peer review was directed
100
76
Enrique Sánchez Acosta, Juan José Escribano Otero, Gabriela Christie Toletti
0% 0%
5%
3%
25–34
18%
39%
18–24
35–44
45–54
0–17
55–64
65–+
35%
Figure 2. Age of students to whom the peer review was directed
2%
3%
1%
3%
6%
Spain
Colombia
8%
Mexico
Peru
Venezuela
8%
Argentina
Ecuador
69%
Others
Figure 3. Nationality of students to whom the peer review was directed
77
Peer Review Experiences for MOOC
Women
18%
Men
82%
Figure 4. Gender of students to whom the peer review was directed.
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
1
2
3
How many started
4
5
How many finished
Figure 5. Module completion comparison
6
7
Enrique Sánchez Acosta, Juan José Escribano Otero, Gabriela Christie Toletti
78
4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Started 3873 3848 3833 3773 3771 3705 3674 3624 3602 3565 3562 3456 3421 3425 3384 3378 3209 1406 2950
Finished 3870 3776 3831 3728 3769 3662 3673 3583 3599 3525 3561 3456 3380 3424 3348 3376 3208 1360 2947
Figure 6. Peer assessment comparison within the module
Summary or essay
6%
Multiple choice
Matching
Short answer
True/False
67%
4%
9%
15%
Figure 7. Survey results regarding types of exercises.
79
Peer Review Experiences for MOOC
38%
Massive course with little professor
interaction (38%)
62%
Limited course with direct professor
interaction (62%)
Figure 8. Which types of online course do students prefer?
Yun Eun Kyeong
Korea
Teaching Arabic to Korean Students Using Films*
Abstract
This research aims to study the application of using ﬁlms in teaching the Arabic
language to Korean students. Recently, level based classes and developing communication skills are becoming important goals in foriegn language education. The
most eﬀective way to develop the student’s communication skills is to expose them
to real life situations and related resources. Films are replicas of real life situations
and thus are eﬀective especially in teaching spoken language. This research implies
the following things to Arabic education. First, it is best to provide realistic data
to students to improve their communication skills. Selecting ﬁlms that contain
conversations and expressions that are used every day, while avoiding violence or
contents of too much slang, will allow students to continuously remain interested
and focused. Second, a program that connects ﬁlms to CD-ROM for textbooks
needs to be created. Additionally, there is a need to increase the understanding
of spoken language through various study programs for Korean teachers. Finally,
using interesting ﬁlms to motivate students will have positive eﬀects and will allow
them to approach Arabic through understanding of the language rather than pure
memorization.
Keywords: Arabic language, teaching method, ﬁlms, communicative skills
Introduction
With the rapid globalization of society in Korea, an easier ﬂow of foreign
cultures has led to an increase in the importance of foreign language education.
* This paper was supported by the Hankuk University of Foreign Studies Research Fund.
Teaching Arabic to Korean Students Using Films
81
Furthermore, the Korean Ministry of Education has recently revised the 7t Education Curriculum in the eﬀort to increase the communication skills of learners
based on language education. However, the ﬁeld of Arabic education has been slow
to adapt to these changes, and to this day, the main methods of education have
been based on grammar-translation and audio-lingual methods.
The primary purpose of language is to communicate. When a person communicates, they do not speak as if reading a book. Rather, they would speak in
a tone varying according to the situation and the listener. However, this process
does not come naturally for someone who is learning a foreign language, and it
requires continuous practice and training. From this, we can see that learning
spoken language is an important aspect of communication skills and that the
contemporary education system, which is focused more on grammar, has limits
in providing solutions to problems concerning communication. Learning written
language is also an important part; however, the main problem arises when there
is no balance between teaching written and spoken language. Therefore, creating
a teacher-student model and continuously studying for even a short amount of
time a day may partially solve the problem of communication skills. Porter and
Roberts (1981) said that in order to increase communication skills, it is best to
expose the learner to real life situations. However, it is not easy to expose students
to such environments. Although ﬁlms may not expose one to such environments
in real life, they provide a replica of real life situations and can be an eﬀective
tool in teaching foreign languages. Furthermore, watching ﬁlms can be a fun way
to learn, which makes students interested and focused, and this will positively
inﬂuence their learning of foreign languages.
This research aims to study the application of ﬁlms in teaching foreign languages in Arabic education. Recently, level based classes and developing communication skills are becoming important goals of foreign language education.
However, classes related to spoken language are not being oﬀered. Therefore,
Korean students are unable to speak even the basic sentences, despite the long
term of foreign language education. The most eﬀective way to develop the student’s communication skills is to expose them to real life situations and related
resources. Films are replicas of real life situations and thus are eﬀective especially
in teaching spoken language. Therefore, the goal of this research is to provide
teaching methods focused on utilizing ﬁlms in a multimedia education environment to teach the Arabic language to Korean students and develop their communication skills.
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Yun Eun Kyeong
Theoretical background
Films are widely used as teaching material, because they include everyday
conversations that occur between native speakers and these conversations give
us a sense of the environment. Furthermore, with the advancement in computer
technology, media, and DVDs, it has become easier to use ﬁlms in the ﬁeld. Therefore, through ﬁlms, students can understand the society and culture of the country
through ﬁrst-hand experience and develop their communication skills with the
understanding of the environment they can be in.
Geddes and White (1978) stated that if the realistic data contain everyday conversations or expressions, then the conversations can be categorized into 2 types.
The ﬁrst type is ‘unmodiﬁed’ conversation, which occurs in everyday life. The
second type is ‘simulated’ conversation, which is used for education purposes and
has a high chance of occurring in daily life. Porter and Roberts (1981) stated that
in order to expose the learner to real-life conversations, it is crucial to use credible
data to help students avoid the imbalance between spoken language and listening
skills. It is also hard to expect students to exercise the types of conversation they
have never been exposed to before. Both types of conversation which Geddes
and White mentioned are included in ﬁlms, therefore selecting the right ﬁlms is
important and it will be an excellent resource for the conversation education.
Kim Hyun Sook (2004) pointed out that for a more desirable method of language education ﬁlms have the following characteristics.
• First, ﬁlms not only allow students to be exposed to a variety of views and
characteristics of diﬀerent situations, but they make them adapt.
• Second, similar situations appear in diﬀerent ﬁlms, so watching ﬁlms allows
for the accumulation of language and information.
• Third, there is a consistent progression of development in culture, and
watching ﬁlms will help students to keep up with the change.
• Fourth, they help students build mobile communication skills, as mobile
communication is being increasingly used in business settings as it transcends space and time.
• Fifth, speed control allows students to watch again the scenes that might
have been missed.
• Sixth, composition in a chronological time frame helps students to understand the full situations.
• Seventh, accumulating new information is made easier.
• Eighth, images act as a strong emotional stimulant providing realism and
liveliness.
Teaching Arabic to Korean Students Using Films
83
With such characteristics, Butler-Pascoe and Wiburg (2003) presented speciﬁc
examples of teaching and learning. For instance, with the students learning English, we can start by showing the ﬁrst scene of the movie, ‘The River Runs through
It’. The teacher can show a scene to the students and ask them to predict what
will happen next. In the ﬁrst scene, where the children ride a boat on the top of
the waterfall, the teacher can turn the sound oﬀ and ask one group of students,
who have already seen the scene, to guess what the characters were saying. Then,
the teacher can ask another group of students, who have only previously heard
the sound without any images, to guess what is going on. The students who have
watched the scene will give better responses compared to the students who have
only heard the sound. This can explain the positive eﬀects of using images in
language learning. Additionally, Bumpass (1963) said that if the linguistic level of
students hinders them to absorb a large amount of language information, it would
be more eﬀective to choose a ﬁlm with the story that can easily be understood
just by looking at the images. Therefore, the selection of ﬁlms must be made in
accordance with students’ level of advancement.
Advantages and disadvantages of using ﬁlms as teaching material
Advantages
Using ﬁlms for educational purposes has the following advantages:
• The characters that appear in ﬁlms use realistic language.
• The stimulating eﬀects provide students with motivation to stay focused.
• Images allow for maximizing the eﬀects of learning.
• Other, non-verbal, forms of communication can be learned (gesture, culture, etc.)
• Understanding the ﬁlm itself can help with understanding the culture.
• Sharing similar experiences will help students to learn the proper language
used in those situations.
Disadvantages
Using ﬁlms for educational purposes can have the following disadvantages:
• There is a high possibility that students will focus on the fun aspect of
watching the movie, and not the learning one.
• The ﬁlm director’s subjective thinking may inﬂuence students.
• A long preparation time is required to provide eﬀective teaching.
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Yun Eun Kyeong
Methods to overcome disadvantages
To overcome the limits of ﬁlms used as a teaching tool, the teacher must pick
a ﬁlm in advance and consider the student’s language skills, culture, and connections between the learning processes. To prevent students from becoming
distracted, teachers must insist on their active participation. After watching a ﬁlm,
in order to reinforce the contents of the ﬁlm, students should summarize the story
of the ﬁlm or it can be watched again.
It is crucial to assess whether students have acquired linguistic, grammatical, or
cultural information. Based on these, the teacher can coordinate the quantity and
contents to assess the students’ achievement.
For eﬀective teaching, the teacher should edit and process the resources which
will allow students to acquire language information in a less passive manner. An
example could be selecting several scenes which will draw students’ attention, in
order for the students to understand and to actively participate. Furthermore, to
overcome the problems that arise from listening skills and diﬃcult contents, the
script can be provided to prevent lack of understanding and distraction.
Films as reﬂection of reality
There is no doubt that a ﬁlm will provide motivation and allow students to
acquire information on language, society, and culture. Also, considering that ﬁlms
are created for the understanding of culture and its members, the cultural ‘reality’
cannot be questioned.
However, as all ﬁction carries a subjective view of reality, ﬁlms may or may not
support realism. Furthermore, ﬁlms are not created for the purpose of education,
thus preparation is required to use selective material for educational purposes.
During the preparation stage, a discussion is needed in order to select the right
ﬁlm to use, and the main purpose would be to aid students with speaking and acting in a proper manner. Additionally, it needs to be considered whether students
can relate the story with their surroundings.
In foreign language teaching, the realism of a ﬁlm refers to whether it can be
used for education or not. Here, the expressions and understanding through the
ﬁlm is more important than grammar and structure.
Teaching Arabic to Korean Students Using Films
85
Using ﬁlms in teaching Arabic
To be considered in advance
Regarding Arabic learning, a course titled ‘Screen Arabic’ may be created and
ﬁlms can be used as reference data. However, we must always remember the following two things in using the variety of methods:
• Films have independent characteristics (imagery and sound collaboration,
characters, scenery, etc.)
• If ﬁlms can be used for educational purposes, it is because people enjoy
watching them. (Baddock, 1996)
Films draw attention through their linguistic information, storyline, subject,
culture, and social aspects. In any case, our decisions regarding the use of ﬁlms in
class must be in coordination with our goals, and they must be appropriate to the
students and set within our time frame.
Written Arabic & Spoken Arabic
The languages used in ﬁlms also diﬀer by their genre. In other words, the lines
used in comedy and drama will not be the same. Diﬀerent nuances will exist,
and moreover, the relationship between spoken and written language must be
considered. Spoken language diﬀers depending on its formality. However, the
conversations in ﬁlms use spoken language and we can ﬁnd a complex relationship
of spoken and written language within them. In reference to Gregory and Carroll’s
(1979) language varieties and their social contexts, we can see the following:
(a) Text which imitates spoken language as if it has never been transcribed
(b) Text with both spoken language characteristics and written language characteristics
(c) Text not written for dictation purposes, such as diaries or letters
(d) Text written to be read in grammatical form (letter dictation)
(e) Text written to be read (Interview or discussion transcription)
(a) and (b) are the most common types of conversation that occur in ﬁlms.
Scripts such as (e) suﬃce the conditions of (a), and scripts such as (d) are close to
(b) but without fully removing the grammatical nuances. (c) and (d) are not that
hard to ﬁnd in ﬁlms, but on the other hand, (e) is a result of transcribed media.
In conclusion, whilst preparing a ﬁlm to be used as teaching material, planning
and studying of the various linguistic situations needs to be considered.
86
Yun Eun Kyeong
Using subtitles
Using subtitles is always a question arising in class. Without subtitles, it would
be diﬃcult to understand a ﬁlm. It would also lead students to concentrate more
on the images of the ﬁlm and make conclusions through imagination. However, it
will allow for noticing of the characteristics of languages, which would have been
easily dismissed if subtitles were present.
Watching ﬁlms with subtitles might interfere with the understanding of the
spoken language, because students will focus on the grammatical structure. However, for scenes which are diﬃcult to understand, subtitles could be useful and the
teacher can ask the students what they have understood. If Korean subtitles were
shown to students, they will naturally compare them with the spoken language and
it will thus increase their interest in the language. However, this could be both an
advantage and a disadvantage.
In exceptional cases, ﬁlms with original language subtitles can be used. Using
transcribed spoken language in class allows students to understand the expressions and linguistic styles more easily. However, the eﬀort of understanding must
precede this.
Example of using ﬁlms in Arabic teaching
Arabic ﬁlm title applied language study model
A model based on the previous theory has been created, which can be used
in actual lectures. Figure 1 is based on Lee Choong Hyun’s (2005) CALL lecture
model, and it was modiﬁed for this purpose. Lee Choong Hyun (2005) stated that
multimedia alone cannot be used as lecture data or as a replacement of teachers,
and thus it emphasizes the importance of teaching methods.
First, before watching a ﬁlm, students need to prepare by revising the previous
material and getting used to certain expressions.
The students will watch a part of the ﬁlm, acquire information, and practice
pronunciation, which will improve their communication skills. Video study is
more eﬀective if it is done repetitively and if audio and video can be separately
presented to students without subtitles. Individual study and partner/group study
can be used appropriately, and for intensive and revision studying, expressions can
be learned through related web-sites. At this point, students must be encouraged
and all questions must be answered.
Finally, in order to organize what they have learned after watching the ﬁlm,
students can conduct role plays and simulations to apply it to real life situations.
87
Teaching Arabic to Korean Students Using Films
Student
Pre-film
watching
Film
watching
Teacher
Suggest topic, brainstorming etc
Expressions and keyword studying
Film
watching
Video
study
Acuire
information
Individual
study
Pronunciation
practice
Partner/Croup
form
Post-film
watching
Role play, simulation, debate,
evaluation, assignment
Figure 1. Arabic ﬁlm title applied language study model.
Through this activity, the students can store the information they have added
through the ﬁlm to their existing knowledge. Teachers will need to prepare related
web-sites beforehand and conduct the class smoothly.
Guide plan for Arabic lessons using the ﬁlm ‘Paradise Now’
Based on Figure 1, a guide plan example is shown in Table 1 below.
Table 1. Guide plan for Arabic lessons using the ﬁlm ‘Paradise Now’.
Purpose of
study
– Familiarize with communication skills through spoken language used in ﬁlm.
– Increase listening skills through authentic data
– Based on listening, improve the 4 language skills through post activities.
Preparation
Hardware: PC, Projection TV, internet installation
Software: Power point, ‘Paradise Now’, linguistic learning machine
Stage
Learning content
Time/tool
Pre–ﬁlm
watching
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
15 minutes/
Power point,
Projection TV
Attendance check
Unit introduction and proposal of lesson aim
Propose lesson aim
Brainstorming: personal experiences related to topic
Learn expressions and idioms: related to topic
Introduce activities
Propose speciﬁc instructions and contents through PPT
Yun Eun Kyeong
88
Film
watching
Listening to conversation (group or individual study)
Film
watching
– Watching video without audio: guess overall story
– Listen to audio without video: conﬁrm whether guesses
were correct
– Watch video with audio: Understand general and speciﬁc
conversation contents
– Check for any misunderstanding
Film
watching
Acquiring information (individual study)
Film
watching
– Acquire information related to video: leave blanks for useful expressions and ﬁll them out after watching
– Propose subtitles: After acquiring information, propose
English and Korean subtitles simultaneously
Film
watching
Pronunciation practice (Whole study –> Group study)
Film
watching
– Explanation of pronunciation: Explaining pronunciation of
words in focus
– Listening to pronunciation: Repetitively hearing pronunciation from video
– Pronunciation practice: Record and listen to their pronunciation and practice
Film
watching
Intensive and supplementary study (Individual study)
Film
watching
– Using the internet: Using various listening web–sites and
listening to appropriate texts according to each student’s
level
15 minutes/
PC
Post ﬁlm
watching
– Role play and simulation: Apply script from ﬁlm or modify
to one’s situation, and conduct role play or simulation
– Internet activity: Search for topic–related data on the internet and use for reading or writing
– Evaluation: evaluate personal study
15 minutes/
PC,
Projection
TV
15 minutes/
Projection
TV
15 minutes/
PC
15 minutes/
PC Recording
wizard
Recommended ﬁlms for each level
a) Beginner – ‘Kingdom of Heaven’
This movie triggers interest and is helpful for basic
conversation. It is Ridley Scott’s 2005 debut ﬁlm, which
was directed in the US as a standard Hollywood blockbuster. But due to the appearance of Salah Al-Din, an
Arab hero, basic Arabic is used. For beginner students,
it is easy to learn basic phrases.
Teaching Arabic to Korean Students Using Films
89
b) Intermediate – ‘Paradise Now’
This is a cheerful approach to serious reality, based on
the Israeli-Palestinian conﬂict. The story is about two
Palestinian suicide bombers, depicting a very serious
matter. It shows that suicide bombers are not diﬀerent
from ordinary young men.
c) Advanced – ‘The Band’s Visit’
It is a collaboration of English audio and Arabic subtitles. This ﬁlm is about an Egyptian band inviting Israel
to perform, and it shows what they encounter during
their travel. Failing to reach their destination, they
spend a night at a residence with people of diﬀerent
cultures and languages. The members use English in
order to communicate. This is an interesting ﬁlm for the students who
understand both English and Arabic.
Conclusions
A ﬁlm depicts the culture of a country, and as it is made with the use of its
native language, it allows for eﬀective learning of culture and language. Another
strong advantage of using ﬁlms in foreign language teaching is that you are able
to learn spoken language without having to go to a given country. Therefore, it is
necessary for us to prepare to use Arabic ﬁlms eﬃciently to teach Arabic. Also,
through such methods, while overcoming the disadvantages, more research needs
to be conducted.
This research implies the following things to Arabic teaching. First, it is best to
provide realistic data to students to improve their communication skills. Selecting the ﬁlms that contain conversations and expressions that are used every day,
while avoiding violence or contents of too much slang, will allow students to continuously remain interested and focused. Second, a program that connects ﬁlms
to CD-ROM for textbooks needs to be created. This will save time for teachers to
prepare and edit ﬁlms, and it will improve the communication skills of students.
Additionally, there is a need to increase the understanding of spoken language
through various study programs for Korean teachers. Finally, using interesting ﬁlms to motivate students will have positive eﬀects and will allow them to
approach Arabic through understanding of the language rather than pure memo-
90
Yun Eun Kyeong
rization. Especially students can eﬀectively enhance personal studying through
multimedia and the internet to practice listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
Furthermore, a systematic teaching method is important; detailed models can be
applied to the ﬁeld of teaching, and continuous research needs to be conducted
in the future.
References
Abd Alfataah Albajjah (2007). Ta‘ liim talaamidh mahaaraat qiraa’iayyah (Teaching reading skill to the students), Cairo: Daar ﬁkr.
Bae, Doobon (2006). A Curriculum of foreign language Education, Seoul: Hankukmoonhwa sa.
Brown, H.D. (2001). Teaching by principles, New York: Longman, Inc.
Brumﬁt, C.J. & Johnson, K. (1979). The communicative approach to language teaching, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bumpass, F.L. (1963). Teaching young students English as a foreign language, New
York: American Book Company.
Butler-Pascoe, M.E. & Wiburg, K.M. (2003). Technology and teaching English
language learners, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.
Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax, MIT: MIT Press.
Fakhr Aldiin Qabaawah (1999). Maharaat lughawiyyah wa ‘uruubat
lisaan(Linguistic skills and Arabization of the tongue), Beirut: Daar ﬁkr mu’aasir.
Geddes, M. & White, H. (1978). The use of semi-scripted simulated authentic
speech in listening comprehension, Audiovisual Language Journal. 16(3),
137 – 145.
Hasan Shahaatah (1993). Ta‘liim lughah ‘arabiyyah bayna nazariyyah wa tatbiiq
(Teaching Arabic, theory and application), Beirut: Daar misriyyah lubnaaniyyah.
Hymes, D. (1972). On Communitive Competence. In J.B. Pride & J. Holmes (Eds.),
Sociolinguistics, London: Harmondsworth Penguin.
Jack C. Richards (2008). Curriculum Development in Language Teaching, Cambridg: Cambridg Press.
Kim, Hyun Sook (2004). A study of teaching English listening skill using movies,
M.A. thesis, Hankuk Univ. of Foreign Studies. Seoul.
Larsen-Freeman, Diane (2011). Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching,
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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91
Lee, C.H. (1998). The use of computers in foreign language teaching and learning
eﬀectively: Rethinking key issues, Journal of The Applied Linguistics Association
of Korea, 14(1), 87 – 115.
Lee, C.H. (1999). Why use or not use computers? Multimedia-Assisted Language
Learning, 2(2), 9 – 46.
Muhammad Bu Najmah (2005). Tadriis lughah ‘arabiyyah linaatiqiin bighayriha
(Teaching Arabic to the non-native speakers), Rabat: Jaami‘at ’Akhawayn.
Porter, D. & Roberts, J. (1981). Authentic Listening activities, ELT Journal, 36 (1),
37 – 47.
Rushdi Ta’iimah (1998). Manaahij tadriis lughah ‘arabiyyah bita‘liim lassasi (Curriculum of teaching Arabic for the elementary level), Cairo: Daar ﬁkr ‘arabi.
Taha ‘Ali Husayn Dalimi (2003). Taraa’iq ‘amaliyyah ﬁ tadriis lughah ‘arabiyyah
(Practical methods of teaching Arabic), Cairo: Daar shuruuq linashr wa tawzii‘.
Social
Pedagogy
Shwu Ming Wu, Cheng Hong Yang,
Wan Chen Hsu
Taiwan
Validation of School Core Competence Scale
for Undergraduates: Empirical Findings of Taiwan Case
Abstract
This study aimed to validate the 25-item School Core Competence Scale
(SCCS) of the National Kaohsiung University of Applied Sciences. Item analysis
and exploratory factor analysis were utilized with 368 undergraduates and conﬁrmatory factor analysis with another 384 undergraduates. The SCSS had eight
subscales, including Communication and Expression, International Perspective,
Humanity, Civics and Morals, Professional Knowledge and Skills, Integrative
Learning, Passion and Anti-stress, and Self-discipline. Results indicated that the
SCCS is a valid and reliable instrument among undergraduates. Particularly,
women scored higher on Communication and Expression, Civics and Morals,
Self-discipline as well as the total scale.
Keywords: School Core Competence Scale, validation studies, Taiwanese
undergraduates.
Introduction
The term “core competence” is common in education literature as well as in economics and management (Holmes and Hooper, 2000). Core competence is deﬁned
by a set of learning outcomes (skills, competences, or qualiﬁcations) that each student
should acquire during, and demonstrate at the end of, their period of studying at
a higher education institution. Furthermore, when applied to education as a whole,
core competence refers to facilitating the empowerment of people through learning
how to acquire information (i.e., data), turning it into knowledge and skills (i.e.,
96
Shwu Ming Wu, Cheng Hong Yang,Wan Chen Hsu
useful, assessed, applied, ordered, and structured information), and applying such
knowledge and skills to solve unique problems (Hu and Lin, 2011; Stewart, 1999).
Thus, higher education should equip students with the core competences necessary
to successfully compete in the job market and excel in their careers.
However, according to a report from the Directorate General of Budget,
Accounting and Statistics (DGBAS) of Executive Yuan (2013), 37.34% of all
unemployed citizens in Taiwan hold a Bachelor’s degree. This represents the highest proportion of the unemployed population in Taiwan. Clearly, there is cause
for concern over the function of higher education. In recent years, the Higher
Education Evaluation and Accreditation Council of Taiwan have emphasized core
competence acquisition as an important tool for evaluating school eﬀectiveness
(Higher Education Evaluation and Accreditation Council of Taiwan, 2010).
The Ministry of Education (of the Republic of China [ROC]) (2009) enacted
the University Teaching Excellence Project in order to move all institutions toward
a student-centered environment, to promote student learning as the primary goal,
and to nurture the development of core competences. In order for the project
to succeed and according to school vision, it is essential to properly deﬁne the
indicators of core competences.
Core competence indicators constitute a method for testing and understanding
students’ learning outcomes. Learning outcomes represent what a learner knows,
understands, and is able to do after completion of learning. In order to develop
core competences, educational institutions should focus on developing relationships with their students rather than supplying a single course curriculum. By
providing the “best total experience,” institutions can develop solutions that suit
the future learning needs of each student (Holmes and Hooper, 2000). Through
the explicit promotion of learning outcomes, many schools have begun to develop
instruments for measuring core competences in Taiwan.
The Ministry of Education has been conducting the Teaching Excellence
program since 2005. The Teaching Excellence program is a competitive program
that aims to ensure that universities adhere to the guidelines of the Ministry of
Education. It states that each university should seek to improve its own education
program in accordance with the stringent standards of the Ministry of Education,
by focusing on students’ core competences and then improving the university education program as a whole. Each project planning application process spans four
years. Following approval from the Ministry, the university is awarded with excellence in university teaching grant. The National Kaohsiung University of Applied
Sciences (KUAS) has received subsidies for nine consecutive years from 2006 to
2014 and ranked ﬁrst among the technology universities of Southern Taiwan.
97
Validation of School Core Competence Scale for Undergraduates
In recent years, promoting student learning outcomes has become an important
policy at KUAS. To date, KUAS has developed appropriate validation measurements. According to the criteria of the Taiwan Training Quality System (TTQS),
KUAS would be suitable for creating a measure of student learning outcomes,
which made it a natural choice for the development of our School Core Competence Scale (SCCS). The TTQS for vocational education and training includes
ﬁve factors (plan, design, do, review, and outcome) for implementing initiatives
to enhance learning outcomes (Bureau of Employment and Vocational Training,
Council of Labor Aﬀairs, 2007).
The authors used the ﬁve steps outlined above as the foundation of student
learning outcome assessment. In this study, the authors reviewed background literature to develop the SCCS, and then conducted a survey using the SCCS to
conﬁrm its validity and reliability. Figure 1 shows the speciﬁc research process,
represented by the dashed line section to the right.
Education plays a signiﬁcant role in ensuring that students acquire the key competences necessary to enable them to ﬂexibly adapt to such changes. At present,
however, a consensus school level student core competence framework in Taiwan
needs to be clearly deﬁned (Chanyang, 2011). In 2010, the European Centre for
the Development of Vocational Training (CEDEFOP) explored the development
of a competence-based learning outcome assessment method during vocational
Vision
Plan
Goal
Measure of School
Core Competence
Outcome
Develop School
Core Competence
Scale
Teaching Strategy
Review
Need for
Curriculum
M aterialIdentified
Design
Evaluation
Survey and
Feedback
Curriculum
Design
Curriculum
Implementation
Do
Figure 1. Framework for Developing the School Core Competence Scale.
Shwu Ming Wu, Cheng Hong Yang,Wan Chen Hsu
98
education and training courses. As the vocational education system considers
the eﬀectiveness of learning when determining curriculum reform considerations, learning strategies developed from this perspective would not only assist
in strengthening general school education and links to the labor market, but also
would contribute to the school’s goals of achieving student-centered teaching
(European Commission, 2010).
In Europe, the origin and development of outcome statements is clear. As part
of the 2010 Education and Training Program, the EU has also developed a set of
key competences, working through expert groups representing the member states
(European Commission, 2004). The descriptors used for the eight key competences
are based on three categories, namely, knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Thus, competences were deﬁned herein as a combination of the context of the KUAS school
vision with the acquisition of necessary skills, knowledge, and attitudes. The EU
has, for many years, developed key competence indicators for diverse student
learning assessments. The presented study referred to and drew upon the competences from CEDEFOP (2009) and the EU (2004) to develop a number of dimensions of core competences for undergraduates at KUAS (cf., Table 1). Core
Table 1. Dimensions of school core competence.
CEDEFOP
(2009)
Instrumental
competence
EU(2004)/European
key competencies
1. Learning how to learn
2. Mathematical literacy and
basic competencies in science
and technology
KUAS
school vision
Dimensions
of SCCS, KUAS
Professional
knowledge
1. Professional knowledge and skills
2. Integrative learning
Macro-level
perspective
1. Communication
and expression
2. International perspective
Work ethic
Humanity
Civics and morals
Healthy personality
Passion and anti-stress
Self-discipline
3. Digital competence
4. Communication in mother
tongue
5. Communication in a foreign
language
Interpersonal
competence
Cultural expression
Interpersonal and civic
competencies
Systemic
competence
Entrepreneurship
CEDEFOP = European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training; KUAS = National
Kaohsiung University of Applied Sciences; SCCS = School Core Competence Scale
Validation of School Core Competence Scale for Undergraduates
99
competences are multi-dimensional in nature. The purpose of this study was to
utilize the KUAS school vision and the CEDEFOP (2009) and EU (2004) frameworks to develop the SCCS. In short, the main purpose of this study was to construct, test, and verify the SCCS developed at KUAS and then to evaluate the core
competences of undergraduates.
Methods
Generating Items for the SCCS
With consideration to the study purpose, all the items of the scale should reﬂect
the latent variable that the scale aims to address. The student learning assessment
committee at KUAS generated scale items. The authors reviewed a number of
relevant reports (e.g., CEDEFOP, 2009; EU, 2004). In addition, three databases
(ERIC, ProQuest, and Web of Knowledge) were searched to locate appropriate
articles for review using the key word “core competence.” Only peer-reviewed
articles written in English were included. Following the school core competences
desired at KUAS, the student learning assessment committee selected 25 items
to serve as SCCS content during the item generation stage. Items were rated on
a 9-point Likert-type scale, ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (9).
Students were asked to select the response that most accurately described their
self-concept. Most items were generated with a positive tone and started with
“I can…” (cf., Table 2).
Table 2. Items of the School Core Competence Scale.
No. Item
1.
I can communicate with others and eﬀectively understand others’ thoughts.
2.
I can speak/write Chinese or English, as well as other languages.
3.
I can interact with others in harmony.
4.
I can understand international issues and trends.
5.
I can pay attention to environmental protection and the development of mankind.
6.
I can respect disadvantaged groups and multicultural diﬀerences.
7.
I can sustain attention or participation in arts and cultural activities.
8.
I can realize the value of self-progress and stimulate motivation.
9.
I can have the spirit to serve others, care for society, and help others.
10.
I can uphold integrity and have the courage to promote good and combat evil.
Shwu Ming Wu, Cheng Hong Yang,Wan Chen Hsu
100
No. Item
11.
I can be cautious in distinguishing between right and wrong and always abide by ethical
legal norms.
12.
I can have a benevolent and courageous spirit and join with others to do good things, such
as help the weak.
13.
I can actively seek general knowledge, professional knowledge, and skills.
14.
I can use technological knowledge and seek innovation.
15.
I can collect, analyze, and integrate information in order to deal with professional issues.
16.
I can dare to put forward my own unique insights and innovative solutions to solve
problems.
17.
I can think diversely and ask questions humbly.
18.
I like to read extracurricular books to broaden my view.
19.
I can continue to learn and cultivate lifelong learning habits.
20.
I can perceive and make use of resources to control my emotions.
21.
I can face my problems and frustration and participate in healthy leisure activities.
22.
I can motivate others and myself and face external challenges optimistically.
23.
I can plan everything in detail and complete the tasks as directed by my organization.
24.
I can be self-reliant and properly plan to carry out independent-study or life plans.
25.
I can work actively and responsibly.
Sample and Data Analysis
In this study, random cluster sampling was used to select two group samples
from 7,515 undergraduates between January and June 2013. In study 1, data from
the ﬁrst sample (N = 368) were analyzed using item analysis and exploratory factor
analysis (EFA). In study 2, data from the second sample (N = 1384) were analyzed
with conﬁrmatory factor analysis (CFA) using AMOS 6.0 in order to determine
an optimum measurement model. The undergraduates were all from KUAS, and
came from various academic backgrounds spanning 18 departments and four
colleges. The second sample was composed of 839 male undergraduates and 545
female undergraduates. A t-test was conducted to understand the eﬀect of gender
on school core competence.
Results
Study 1: Item Analysis and Exploratory Factor Analysis
For item analysis, the data were separated into two independent groups according to their scores for each item. The participants who had scored above 27%
101
Validation of School Core Competence Scale for Undergraduates
formed a high-scoring group, while those who had scored under 27% formed
a low-scoring group. A t-test was conducted to investigate the diﬀerence between
the numbers of items in the high- and low-scoring groups. If p <.05, discrimination power was observed, and thus the item had to be kept. Ultimately, t-values
ranged from 19.88 to 31.73 (p <.001); thus, all items were kept. The mean interitem correlation of the SCCS was 0.77, with values ranging from 0.65 to 0.81. To
understand the internal consistency of the scale items more comprehensively, an
inter-item correlation matrix was computed. The value for each item was positive,
indicating that the items were measuring the same underlying characteristic. The
corrected item-total correlation values for all the items shown in the item-total
statistics were signiﬁcantly greater than 0.30, indicating that all of the items were
adequate and appeared to measure the same latent construct (Pallant, 2010).
The Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy index was
found to be 0.97, well above the recommended value of 0.6 (Kaiser, 1974). Bartlett’s
test of sphericity yielded a highly signiﬁcant result (p <.001), suggesting the factor ability of the correlation matrix (Pallant, 2010). Taken together, these results
indicate that a factor analysis could be performed (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2007).
Items were retained only when they exceeded +0.40 or were less than –0.40 for relevant factors, and they were less than the absolute value of ±0.40 for non-relevant
factors. Furthermore, the authors excluded items with factor loadings of less than
0.7, or if one item had factor loadings greater than 0.7 on two or more factors. The
factor loadings for each item and the common validity coeﬃcients were above
0.4, demonstrating that the scale had excellent structure validity. The ﬁnal scale
contained eight factors and the cumulative explained variance was approximately
82.29%. Table 3 shows the reliability of the SCCS. Before undertaking any further
measures, reliability was estimated with Cronbach’s alpha coeﬃcient; the SCCS
demonstrated a strong alpha value of 0.97. This indicates a high level of internal
consistency, well above the acceptable threshold of 0.70 (Gable and Wolf, 1993).
Table 3. Factor names and internal consistency reliabilities.
Factor
Items Deﬁnition
Cronbach’s
alpha
Communication
and expression
3
Skills in English or other languages to interact with
others.
.81
International
perspective
3
Skills that demonstrate people’s attention to international issues and cultural diversity.
.83
Humanity
3
Skills that demonstrate people’s respect for the value
of life and concern for others.
.85
Shwu Ming Wu, Cheng Hong Yang,Wan Chen Hsu
102
Factor
Items Deﬁnition
Cronbach’s
alpha
Civics and morals
3
Skills regarding civic and moral literacy; i.e., skills
enabling people to be good citizens.
.92
Professional
knowledge and skills
3
Skills demonstrating the knowledge and ability to
function professionally.
.92
Integrative learning
4
Skills in learning new knowledge, understanding
technology by oneself, and gathering information.
.88
Passion and
anti-stress
3
Skills in using resources and methods to manage
emotions, stress, and promote physical and mental
health.
.89
Self-discipline
3
Skills in self-management and organizing personal
matters.
SCCS
25
.91
.97
Study 2: Conﬁrmatory Factor Analysis and T-test
The 25-item test was administered to a second sample of students in order to
validate the factor structure. First, the authors calculated the ﬁt indices, which
showed a chi-squared value of 1693.45 (p <.05). In general, the larger the sample
size, the more likely a model will fail the chi-squared goodness-of-ﬁt test (Barrett,
2007). Thus, it referred to other ﬁt indicators as the following: goodness-of-ﬁt
index (GFI),.91; conﬁrmatory ﬁt index (CFI),.95; normed ﬁt index (NFI),.95;
relative ﬁt index (RFI),.94; incremental ﬁt index (IFI),.95; parsimonious normed ﬁt index (PNFI),.78; critical N (CN),.233; and root mean square error of
approximation (RMSEA), 0.07. All regression weights had statistically signiﬁcant
critical ratios (α =.05) and correlations greater than.67 were statistically signiﬁcant (α =.05). The recommended values for each ﬁt index are GIF ≥.90, CFI ≥.90,
NFI ≥.90, RFI ≥.90, IFI ≥. 90, PNFI ≥.60, CN value ≥.200, and RMSEA ≤.05
(Bagozzi and Yi, 1988).
Among the eight factors, undergraduates scored highest on “Civics and Morals”
followed by “Passion and Anti-stress.” “International Perspective” scored the lowest.
These results implied that these undergraduates had a strong conception of civic
responsibilities and had strong moral sense. The lower scores for “International
Perspective” suggest that some undergraduates might have diﬃculty attending to
international issues and maintaining awareness of cultural diversity. Then, in the
comparison between genders of the eight factor scores, the authors noted signiﬁcant associations between males and females in “Communication and Expression,”
“Civics and Morals,” “Self-discipline,” and the total scale scores (cf., Table 4).
103
Validation of School Core Competence Scale for Undergraduates
Table 4. Means, standard deviations, and t-test
for the School Core Competence Scale.
Factor
Total
Mean
Male
SD
Mean
Female
SD
Mean
t-value
SD
Communication and expression
6.16
1.33
6.09
1.36
6.28
1.26
–2.63**
International perspective
6.08
1.38
6.07
1.38
6.08
1.36
–.11
Humanity
6.15
1.41
6.11
1.42
6.24
1.43
–1.75
Civics and morals
6.53
1.38
6.42
1.39
6.69
1.35
–3.55***
Professional knowledge and skills 6.30
1.40
6.26
1.42
6.38
1.35
–1.53
Integrative learning
6.32
1.35
6.30
1.36
6.39
1.32
–1.27
Passion and anti-stress
6.45
1.39
6.42
1.40
6.54
1.37
–1.54
Self-discipline
6.28
1.41
6.23
1.40
6.41
1.41
–2.29*
Total scale
6.29
1.19
6.24
1.19
6.38
1.17
–2.10*
*p <.05; ** p <.01; *** p <.001; N = 1384.
Discussion
The aim of this study was to construct, test, and verify the SCCS among undergraduates at KUAS. The reliability values for each competence perspective ranged
between.81 and.92, and the cumulative total explained variance was 82.29%. Thus,
it is evident that the SCCS for KUAS has excellent reliability and validity. This
study revealed eight perspectives and 25 key questions in total. In terms of the
CFA, Barrett (2007) has argued that even statistically non-signiﬁcant overall chisquared values can indicate good ﬁt. The GFI is an absolute ﬁt index and provides
a measure of the amount of variance/covariance in the sample matrix that is
predicted by the model implied variance/covariance matrix (Teo and Khine, 2009).
The GFI value should approximate 1 to demonstrate the best ﬁt of the model.
Browne and Cudeck (1993) demonstrated that models had reasonable ﬁt when
RMSEA was between.05 and.08. CFI represents incremental ﬁt indices and tests
the proportionate improvement in ﬁt by comparing the target model to a baseline
model with no correlations among observed variables. CFI values approximating
0.95 indicate good ﬁt (Bagozzi and Yi, 1988). In this study, the measurement model
results showed an adequate ﬁt to the data. Furthermore, gender diﬀerences existed
in “Communication and Expression,” “Civics and Morals,” “Self-discipline,” and the
total scale scores. It is possible that, in order to align with higher social expectations, females can better understand and express emotions (Wang and Lo, 2008).
104
Shwu Ming Wu, Cheng Hong Yang,Wan Chen Hsu
However, further studies must be conducted to explore the gender diﬀerences in
“Civics and Morals,” “Self-discipline,” and the total scale.
Conclusion
The SCCS showed high validity and reliability, indicating that it would be useful
as a reference tool for other schools employing similar initiatives. As only KUAS
undergraduates were tested, it is unknown whether the ﬁndings could be generalized to other samples. To increase external validity, studies with diﬀerent samples
should be conducted. Core competences, to be eﬀective, must shift through
continuous organizational learning. In this study, female undergraduates showed
higher scores on some dimensions of the SCCS. The implication for universities is to provide some strategies for enhancing the core competences of male
undergraduates.
Acknowledgments
This paper was supported by the Ministry of Education, R.O.C., under the grant Teaching
Excellence Project for KUAS, during 2013 to 2014.
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Anna Młynarczuk-Sokołowska
Poland
Intercultural Non-formal Education Issues
on the Agenda of Polish Non-governmental
Organizations – a research report
Abstract
The purpose of this article is to present the results of the research on the issues
discussed in the educational initiatives undertaken by Polish non-governmental
organizations. The results of the scientiﬁc explorations presented in the paper are
the outcome of the PhD research project Intercultural Non-formal Education in
Poland on the Example of Non-governmental organizations activity.
The project included surveying 65 leaders of diﬀerent non-governmental
organizations from three cities with diﬀerent cultural make-ups, i.e. Bialystok,
Poznan and Warsaw. The study was conducted in 2010 – 2012 according to the
eclectic research approach, which allowed gathering quantitative and qualitative
data. Based on the analysis of the empirical material, the author of the article presents: the issues tackled in the initiatives carried out by Polish non-governmental
organizations, the structure of their implementation and the types of activities
undertaken (in view of the issues analysed). An outline of the research problems
precedes the discussion on the research results.
Keywords: non-governmental organizations, cultural diversity, intercultural
non-formal education
Introduction
Due to the systemic transformation in Poland and the consequent application of
the rule of social personalism – a characteristic of any democratic country, accord-
Intercultural Non-formal Education Issues
107
ing to which establishing space for communities ideologically, professionally or
regionally close to the human being is a priority- non-governmental organizations are becoming an increasingly important “social actor” (Lewenstein, Palska,
2004, 80). Therefore, they form the basis for a civil society. For over twenty years
in democratic Poland, people from various foundations and associations have
engaged in diﬀerent types of initiatives such as educational, charity or cultural
initiatives. They have sought social change and many times performed signiﬁcant
tasks that should have been the responsibility of governmental and municipal
organizations.
Non-governmental organizations are also important agents, in many cases leading ones, as to the implementation of intercultural non-formal education. Thus,
they meet the needs stemming from the socio-cultural diversity of local, Polish,
European or global environments. We are witnessing dynamic transitions in this
realm of education. Intercultural non-formal education is expanding the range of
issues it is concerned with, which results from the ongoing cultural diversiﬁcation
of the country. Projects and programmes dealing with the issues about cultural,
social, economic or biological types of otherness of the Aliens/Others, the close
and distant ones, are conducted.
In this article, I will present the results of the study on the contents of the initiatives undertaken by Polish non-governmental organisations. The study is one of
the elements of the PhD research project Intercultural Non-formal Education in
Poland on the Example of Non-governmental organizations activity1.
The Characteristic of the Research Problem
To diﬀerent extents, the role of non-governmental organisations has been the
subject of numerous social studies in Poland. However, the case of non-governmental organisations as implementers of intercultural non-formal education has
not been discussed yet.
In designing my research I followed the assumption that the cultural diversiﬁcation of Polish society has been a dynamic process. The process was brought
about by the transitions in the ﬁnal decade of the 20t century, i.e. the systemic
transformation, recognition of the rights of minorities, Polish accession to the
European Union and the Council of Europe and, consequently, opening the
1
This research project has been funded by the National Science Centre (contract no 4193/B/
H03/2011/40).
108
Anna Młynarczuk-Sokołowska
borders for immigrants from diﬀerent countries. I made an assumption that the
coexistence of numerous culturally diﬀerent groups may be an advantage but it
may well turn into a source of overt or covert conﬂicts. It is intercultural education above all that shapes intercultural relations. Therefore, it is an educational
priority to prepare society for living in a multicultural environment, not only
with the indigenous minorities who have lived in Poland for years, but also with
foreigners who leave their homelands for various reasons. Hence, it is essential
to develop intercultural non-formal education, i.e. a planned process of intercultural competence acquisition, taking place outside formal and obligatory education programmes, and, due to its character, enabling learning through experience
and active participation.2
In my study, I focused on the cyclical activities3 in the ﬁeld of intercultural
non-formal education conducted in 2008 – 2010. The activities were to foster
sensitivity to otherness, teach to tolerate and accept it, as well as to develop the
ability to establish positive relations with the Alien/Other in the cultural, economic and biological domains. They dealt with the issue of cultural diﬀerences on
local, regional, national and transnational levels: starting with local communities
and concluding with the cultures of remote societies. The analysed projects and
programmes helped individuals shape their cultural identities, taking into consideration indigenous values of their families, parish communities and the like.
The activities were conducted in cooperation between educational institutions
on local, regional, national and transnational levels.4 In this article, I attempt to
answer one of the numerous research questions posed in my PhD research project:
What are the intercultural non-formal education issues5 implemented by Polish
non-governmental organisations?
In 2010 – 20126, the research was conducted among the promoters of intercultural non-formal education from deliberately selected types of non-governmental
2
The deﬁnition is the result of the analysis of Polish and English literature on the subject,
e.g. the assumptions of the lifelong education concept, central to modern thinking about education, as well as features of non-formal education, the essence of culture (treated as a natural
space for educational activities), and the idea of intercultural education.
3
These were the programs and projects implemented in diﬀerent organizational forms such
as educational workshops, training, international exchanges, study visits.
4
The subject of my research also included the assessment of the initiatives by the participants. In this article, I only present the core methodological assumption for the problem in
question.
5
The term ‘issue’ is understood as the knowledge transmitted, acquired and created during
educational activity.
6
The research started in the other half of 2010, and was completed in February 2012.
Intercultural Non-formal Education Issues
109
organizations – foundations and associations7 – in three cities with diﬀerent
cultural make-ups, i.e. Bialystok, Poznan and Warsaw. The study mostly included
institutions whose statutory activity presupposed the implementation of intercultural education and encompassed topics such as education and upbringing,
arts and culture, integration and social mobilization, and human rights. In the
choice of a target group, random purposeful sampling was employed. The direct
involvement in the initiatives as an initiator, as a coordinator or as a coach was the
main criterion for the purposeful selection of the study sample.
In the research, the eclectic approach was adopted, which allowed for gathering quantitative and qualitative data. A diagnostic survey was the core research
method. The techniques used included a two-part interview, a document content
analysis, overt and covert participant observation, and non-participant observation. In the ﬁrst part of the interview, a structured close-ended interview was
employed and quantitative data about the actions taken by non-governmental
organisations in the realm of intercultural non-formal education was aggregated.
The other part of the interview contained open-ended questions, which complemented the information gathered through the close-ended interview.
In the course of the research, 65 interviews were carried out. 115 documents
about the target initiatives were collected: paper and electronic versions of the
programmes and projects, information folders, information retrieved from the
Internet. 20 observations of the initiatives from Bialystok, Poznan and Warsaw
were completed. The research ﬁndings are presented in this article for descriptive
purposes, and to a lesser degree for the purpose of a statistical and quantitative
inference.
Intercultural Non-formal Education Issues Introduced by Polish
Non-governmental Organizations
All the leaders engaged in the Polish third sector declared that the idea of
cultural otherness was included in the contents of the initiatives the leaders
implemented. It entailed discussing the issues about having and expressing the
minority identity by groups and individuals and the diﬀerences connected with it.
87% of the declarations conﬁrmed working on the issues concerning social other7
The choice of the leaders of Polish foundations and associations as my study sample
resulted from the fact that they accounted for the majority of non-governmental entities, and
thus formed its core.
110
Anna Młynarczuk-Sokołowska
ness resulting from one’s nationality or ethnicity and the social status it involves.
45% of the topics discussed were about biological otherness based on sex, age, eye,
hair and skin colours, or physical/intellectual (dis)abilities. 75% of the declarations
indicated that the topic of economic otherness, manifested by economic status and
its consequences, was put forward. 35% of the interviewed leaders conﬁrmed that
their organizations introduced in the initiatives the issue of political otherness, i.e.
the preferred worldview, ideology, doctrine.
As to the issues related to cultural and social otherness, 65% of the interviewed
activists claimed that the implemented activities related to selected elements of
the culture and identity of immigrants, e.g. the Africans, Vietnamese, Hindus,
Chinese, and Japanese. This group of interviewees was mainly from Warsaw, which
points to the fact that the above-mentioned issues were not popular in Bialystok or
Poznan. 50% of the interviewed leaders declared that the intercultural non-formal
education initiatives they carried out included issues relating to the cultures of
selected indigenous national minorities, e.g. Belorussian, Lithuanian, or Ukrainian
minorities. 40% of the interviewees conﬁrmed dealing with the cultures of ethnic
minorities, mainly the culture of the Romani and Tartars. It is noteworthy that
most activists from non-governmental organizations in Bialystok declared that
they were concerned with the cultures of national and ethnic minorities, which
may have stemmed from the genuinely multicultural character of the city. 35% of
the interviewed leaders said that they embraced the problem of refugee culture
and the status of a forced migrant. This group mainly comprised people from
Bialystok and Warsaw. The contents of the initiatives referred to the situation and
culture of Chechen people. In 32% of the cases, the initiatives dealt with faiths
and religions, e.g. Islam, Eastern Orthodox Christianity, Protestantism, Buddhism,
and Hinduism. 10% of the answers gave evidence for the interest in the speciﬁcity
of foreign languages (Spanish, Arabic, Georgian, and Romani) and the artiﬁcial
Esperanto language. The interest in the issue of attitudes towards otherness,
including discrimination mechanisms and prevention, was declared by 48% of
the interviewees. 22% of the NGO activists said that the initiatives carried out by
their organisations included the issues about intercultural education methodology
and counteracting discrimination.
The statements of the interviewed leaders, the content analysis of the initiatives
and the observation of the initiatives indicate that the issues relating to other cultures, religions and faiths as well as the identities connected with them, together
with the issues about foreign languages and attitudes towards otherness constituted
the thematic core of the initiatives conducted and determined their character. The
issues concerning biological, economic or political otherness played a supporting
Intercultural Non-formal Education Issues
111
role. They served for a more in-depth explanation of discussed problems. For
instance, the organizers of the teacher training Vietnamese Children and Young
People in the Polish Education System – a part of the project Five Flavours Cinema
organized by the Arteria Foundation – discussed the issue of cultural identity of
Vietnamese immigrants, paying attention to their anthropological features and
socio-economic standing as a supplementary analysis. The question of economic,
biological and psychological aspects of otherness was an important element of
initiatives devoted to refugees (mainly from Chechnya, but also from Afghanistan,
Pakistan or Nigeria). It was also one of the core issues in the preparations for
participation in international voluntary service programmes (EVS, missionary
voluntary service).
The analysis of the empirical data has shown that although leaders declared
that they had covered numerous topics about cultural otherness or the otherness
of faith and religion, not all the topics underwent an in-depth examination. As the
surveyed NGO leaders pointed out, some of the issues were only hinted at, which
was due to time restrictions or the character of the initiatives. The situation was
slightly diﬀerent in the case of initiatives on attitudes that involved presenting
participants with the mechanisms of discrimination and ways of counteracting
discrimination. These initiatives dealt with the issues about attitudes towards
otherness in the ﬁrst place. The subject of biological, economic or cultural diﬀerences constituted the background for discussion. As to the international activities
(international exchange programmes, international volunteer service, or work
camps), beside the issues purposefully undertaken in the initiatives, spontaneously evolving topics about participants’ religious or cultural aﬃliations created
an essential background for discussion.
Types of Initiatives
Based on the empirical data, the issues prevailing in particular initiatives, and
in relation to the Holistic Concept of Intercultural Education of J. Nikitorowicz
(Nikitorowicz, 2005, 200 – 232), which in a comprehensive manner determines
the thematic areas in the ﬁeld of intercultural education, the following types of
initiatives on the agenda of Polish non-governmental organisations can be distinguished:
112
Anna Młynarczuk-Sokołowska
Initiatives concerning the identity and cultural heritage of minority groups
This includes activities that focus on the issues relating to the symbolic and
material heritage of national, ethnic, religious or language minority groups
(including immigrants and refugees). The activities help to develop, in Poland and
abroad, the minority identity and all the competence required for participation
in the life of a particular national, ethnic, religious and language community.
They also serve to create a ground for an intercultural encounter, which increases
sensitivity towards the otherness of the majority group. The examples of this type
of initiatives are: The Multicultural Club (The Society of Friends of the Maharaja
Jam Sahib Digvijay Sinhji Public High School); “The Stories of the Terek Valley”
(Cultural Practitioners’ Association); integration and educational activities for the
Romani community (The Bahtale Roma Foundation)
Initiatives connected with the culture of the close Alien / Other
This group of initiatives deals with the issues concerning the culture and cultural
heritage of the close Alien/Other, i.e. a member of a particular community (local,
of a city, region or of Poland). The above-mentioned initiatives are mostly aimed
at selected elements of culture, identity, faith and religion of indigenous minorities,
who have lived in diﬀerent regions of Poland for years. The initiatives concentrate
on selected elements of the dominant culture and encompass the local, regional,
national and international execution planes. Examples of the initiatives are: The
Meet Your Neighbour Project (The Poland-Ukraine Socio-Cultural Association);
The Chronicles of Podlasie Region (The Ab-ba Association for Children and Young
People Learning Belorussian); Multicultural Warsaw (The ProHumanum Association for the Development of Civic Society).
Initiatives focusing on the culture and position of the distant Alien/
Other
This group of initiatives includes activities whose contents relate to the culture
of the distant Alien/Other, who is a citizen of another country, continent, or an
immigrant or a refugee with entirely diverse cultural aﬃliation. The activities show
similarities and diﬀerences between the culture of the distant Alien/Other and the
local, regional or national cultures. Examples of initiatives falling within this group
are: activities introducing the culture and position of African people (The Hear
Africa Foundation) workshops on cultural diversity for children (The Foundation
of Intercultural Education); Hindu song classes (The House of Lotus Foundation).
Intercultural Non-formal Education Issues
113
Initiatives relating to the cultures of the close and
distant Aliens/Others
This group of initiatives focuses on the close and distant Aliens/Others. This
set of activities involves implementation of issues relating to diﬀerent cultures,
religions, faiths and the like. The implementation follows the pattern from close to
distant otherness, but it also happens at random. Projects that belong to this group
of initiatives are Mobile School Intercultural Workshop Part II (The Culture House
Foundation); The Living Library of the Greater Poland (The Institute for Research
and Development of Social Initiative); the Programme for the Development of
Sensitivity Toward Otherness The Adventures of the Other (The Foundation of
Education and Creativity, The University of Bialystok Foundation).
Initiatives concerning the attitudes towards the distant and close Aliens/
Others
This set comprises the initiatives that deal with the problem of discrimination
against the distant and close Aliens/Others and ways of counteracting it. The
initiatives focus on the mechanisms of stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination.
They also discuss the consequences of any discriminatory acts and the ways of
counteracting discrimination. The issues about cultural, religious, biological or
economic types of otherness are the plane for consideration. Examples of this
type of initiatives are: anti-discrimination workshops for school children (The
9/12 Association for Dialogue); Hominem Quaro – a quest for a human (The StopKlatka Association of Culture Practitioners); and anti-discrimination workshops
organized by The Konsola Women Association.
Initiatives on Jewish history and culture and Polish-Jewish relations
This group of initiatives focuses on the subject of the Polish-Jewish past and
heritage, the Holocaust, Jewish culture and cultural ties resulting from the process
of cultural interpenetration. They discuss the issue of Polish-Israeli relations and
the character of the State of Israel. This set of initiatives includes projects such
as Restoring Matzeva (The Association of Creative Initiatives “Ę”); The School of
Dialogue (The Forum for Dialogue among Nations); International Summer Camp
(the Poland-Israel Centre for Civic Education).
Initiatives focusing on the cultural aﬃliations of the participants
This is a set of activities discussing the elements of cultures of the people
who participate in the initiatives. The main purpose of this kind of initiatives is
mutual understanding and integration. Discussing the cultural aﬃliation of the
114
Anna Młynarczuk-Sokołowska
participants usually happens in the case of international initiatives (exchange
programmes, work camps, volunteer work programmes). Initiatives include
the following projects: Let’s meet in the kitchen (the Aeege European Forum of
Students); the Polish-German encounters (the Polish-German Society for Social
Education); We love eating (the Foundation for Freedom).
Initiatives focusing on the role of language in communication and
promotion of other cultures
In this group of initiatives, the role of language in the process of intercultural
communication and learning about other cultures is the centre of attention.
Language is considered to be an intercultural communication tool and facilitator
in the process of gaining knowledge of other cultures, nations as well as Polish
history and culture. The activities are concerned with a particular language, a language family (e.g. Romance languages, or Slavonic languages), or the artiﬁcial
Esperanto language. Example projects that belong to this group of initiatives are
Femina Republic (The Sfera Foundation for Languages and Culture); European
Voluntary Service (The Bialystok Society for Esperanto Speakers); educational
activities carried out by The En-senco Socio-cultural Society of Ludwik Zamenhof.
Initiatives on interculturality and multiculturalism and the methodology
of working with particular groups
This group of activities focuses on the culture, religion and position of the close
and/or distant Aliens/Others, as well as intercultural education methodology. Its
contents pertain to selected elements of the cultural canon/canons of minority
groups, minorities’ religions, methods of designing education activities, ways of
addressing otherness, etc. Projects that can serve as examples of this type of initiatives are Refugee Culture: cultural diﬀerences and ways of addressing them (The
Foundation of Culture and Creativity); The Workshop of an Aspiring Teacher (The
Institute for Research and Development of Social Initiative).
Based on the research results analysis, it may be concluded that the contents of
the intercultural non-formal education initiatives follow the holistic understanding of the concept of intercultural education. The activities undertaken dealt with
many topics ranging from the cultures and problems of the close Aliens/Others
to the issues of the distant Aliens/Others. The choice of the issues discussed in
the initiatives was determined by the cultural character of a particular city. The
initiatives focused on the cultures and problems existing in the given area but were
not limited to these subjects only. The thematically widest range of initiatives e.g.
initiatives focusing on the cultures of national and ethnic minorities, immigrants,
Intercultural Non-formal Education Issues
115
refugees, or other religions was developed by Warsaw non-governmental organizations that operate in the so-called Polish “multikulti” centre. Bialystok NGOs
explored the topics about minority groups living in the city. They sometimes
showed their interest in the issues concerning refugees, less often in the issues
about immigrants or the distant Aliens/Others. The topics discussed in the Poznan
initiatives were diverse, and structurally they resembled a mosaic. Therefore, it is
diﬃcult to discern the dominant ones. NGOs in all the cities included in their
initiatives the issues about discrimination, its consequences, and ways of counteracting it. The situation was similar in the case of initiatives treating language
as an intercultural communication tool that helps to learn about other cultures.
Moreover, it was also the case with the international initiatives that facilitated
the encounter with otherness and promotion of one’s own culture. The initiatives
concerning Jewish culture, Polish-Jewish and Polish-Israeli relations were mainly
introduced in Bialystok and Warsaw. All the issues enclosed in the initiatives of
Polish non-governmental organisations gave the opportunity to develop multifaceted identity of the initiatives participants.
Conclusion
In Poland, intercultural non-formal education has been developing dynamically since the 1990s. Thanks to the social activeness of citizens themselves, a wide
range of initiatives has been developed in the ﬁeld of intercultural education. The
character of intercultural education that assumes learning through experience and
active participation, allows for the implementation of tasks on a number of topics,
which in turn facilitates the intercultural dialogue. As the results of my research
indicate, Polish non-governmental organisations introduced thematically diverse
initiatives that alluded to the needs relating to the intercultural education on local,
regional, national and transnational levels. The initiatives dealt with the issues
about the Aliens/Others who live in the local community, Poland, Europe or the
world as well as with the issues about attitudes towards otherness. In the course of
the implementation of non-governmental initiatives the topic of non-ethnically
conditioned types of otherness, i.e. biological, social or economic ones was raised.
Although it was of supplementary character, it allowed for a more detailed analysis
of the subject in question. The issues explored by Polish non-governmental organisations constituted a factor enabling the development of intercultural competence
and readiness for encounter with the close and/or distant Aliens/Others.
116
Anna Młynarczuk-Sokołowska
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międzykulturowa w Polsce i na świecie, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego.
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Hong Kong.
Vincent Charles*,
Tatiana Gherman
Peru
Factors inﬂuencing students’ choice
of a B-school
Abstract
The presented study is a primary initiative in the Peruvian literature for understanding the factors which inﬂuence undergraduate students´ choice of a B-school
oﬀering a Master´s Degree in Business Administration. A self-administered
questionnaire and focus group discussions were used in order to collect data from
700 respondents, with a usable response rate of 92%. Analysis of the data was
carried on through exploratory factor analysis. The seven revealed factors which
accounted for 63.2082% of the total variance were: Corporate Social Responsibility, Essentials of an MBA Program, Quality Yardsticks, Entrepreneurship, Location,
MBA Technical Speciﬁcations, and Physical Facilities. Entrepreneurship education
should be addressed primarily, as entrepreneurship is vital for economic growth
in Peru. In order to raise their value proposition, B-schools are expected to take
true initiatives in the CSR area and promote entrepreneurship education in their
curricula, through both business-skills training and practical support given by the
B-school.
Keywords: business schools, business studies, curricula, emerging markets,
factor analysis, higher education
* Corresponding Author
118
Vincent Charles, Tatiana Gherman
Introduction
The Master´s Degree in Business Administration (MBA) is nowadays one of
the most popular, desired, and valuable post-graduate degrees available worldwide. It is believed that an MBA degree provides its holders an added advantage
to get promoted to upper management positions, as well as a premium salary
in industry. As Sharkey and Beeman (2008) assessed, the MBA market will only
tend to become a hypercompetitive market, given its connectedness to business. Despite various achievements, the evolution of the education system in
Peru is relatively insuﬃcient to meet the social needs of society. Moreover, little
attention has been paid to education, and the authors of this study identiﬁed
limited published research, in general, with regard to this topic. In the light of
this situation, it is obvious that in order to improve the management education,
it is necessary to understand the needs of the student and his decision-making
process. B-schools have to dedicate themselves to ﬁnding out what the student
is really looking for and hoping to accomplish as an MBA graduate and business
professional, and to design MBA programs that emphasize just how they will
meet those expectations.
Literature Review
Choosing a particular MBA program from so many options available on the
market is deﬁnitely not an easy task. Some studies (Galotti, 1999; Simpson, 2001)
indicated subjective elements as major criteria for undergraduates in choosing
an MBA program in a particular B-school, such as: perception of self, individual
interests, values and abilities, parental inﬂuence, and the student´s gender role
identiﬁcation, among other things. Kurst (1984) found placement oﬃce statistics,
accreditation, supporting facilities, faculty make-up, and student/faculty ratio;
Miller (1988) found accreditation, teaching methods, program duration, ﬁelds of
specialization, school ranking, and cost; Powers (1988) found academic quality,
quality and reputation of the faculty, and placement opportunities; Parker, C. Pettijohn, and L. Pettijohn (1989) found educational attainments of faculty, image of
the university, placement records, research of faculty, and tuition costs; Linden,
Brennan, and Lane (1992) found placement records, tuition fees, and average
GMAT scores; Webb and Allen (1994) found academic reputation, accreditation,
and tuition; Panitz (1995) found high quality teaching professors, knowledgeable
both in theory and in practice, staﬀ professionalism, supporting facilities, ethical
Factors inﬂuencing students’ choiceof a B-school
119
standards, image of the school. Bowers and Pugh (1973), Sevier (1987) found
institutional status, programme structure, and practical issues (how long it takes
and how much it costs). Byrne (1993) and Miller (1988) found curriculum and
teaching methods. Schuster, Constantino, and Klein (1988) found tuition fees,
supporting facilities, local accreditation, and overseas accreditation.
Methodology
The instrument
A survey was conducted to gather information in order to measure students’
determinants of a B-school choice. The instrument of data collection, namely
a structured questionnaire, was built based on the literature review and focus
group discussions. The variables generated were afterwards included in a questionnaire in the form of 40 positively-worded statements to which students were
supposed to respond by means of a seven-point Likert-type scale that varied from
1 – representing strong disagreement with the situation described – to 7 – representing strong agreement. A pilot study was undertaken with 63 students in order
to test the instrument for face validity.
Selection of the ﬁnal sample
The revised questionnaire was personally administered in and around campus
by the authors to a number of undergraduate students who were selected based
on probability and non-probability sampling from the 10 top universities in Lima,
Peru. A two-fold sampling procedure was used for the presented study, namely
stratiﬁed random sampling and convenient sampling, where each stratum was
represented by a university listed in the top 10 universities in Lima, as published
by the America Economía in 2012. Out of these 10 universities, three were public
and seven private. For each stratum, convenient sampling was used to obtain the
sought information.
For the given budget, it was only possible to collect 700 samples. The sample
size in each stratum was allocated proportionally to the population size of the
stratum, which is shown in Table 1. Of the questionnaires collected, about 8% were
considered unusable due to insuﬃcient and/or incomplete data, which resulted in
a ﬁnal sample of 641 valid questionnaires. The sample was representative of the
population strata and had a strong representation of females. The sample consisted
of 192 male respondents and 449 female respondents.
Vincent Charles, Tatiana Gherman
120
Table 1. Sampling plan
S. No Name of Stratum (University)
Population
Proportion
S1
S2
S3
S4
1
Pontiﬁcia Universidad Católica
del Peru¹
17,531
0.1311
92
82
33
49
2
Universidad Nacional Mayor
de San Marcos²
28,645
0.2142
150
141
56
85
3
Universidad Peruana Cayetano
Heredia¹
3,536
0.0264
18
15
6
9
4
Universidad del Paciﬁco¹
2,179
0.0163
11
11
4
7
5
Universidad de Lima¹
14,109
0.1055
74
68
27
41
6
Universidad Nacional de
Ingenieria²
11,034
0.0825
58
55
22
33
7
Universidad de Piura¹
5,232
0.0391
27
24
10
14
8
Universidad Nacional Agraria
La Molina²
4,903
0.0367
26
24
10
14
9
Universidad de San Martin
de Porres¹
31,046
0.2322
163
147
59
88
10
Universidad Peruana
de Ciencias Aplicadas¹
15,504
0.1159
81
74
30
44
133,719
1
700
641
257
384
Note. 1 – Private university, 2 – Public university; S1 – Sample size in each stratum, S2 – Sample size
in each stratum, after the removal of the invalid questionnaires, S3 – Sample size of each stratum,
within the sample of 257 questionnaires, S4 – Sample size of each stratum, within the sample of 384
questionnaires.
Data analysis
We carried out a series of association tests for the various demographic variables in relation to the type of the university. Table 2 presents the relevant statistics.
Since Cramer’s V is close to zero in all of the cases with signiﬁcant value higher
than 0.05 and the mean square canonical correlations between the demographic
variables are almost zero, hence, it can be concluded that there is no association
between the type of university and other demographic variables, namely gender,
age, and income.
For statistical purposes, the number of ﬁnal questionnaires was considered
adequate for further analysis of the data, which was then carried out using factor
analysis. The subjective element of factor analysis was reduced by splitting the
valid sample of questionnaires randomly into two, one sample of 257 and the
other one of 384 questionnaires, based on the 40 – 60% rule of thumb. The last two
columns of Table 1 represent the allocation of samples to the strata based on the
121
Factors inﬂuencing students’ choiceof a B-school
Table 2. Association test for various demographic characteristics
Association
Cramer’s V
Mean square
canonical correlation
Sig.
Gender vs. Type of the university
0.072
0.005
0.067
Age vs. Type of the university
0.058
0.003
0.338
Income vs. Type of the university
0.043
0.002
0.883
said rule. Then factors were extracted separately from both groups, which resulted
in identical factors, thus the analysis was reliable.
Results
The analysis made use of the varimax factor rotation procedure. Only items
with factor loading of.40 and over were considered signiﬁcant in interpreting the
factors. This criterion reduced the number of items to 39 from the original 40. The
factor analysis revealed the existence of seven factors.
Inference based on 40%, 60%, and 100% of the sample
Bartlett’s test of sphericity was found to be highly signiﬁcant for 40%, 60%,
and 100% of the sample with a p =.000, implicating correctness and suitability of
factor analysis processes for testing multidimensionality. Moreover, the KaiserMeyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy gave satisfactory.683,.660, and.680,
respectively.
For both samples, out of the 39 items, seven factors were produced. The factors
that emerged from the study were given appropriate names in accordance with the
criteria, namely Corporate Social Responsibility (Factor 1 – F1); Essentials of an MBA
Program (Factor 2 – F2); Quality Yardsticks (Factor 3 – F3); Entrepreneurship (Factor
4 – F4); Location (Factor 5 – F5); MBA Technical Speciﬁcations (Factor 6 – F6);
Physical Facilities (Factor 7 – F7). The seven factors, when totalled, accounted for
62.4843% (for 40% of the sample), 64.0705% (for 60% of the sample), and 63.2082%
(for the overall sample), respectively, of the variation in the data obtained.
The results of the factor analysis in terms of the rotated factor loading matrices
for 40% of the sample, 60% of the sample, as well as for 100% of the sample can
be seen in Table 3. It is to be noted that factor loadings for 60% and 100% of the
sample are shown in the table taking into consideration the structure of 40% of
the sample.
Vincent Charles, Tatiana Gherman
122
Table 3. Factor analysis – rotated component matrix
Factor
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
40%
60%
100%
Recycling program (31)
Variable Name (Variable #)
0.8280
0.8347
0.7988
The social impact activities (30)
0.8137
0.8014
0.8064
The initiatives to reduce the CO2 emissions (29)
0.8131
0.7886
0.8259
Principles for environmental and social sustainability (35)
0.6907
0.7310
0.7184
The ISO 14001 certiﬁcation (33)
0.6803
0.6919
0.6851
Social entrepreneurship courses (34)
0.5768
0.6075
0.6017
Accreditation for CSR practices (32)
0.5260
0.4911
0.4987
Extent of industry interaction (8)
0.8158
0.7815
0.7840
High standard/ quality of teaching staﬀ (2)
0.6617
0.6576
0.6653
International recognition of the program (3)
0.6363
0.6600
0.6669
The subjects/ courses in the MBA program (6)
0.6181
0.5064
0.5452
Accreditation/ certiﬁcation by AACSB, EQUIS, AMBAs (16)
0.5731
0.5400
0.5580
The industry linkages/ tie-ups (9)
0.5541
0.4908
0.5049
Other academic activities (17)
0.5064
0.5887
0.5649
Extent of research activities (7)
0.4957
0.5019
0.5043
The active business incubation centre (28)
0.4045
The public image held (14)
0.6960
0.7056
0.7118
How old the B-school is (13)
0.6452
0.6667
0.6464
Number of publications (18)
0.6221
0.6300
0.6226
Number and kind of specializations oﬀered (11)
0.6150
0.5980
0.6118
International student exchange programs (15)
0.5909
0.6557
0.6393
Academic reputation (27)
0.5861
0.5967
0.5811
Networking opportunities (10)
0.5460
0.5457
0.5519
International professors (22)
0.5279
0.4491
0.4741
Interaction to set up a business after graduation (38)
0.8352
0.8584
0.8465
Successful entrepreneurs prepared (36)
0.7573
0.8128
0.7944
International dual degree program (39)
0.7486
0.7297
0.7340
Industry relevant programs (37)
0.6251
0.7034
0.6802
The active industry interaction centre (40)
0.5650
0.5606
0.5596
City/ province that the B-school is in (26)
0.7545
0.8013
0.7934
Distance from my residence (25)
0.6348
0.6783
0.6763
Minimum transportation facility (4)
0.6251
0.5136
0.5566
Distance from the main industrial area (24)
0.6155
0.6980
0.6713
123
Factors inﬂuencing students’ choiceof a B-school
Factor
F6
F7
Variable Name (Variable #)
40%
60%
100%
Admission standards/ requirements (20)
0.7463
0.6807
0.7051
The type of the MBA program (19)
0.7249
0.7646
0.7517
The subjects covered in the MBA program (21)
0.6772
0.7373
0.7098
The duration of the MBA program (23)
0.4563
0.4956
0.5064
The size/ largeness of the B-school (12)
0.7764
0.7929
0.7918
The kind of building (5)
0.7030
0.7599
0.7378
Attractiveness of the campus (1)
0.6157
0.6555
0.6447
Reliability analysis
The Alpha values for the seven dimensions are 0.8843 (F1), 0.8524 (F2), 0.8518
(F3), 0.8581 (F4), 0.7242 (F5), 0.7442 (F6), and 0.7046 (F7), respectively, and the
combined Alpha value for all the items is 0.9282 (cf., Table 4). Since Alpha values
are exceeding the obligatory requirement of 0.70, this indicates that all items and
factorial groups are suﬃcient reliable measures.
Table 4. Reliability analysis results
40% of the
sample
Cronbach’s
Alpha
Mean
Variance
Hotelling’s
T-Squared
F
Sig.
F1
0.8827
5.0442
2.3713
246.6210
40.3007
0.0000
F2
0.8547
5.9134
1.1928
542.3215
75.6587
0.0000
F3
0.8408
5.5109
1.4962
432.9600
60.4018
0.0000
F4
0.8465
6.0326
1.2390
71.4435
17.6516
0.0000
F5
0.7291
5.4202
1.8783
127.2181
42.0747
0.0000
F6
0.7468
4.6109
2.3334
589.6063
195.0000
0.0000
F7
0.6835
4.2194
1.9801
14.2366
7.0905
0.0000
5.3782
1.7273
5928.6191
129.4510
0.0000
F
Sig.
Overall
0.9280
60% of the
sample
Cronbach’s
Alpha
Mean
Variance
Hotelling’s
T-Squared
F1
0.8855
5.0631
2.2967
398.7984
65.5987
0.0000
F2
0.8511
5.8870
1.3680
704.5813
99.0776
0.0000
F3
0.8582
5.5057
1.6114
578.5982
81.3620
0.0000
F4
0.8652
6.0281
1.3020
93.3547
23.1559
0.0000
F5
0.7209
5.3711
1.9950
179.3038
59.4558
0.0000
F6
0.7425
4.5612
2.3923
870.4006
288.6185
0.0000
F7
0.7169
4.2296
2.1846
21.6008
10.7722
0.0000
Overall
0.9284
5.3661
1.8112
9149.8423
211.3340
0.0000
Vincent Charles, Tatiana Gherman
124
Full Sample
Cronbach’s
Alpha
Mean
Variance
Hotelling’s
T-Squared
F
Sig.
F1
0.8843
5.0555
2.3235
640.3385
105.8893
0.0000
F2
0.8524
5.8975
1.2965
1229.7485
174.0314
0.0000
F3
0.8518
5.5077
1.5629
1006.0110
142.3685
0.0000
F4
0.8581
6.0299
1.2749
163.5011
40.6837
0.0000
F5
0.7242
5.3908
1.9458
306.3347
101.7925
0.0000
F6
0.7442
4.5811
2.3659
1459.3683
484.9359
0.0000
F7
0.7046
4.2255
2.0994
35.8833
17.9136
0.0000
Overall
0.9282
5.3709
1.7752
14675.8667
353.9612
0.0000
The Hotelling’s T-squared test was used as a multivariate analysis tool to evaluate the null hypothesis that all of the items on the scale would have the same mean.
As expected, the null hypothesis was considered invalid for all the three groups of
samples, 40%, 60%, and overall sample (cf., Table 4). Figure 1 shows the coeﬃcient
of variations (CV) and the mean scores of the factors for the split samples versus
overall sample. It can be observed that F2 and F4 have relatively higher items
consistency, while F6 and F7 have relatively low items consistency.
Thus, the statistical and factor analysis tests show that the proposed items and
dimensions of the instrument of the study are sound enough to measure the
perceptions of the undergraduate students regarding the factors inﬂuencing their
choice of a B-school, and hence can be used for further analysis.
Figure 1. Coeﬃcient of variations and the mean scores of the factors for the
split samples versus overall sample.
Factors inﬂuencing students’ choiceof a B-school
125
Factors. Discussion
Since the results for 40% and 60% of the sample are very similar to the overall
sample and do not bias the analysis, the main focus of the following discussion will
be based on the overall sample.
Figure 2. Mean scores of the items for the split sample versus overall sample.
Factor 1: Corporate social responsibility
Factor 1 items seemed to reﬂect a clear indication of the tendency of Peruvian
undergraduate students to cite CSR as an important criterion when deciding
which B-school to join for their future MBA studies. Thus, Factor 1 was labelled
as CSR. It is to be noted that CSR is still at its beginning stages in Peru and, furthermore, is not yet regarded as an important topic by the Peruvian policymakers,
remaining a rather neglected area. However, the presented study suggests that the
respondents have become more aware nowadays of how business activities aﬀect
society and the environment and they require more responsible management;
hence, B-schools need to reconsider their value proposition and adopt strategies
in order to oﬀer an education that combines analytical capabilities and managerial
skills with business ethics and CSR topics (Sanders, 2012).
Factor 2: Essentials of an MBA program.
The second factor (F2) was labelled Essentials of an MBA Program. Three out
of the eight variables reached mean scores higher than 6, which highlighted the
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Vincent Charles, Tatiana Gherman
importance that the undergraduate students attached to the quality of the teaching
staﬀ, international recognition of the program and the subjects/courses covered in
the MBA program. However, the highest mean score was given to the item quality
of the teaching staﬀ (6.4695), which clearly states that students want to know if
the MBA program is being taught by the school´s best faculty. It becomes obvious
that B-schools in Peru should design eﬀective strategies so as to recruit and retain
high quality academic staﬀ, which supports the ﬁndings of Temtime and Mmereki
(2011).
Factor 3: Quality yardsticks
The next factor (F3) was called Quality Yardsticks, as all the variables were
related to how the students measured the quality of a B-school. It is to be noted
that one variable had a mean score greater than 6, which underlines networking opportunities as an important part of the B-school experience. In the case of
Peru, this represents a very important cultural aspect, since networking with the
B-school classmates is generally seen as an opportunity to ﬁnd potential business
partners, suppliers and/or customers for one´s business.
Factor 4: Entrepreneurship
It is to be noted that the fourth factor, called Entrepreneurship, is the only one
that reported all its variables with mean scores close to or over 6, which clearly
demonstrates the high importance of the necessity to foster entrepreneurship
through both business-skills training and practical support given by the B-school.
Peru is among the most enterprising countries in the world, with a signiﬁcant
number of young people developing businesses on their own most of the time,
either because opportunities are abundant, or because they do not have other
option for making a living. Moreover, Peru’s micro and small business (MSE) sector
plays a fundamental role in generating employment, if we take into consideration
the number of about 2.5 million MSEs, both formal and informal. As Kirby (2004)
stated, the challenge of B-schools is to develop more enterprising individuals, with
entrepreneurial capabilities that will enable entrepreneurs to successfully meet the
challenges of the business climate of the 21st century.
Factor 5: Location
The ﬁfth factor was labelled Location of the B-school. By checking the mean
scores, it can be observed that the variables with the highest importance are
minimum transportation facilities and distance from one’s residence, which
demonstrates the preoccupation of the Peruvian undergraduate students for the
Factors inﬂuencing students’ choiceof a B-school
127
location of the B-school. Traﬃc conditions are a constant concern for students, as
traﬃc jams are a common reality nowadays in Peru, not just during rush hours,
but almost at every point of time in the day.
Factor 6: MBA technical speciﬁcations
The items loading on the sixth factor reﬂected the program structure in terms of
program curriculum and mode of delivery (part-time, full-time, executive, online
or distance education programs); thus, factor 6 was labelled MBA Technical Speciﬁcations. Among the variables, the duration of the MBA program was attached the
highest average importance (with a mean score of 6.0265). It was found during
focus group discussions that most undergraduate students did not show intentions
of pursuing a doctorate degree after completion of the MBA program, as their
solely reason to pursue an MBA in the ﬁrst place was to acquire knowledge and
develop skills that would allow them to be more productive in their workplaces;
hence, earn more money. The sooner they ﬁnish their studies, the faster they can
get back to work. Hence, in order to attract students, B-schools should design high
quality MBA programs which are shorter in duration.
Factor 7: Physical facilities.
The last factor (F7) refers to physical facilities. It is to be noted that physical
facilities represent a relatively less important criterion inﬂuencing Peruvian
students’ choice of a B-school, since the mean scores registered by the variables
that compose this factor were the lowest ones among all the 39 variables. In
consequence, it is rather clear that B-schools in Peru should focus less on this
factor when designing strategies to attract new students. It is, however, important
that B-schools provide a physical environment that is safe, comfortable,
accessible, and aesthetically pleasing, which was also noted during the focus
group discussions.
Conclusions
It is clear that choosing a B-school to pursue an MBA program represents a complex decision making process that is very carefully analysed by undergraduate students in general. Peruvian undergraduate students are not an exception. However,
despite its relevance, it has been noticed that in the Peruvian education market, no
academic research has been conducted on this topic. The presented study aimed,
therefore, at discovering the key criteria that students consider when making
128
Vincent Charles, Tatiana Gherman
their choice of a B-school. The factor-analyzed data revealed seven underlying
factors in the criteria used by undergraduate students when choosing a B-school:
Corporate Social Responsibility, Essentials of an MBA Program, Quality Yardsticks, Entrepreneurship, Location, MBA Technical Speciﬁcations, and Physical
Facilities. The ﬁndings are quite interesting and diverse, as socio-cultural factors
play a very important role in the results, by shaping the Peruvian undergraduate
students’ MBA choice behaviour. It has been found that in order to raise their
value proposition, Peruvian B-schools are required to rebalance their curricula
so as to provide their students with a deeper understanding of such phenomena
as innovation, entrepreneurship, CSR, and business ethics, which seem to be the
topics that need most attention in Peru. In other words, students are increasingly
demanding softer skills, a ﬁnding which supports previous studies such as those
by Cornuel (2007) and Hawawini (2005). Based on the above-mentioned ﬁndings,
Peruvian B-schools which do not take the mentioned aspects into account should
focus on implementing necessary changes so as to enhance the quality of their
input and output, whereas B-schools which present the mentioned aspects should
concentrate on improving them, in order to raise their present value proposition.
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African, Hispanic, and Native Americans. The Journal of Higher Education, 72,
63 – 100.
Webb, M.S., & Allen, L.C. (1994). Graduate business students: factors that diﬀerentiate diverse market´s matriculating decisions. Journal of Marketing for Higher
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Eva Machů, Hana Červinková
Czech Republic
Social Intelligence of Gifted Pupils
Abstract
The article describes research whose aim was to ﬁnd diﬀerences between the
social intelligence structure of gifted children and children with no diagnosed
giftedness. The social intelligence was determined by TSIS scale enabling its speciﬁcation into three parts. Social Information Processing and Social Awareness give
evidence about the cognitive aspect and Social Skills about the behavioral aspect
of social intelligence. There were no statistically signiﬁcant diﬀerences between
gifted children and children with no diagnosed giftedness in Social Information
Processing. We registered a higher level of Social Awareness and Social Skills
in children with no diagnosed giftedness. The results are discussed due to the
theoretical background of this study.
Keywords: gifted children, social-emotional characteristics of gifted children,
social intelligence, TSIS – Tromsø social intelligence scale.
Introduction and Theoretical Background
Talented individuals are characterized by manifestations which may separate
them signiﬁcantly from others. It is speciﬁcity in the cognitive and also the social
emotional areas. This article focuses on a selected part of the social emotional area,
the social intelligence, and tries to ﬁnd out the diﬀerence between gifted children’s
social intelligence and the social intelligence of children with no diagnosed giftedness.
Giftedness is most often deﬁned as an individual’s ability which is quantitatively
and qualitatively more developed in comparison with their peers, in a speciﬁc
area valued by the socio-cultural environment (Heward, 2013). According to
Social Intelligence of Gifted Pupils
131
Porter (1999), this deﬁnition may acquire a more concrete form in connection
with its conception. It may be a liberal vs. conservative conception (estimates of
the amount of the gifted in the population diﬀer), mono- vs. multidimensional
(according to the number of the criteria for giftedness identiﬁcation), or the
deﬁnition of potential vs. manifested performance. Our conception of giftedness
refers to the sense of a high ability in the intellect area.
Many authors pointed out gifted individuals’ speciﬁcity in the social-emotional
area. The landmark of this is The Genetic Studies of Genius by L. Terman (Part 1
from 1921), which describes the output of a longitudinal study of gifted children’s
typical personal characteristics. The results of the research led to the so-called
Terman’s myth about the gifted as socially non-problematic and emotionally stable individuals. Although the research was criticised to a great extent, it changed
contemporary ideas about the pathology of the gifted. (Vialle, 1994).
L.S. Hollingworth also pointed out the social isolation of gifted children in 1942
in her book Children above 180 IQ Stanford – Binet: Origin and Development. Here
she conﬁrms the hypothesis about the connection between high intelligence and
social isolation. Based on gifted children’s speciﬁcity and the subsequent need for
a completely diﬀerent educational approach, Hollingworth initiated the creation
of a number of specialized classes for highly gifted children (Vialle, 1994).
In the last 25 years, research on gifted children’s social-emotional development
has not described these individuals as primarily problematic, they agree about the
existence of gifted individuals’ speciﬁc social-emotional needs which originate in
their personal characteristics (Gross, 2011). In today’s publications, we can come
across the following gifted individuals’ general typical social-emotional characteristics which were deﬁned based on empirical studies. T.L. Gross (2011) divided
them into endogenous characteristics and their exogenous conditions. Among
endogenous characteristics, which are related to the gifted individual’s personality,
there are, e.g., asynchronous personality development (conﬂict between the intelligence level and aspects such as motor and verbal development); perfectionism;
multipotentiality; emotional sensitivity; intensity and depth of perception. Among
the exogenous conditions of personality development, there are inﬂuences connected with culture and its norms, family, school, and peer background.
Another key term of the study is social intelligence. The term was ﬁrst used in
1920 by E. Thorndike, who deﬁned it as the ability to understand people and to be
able to behave wisely in interpersonal situations (Wawra, 2009). Other early deﬁnitions were identically based on two basic aspects of social intelligence – cognitive
and behavioral. The concepts of these components were made without any explicit
theory, which contributed to their spread and also to the increase in the measuring
132
Vincent Charles, Tatiana Gherman
tools. Subsequent studies described the social intelligence structure using more
factors (Dogan, Çetin, 2009).
Because of the great range of the social intelligence aspects, a problem in differentiating between social intelligence and other similar constructs arose. Some
authors point out the diﬃculties in empirical separation of social and academic
intelligence (e.g. D.B. Keating), others (e.g. R.J. Sternberg, M.L. Barnes, H. Gardner) emphasize the diﬀerences of social intelligence and other types of intelligence
and its dependence on these abilities (Dogan, Çetin, 2009).
Another problem in deﬁning social intelligence is the diﬀerent approach to
the concept of social intelligence. Some authors emphasize mainly the cognitive
aspects of social intelligence, i.e. the ability to understand other people (R.J. Sternberg), other researchers (M.E. Ford, M.S. Tisak) stress the behavioral element, i.e.
the ability to successfully inﬂuence other people (Výrost, Slaměník, 2008).
Various perception of the term of social intelligence is also reﬂected in the
assembling of the tools for measuring this construct. Early measuring scales of
social intelligence were primarily focused on cognitive aspects and corresponded
signiﬁcantly to the tests of academic intelligence. Today’s scales measure more
factors of social intelligence based on self-evaluation or on evaluation by others (teachers, parents, classmates) and they are not usually in mutual correlation
(Silvera, Martinussen, Dahl, 2001).
Regarding the development of the individual’s social intelligence, in early
childhood, we talk about social competence, which can be used as a basis for
the prediction of behavior in social situations. The frequent possibility of social
communication with the surroundings and even one’s own level of cognitive
(e.g. R.J. Sternberg), moral (J. Piaget, L. Kohlberg) and emotional development (K. Dabrowski) supports children’s social intelligence development.
(Hébert, 2011)
If we summarize all thoughts about the connection of social and academic intelligence, (academically) gifted individuals generally achieve a higher level of cognitive aspects of social intelligence, but no connections with behavioral aspects were
found (Jones, Day, 1996). Looking into EBSCO and Academic search complete
databases, we can ﬁnd Spanish research on the social intelligence of academically gifted adolescents using the PCIS social intelligence test (López, 2007). The
research discovered a statistically signiﬁcant diﬀerence in the selected aspects of
social intelligence between gifted children and children with no diagnosed giftedness. The gifted presented a higher level of cognitive processes, social strategy
planning and social consequence anticipating, which are all parts of the cognitive
area of social intelligence.
Social Intelligence of Gifted Pupils
133
Our research was based on the concept of social intelligence by Silvera et al.,
which is a construct including the perception of inner states and moods of others,
general ability to be interested in others, having knowledge about social norms and
social life, the ability of orientation in social situations, the ability of using social
techniques, manipulation and communication with other people, social attraction
and social adaptation (Silvera, Martinussen, Dahl, 2001). Deﬁning social intelligence, the authors emphasize the cognitive area (social behavior, social perception,
analytical aspect) and the behavioral area (eﬀective behavior corresponding to the
social recognition).
The aim of our research was to ﬁnd out the social intelligence structure of
the gifted children of the upper school age (monitored group) in comparison
with children with no diagnosed giftedness (comparative group). The method
selected is the TSIS questionnaire of social intelligence, which is based on the
aforementioned concept of social intelligence by Silvera et al. We assumed that
gifted children would achieve a higher level of social intelligence in the cognitive
area of social intelligence and a lower level in the behavioral area.
Methodology
The aim of the research was to ﬁnd out whether there is a diﬀerence between
the social intelligence structure of the monitored group (gifted children) and
comparative group (children with no diagnosed giftedness).
Three factual and statistical hypotheses were deﬁned based on the three subscales of TSIS (the areas of SIP, SS, SA):
The social information processing area (cognitive aspect of social intelligence)
H1: Social intelligence in the area of social information processing of the
children from the monitored group (gifted children) is higher than that
of the children from the comparative group (children with no diagnosed
giftedness).
Examples of null and alternative hypotheses for H1: H1₀ There is no diﬀerence
between the children’s social intelligence in the area of social information processing depending on whether they are from the monitored or comparative group.
H1A There is a diﬀerence between the children’s social intelligence in the area of
social information processing depending on whether they are from the monitored
or comparative group.
The social ability area (behavioral aspect of social intelligence)
H2: Social intelligence in the area of social ability of the children from the
134
Vincent Charles, Tatiana Gherman
monitored group (gifted children) is higher than that of the children from
the comparative group (children with no diagnosed giftedness).
The social awareness area (cognitive aspect of the social intelligence)
H3: Social intelligence in the area of social awareness of the children from the
monitored group (gifted children) is higher than that of the children from
the comparative group (children with no diagnosed giftedness).
Tromsø social intelligence scale (TSIS), which was created by authors from
the University of Tromsø in Norway (Silvera, Martinussen, Dahl, 2001), was
selected as the research tool. Trying to create a simple tool for measuring social
intelligence, the authors gathered statements about social intelligence, subjected
them to factor analysis and subsequently chose 21 items structured into three
factors. The inner consistency is bound by Cronbach’s α coeﬃcient as follows:
SP – 0.79; SS – 0.85 and SA – 0.72. In our research, the respondents were given
the Czech translation of the Slovakian version of the TSIS, used by Baumgartner,
Karaﬀová and Matejová (2011), who conﬁrmed the identical content of the
3-factor structure. The results of the inner consistency of the individual scales
were: SP – 0.77, SS – 0.72 and SA – 0.62. The scale was applied to 10+ year-old
individuals.
The TSIS includes 21 self-assessing items which the respondents answered using
a 7-point measuring scale of agreement (1 = disagree strongly, 7 = agree strongly).
The scale is divided into three subscales (SIP, SS, SA) and subscales SIP and SA
show the cognitive aspect and SS shows the behavioral aspect of social intelligence.
Each area contains 7 questions.
SIP (Social Information Processing): This area contains questions which identify how individuals are able to predict the behavior of other people, whether they
are aware how their actions inﬂuence others’ feelings, whether they understand
others’ feelings and their wishes, whether they can understand others without
having to say anything, and furthermore, whether they are aware of how people
will react to their behavior ad whether they understand people based on their
nonverbal behavior.
SS (Social Skills): This area includes questions concerning the feelings when in
company of new people, orientation in social situations, in meeting new people,
getting along with new people, getting to know others, making new relations and
ﬁnding suitable conversation topics with new people.
SA (Social Awareness): Here we can ﬁnd questions about feelings how individuals understand other people’s decisions, whether they are surprised by actions
other people take, whether they are able to upset people without knowing the
cause, whether they see people to be unpredictable, whether they are upset when
Social Intelligence of Gifted Pupils
135
they say what they really think, whether they are getting hurt without realizing it,
and whether they are surprised by others’ reactions to their own actions.
The TSIS research tool was used by a collective of researchers in the Czech
Republic and Slovakia (e.g. Baumgartner, Vasilová, 2006; Baumgartner, Zacharová,
2011; Birknerová, 2011), in Italy (Gini, 2005), in Turkey (Dogan, Çetin, 2009), etc.
We presume that the TSIS tool has not been applied to the question of gifted
children yet.
The sample of respondents consisted of the monitored and comparative
group. The monitored group (gifted children) consisted of 80 respondents aged
11 – 15 (13.66, D-30, CH-50) from seven regions of the Czech Republic, with
most representatives from Jihomoravský Region and the capital city, Prague.
The monitored group is referred to as gifted children. They are the children who
have successfully solved the Mensa IQ test with the score higher than 130 points,
which responds to the intelligence of two percent of population. It is a nonverbal test conducted in groups, based on the Stanford - Binet scale and Cattell’s
theory of intelligence, adapted for the purpose of mass testing of intelligence.
Out of the 80 gifted children, there were 34 students of grammar school with
a specialized program for gifted children, 21 students of primary schools with
a specialized program for gifted children, 19 students of common primary school
and 6 students of common grammar school. The children were selected for the
questionnaires by the staﬀ members of the free time activities centers, which
are conducted by the company unifying the children who successfully solve the
aforementioned test.
The comparative group (children with no diagnosed giftedness) consisted of
177 respondents aged 11 – 15 (13.57, D-86, CH-91) from the identical regions
in the identical ratio. All the children attended common primary schools without any specialized programs for gifted children and had not been diagnosed
regarding their giftedness yet. The students were administered the TSIS scale via
their class teachers. The scale was always ﬁlled in by the whole class of students
in order not to distort the results by the participation of only some motivated
students.
Research results
During the ﬁrst phase of the data processing, a hypothesis for the veriﬁcation
of the data normality was stated to ensure the selection of a proper test for testing
the hypotheses.
136
Vincent Charles, Tatiana Gherman
Based on the test results, the data do not come from normal distribution (p < 0.5
at the bigger averages). It is not possible to use parametric tests. Instead of the
T-Test, the U-Test was used.
Hypotheses processing
H1: Social intelligence in the area of social information processing of the
children from the monitored group is higher than the social intelligence
of the children from the comparative group.
Based on the test results, H₀ (p = 0.677079; p > 0.05) is accepted. The H1
hypothesis was not conﬁrmed. The research shows that there is no statistically
signiﬁcant diﬀerence between gifted children and children with no diagnosed
giftedness regarding the social information processing. Both groups have to be
viewed equally in the area of social information processing.
H2: Social intelligence of the children from the monitored group in the area of
social skills is lower than that of the children from the comparative group.
Based on the test results, HA (p = 0.029234; p < 0.05) is accepted. The H2
hypothesis was conﬁrmed. The research shows that there is a statistically signiﬁcant diﬀerence between he monitored group and the comparative group.
H3: Social intelligence in the area of social awareness of the children from the
monitored group is higher than that of the children from the comparative
group.
Based on the test results, HA (p = 0.005716; p < 0.05) is accepted. The H3
hypothesis was not conﬁrmed. The research shows that there is a statistically
signiﬁcant diﬀerence between social awareness of the gifted children and children
with no diagnosed giftedness. The children with no diagnosed giftedness achieved
higher values in the area of social awareness.
Summary and discussion
The aim of the research was to ﬁnd out whether there is a diﬀerence in the
structure of social intelligence of gifted children and children with no diagnosed
giftedness. The total score of the social intelligence test was not monitored during
the research.
Our conception of social intelligence was based on Silvera et al. (2001), who
divided its aspects into behavioral aspects and cognitive aspects, which corre-
Social Intelligence of Gifted Pupils
137
sponds to our research question. The TSIS research tool was used for assessing
social intelligence and its components. It is a self-assessing methodology, therefore
it is necessary to interpret the research results with respect to the individuality of
the self-assessment of every individual researched, which can be notably distorted
during the period of adolescence.
Children aged 11 – 15, which is the period of the biggest changes in social intelligence (Hébert, 2011), were selected for the research group. This age was selected
because of the common structure of a comparative group in a research group
when children attend a common primary school without any specialization. We
are interpreting the data aware of the fact that the comparative group may include
children who could have been included in the gifted children group but due to not
having solved the identiﬁcation method, they were not included in the gifted children
group. Because of this, the number of the children in the comparative group was
more than twice as high as the number of the children in the gifted group.
A onedimensional deﬁnition of giftedness, where the individual who succeeded
in the aforementioned test of academic intelligence with a desired score was considered to be a gifted individual, was chosen for the selection of gifted children.
Multidimension deﬁnitions and subsequently more extensive identiﬁcation strategies, which can describe the giftedness structure in more detail, are usually used
for the identiﬁcation of giftedness. Onedimensional deﬁnitions were selected in
order to receive the highest number of respondents possible. The gifted children
from our research group were Mensa ČR members or at least they successfully
took part in their testing. Information about the extent of the basic selective group
of these individuals in the Czech Republic is not known.
The research results conﬁrmed only a part of our hypotheses based on the
theoretical background of the study. If we focus on the behavioral area (eﬀective behavior, the ability to successfully inﬂuence others), the children with no
diagnosed giftedness achieved signiﬁcantly higher values in the social skills area,
as had been assumed. This ﬁnding corresponds to the aforementioned socialemotional characteristics of gifted individuals (T.L. Gross, 2011). The hypothesis
was deﬁned in concordance with the surroundings which the gifted children come
from. Most of them attend primary school or grammar school with a specialized
educational program for gifted individuals, which is, according to our previous
qualitative research (Machů, 2013), one of the factors of stereotyping of gifted
children, which changes their position in society. Another reason could be the
gender imbalance of the research group (62.5% of them were boys) and the lower
level of the behavioral area of the social intelligence of boys, which is described
in academic papers but was not demonstrated in the adult age of the individuals
138
Vincent Charles, Tatiana Gherman
(Mackintosh, 2000). Another reason could be the type of the self-assessing written
social intelligence scale, which may be more suitable for girls.
Regarding the subscales of social information processing and social awareness
connected with the cognitive aspect of social intelligence, we unexpectedly found
a higher (social awareness) or identical (social information processing) level of
these abilities of the children with no diagnosed giftedness. This ﬁnding may also
be connected with the surroundings of most of the gifted children, i.e. specialized
schools for gifted children where, as we assume, there are no educational programs
focused on social and personal competence development. This assumption is also
made in foreign research (Gilson, 2009). Another reason may be frequent research
in the questionnaire form for the gifted children from specialized schools, which
may signiﬁcantly lower their motivation for conscientious answering the questions.
Conclusion
Social intelligence plays a signiﬁcant role in the individual’s life, not only in
interpersonal communication but also in the understanding of oneself. It was
found out that the gifted children have an identical or a lower level of selected
areas of social intelligence than the children with no diagnosed giftedness. Thus,
it is necessary for the schools with specialized programs for gifted children to
emphasise not only the development of the intellectual but also the nonintellectual
aspects of personaliy, such as more frequent inclusion of the topics of personalsocial education. Not developing of the social competences of children may
subsequently lead to their exclusion from common society and even to the loss, or
non-utilization of the potential of their giftedness.
The paper was supported by grant IGA, n. IGA/FHS/2013/007.
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Dalliane Vanessa Pires Andrade,
Jamerson Viegas Queiroz,
Fernanda Cristina Barbosa Pereira Queiroz,
Gustavo Henrique Silva de Souza,
Nilton Cesar Lima,
Jamil Ramsi Farkat Diógenes
Brazil
The Importance
of Total Quality Management Systems
for Managers of Brazilian Universities
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to analyse from the perspective of the manager,
the importance of the use of tools and concepts of quality management in the
Brazilian federal universities. It was identiﬁed that the managers of these universities consider it as very important to use administrative practices contained in
quality management systems as eﬃcient and eﬀective methodology to conduct
the management of these institutions. The research serves as a statement for the
other 172 university managers to be supporters of quality practices contained in
management systems in question to achieve better results and better grades in
rankings series.
Keywords: Total Quality Management, awareness of quality, Brazilian federal
universities.
Introduction
The problem of quality has aﬀected the Brazilian education system. The waste,
the disconnection with reality, the inadequacy of the curricula and forms of
internal actions, combined with the lack of motivation for the Administration,
are the main weaknesses that aﬄict the country’s universities. According to Ven-
The Importance of Total Quality Management Systems
141
turini (2010), a public university in our country faces the question of the quality
of its activities and the way it has employed the resources that society puts at its
disposal.
In this scenario, debates have been encouraged about quality in higher education and according to Sayeda et al. (2010), quality management initiatives have
made their way to higher education. With the certiﬁcation bodies, the concept of
internationalization and competitiveness in these institutions has reached new
dimensions (Mizikaci, 2006).
In this sense, quality management systems in universities are being defended as
a necessary instrument to raise institutional qualiﬁcation, promoting the improvement of teaching, research, and extension of management. These systems play
an important role in increasing the levels of quality, safety, eﬃciency, reliability,
satisfaction, productivity and work, as well as cost reduction (Al-Rawahi & Bashir,
2011).
However, according to the data from INMETRO (2012), the presence of quality
management systems in the academic sector is endless, as well as the research
done by Fowler et al. (2011) on the use of the Gespública. The reasons for the lack
of adhesion of the IES are the most varied. While some do not care for quality
programs depending on the complexity of their applications, others are unaware
of their existence or even their applicability in industry (Fowler et al., 2011).
The presented study aims to analyze from the perspective of the manager, the
importance of the use of tools and concepts of quality management in federal
universities.
The article is organized as follows: in addition to this introductory section,
section 2 presents the theoretical principles of quality management systems in
educational organizations. Section 3 deals with the methodology of this article;
section 4 contains analysis of data; section 5 presents the ﬁnal considerations of
the paper.
Quality management systems in educational organizations
If public universities face a bureaucratic dilemma, private institutions – with
more autonomy to make decisions - experience structural issues. In general, higher
education institutions are dedicated to meeting the most pressing needs, such
as tax evasion and, in particular, the certiﬁcation and the Brazilian Ministry of
Education (MEC) evaluations. However, these issues can be prevented or even
excluded from the adoption of a quality management system (Baroni, 2010).
142
Dalliane Vanessa Pires Andrade, Jamerson Viegas Queiroz, et al.
A quality management system consists of policies, procedures, plans, resources,
processes and demarcation of responsibility and authority, all of which are deliberately aimed at achieving products or quality levels compatible with customer
satisfaction and the goals of the organization. When these policies, procedures,
plans, etc., are taken together, they deﬁne how the organization works and how
quality is managed (Al-Rawahi & Bashir, 2011).
For Marques (2008), a quality management system enables the university to
manage more eﬃciently the social spending, guide students for better employment
opportunities and develop an education compatible with a society in constant
development.
The theoretical foundation is presented with the objective to support the
research and a better understanding of the concepts of quality in university
organizations and the importance of quality management systems as an instrument necessary for continuous improvement.
For Oliveira et al. (2010), the system of quality management in educational
organizations is to ensure the interest in the product, process or in business,
namely, the need to consider the expectations, not only of the internal or external
customers, but anyone interested in business, who are the stakeholders (shareholders, customers, employees, suppliers and society). In addition to gaining visibility
in the market, it provides the integration of three basic factors for the success of
the educational organization: eﬀective strategy; eﬀective technology and eﬀective
management.
Both, the board of directors and top management should provide evidence of
commitment and ensuring the availability of resources. In synthesis, they must
ensure customer satisfaction and continuous improvement.
The senior management consists of a person or a group of people who runs
the educational organization at the highest hierarchical level (Oliveira, Corrêa &
Pereira, 2010). Only those who have the authority to approve changes in processes,
applications of ﬁnancial resources, changes in the personnel and technology
changes, may lead management systems eﬀectively.
It is important to emphasize that these quality programs have been shown to
meet tools deployed and that can be applied in higher education, as a means of
continuous improvement, whereas quality management systems are necessary
instruments to raise institutional qualiﬁcations.
The Importance of Total Quality Management Systems
143
ISO 9001
The ISO 9001 is an international standard in the ISO 9000 series that deﬁnes
a set of minimum requirements for the implementation of the SGQ (Goetsch &
Davis, 2005). The acronym “ISO” is a reference to the Greek word ISO, which means
equality (Oliveira et al., 2010). International Organization for Standardization
signiﬁes Organização Internacional de Normalização. It is a non-governmental
organization, founded in Geneva – Switzerland in 1947, today present in several
countries.
The ISO standard is a generic management system which, although originally
applied to industrial environments, is also being adopted in large and small, commercial and service (Walker & Johnson, 2009; Psomas et al., 2013), public and
private organizations (Gamboa & Melão, 2012; Wittmann, 2011).
According to the data of INMETRO (2012), 33,764 certiﬁcates have been issued
in Brazil, today this number is only 156 business units with standard ISO 9001:
2000 standard and ISO standard 9001: 2008, 5,235 of this total may be aﬃrmed
that there are 280 educational institutions with certiﬁcations ISO 9001 granted:
2000 and ISO 9001: 2008, where only 8 are of higher education in the universe of
2,377 public and private institutions of higher education.
According to Thonhauser and Passmore (2006), recent times have seen the
growing interest of educational institutions in the implementation of ISO 9000,
however, there is little empirical research about that (Gamboa & Melão, 2012).
Some authors (Peters, 1999; Labaree, 2000) question the relevance of the series ISO
9000 for education. Others (Stimson, 2003; Bae, 2007; Daud, Abd, Wahab, Muslim,
Sidek & Suradi, 2012) argue that ISO helps improve student achievement. There
are many studies (Moreland & Clark, 1998; Karapetrovic, Rajamani & Willborn,
1998; Karapetrovic, 2002; Sohail, Rajadurai & Rahman, 2003) examining its application in education, but most of them refer to the 1994 version of the standard
rather than the 2000 version that is substantially diﬀerent and more in line with
TQM (Martinez-Costa et al., 2009).
Some exceptions are Singh and Sareen (2006) and Thonhauser and Passmore
(2006), who investigate empirically the impact of ISO 9001: 2000 in educational
institutions. This literature conﬁrms that further research is needed to assess fully
the consequences of the adoption of ISO 9000 in educational institutions, including the identiﬁcation of the factors that aﬀect their success.
The implementation of a quality management system represents the optimization of processes within the organization and the continuous improvement
of products and services provided. In 2006, the Brazilian standard NBR 15419
144
Dalliane Vanessa Pires Andrade, Jamerson Viegas Queiroz, et al.
was originated, which has guidelines for the application of NBR ISO 9001 in
educational organizations, which can represent a breakthrough for the Brazilian
institutions of higher education (Oliveira, Corrêa & Pereira, 2010).
Methodology
Taking into consideration the goals of the research, it was exploratory and
descriptive in type, considering the technical procedures used in the research,
a literature search was conducted, with a quantitative approach, using a survey
method.
The technique involves the standardization of data collection instruments
(questionnaires and interviews) that are applied directly to a speciﬁc population,
whose behavior and characteristics are to be studied. It is suitable for testing
hypotheses, models and theoretically substantiated propositions (Forza, 2002).
The study comprised the Deans of federal universities classiﬁed among the
ﬁrst 20 places in the College Rankings Sheet – (RUF) in the year 2013, available
at: <ruf.folha.uol.com.br>. The RUF measured the quality of 192 institutions
according to ﬁve indicators: research, innovation, internationalization, and market
education.
Data collection was carried out initially through virtual contact, where the
respondents received an electronic invitation (email), registered on googledocs
<http://googledocs.com/>. However, due to the eventful agenda surveyed, it was
necessary to also implement the questionnaires by phone. Data collection took
place from September 5t to October 15t, 2013.
16 close-ended questions were used, modeled on a 5-point Likert scale. The
questionnaire was prepared by the authors based on the theoretical construct
presented in this study. The data from the questionnaires were analyzed with the
aid of statistical program Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS).
Results
The managers were asked 16 questions presented in the table below (Table 1).
To these, between the options of answers (not important, unimportant, indiﬀerent,
important and very important), most gave the following answers:
In sum, it appears that only one variable was considered “Important”, and all
the others considered “Very important”. The managers generally consider it as
145
The Importance of Total Quality Management Systems
Table 1. Analysis summary
Aﬃrmatives
Answers
V1 – Quality practice in the academic sector is important
Very important
V2 – Improvements in the hierarchical structure of the institution are
important
Important
V3 – Continuous improvement in the management of institutional processes is important
Very important
V4 – It is important to provide resources for the promotion of related
activities to “Quality” in the University
Very important
V5 – Information about the customers ‘ perception of the university as to Very important
their requirements and needs is important
V6 – Projection of consistent indicators and measurement of clear targets and service cost in university is important
Very important
V7 – Establishment of a model of planning and distribution of tasks
with results evaluation in university is important
Very important
V8 – It is important to have managers with innovative proﬁle at the
university
Very important
V9 – Organizational simpliﬁcation of the university is important
Very important
V10 – The use of quality systems in universities, such as 5s, Seis sigma,
ISO 9001, NBR 15419: 2006, Gespública, MEG, among others, is
important
Very important
V11 – It is important to stimulate within the institution the inconformity
with current quality levels
Very important
V12 – It is important to eliminate communication barriers within the
university
Very important
V13 – Human resources are the crucial factor for the success of any policy Very important
of improvement at the university
V14 – Disclosure of quality programs at the university is important
Very important
V15 – It is important to make the university partner of quality programs
Very important
V16 – He fact that the university is “Knowledge Manager” is a FACILITATOR of accession of quality programs
Very important
very important to use tools and concepts of quality management in their institutions.
However when analysis was made of mean values and standard deviation
(Picture 1), it was found out that not all the managers who considered the quality practice in the academic sector as very important agreed that it was important to use quality systems and management practices in their institutions, which
are geared to meet the requirements of the Brazilian Ministry of Education
(MEC).
146
Dalliane Vanessa Pires Andrade, Jamerson Viegas Queiroz, et al.
Picture 1. Aﬃrmatives Frequency
It is observed that variables V9, V10, V11 were considered unimportant by
some managers, as shown in Figure 2:0 pm their minimum values. And variables
V2, V10 and V11 obtained less average in the aﬃrmative.
Conclusions
Quality management systems in scientiﬁc academic sectors have been considered as a necessary instrument to raise institutional qualiﬁcations, promoting the
improvement of teaching, research, and extension of management, however, the
presence of managerial systems of this type in the Brazilian academic sector is
still irrelevant.
The results of this research contribute to the question of the use of total quality
management systems in Brazilian universities and managers’ awareness of the
importance of quality practices in the achievement of the best results.
Therefore, it becomes possible to plan the implementation of these systems in
environments of work coordinated by them. And having as parameter that most
managers of the 20 best universities in the country (according to the RUF Rank-
The Importance of Total Quality Management Systems
147
ing) have a positive opinions on the adoption of these systems, stimulates the
remaining 172 managers of universities listed in the Ranking to be too adept at
applying the quality management systems in their academic units.
As a recommendation for future work, there is a need to conduct an evaluation
of the importance of a new quality in the perception of the manager, in a more
comprehensive way, addressing all of the institutions cited in the RUF Ranking,
assuring that Brazilian university managers are adept at the use of quality management systems in their institutions.
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Acknowledgements
Article funded with resources from Chamada Pública MCTI/CNPq nº 14/2013 – Universal/Universal 14/2013 – Faixa B – até R$ 60.000,00, processo 471681/2013-0.
Mariola Chomczyńska-Rubacha
Poland
Psychosocial and Organizational Aspects
of Didactic Achievement:
Sex, School-type, and Self-esteem
Abstract
The results presented here are taken from empirical studies relating to the relation between academic achievement and sex, type of school, and self-esteem, as
well as self-esteem and sex, school level, and academic achievement. Aside from
speciﬁc issues, these results show, ﬁrst, that levels of achievement and self-esteem
in middle school show much lower values than in high school and primary school.
Secondly, although girls show a higher level of achievement, there is no diﬀerence
between their self-esteem compared to the self-esteem of boys.
Keywords: academic achievement, self-esteem, sex, middle schools, primary
schools, high schools
The Problem
One of the parameters for describing and explaining school educational
practices is academic achievement, which constitutes a quality indicator for the
functioning of the education system as well as for pupils’ individual academic
success. The ﬁrst of these highlighted aspects can be combined with the stages of
learning, under which is concealed, among other things, the culture of the school.
Schools are often described in terms of culture primarily focused on educational
discipline. The measure of a school’s success is more often determined by the ability to adapt students’ behaviour to the teaching requirements than the level of
didactic achievement. The situation looks diﬀerent in high schools and in middle
Psychosocial and Organizational Aspects of Didactic Achievement
151
schools, where the cultural weight lies with a focus on academic achievement (cf.
Elwood 2005, pp.374-380, Chomczyńska-Rubacha 2011, sp120). However, middle
schools, which are diﬃcult to describe using these categories, seem to dodge this
convenient classiﬁcation. Confronted by these circumstances, it would seem reasonable to try to pinpoint the relationship between the type of school in the above
sense and its didactic achievements. As much as you can predict the direction of
this relationship while comparing primary schools to high schools, this type of
analysis is more diﬃcult to perform when dealing with the relation of primary
schools with the other types of schools. Such a comparison would create the space
for the analysis and interpretation of didactic achievements as a quality indicator
for the functioning of the education system. However, the second aspect highlighted, i.e., the individual aspect of pupils’ academic success is more connected
to psychosocial determinants of didactic achievements than organizational ones.
Analyses can be carried out both with respect to didactic achievement diﬀerentiation factors and their potential consequences. For all that, in this unstable space
there are phenomena which could be categorized to either side, either as factors
or eﬀects. Such is the nature of self-esteem, which in empirical research is situated
as a ﬁxed variable as often as it is a random variable. In the ﬁrst instance, we are
trying to see whether self-esteem modiﬁes didactic achievements, and secondly
whether it changes under the inﬂuence of the latter. Such a setup arises from the
theoretical character of self-esteem (Rosenberg 1989). Self-value judgments and
their emotional and motivational aspects arise, on the one hand, because of the
broadly understood experience of the individual, but on the other hand, they are
responsible for diﬀerent aspects of the experience, e.g., for academic1, and more
speciﬁcally, didactic achievement (cf. Harter 1990, pp.68 -96). Thus, achievement,
as the aspect of experience in which we are interested, can inﬂuence self-esteem;
but also self-esteem can take part in explaining the variability. Still, however we
may wish to establish this relation in its course, a fundamental discriminating variable, namely sex, turns up. Reports from studies on self-esteem (Kling et al. 1999,
pp.480-485, Bussey, Bandura (1999, pp.676-713) and academic achievement (e.g.
Konarzewski 2004 p.70) indicate that female students have lower self-esteem than
male students, but in turn they have higher levels of academic achievement. This
relation is poorly explained and rather intricate. It could be, in fact, expected that
given the correlation between self-esteem and academic achievement there should
also emerge a higher level of academic achievement for boys when compared with
1
The concepts of academic achievement and didactic achievement will be used interchangeably. Didactic achievements are an instance of academic achievement.
152
Mariola Chomczyńska-Rubacha
girls. Research, however, has not conﬁrmed this prediction. This might be due to
many factors, one of which seems to be the source of self-esteem, which in men is
thought to be based on the results of past actions, while in women it is based on
interpersonal relationships (cf. Kling, 1999, pp. 480-490). Putting this consideration aside for the moment, it is worth taking note of the fact that the academic
achievement of students may be related to their self-esteem, and, furthermore,
that this relation also represents one of the possible explanations regarding the
educational success of schools.
The three variables taken into consideration: the type of school, sex, and selfesteem can modify academic achievement not only in bilateral relations, but also
in interactions among them. However, embarking on the study we had planned
to ask questions regarding the space in which we might explain both academic
achievement and self-esteem, since the status of self-esteem in respect of academic
success is not unequivocal. In the ﬁrst study we introduce sex, type of school, and
self-esteem into the analysis model, while in the second study, next to sex and type
of school we introduce academic achievement.
Method
The study was conducted on a random sample of male and female students
from primary schools, middle schools and high schools located in the KujawskoPomorskie region. Four variables: sex, type of school, academic achievement, and
self-esteem were measured2. The constant variables were sex and type of school.
Subjects were randomized using multiple-stage and proportional sampling. After
drawing the locality, schools and subsequently classes were drawn, making sure
to attain a proportional selection of male and female students. A total of 383
individuals were selected and 370 empirical sets were used in the analysis.
The random variables were didactic achievements and self-esteem. Achievements were deﬁned and measured as the average grades in common subjects
in each type of school. This variable has three values: low, average, and high, all
of which were determined using the measurement percentiles. Self-esteem was
measured using Dzwonkowska’s SES scale (Dzwonkowska et al. 2007, pp. 164-176).
The Polish adaptation of Morris Rosenberg’s scale is based on the author’s concept
of global self-esteem, and is therefore most often operationalized in studies on
2
The data for these studies were gathered by a team of students from the scientiﬁc circle
WNP UMK under the guidance of Dr Magdalena Cuprjak.
153
Psychosocial and Organizational Aspects of Didactic Achievement
Table 1. Dispersion of the sex variable against type of school
Type of School
Primary
Female
Sex
Male
Combined % from
Type of School
Numerical Amount
% From Type of School
Numerical Amount
% From Type of School
Numerical Amount
100.0%
Middle
High
Combined
99
52
27
178
51.3%
48.1%
39.1%
48.1%
94
56
42
192
48.7%
51.9%
60.9%
51.9%
193
108
69
370
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
Source: own research
the concept of self-esteem. In the meaning under discussion, “the concept of selfesteem is considered to be a synonym of one’s attitude towards ‘self ’, and thus the
emotions associated with the object which is my own ‘I’ linked (in the same way as
in attitude) with cognitive judgements about one’s self ” (Dzwonkowska et al., 2007,
p. 165). The scale has been positively veriﬁed for reliability and theoretical validity – factor and criterion validity. On the basis of the latter, it is possible to say that
the results of the SES test allow for a prediction of subjects’ social and emotional
functioning and some of the aspects of their task-orientation (Dzwonkowska et
al., 2007, p. 174). The scale has norms calculated for several populations, including adolescent population. The study was performed in quantitative strategies, in
comparative and correlated-regressive schemas (Rubacha 2008, pp. 358–367), as
a practical diagnostic test.
Result Analysis
Educational Achievement – Average Grades
The ﬁrst analyses regarded the relation between the average grades and types of
school. Table 2 shows that middle school achieved the lowest average grades. We
also calculated the signiﬁcance of diﬀerences between the average grades for the
diﬀerent types of schools.
The T-student test showed that there are signiﬁcant diﬀerences between the
average grades obtained in primary school and middle school: statistics t = 4,072;
p <0.05. In primary school, students scored higher averages than middle school
students in the subjects examined. Furthermore, there are signiﬁcant statistical
Mariola Chomczyńska-Rubacha
154
Table 2. Comparison of average grades for all types of school
Average grade
Type
of school
N
Average
Standard
deviation
Standard error
of averages
Primary
193
3.49
1.03
.074
Middle
108
2.99
1.00
.096
High
69
3.30
.64
.077
Source: own research
diﬀerences between the average grades obtained in middle school and high school:
t = -2.334; p <0.05. Middle school students received lower average grades than high
school students. There were no signiﬁcant diﬀerences between primary school
and high school. The diﬀerences between middle school and primary school and
high school may indicate a distinct status for middle school with equal respect
to primary school as to high school. If no diﬀerences had arisen, e.g., between
middle school and high school, and diﬀerences showed up between high school
and primary school, we would be speaking of a similarity or proximity of middle
school achievements with those of high school. The layout of the data suggests the
existence of “a dip” in didactic achievement right in the middle of the education
process. Perhaps this is an eﬀect similar to the one which was recorded when
middle school had not yet formed a part of the Polish education system. However,
at that time this eﬀect only concerned the ﬁrst year of high school. In our study,
the data was taken from all the years of middle school education. Returning to the
topic of school culture, we can indirectly see that there is no breakthrough in the
direction of a culture of academic achievement for middle schools. Taking also
into account the reports from research conducted on education problems in middle schools, e.g., the high level of aggressiveness among male and female students
(Szczepanik 2004, pp. 95 and on, Brzezińska, Hornowska 2002, pp. 45-48) it can be
assumed that middle schools come closer to a culture focused on discipline. However, didactic achievements prove weaker than the level below and, in comparison,
educational problems are more serious. Further attempts to interpret this state of
aﬀairs would result in speculation, as the data available here are rather limited.
Perhaps it would be worth focusing on the everydayness of middle schools, which
would require a qualitative research strategy.
Table 3 presents data on the relationship between academic achievement and
the sex of the respondents. Tests showed that there were statistically signiﬁcant
diﬀerences between women and men in terms of the analyzed variable, namely,
155
Psychosocial and Organizational Aspects of Didactic Achievement
Table 3. Comparison of average grades by sex
Statistics for groups
Average grades
Sex
N
Average
Standard
deviation
Standard error
of average
Female
178
3.52
1.03
.077
Male
192
3.11
.89
.064
Source: own research
women received higher grades than men in schoolwork (t = 3.984, p <0.05). This
is not a new result.
Research has indicated an advantage of girls over boys, not only in academic
achievement measured by grade point average, but also in other parameters of
academic assessment. This phenomenon is commonly called “the boy crisis in
education” and is often connected with the cultural transmission of sex, or with
the “nature” of boys as being more aggressive, focused rather on physical strength
than intellectual achievements (cf., Francis, B., Skelton Ch. 2005 Muszyńska 2004,
p.46). In this context, it is interesting whether sex interacts with the type of school,
because – as commonly accepted – high school favours intellectual achievements,
creating a more diﬃcult environment than primary school for the “nature” of boys.
After carrying out the two-way ANOVA we identiﬁed the eﬀects of sex (F = 8, p
<0.05) and type of school (F = 9.23, p <0.05), but found no interactive eﬀect (F
= 1.8 ni), and thus no simple eﬀects: values of sex over values for each type of
school. What this means is that girls have higher levels of achievement than boys,
regardless of the type of school. An interpretation which might allude to the “crisis
of masculinity” is not the only possible interpretation. One might also explain
this phenomenon by appeal to the eﬀect of an intensiﬁcation of the processes of
socialization upon strengthening characteristics of stereotypical masculinity that
does not fall within the institution’s deﬁnition of academic achievement. It may be
that schools do not harm male students with their “feminine” requirements, but
rather with their androcentrism, visible in the socialization aﬀects to which boys
are exposed.
All the variables were placed in the area of academic achievement, building
a linear regression model with standardized beta weights (Rubacha, p. 237). Table
4 shows that all the variables could be introduced into the model. The equation is
statistically signiﬁcant, indicating that didactic achievements are in 19 percent of
cases determined by sex, by the type of school in 11 percent, and by self-esteem
Mariola Chomczyńska-Rubacha
156
in 22 percent. The highest beta weight was obtained by self-esteem, and this is
a positive weight; therefore self-esteem is conducive to academic achievement.
The other variables had a negative weight. One could therefore say that the higher
the number of female students or primary school students in a studied group,
the higher will be the level of achievement in that group. Considering academic
achievement, one cannot therefore ignore any of the analyzed factors.
Table 4. Linear regression equation for academic achievement (Beta weights)
Model
1
Non-standardized
coeﬃcients
Standardized
coeﬃcients
t
Signiﬁcance
16.28
.000
B
Standard
error
(Constant)
3.56
.21
Sex
–.370
.09
–.188
–3.78
.000
School type
–.144
.06
–.113
–2.27
.024
Self-esteem
.274
.06
.227
4.57
.000
Beta
Source: own research
It is worth noting that in social research one must link the variable of sex with
characteristics of femininity and masculinity, and not with the respondents’ secondary sexual characteristics (Elwood, 2005, pp. 378-379, Francis, Skelton 2005).
Thus, the constellation of traits characterized in our culture as feminine rather
than masculine is in fact more conducive to academic achievement.
Self-esteem
The ﬁrst variable established for self-esteem was type of school. The highest
levels of self-esteem were revealed in male and female students in high school, the
second highest in primary school students.
The lowest self-esteem was represented by middle school students. These
relations were conﬁrmed by the statistically signiﬁcant t-student test. In the pair
primary school – middle school (t = 1.98, p <0.05), younger students attained
a more advantageous self-esteem average. Similarly, in the pair middle school –
high school (t = 2.55, p <0.05) primary school students clearly diﬀered from high
school students in terms of self-esteem. For a second time we were encountering
data showing lower parameters of academic functioning in middle school students
157
Psychosocial and Organizational Aspects of Didactic Achievement
Table 5. Comparison of self-esteem levels for types of school
N
Average
Standard
deviation
Standard error
of average
Primary
193
2.05
.82
Middle
108
1.86
.77
High
69
2.17
.82
.05
.07
.09
Type of school
SES
Source: own research
compared with students of other types of schools. It was believed that the interpretive trail might lead, in this case, to the analysis of the sources of self-esteem. One
of these sources is the feedback which an individual receives from others, namely
from teachers in the form of grades (cf., Marchis 2012, pp. 295–203). These in turn
should not generate a high level of self-esteem compared with that of male and
female students from primary school and high school.
Another analytical issue is the dependence of self-esteem on the sex of the
respondents. In this respect, there were no statistically signiﬁcant diﬀerences
found (t = (–1.75), n et al.), and Table 6 shows almost identical averages for girls
and boys.
Table 6. Comparison of self-esteem levels for sex
Sex
SES
N
Average
Standard deviation
Standard error for
average
Female
178
2.03
.87
.065
Male
192
2.00
.75
.054
Source: own research
Two questions immediately arise, the ﬁrst of which concerns this result as it
regards the higher level of achievement noticed among girls compared with boys.
It would seem, based on the regression equation presented above, that if selfesteem is an important factor in explaining academic achievement, female students
should present a higher average. This expectation can be formulated in isolation
from the results of research conducted within the framework of gender studies,
as we know that the proﬁle of socialization pressures for girls is not conducive to
strengthening their self-esteem, as in the case of boys (Gurian, 2002). As a result,
higher achievements do not translate into higher self-esteem. The second question
Mariola Chomczyńska-Rubacha
158
is linked with the predominance of research results in which boys/men reveal
higher self-esteem than girls/women (cf., Bem 2000 Chomczyńska-Rubacha 2011,
pp. 118-124). The lack of diﬀerences in these results may be an indicator of cultural
change through which girls and women learn to break with the disadvantageous
tendencies of socialization (cf., Rubacha 2012, pp. 90-93).
Finally, as in the case of academic achievement, a regression equation was constructed for self-esteem as an explanatory variable along with the type of school,
sex, and academic achievement (grade point average). Table 7 presents the results
of this analysis.
Table 7. Regression results for self-esteem variable (Beta weight)
Model
1
Non-standardized
coeﬃcient
B
Standard error
(Constant)
1.23
.23
Sex
.033
.049
.198
.08
.05
.04
Type of school
Average grades
Standardized
coeﬃcient
t
Signiﬁcance
5.23
.000
.39
.91
4.57
.695
.362
.000
Beta
.02
.04
.24
Source: own research
In the equation, only the average grade remained an indicator of academic
achievement, explaining 24% of the variability of self-esteem. Sex and type of
school did not enter into the statistically signiﬁcant equation. Thus, we can deﬁnitely say that self-esteem and academic achievement are the determinate variables
for each other. Achievements explain self-esteem and self-esteem explains achievements. These relationships are positive, so we can assume that the higher one’s
self-esteem, the higher one’s level of achievement and vice versa. Detailed results,
however, show that this relation is modiﬁed due to sex, cultural background, and
essentially the cultural conditioning entailed in being a woman or a man. Despite
girls clearly showing a higher level of achievement, their self-esteem rises less than
the self-esteem of boys.
Another issue “invoked” by these studies is the motivational situation surrounding middle school students. They show a much lower level of achievement, and
thus self-esteem. It is in the context of motivation that this eﬀect can be considered
dangerous. If these two variables: achievement and self-esteem, as this study, but
also many other studies, shows (Rheinberg 2006, pp. 83-92), mutually condition
each other, one can expect to encounter a vicious circle: a lower level of achieve-
Psychosocial and Organizational Aspects of Didactic Achievement
159
ment produces lower self-esteem, and this in turn hinders achievement. This circle
will likely be interrupted by the eﬀects of other variables, but these variables have
yet to be determined.
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Bing-Yuh Lu, Jin-Shin Lai,
Ming-Chia Lin
Taiwan
An Experience
of the Evergreen Elder University in Taiwan:
Perspectives On The Mobile Users
Abstract
Population aging has become an increasingly severe problem in recent years.
Based on the diversity of the mobile functions, and the advanced mobile technology, the elders might use the modern mobile to get the conveniences of the elder’s
living.
In our study, 34 senior citizens in the UK, and 56 persons in Taiwan, students
of the Evergreen Elder University, answered the questions. The compared results
showed that the factor of personal or family dependence and technology dependence are dominant in the UK, but the factors of personal or family dependence and
social dependence are dominant in Taiwan. Elders’ education will be a hot topic
of education because of the increasing population of elders. The key variables, i.e.
demographic, social, psychological, and technological ones, are satisﬁed to be the
growth of elders’ education in many developed and developing countries. Based
on the duties and resources of the religions and universities, a diversity of elders’
education can be expected.
Keywords: elders’ education, mobile, technology acceptance
Introduction
Population aging has become an increasingly severe problem in recent years. In
view of this, the United Nations designated 1982 the International Year of Older
Persons and held the World Assembly on Aging in Vienna, Austria over 2 weeks
162
Bing-Yuh Lu, Jin-Shin Lai, Ming-Chia Lin
beginning on July 26, 1982. The purpose of this assembly was to promote the recognition of the problem of aging in developing countries and to facilitate coping
strategies. The assembly also warned that population aging would result in severe
social problems on a global scale.
Mobile communication is very popular in modern countries. Because of the
real-time mobile communication, people can connect with others any time, and
anywhere. Based on the diversity of the mobile functions and the advanced mobile
technology, elders might use the modern mobile to get the conveniences of the
elder’s living. Therefore, the technology acceptance of new mobile functions is
a valuable topic for the educators of elders, mobile venders and industries to meet
the increasing population of world elders.
Davis (1989) studied the perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user
acceptance of information technology. Kwon & Chidambaram (2000) began to
study the cellular phone adoption to test the technology acceptance model. Sarker
& Wells (2003) investigated the understanding of mobile handheld device use and
adoption. Venkatesh et al (2003) proposed a uniﬁed view to user acceptance of
information technology. Van Biljon (2007) presented A model for representing the
motivational and cultural factors that inﬂuence mobile phone usage variety. Judy
and Karen (2008) presented their investigation into mobile phone adoption by
older users. They reported factors that could inﬂuence mobile phone acceptance
of senior citizens. Factor analysis and questionnaire aided to build the adoption
matrix of technology acceptance through ﬁne reviewing the factors which have
been shown in the research of Davis (1989), Kwon & Chidambaram (2000), Sarker
& Wells (2003) Venkatesh et al (2003) and Van Biljon (2007).
An interesting aspect of the original motivation of this study was the comparison of the perspectives of the modern mobile functions of the senior citizens in
the UK and Taiwan. Therefore, we used the same questionnaires in the study of
Judy and Karen (2008) to scale the acceptance of mobile technology by the senior
users in Taiwan.
Method
The sampled senior users were the students of the Evergreen Elder University
(EEU) in Taipei, Taiwan. The name of the EEU is “Pine-Aging”, which means
a person who can live as long as pine, i.e. an “evergreen” or “forever young” person in Chinese. A precise introduction of the “Pine-Aging” EEU was described
as follows:
An Experience of the Evergreen Elder University in Taiwan
163
Churches inherently oﬀer favorable conditions for ameliorating the problems
of elderly people. These include spacious sites in which activities can be held,
outstanding pastors, Sunday school, church councils, and the Evergreen Fellowship system. These favorable temporal, geographical, and human elements can
promote the welfare of the elderly. Therefore, a systematic investigation should
be performed as soon as possible to facilitate the future promotion of the social
welfare of elderly people. In particular, the establishment of universities for the
elderly in churches should be given precedence. On April 28, 1990, Bang Kah Presbyterian Church proposed the establishment of a Bang Kah branch of Evergreen
University to the Evergreen Society and received consent in principle (Website
of Bang Kah Presbyterian Church). On May 12, 1990, the church held its ﬁrst
preparatory meeting for the establishment of the school and invited Pastor Li-Li
Guo from the main branch of Evergreen University at Hsinchu Presbyterian Bible
College to oﬀer guidance. The second and third preparatory meetings were held on
June 15, 1990, and June 22, 1990. Subsequently, a detailed proposal for the school
plan was developed and accepted at a church council meeting on July 14, 1990. The
documents required of enrolling students were prepared at this time. In addition
to public announcements and news releases, the church also invited pastors from
a number of churches, the chairman of the Evergreen Fellowship, and members
of the Taipei Presbytery. The Evergreen Department of the Taipei Presbytery gathered to celebrate Father’s Day on August 8, 1990. The Leaders Fellowship of the
Women’s Department of the Taipei Presbytery called for full support on August
20, 1990. By August 20, 1990, 36 students had registered. On September 10, 1991,
a ceremony was held to celebrate the opening of the school and classes oﬃcially
began in Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.
The experiences of the senior students can be communicated in the EEU, and
they can acquire more knowledge introduced by the invited instructors in class. In
our study, 56 persons who were the students of the EEU answered the questions in
the Appendix. They all lived in the Big Taipei Area, located in the north of Taiwan.
In Judy & Karen’s study, there were 34 sampled senior persons who answered the
questions.
Results
The mother tongue of the 34 sampled senior persons in the UK was English, but
in Taiwan there were 18 traditional Mandarin, 1 Hakka, 37 Taiwanese, and 9 both
traditional Mandarin and Taiwanese among the 56 sampled senior persons. The
Bing-Yuh Lu, Jin-Shin Lai, Ming-Chia Lin
164
compared results of questions 2 to 5 are presented in Figure 1. The compared
percentages of the samples (UK and Taiwan) were male (29.41%, 10.71%), female
(70.59%, 83.93%), and null (0%, 5.36%). The distribution of age was 60 to 69
(38.24%, 26.79%), 70 to 79 (47.06%, 42.86%), and 80 or elder (14.71%, 30.36%).
The mobiles of the samples were used by contract (55.88%, 71.43%), pay as you go
(44.12%, 7.14%), and null (0%, 21.43%). The mobiles of the sampled persons were
bought themselves (47.06%, 55.36%), others bought them for them (44.12%,
30.36%), passed on by someone else (8.82%, 7.14%), and null (0%, 7.14%). Generally speaking, the distribution of the answers to the 4 questions was closed. A large
diﬀerence occurred in the 4t question. Fortunately, the answers of “by contract”
in the UK and Taiwan were over 50%. Questions 1 to 5 explored the personal
information and the users’ mobile information. The sampled senior persons in the
UK and in Taiwan were randomly picked. Therefore, the similarity is not occasional. Some of the population distribution of age and social structure is similar
in both the UK and Taiwan. However, our study focused on the use of mobile
Age
100,00%
50,00%
80,00%
40,00%
Percentage
Percentage
Gender
60,00%
40,00%
20,00%
0,00%
UK
Taiwan
Male
29.41%
10.71%
Female
70.59%
83.93%
30,00%
20,00%
10,00%
0,00%
Null
0.00%
5.36%
UK
Taiwan
60 to 69
38.24%
26.79%
(a) Question 2
70 to 79
47.06%
42.86%
(b) Question 3
Is Your Phone
Did you
Percentage
Percentage
80,00%
60,00%
40,00%
20,00%
0,00%
Contract
Pay as you go
Null
UK
55.88%
44.12%
0.00%
Taiwan
71.43%
7.14%
21.43%
(c) Question 4
80 or elder
14.71%
30.36%
60,00%
50,00%
40,00%
30,00%
20,00%
10,00%
0,00%
Buy your
phone
It was
bought
for me
It was
passed
on by
someone
else
Null
UK
47.06%
44.12%
8.82%
0.00%
Taiwan
55.36%
30.36%
7.14%
7.14%
(d) Question 5
Figure 1. The compared results of the 2ⁿd to 5t questions
An Experience of the Evergreen Elder University in Taiwan
165
technology. Therefore, the small diﬀerences in these questions improve the value
of the following comparisons.
The 6t question included 5 scenarios of situations frequently encountered in
their everyday life. The responses of the senior persons are as follows:
Scenario 1
Jim lives alone. One of his children has emigrated. He is 75 years old and needs
to keep in touch. He has decided to get a mobile phone so he can receive pictures
and messages. Who should he get advice from before he goes to buy a phone?
A. people would ask their children (26.47%, 41.07%)
B. they should ask people of their own age (not their children) (5.88%, 14.29%)
C. people would go to mobile phone vendors for information (67.65%, 21.43%)
D. null (0%, 23.21%)
Scenario 2
Leslie is 75 years old with a mobile phone, which was given to him by his daughter, and he has been using it for 2 years. He now feels conﬁdent using it. She has
now renewed her contract and wants to give him her old mobile phone. Do you
think he will take it?
A. You can sell the old one (32.35%, 48.21%)
B. Memory loss and diﬃculty in learning (50%, 10.71%)
C. It depends on the person and the circumstances (17.65%, 23.21%)
D. null (0%, 17.86%)
Scenario 3
Pam has had a stroke. She is worried that it will happen again. Do you think she
could use her mobile phone in some way to make her feel less vulnerable?
A. mobile phone could be useful in emergencies (61.76%, 69.64%)
B. scared or confused or unable to ﬁnd spectacles (35.29%, 0%)
C. it was a good idea, but not particularly, since older people ﬁnd phones difﬁcult to use, even more so when stressed (2.94%, 3.57%)
D. null (0%, 26.79%)
Scenario 4
Peter, aged 85, needs to take his medication every day at noon and he keeps
forgetting. Can his mobile phone help him?
A. yes (82.35%, 75.00%)
B. no (14.71%, 5.36%)
166
Bing-Yuh Lu, Jin-Shin Lai, Ming-Chia Lin
C. not sure (2.94%, 10.71%)
D. null (0%, 8.93%)
Scenario 5
Tim likes to travel alone now that he has retired. His family is concerned about
him. He says they should not worry because he has his mobile phone with him.
Is he right?
A. yes (79.41%, 73.21%)
B. no (20.59%, 5.36%)
C. not sure (0%, 16.07%)
D. null (0%, 5.36%)
The 8t question investigated the most frequently used functions, every participant could select the top 3 most frequently used functions from 21 items.
The results are presented in Figure 3. The frequently used functions (over 10%)
were alarm (26%, 33%), camera (11%, 42%), check missed calls (11%, 42%), text
messages (41%, 41%), phone with phone book (70%, 23%), and phone typing in
number (32%, 5.3%).
Discussion
The perspective on the language for the education of EEU, language union is
a crucial advantage of elders’ learning, because it is impossible to ask a senior
person to learn a new language. English is the oﬃcial language not only in the UK,
but also in many other countries worldwide. Therefore, it is good for the UK for
its EEU education. In Taiwan, all people speak traditional Mandarin as the main
oﬃcial language. Elders’ mother tongues are diﬀerent, which was caused by the
history of Taiwan and China. Brieﬂy, language is not a communication problem
in Taiwan. However, traditional Mandarin in Taiwan, and simpliﬁed Chinese in
China are a little diﬀerent, and will be a barrier of EEU development from Taiwan
to China.
In the 2ⁿd question, females are the majority of the sampled elder persons. We
think it is not occasional in the UK and Taiwan. The reasons are the average life
and the social activities of gender diﬀerences (Williamson, 2000). This points out
the possibility of the future student of EEU. The distributions of age make no
diﬀerence. The main age range is 70 to 79, which might be a hint of the necessity of
elders’ education. In question 4, the majority of answers is mobile communication
Percentage
70.00%
60.00%
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
Ask their
children
Their own
age persons
Mobile
phone
vendors
Null
UK
26.47%
5.88%
67.65%
0.00%
Taiwan
41.07%
14.29%
21.43%
23.21%
Percentage
(ﬁg. 2a) Scenario 1
50.00%
45.00%
40.00%
35.00%
30.00%
25.00%
20.00%
15.00%
10.00%
5.00%
0.00%
Sell the old
one
Memory
loss…
Person and
the
circumstances
Null
UK
32.35%
50.00%
17.65%
0.00%
Taiwan
48.21%
10.71%
23.21%
17.86%
Percentage
(ﬁg. 2b) Scenario 2
70.00%
60.00%
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
Useful
in
emergencies
Scared
or confuse
UK
61.76%
35.29%
2.94%
0.00%
Taiwan
69.64%
0.00%
3.57%
26.79%
Good idea,
but not
particle…
(ﬁg. 2c) Scenario 3
Null
Percentage
100.00%
80.00%
60.00%
40.00%
20.00%
0.00%
UK
Yes
82.35%
No
14.71%
Not sure
2.94%
Null
0.00%
Taiwan
75.00%
5.36%
10.71%
8.93%
Percentage
(ﬁg. 2d) Scenario 4
80.00%
70.00%
60.00%
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
UK
Yes
79.41%
No
20.59%
Not sure
0.00%
Null
0.00%
Taiwan
73.21%
5.36%
16.07%
5.36%
(ﬁg. 2e) Scenario 5
Figure 2(a–e). The compared answers to of the 6th question which includes 5 scenarios
Frequently used functions
80.00%
70.00%
Percentage
60.00%
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
UK
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
26. 0.0 0.0 11. 11. 41. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 70. 32. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Taiwan 33. 7.1 10. 42. 42. 41. 1.7 7.1 1.7 8.9 14. 3.5 23. 5.3 5.3 0.0 8.9 0.0 3.5 0.0 0.0
Figure 3. The most frequently used functions. Every participant could select the top 3 most frequently used functions from 21 items.
Table 1. Factor analysis of scenarios 1 to 3.
Scenario Technology
1
2
3
Social
Personal or family
people would go to mobile they should ask people of
phone vendors for infortheir own age (not their
mation
children)
people would ask their
children / null
Memory loss and diﬃculty You can sell the old one
in learning
It depends on the person
and the circumstances /
null
mobile phone could be
useful in emergencies
scared or confused or
unable to ﬁnd spectacles
/ null
it was a good idea, but not
particularly since older
people ﬁnd phones difﬁcult to use, even more so
when stressed
0.00%
0,00%
00%
0.00%
0,00%
00%
0.00%
0,00%
00%
100%
17.65%
17,65%
90%
23.21%
23,21%
17.86%
17,86%
26.79%
26,79%
26.47%
26,47%
80%
70%
5.88%
5,88%
32.35%
32,35%
23.21%
23,21%
61.76%
61,76%
60%
41.07%
41,07%
50%
40%
48.21%
48,21%
69.64%
69,64%
30%
67,65%
67.65%
14.29%
14,29%
50.00%
50,00%
35.29%
35,29%
20%
10%
21.43%
21,43%
10.71%
10,71%
0.00%
0,00%
3.57%
3,57%
2(Taiwan)
3(Taiwan)
2.94%
2,94%
0%
1(UK)
2(UK)
Technology
3(UK)
Social
1(Taiwan)
Personal or family
Null
Figure 4. The results of factor analysis of scenarios 1 to 3.
170
Bing-Yuh Lu, Jin-Shin Lai, Ming-Chia Lin
by contract, which accounts for the success of wireless communication in both
countries. This also explains the majorities of the 5t question.
Lu and Tung (2012) have proposed a 3-dimensional factor analysis method to
show the relationship of interactive two factors with a quality scale. The question
of scenarios responded to the fact analysis of mobile technology acceptance. We
divided the answers to question 6 into 3 factors: technology dependence, social
dependence, and personal or family dependence, and the answers to scenarios
1 to 3 are shown in Table 1. Based on the data in Figure 2, we computed the
distributions and obtained Figure 4. In the UK, the factors of personal or family
dependence and technology dependence are dominant, but in Taiwan, the factors
of personal or family dependence and social dependence are dominant. Scenarios
4 and 5 use yes-no questions which show the acceptance of mobile functions in
healthcare. Most of the participants answered yes in the UK and Taiwan, i.e. technology dependence is dominant in both countries. In summary, the technology
dependence is the most dominant factor for senior citizens to use mobiles in the
UK and Taiwan.
The frequently used functions (over 10%) were alarm (26%, 33%), camera
(11%, 42%), checking missed calls (11%, 42%), text messages (41%, 41%), phone
with phone book (70%, 23%), and phone typing in number (32%, 5.3%). The
reasons for the diﬀerences, such as checking missed calls, camera, etc., are the fast
development of the smart phone to make some complex functions easy. The other
reason can be the fact that the sampled senior persons in Taiwan were students
in EEU. The social activities help them use the mobile smoothly. Lamb and Brady
(2005) pointed out that senior persons enriched their lives in a safe and nurturing
community where teachers and students work together. It is also a community in
which enough trust is established in a reasonably short period of time that people
feel comfortable sharing deep and personal communications with each other. Tung
et al. (2012) also indicated the importance of English in life-long learning (LLL).
Martin (2003) emphasized that demographic, social, or psychological variables are
key ones in LLL. However, the developing speed of modern technologies, which
include mobile, robot, wireless communication (Shibata et al., 2003; Venkatesh
et. al., 2003; Parlitz et al., 2007) and many other ﬁelds, is as fast as a ﬂying arrow.
Besides, adults nowadays work with the use of computers. Therefore, our study
prosed that the technology will be a new key variable in LLL in Martin’ study.
An Experience of the Evergreen Elder University in Taiwan
171
Conclusion
Elders’ education will be a hot topic of education because of the increasing
population of elders. The key variables, i.e. demographic, social, psychological, or technological ones, are satisﬁed to be the growth of elders’ education in
many developed and developing countries. Based on the duties and resources of
religions and universities, a diversity of elders’ education can be expected. The
results of the questionnaire in the study pointed out that it is possible to use new
mobile technology to aid elders’ education. The scenario studies showed that the
study in the UK presented the technological dependence, and the one in Taiwan
showed social dependence. However, it might be changed by the nature of modern
technology. Moreover, the population density is very high in Taiwan, so the social
dependence and person and family dependence are more obvious.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank for the valuable comments from Judy van Biljon (University of South
Africa, South Africa) and Karen Renaud (University of Glasgow, UK) and the support
from the project numbers of NSC101-2221-E-562-004, and NSC102-2627-E-002-005,
Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan, Republic of China.
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Davis, F.D. (1989). Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance
of information technology. MIS Quarterly, 13(3), 319–340.
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Lamb, R. & Brady, E.M. (2005). Participation in lifelong learning institutes: what
turns members on? Educational Gerontology, 31, 207–224.
Lu, B.Y. & Tung, M.L (2012). Perspectives on the Open Educational Resources. The
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Martin, C. (2003). Learning in retirement institutes: the impact on the lives of
older adults. Journal of Continuing Higher Education, 51, 2–11.
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An Experience of the Evergreen Elder University in Taiwan
173
Appendix
Questionnaire
1. What is your mother-tongue (ﬁrst language that you learned to speak)?
2. Are you?
[a] Male [b] Female
3. How old are you?
[a] 60– 69 [b] 70– 79 [c] 80 or older
4. Is your phone?
[a] Contract [b] Pay as you Go [c] Null
5. Did you?
[a] Buy your phone [b] It was bought for me [c] It was passed on by someone else
[d] Null
6. Scenarios presented in questionnaire:
1) Jim lives alone. One of his children has emigrated. He is 75 years old and needs to
keep in touch. He has decided to get a mobile phone so he can receive pictures and
messages. Who should he get advice from before he goes to buy a phone?
2) Leslie is a 75 years old with a mobile phone, which was given to him by his daughter,
and he has been using it for 2 years. He now feels conﬁdent using it. She has now
renewed her contract and wants to give him her old Cell Phone. Do you think he
will take it?
3) Pam has had a stroke. She is worried that it will happen again. Do you think she
could use her mobile phone in some way to make her feel less vulnerable?
4) Peter, aged 85, needs to take his medication every day at 12 noon and he keeps
forgetting. Can his mobile phone help him?
5) Tim likes to travel alone now that he has retired. His family is concerned about
him. He says they shouldn’t worry because he has his mobile phone with him. Is he
right? What should he do to allay their fears?
7. Tick features that the participant uses and record keys pressed to do so:
1 Alarm
11 Games
2 Calculator
12 Torch
3 Calendar
13 Phone with Phone Book (save numbers)
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
21
Camera
14 Phone typing in number
Check missed calls
15 Photo album/gallery
Text messages
16 Picture messaging
Text messages with predictive text 17 Personalised ringtones
E-mail
18 Proﬁles(change volume, etc.)
Transfer Money
19 Set reminders on calendar
FM radio
20 Stopwatch
Other? Features you would like to use but don’t know how to: …
Pedeutology
Katja Depolli Steiner
Slovenia
Teachers’ Pedagogical Beliefs
as Predictors of Teacher Burnout
Abstract
The presented study examined the relationship between teachers’ pedagogical
beliefs and their experience of burnout. Its participants were 230 schoolteachers
from fourteen Slovenian primary schools. The Questionnaire of Teacher Pedagogical Beliefs and Maslach Burnout Inventory-Educators Survey were applied. The
ﬁndings suggest pedagogical beliefs as predictors of teacher burnout dimensions.
Teachers’ negative pedagogical beliefs about students’ behavior and discipline
maintenance are related to a greater experience of emotional exhaustion whilst
negative beliefs about teachers’ trust in students and the role and responsibility of
the teacher are related to a greater experience of depersonalization and decreases
in personal accomplishment.
Keywords: primary school teachers, teachers’ pedagogical beliefs, teacher
burnout
Introduction
Teacher stress and burnout are recognized as serious problems and are believed
to contribute to physical illness, absence, and early retirement from the teaching
profession (Dunham, 1992; Slivar, 2009). For this reason, teacher stress and burnout have become an area of interest for many researchers. Their causes and consequences have been well researched. Considering the variables that predict teacher
stress and burnout, the research focused mainly on environmental variables:
workload (Genoud, Brodard & Reicherts, 2009), school context (Collie, Shapka &
178
Katja Depolli Steiner
Perry, 2012; Goddard, O’Brien & Goddard, 2006) and social support (Hodge, Jupp
& Taylor, 1994). Another line of investigation focused on person-speciﬁc variables;
these included personality traits (Miškolciová, 2010; Stoeber & Rennert, 2008),
perceived self-eﬃcacy (Evers, Brouwers & Tomic, 2002; Klassen & Chiu, 2010) and
demographic variables, such as gender (Grayson & Alvarez, 2008; Rey, Extremera
& Pena, 2012) and age (Goddard et al., 2006). However, the relationship of teachers’ attitudes and beliefs to teacher stress and burnout has been less researched.
There is some minor research evidence suggesting a possible relationship between
teacher burnout and teachers’ ideology (Lunenburg & Cadavid, 1992) or teacher
stress and teacher collective eﬃcacy beliefs (Klassen, 2010); otherwise, this area
remains insuﬃciently described.
The concept of burnout
Burnout is a job-related syndrome. It manifests itself in three dimensions:
emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and reduced personal accomplishment.
Emotional exhaustion is shown as the feeling of being emotionally drained by
work, or worn out at the end of almost every workday. Depersonalization is characterized by feelings of callousness towards other people. Finally, burnout includes
a reduced sense of personal accomplishment or the feeling that one is dealing
less eﬀectively with clients and with problems (Maslach, 1993; Maslach & Leiter,
1997). Teachers suﬀering from burnout thus ﬁnd that they can no longer give
themselves to students as they once could as now they have chronically drained
energies (emotional exhaustion). They no longer have positive feelings about their
students and display indiﬀerent, negative attitudes toward them; that can be shown
in many ways, e.g. by using derogatory labels for the students, exhibiting cold or
distant attitudes, physically distancing themselves from students and tuning out
students through psychological withdrawal (depersonalization). Teachers also no
longer feel that they are contributing to their students’ development and become
vulnerable to experiencing profound disappointment (low personal accomplishment) (Maslach, Jackson & Leiter, 1996).
Research evidence shows that teacher burnout typically starts with the development of emotional exhaustion, which leads to the development of depersonalization. The third burnout dimension, personal accomplishment, is determined
directly by emotional exhaustion and indirectly through depersonalization
(Genoud et al., 2009).
Teachers’ Pedagogical Beliefs as Predictors of Teacher Burnout
179
Teachers’ pedagogical beliefs
Beliefs can be described as acceptance of an idea as accurate or truthful (Lefrançois, 1999). Pedagogical beliefs are, therefore, teachers’ beliefs connected with
teaching, i.e. beliefs about learning goals, students and learning. Unlike knowledge,
which tends to be impersonal and impartial, beliefs often have strong emotional
components, and are thus reﬂected in attitudes, prejudice, and opinions (Lefrançois, 1999) or take part in the development of attitudes, and can be regarded as
a part of attitude structure (Chaiken, 2001).
There are diﬀerent factors contributing to the development of the teacher’s
beliefs: the teacher’s experiences during his/her schooling and information that the
teacher gathers during his/her training or from other sources. Block and Hazelip
(1995) thus name three kinds of teachers’ beliefs: descriptive beliefs that stem from
teachers’ personal observation, inference beliefs that stem from conclusions based
on personal observation, and informational beliefs that stem from outside sources.
Even though teachers’ beliefs are inﬂuenced by a multitude of their experiences,
the experience they had had as students seems to be the most prominent one.
Teachers’ beliefs are resistant to change (Lefrançois, 1999), which is also so with
regard to teachers’ pedagogical beliefs; their descriptive beliefs are the strongest
and most resistant to change, especially beliefs about students and their learning
that stem from teachers’ classroom experience. In time, as beliefs begin to combine
and form a system, they strengthen even more, thus making a change in a single
belief more diﬃcult or even impossible without a change in the system to which
this belief belongs (Block and Hazelip, 1995).
Teachers’ pedagogical beliefs are expressions of their views of students and of
teachers’ professional roles. As such, they have a signiﬁcant inﬂuence on teachers’
behavior in the classroom and their relationships with students. For this reason,
examining teachers’ beliefs in studying teacher burnout is advisable.
Aims of the study
The presented study examined the relationships between teachers’ pedagogical
beliefs and the three dimensions of teacher burnout. The study involved a sample
of teachers of Slovenian nine-year primary schools.
180
Katja Depolli Steiner
Methodology
Participants
About 500 teachers working in nine-year primary schools in Slovenia were
asked to participate in the study. In all, 230 questionnaires were returned, which
represented a response rate of 46%. The majority of the teachers were full-time
teachers (96%); only a few respondents worked part-time. Of all the respondents,
193 were women (84%) and 37 were men (16%). Their age ranged from 24 to 62
years, with most respondents under 45 years of age (75%). A half of the participants taught in lower grades (Grades 1 to 5 and/or after school program), and the
other half taught in higher grades (Grades 6 to 9).
Instruments
Burnout
Burnout was measured using the Maslach Burnout Inventory-Educators Survey
(MBI-ES; Maslach, Jackson in Schwab, 1986), translated to Slovene. It includes 22
items, which are written in the form of statements about personal feelings or attitudes and are measured on a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from “never” to “every
day”. The items are divided into three subscales. The Emotional Exhaustion (EE; 9
items) subscale assesses feelings of being emotionally overextended and exhausted
by work. The Depersonalization (D; 5 items) subscale measures the unfeeling and
impersonal response towards students. The Personal Accomplishment (PA; 8
items) subscale assesses feelings of competence and achievement in the teacher’s
work with students. Scores on the scale are added separately. High scores on the EE
and D scales, combined with low scores on the PA scale are indicative of burnout
(Maslach et al., 1996).
The three-factor structure of the Slovenian translation of MBI-ES was conﬁrmed with principal component analysis. The internal consistency coeﬃcient
alphas were.88,.84 and.54 for EE, D, and PA, respectively (Depolli Steiner, 2010).
Teachers’ pedagogical beliefs
The Questionnaire of Teacher Pedagogical Beliefs (QTPB) was constructed
for the purpose of this study. It consists of 37 items in the form of statements
about students, learning and teaching. The level of agreement with each statement is measured on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from “I completely agree” to
Teachers’ Pedagogical Beliefs as Predictors of Teacher Burnout
181
“I completely disagree”. At the positive end of the scale there is the teacher who
has the ability to create beneﬁcial relations with students, who regards students as
motivated for schoolwork, who shows high trust in students’ abilities, and regards
them as suﬃciently mature and self-reliant. This teacher also feels a high level
of his/her responsibility for students’ behaviors and achievements. The negative
end of the scale pictures a domineering teacher, who believes in the importance
of being strict, who expresses lack of trust in students’ abilities and regards them
as highly immature, irresponsible and lacking self-reliance. This teacher also feels
that the responsibility for students’ behaviors and achievements lies in factors that
are not under his/her control.
To determine the underlying structure, all the 37 items were included in a principal components analysis. A four-factor structure was found to be the best solution (eigenvalues 4.44, 4.36, 2.98 and 2.28, respectively) and, rotated orthogonally
using varimax, accounted for 12%, 12%, 8% and 6%, respectively. The factors were
labeled:
Subscale “Students’ behavior and discipline maintenance” (10 items; internal consistency coeﬃcient: a =.81) measures the strictness-permissiveness
dimension.
Subscale “Students’ motivation and learning abilities” (12 items; a =.82) measures the teacher’s low/high regard of students’ motivation and learning abilities.
Subscale “Teacher’s trust in students” (8 items; a =.69) shows the teacher’s low/
high opinion of his/her students’ maturity, responsibility and self-reliance.
Subscale “Teacher’s role and responsibility” (7 items; a =.61) expresses the
teacher’s opinion of his/her role in classroom activities and students’ behavior and
achievements.
Procedure
The study took place in the February and March of 2005. The principals of
14 randomly selected schools in urban and rural areas in Slovenia were asked
to participate in the study; they were mailed questionnaires along with a request
to distribute the questionnaires to every teacher in their school. The questionnaires were accompanied by a letter explaining the nature and general aim of
the study. Participation was voluntary, and all the participants were guaranteed
conﬁdentiality. The completed questionnaires were collected by school counselors
and returned to the author of the study by mail.
Katja Depolli Steiner
182
Results and discussion
The correlation matrix for the four beliefs factors with the three burnout dimensions is shown in Table 1. All the four belief factors are negatively correlated with
EE and D, with only one of these correlations not reaching statistical signiﬁcance
at the level of p =.05. Two of the four beliefs factors are positively correlated with
PA and reached statistical signiﬁcance at the level of p =.05. Even though these
correlations are low, with the exception of the correlation between beliefs about
students’ behavior and discipline maintenance and EE, which is medium, they
do suggest that teachers showing more negative pedagogical beliefs are likely to
experience higher levels of EE, higher levels of D and lower levels of PA.
However, one must bear in mind that all the signiﬁcant correlations are low,
and the variance accounted for is slight. Even in the case of the relationship
of beliefs about students’ behavior and discipline maintenance with EE, which
yielded the highest correlation coeﬃcient obtained, the variance accounted for is
only 12%.
Table 1. Correlations between pedagogical beliefs and three dimensions of burnout
Pedagogical beliefs factor
Correlation with burnout
EE
D
PA
Students’ behavior and discipline maintenance
–.35*
–.21*
–.04
Students’ motivation and learning abilities
–.21*
–.16*
–.03
Teacher’s trust in students
–.10
–.25*
.26*
Teacher’s role and responsibility
–.19*
–.18*
.18*
Note: * p <.05
To investigate which of the independent variables best predicted the level of
each single burnout dimension, a series of multiple regression analyses was carried
out using scores on the burnout dimension in question as the dependent variable
and the teachers’ pedagogical beliefs factors as predictors.
The results of multiple regression analyses (cf., Table 2) showed that only beliefs
about students’ behavior and discipline maintenance were signiﬁcant and negative
predictors of the EE dimension of burnout. Only beliefs about the teacher’s trust in
students and beliefs about the teacher’s role and responsibility were signiﬁcant and
negative predictors of the D dimension of burnout. Only beliefs about the teacher’s
trust in students and beliefs about the teacher’s role and responsibility were signiﬁcant and positive predictors of the PA dimension of burnout. Only beliefs about
183
Teachers’ Pedagogical Beliefs as Predictors of Teacher Burnout
the teacher’s trust in students were also signiﬁcant and negative predictors of the
D dimension. The total of the variance explained by teachers’ beliefs factors was
13% for EE (F(4, 225) = 8.53; p < .001), 10% for D (F(4, 225) = 6.12; p < .001) and
10% for PA (F(4, 225) = 6.60; p < .001).
Table 2. Multiple regression analysis results for the prediction
of burnout dimensions
Independent variables
Students’ behavior and discipline maintenance
EE
β
D
R2
β
PA
R2
β
–.34*
–.13
–.14
.03
–.01
–.03
Teacher’s trust in students
.02
–.19*
.28*
Teacher’s role and responsibility
–.13
–.11
.15*
Students’ motivation and learning abilities
.13*
.10*
R2
.10*
Note: * p <.05
These results indicate that teachers’ pedagogical beliefs contribute signiﬁcantly
to explaining the variance of the teacher burnout dimensions even though this
contribution is rather small. The largest contribution is by beliefs about students’
behavior and discipline maintenance; however, only in predicting teachers’
EE. Beliefs about the teacher’s trust in students contribute signiﬁcantly to predicting both the D and PA dimensions, whilst beliefs about the teacher’s role and
responsibility contribute only to predicting teachers’ PA. The regression analyses
also showed that the last of the beliefs factors, i.e. the beliefs about students’
motivation and learning abilities, which was in correlation to both EE and D
(cf., Table 1), has no signiﬁcant contribution to explaining the variance of these
two teacher burnout dimensions.
The presented study results on relationships between the pedagogical beliefs
about students’ behavior and discipline maintenance as well as the EE dimension
of burnout can be explained as follows. We can assume that teachers’ negative
beliefs raise the number of stressors present at their work and also fortify the
impact of these stressors. Strict teachers with a need to constantly monitor and
direct their students’ behavior are likely to have a strong and negative reaction
to the behavior that they perceive as inappropriate or oppositional; such student
misbehavior could even be perceived as a personal aﬀront. More democratically
oriented teachers perceive students in a more positive manner, which also shapes
their perception of students’ behavior, meaning that they will not be so quick in
184
Katja Depolli Steiner
perceiving a certain behavior as misbehavior. That is why it is highly likely that
the number of situations perceived as problematic (i.e. demanding the teacher’s
immediate attention and reaction) by strict teachers largely exceeds the number
of such situations perceived by more permissive teachers. Not only that, the strict
teachers’ reaction to perceived stressors is probably quite strong, meaning they
are more distressed by certain negative situations than their more permissive colleagues are. Therefore, many strict teachers might have quite a heavy workload; to
a certain degree, this is created by the teachers themselves as they see problems
in situations that many other teachers do not and/or react to these problems with
a more augmented stress reaction. The workload has already been recognized as
an important cause of teacher stress and burnout in previous studies (e.g. Genoud
et al., 2009). If teachers’ workload is constantly high, they may begin to feel that
the amount of their duties and responsibilities is becoming insurmountable, which
gradually leads them to EE.
A possible explanation for the relationship between beliefs both about the
teacher’s trust in students and beliefs about the teacher’s role and responsibility
as well as D can be suggested. EE has already been conﬁrmed as the precedent
of D (Genoud et al., 2009); therefore, it can be assumed that once the teachers’
levels of EE increase and remain high for a certain amount of time, they become
more susceptible to loss of positive feelings about their students. The teachers
who already believe that their students are immature, irresponsible and not
self-reliant (negative beliefs about the teacher’s trust in students), and feel that
the responsibility for students’ behaviors and achievements lies in factors that
are not under teachers’ control (negative beliefs about the teacher’s role and
responsibility), might be even more likely to reach augmented levels of D than
are their colleagues who are experiencing increased levels of EE but initially have
positive beliefs on these two factors. The same explanation can also be suggested
for the relationship between the two beliefs factors in question and diminished
PA: if the teachers experience EE and D, they might be more likely to stop feeling
that they are contributing to students’ development and thus become vulnerable
to experiencing profound disappointment if they already have negative beliefs
than if they have positive beliefs. It appears that teachers’ positive beliefs about
students’ maturity, responsibility and self-reliance, and a high level of teachers’
perceived responsibility for students’ behaviors and achievements might work as
a buﬀer against both D and a decrease in PA. The ﬁndings of the presented study
are consistent with the study of Lunenburg and Cadavid (1992), who noted that
teachers with a custodial orientation toward the control of pupils were more likely
to experience greater levels of burnout. Teachers with a custodial pupil ideology
Teachers’ Pedagogical Beliefs as Predictors of Teacher Burnout
185
typically are of the opinion that students are undisciplined and irresponsible and,
therefore, cannot be trusted and must be controlled through punitive sanctions.
Low results on beliefs about students’ behavior and discipline maintenance, and
low results on beliefs about teacher’s trust in students on the QTPB express the
teacher’s opinion about students that is in concordance with such an ideology;
thus, the ﬁndings of the presented study are additionally conﬁrmed.
Conclusions
The results of the presented study indicate that teachers’ pedagogical beliefs
are associated with burnout dimensions. Negative beliefs are correlated with
high burnout scores. Therefore, teachers who have certain negative beliefs about
students might be most at risk for development of burnout.
The ﬁndings also indicate that teachers experiencing higher levels of burnout
view students more negatively than their non-burnt-out colleagues, meaning
that burnt-out teachers are extremely likely to create a less welcoming, less
warm, more impersonal and more controlling classroom environment than
their non-burnt-out colleagues. If we speak from the students’ point of view, it is
certainly desirable to have teachers who are not suﬀering from burnout and are
thus more likely able to create a positive classroom environment. Teachers are
agents of students’ achievement so their wellbeing should be one of the priorities
of the education system. It would be beneﬁcial for teachers and consequently
for their students to attempt to nurture the development of positive pedagogical
beliefs in teachers, both during their pre-service education and in-service
training.
The presented study has some limitations. First, the QTPB has not, as yet, been
fully validated. The factorial validity has been conﬁrmed, but further external
validation is still required. Second, a larger sample of teachers would be desirable.
Third, some reservations must be expressed as to the direction of causation. The
fact that teachers enter their service with beliefs that are already formed indicates
that beliefs inﬂuence burnout. However, because burnout causes changes in
a person’s view of the world, the assumption that the experience of burnout can
be a cause for the change in teachers’ pedagogical beliefs also seems reasonable.
For this reason, the direction of causation between beliefs and burnout should
be addressed in further studies on teacher burnout. With a larger sample of
respondents, structural equation modeling or path analysis should be used for
this purpose.
186
Katja Depolli Steiner
However, in spite of the limitations, the advantage of this study is in the exposure of the relationship between teachers’ pedagogical beliefs and their experience
of burnout, which had not been previously researched. Our ﬁndings suggest that
subsequent research into this area is certainly worth further attention.
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E. Martínez-Figueira,
M. Raposo-Rivas
Spain
Mentoring Student Training: What do mentors do?
Abstract
In this paper we look into the role of mentors in student training given it is of
paramount importance and at times both unknown and undeﬁned. We studied this
issue through research conducted in three Spanish universities using Creswell’s
biphasic model along with sequential data triangulation. We obtained information by interviewing mentors and applying an electronic questionnaire. The results
show that basically mentors are available for students in student training, facilitate
their integration in the center. The study indicates that conceptualizing and operationalizing mentoring functions is diﬃcult, however, they set up a reference for the
development of student training.
Keywords: mentor, mentoring, teaching practice, student learning
Introduction
Student training (Practicum) is often used as a term equivalent to “putting
academic knowledge into practice” (Derrick & Dicks, 2005; Liston, Whitcomb &
Borko, 2006), “induction” (Collinson et al, 2009) or “internship” (Darling-Hammond, 2006). Schön (1992) suggests the following deﬁnition: “a situation intended
and set for the task of learning a practice (…) that (…) is in the middle ground
between the world of practice, everyday life, and the esoteric world of college”.
On the other hand, Zabalza (2013) speaks of practicum, internship, ﬁeld training
and on-the-job training as “training stages that college students carry out in real
professional contexts (p. 19).
Therefore, student training can be deﬁned as an opportunity to implement and
transfer the knowledge previously learnt during initial training to a professional
Mentoring Student Training: What do mentors do
189
environment. From this perspective, we can say that they are training situations
where thought is given to both experience in a real context and learning from
experience (Raposo-Rivas & Martínez-Figueira, 2013).
The didactic and pedagogical nature of student training is going to depend
on the execution of implicit mentoring, therefore without mentoring there
is no training. In this sense, mentoring as the core element in student training
(Zabalza & Cid, 2005) aims to guide the training process of the mentee and is of
vital importance (Martínez-Figueira & Raposo, 2013; Raposo & Martínez-Figueira, 2013). It is the opportunity to explain the link between theory and classroom
practice with training in situ in order to be able to relate academic reality to
working scenarios as well as to learn to make decisions in daily situations by
developing critical thinking and a self-concept of the action itself. Under this
premise, the mentor is a key element in pre-professional training by providing
a methodological and attitudinal scaﬀold as well as a framework of experiences
and concepts where students can position their experiences, understand them,
analyze them and reﬂect on them (Martínez-Figueira & Raposo, 2011a). How to
do so is a question of styles or models (Martínez-Figueira & Raposo, 2011b) but,
in any case, it is about inﬂuencing and transmitting their expertise to trainees.
As Ehrich, Tennet & Handsford (2002) state, you forge “a relationship with the
mentee/protégé in order to help him/her in his/her professional development
and promotion” (p. 256).
Cid, Pérez & Sarmiento (2011) reviewed the literature on mentoring student
training by examining 137 research articles. The authors indicate that mentoring is
an elusive term and its conceptualization raises issues due to its decontextualized
and incoherent use when describing a wide variety of interpersonal relationships
(Jones & Brown, 2011).
The mentor plays the important role of being the closest and most important
person as well as a reference that helps and guides students throughout student
training. This role is often confused with ‘support’ functions that other people
provide (Gibbs, 1999). Ehrich, Tennent & Handsford (2002, p. 256), refer to the
mentor as “a person who establishes a relationship with the mentee/protégé in
order to help him/her in his/her professional development and promotion”.
According to Cid, Perez & Sarmiento (2011), the functions of the mentor are
often analyzed by taking into account diﬀerent variables. What type of relationship do mentor and mentee build during student training? (Enomoto, Grogan
& Gardiner, 2002). In this context, Watkins (1992) highlights support, guidance
and a sequential introduction to professional-related issues. Shea (1992) provides
a series of important activities in tutoring, such as creating high expectations,
190
E. Martínez-Figueira, M. Raposo-Rivas
providing attractive ideas, role modeling, explaining certain organizational aspects
or helping the mentees in their professional careers. One of the most interesting papers may be that of Mertz (2004), who, on the basis of the social exchange
theory, identiﬁes three functional categories in mentoring: psychosocial development, professional development and professional promotion.
Finally, the multitask nature of the mentor’s role can be summarized as commitment to provide the conditions needed by students to reﬂect on ideas that will
help them act and make decisions (Raposo-Rivas & Martínez-Figueira, 2013). The
role played by mentors is crucial because they bear the responsibility to train,
guide and provide psychological, pedagogical and professional help to training
students in their workplaces. But, which of these functions are most important?
What relevance do tutors give them? The results presented in this paper are part
of a wider investigation (Martínez-Figueira, 2010).
Research Methodology
General Background of Research
The role of mentors in student training is crucial, hence Martínez-Figueira
(2010) conducted a study on this issue, by means of which the implicit tutorial
model mentors use in training centers is described. Based on that study we carried out this research in an attempt to explore and understand the functions and
activities that typify the role of the mentor.
Two of the speciﬁc objectives of the aforementioned study stand out as they
are specially related to the research we submit, i.e., to investigate how mentoring
is foreseen and how it is actually carried out, to know which functions mentors assume during student training and assess their viability and functional
complexity.
This investigation was framed within a comparative method using Creswell’s
biphasic model (1994), adopting a research paradigm that integrates qualitative
and quantitative analysis with sequential triangulation methodology, where the
results of the ﬁrst phase were essential in order to plan the following one.
Research Sample
In order to approach the object of study in the ﬁrst phase we intentionally
chose to work orally with mentors due to their geographic dispersion in training
centers. We invited 26 mentors to participate in the study, but only 18 of them
(69.23%) accepted and provided data. As for the second phase, the selection was
Mentoring Student Training: What do mentors do
191
made by simple random sampling since in this quantitative phase we contrast the
information obtained in the ﬁrst and study in depth other aspects of the research
in order to generalize the results. Thus, according to determinants associated
with the optimum use of temporary, material and human resources, 120 mentors
scattered throughout Galicia (Spain) from the Universities of A Coruña, Santiago
de Compostela and Vigo were invited to participate in the research. The number
of subjects was chosen because it was a well-balanced option between the best
sampling error (4%) and a conﬁdence level of 95% or, in other words, it is an
optimum ratio in the investment of eﬀort, resources and possible outcomes.
The sample was made up of 83 subjects (69.16% of the sample invited) with the
conﬁdence levels of 95% and 90% and acceptable sampling errors of 6.9% and
5.7%. Therefore, the sample meets the required scientiﬁc characteristics regarding the number of valid responses (Fink, 1995), adequacy (Kerlinger, 1986) and
representativeness (Fox, 1969).
Instrument, Procedures and Data Analysis
In this research the techniques and instruments used for collecting information
were, in the ﬁrst phase of the study, a structured, open, guided, individual and faceto-face interview validated by both content and triangulation (Patton, 1982); in
the second quantitative phase, an electronic questionnaire which was descriptive,
explicative and had a longitudinal-transverse time dimension (Author 1, 2010).
The reliability result obtained by using Cronbach´s Alpha for the questionnaire
was 0.982. The validity of the electronic questionnaire was also conﬁrmed by
means of content procedures (Fox, 1969) using the Delphi technique along with
a pilot test of the instrument and construct validity by means of a conglomerate
or cluster and factorial analysis.
Below we summarize the most relevant aspects of the research (Raposo &
Martínez-Figueira, 2013).
• Methodology and methods: Mixed, we followed Creswell’s biphasic model
(1994) where:
(1) Phase I was qualitative.
(2) Phase II was quantitative.
• Objectives:
(1) To investigate how the development of mentoring is foreseen and how
it is actually carried out.
(2) To ﬁnd out which functions mentors in training centers assume during
student training and assess their viability and functional complexity.
• Selection of the sample:
E. Martínez-Figueira, M. Raposo-Rivas
192
•
•
•
•
•
(1) Phase I: Intentional sampling (Bisquerra, 2004). It allows us to make
a ﬁrst approach to the problem of study taking into account the geographical dispersion of the subjects.
(2) Phase II: Simple random sampling (Bisquerra, 2004).
Participants:
(1) Phase I: The invited sample: 26 mentors. The accepting sample: 18
mentors (69.23%).
(2) Phase II: The invited sample: 120 mentors (best sampling error, 4%,
and 95% conﬁdence level). The accepting sample: 83 mentors (69.16%,
with conﬁdence levels of 95% and 90% and acceptable sampling errors
of 6.9% and 5.7%).
Instruments:
(1) Phase I: interview (structured, open, guided, individual and face-toface).
(2) Phase II: questionnaire (descriptive and explicative and had a longitudinal-transverse time dimension).
Validity and Reliability:
(1) Phase I: Validity: content and triangulation (Patton, 1982).
(2) Phase II: Validity: Delphi technique together with a pilot test of the
instrument and the construct validity (Nunnaly, 1987) through a conglomerate or cluster and factorial analysis. Reliability: Cronbach´s
Alpha (excellent; common questionnaire: 0.982; educational mode:
0.958; social mode: 0.954; and organizational mode: 0.995).
Analysis data:
(1) Phase I: content analysis.
(2) Phase II: descriptive analysis, correlation and multiple statistical
comparisons.
Analysis of software:
(1) Phase I: AQUAD6
(1) Phase II: SPSS 15.0
Results and Discussion
In this section we present some of the results obtained in the research. We
wanted to know which tasks were most frequently carried out by mentors, which
were considered to be the most relevant in student training as well as their formative task value. In the quantitative phase, the 83 mentors submitted their opinions
Mentoring Student Training: What do mentors do
193
according to the answer options, in this case on a four point scale: a lot (4), quite
(3), little (2) and none (1). The sample assessed the frequency and the importance
given to the activities and tasks related to mentoring. These functions are generic
and speciﬁcally related to Information and Communication Technology (ICT).
The activities that stand out most due to the frequency with which they are
carried out are: “providing the students with knowledge of the context and access
to documents of the institution”, (x̄ = 3.27, σ= 1.037); “integrating the students in
the training centers” (x̄ = 3.25, σ = 1.069); “being available for students” (x̄ = 3.23,
σ= 1.074); and “establishing an open and trustworthy work relationship with the
students” (x̄ = 3.22, σ = 1.230).
These four tasks are also considered to be the most important, although the one
they carry out most in the ﬁrst place is regarded as the third most important and
the third most carried out is regarded as the ﬁrst most important. The table shows
that the most important thing is “being available for students”, which is in third
place in the tasks carried out. Meanwhile, they indicate that they normally “provide
students with knowledge of the context and access to documents of the institution.
“Checking the activities carried out by training students” on a mean score of
3 points has a broader spread of data (σ = 1.082). We also have other functions
with a mean score equal to or over 2.8, which indicates a trend towards “quite”
in the frequency of performance, although there is a high degree of variation in
scores: “Giving information to students about the services available in training
centers” (x̄ = 2.98, σ = 1.239); “Taking into account the available resources as well
as the diﬃculties involved in training” (x̄ = 2.96, σ= 1.163); “Promoting personal
analysis and self-assessment in students” (x̄ = 2.81, σ= 1.120); “Gradually reducing
the role of guide with the students” (x̄ = 2.80, σ= 1.124).
The activities and functions that were least carried out by the mentors involved,
with a mean score under 1.6, are: “Establishing relations with other institutions in
order to enrich student training” (x̄ = 1.42; σ = 1.001) and “Cooperating with the
supervisor in coordinating the training program and designing a professional proﬁle”
(x̄ = 1.57; σ = 1.073). The ﬁrst task mentioned is also regarded as the least important.
Contingency analysis was conducted among the following dependent variables:
gender, age, university degree (“university degree” as a dependent variable refers
to the mentor´s degree), ﬁeld (“ﬁeld” can be: educational-schools-, social–associations- or organizational–ﬁrms-); professional experience in the institution and as
a mentor in student training, one student mentoring (“one student mentoring”
given the possibility of group or cross-degree mentoring) and the number of students. This indicates that by assuming the same variances there are few signiﬁcant
diﬀerences in most of the variables studied.
194
E. Martínez-Figueira, M. Raposo-Rivas
As regards what mentors “do”, there were signiﬁcant diﬀerences in 35 of the 208
variables, being that the statistics obtained is less than 0.05 and at the established
conﬁdence level of 95% (Table 1). Only the gender variable shows no signiﬁcance,
on the other hand mentoring a single student along with age are the variables that
show more signiﬁcance in all the functions presented.
The data coincide with those obtained in the qualitative phase, where the functions carried out by mentors are reﬂected in the following statements (number of
subject and line where these extracts can be read are in brackets):
“The function of a mentor in student training is to guide the student so that
the ﬁrst contact the student from a more or less organized, systematic and formal
education has with the professional world is enriching. Therefore, what we do is
act as mediators between their academic training and the work they will be doing
afterwards”. (E6, lines 69-73).
“Fostering the practical aspect, oﬀering a realistic view of the situations they are
going to encounter and shedding objectivity to all those topics and approaches that
were learnt at a theoretical level by putting them into practice (…). I believe that the
main function is to establish a link between their academic training and what their
professional development is; practical, authentic and in a real context, i.e., a link
between theory and practice (E8, lines 59-71).
“(…) giving them the option to participate and put forth their point of view and
their creativity” (E13, line 85).
“Welcoming the students at the training center with a positive, open attitude and
facilitating their involvement in authentic situations which sooner or later they will
encounter.” (E8, lines 63-65).
“Giving the student support so that he/she has a reference person in the institution
to turn to when they encounter diverse situations during their training.” (E1, lines
51-52).
In regard to “what is important” in mentoring, there were signiﬁcant diﬀerences
in 22 of the 208 variables studied, and the signiﬁcant associations are related to the
gender of the respondents, years of experience in mentoring, the ﬁeld they belong
to, one student mentoring and university degree, and the statistics obtained is less
than 0.05 and at the established conﬁdence level of 95%.
In this case we can see how neither the age of the mentors, nor the number of
years of professional experience in the centre, nor the number of students they
mentor seems to have any inﬂuence on the relevance attributed to the previously
mentioned tasks and activities.
In the qualitative phase the mentors that were interviewed also point out
the same aspects as can be seen in the following quotes that include the subject
0.141
0.715
0.703
0.768
0.599
0.402
0.735
• Checking the activities carried out by the training students
• Taking into account the available resources as
well as the diﬃculties in training
• Reducing progressively the role of guide with the
students
• Helping the students analyze and assess their
skills
• Identifying the assessment criteria related to
student training
• Guiding the students when preparing the training report
0.77
• Providing information about the services available in the training center
0.789
0.949
• Integrating the students into the center
• Promoting personal analysis and self-assessment
0.645
• Providing the students with knowledge of the
context and access to the documents of the institution
• Establishing an open and trustworthy work
relationship with the students
0.282
Gender
• Being available for the students
Activity
0.342
0.064
0.049
0.247
0.047
0.215
0.358
0.15
0.179
0.016
0.001
0.045
Age
0.214
0.252
0.08
0.029
0.031
0.040
0.1
0.003
0.46
0.000
0.001
0.005
Degree
0.732
0.464
0.972
0.573
0.331
0.977
0.517
0.894
0.349
0.961
0.403
0.592
Field
0.22
0.262
0.224
0.06
0.116
0.043
0.049
0.222
0.288
0.049
0.009
0.086
0.312
0.499
0.261
0.138
0.248
0.221
0.104
0.777
0.062
0.035
0.225
0.204
ExpeExperience rience as
in center a mentor
Table 1. Chi-squared < 0.05 in what mentors “do”.
0.102
0.154
0.07
0.049
0.141
0.026
0.084
0.049
0.14
0.017
0.009
0.029
One
student
mentoring
0.682
0.496
0.195
0.132
0.235
0.238
0.778
0.049
0.742
0.808
0.406
0.017
Number
of students
0.563
0.888
0.751
0.167
0.278
0.294
• Taking part in designing and monitoring the
training program
• Cooperating with the supervisor of coordination
in creating their professional proﬁle
• Getting the rest of the staﬀ in the center involved
to enrich student training
• Keeping in contact with other tutors
• Establishing relations with other institutions in
order to enrich student training
Gender
• Assessing the students
Activity
0.233
0.022
0.66
0.118
0.165
0.456
Age
0.029
0.108
0.178
0.307
0.251
0.003
Degree
0.135
0.139
0.224
0.014
0.53
0.087
Field
0.036
0.16
0.171
0.165
0.274
0.311
0.569
0.313
0.755
0.501
0.353
0.133
ExpeExperience rience as
in center a mentor
0.488
0.072
0.017
0.062
0.143
0.101
One
student
mentoring
0.367
0.533
0.967
0.293
0.386
0.763
Number
of students
Mentoring Student Training: What do mentors do
197
number and the line where these extracts can be read (Raposo-Rivas & MartínezFigueira, 2013):
“To guide, accompany (…). For me, the important thing is to know where each
person goes, that he/she knows where is her/his place, (…). This is an important
function because otherwise the person will be completely stymied.” (E7, lines 87-91).
“(…) In spite of the very little attention I pay to them when they arrive, in the last
interview I ask them: “Was there ever a time when you needed me that I was not
available?” And they answer: “No. No, every time I needed you, both the tutor and
you were there.” (…) they come to me mostly to obtain general data of the institution.”
(E6, lines 101-107).
“(…) having prior information as to where he/she is going to go and what is to
be done. That would direct the work a lot because we waste many sessions at the
beginning in preparing, informing, knowing exactly what to do, what functions he/
she will have and what to do in order to make the most of and beneﬁt most from
their training.” (E17, lines 106-109).
Conclusions
Throughout these pages, we have seen that, in initial training, student training fulﬁls a twofold objective: to complete the theoretical education and to make
students qualiﬁed professionals by means of integrating them in real life contexts
and giving them the opportunity to know the ﬁelds in which they will be able to
practice their future profession. In this process, mentors in training centers play
a vital role due to the use of appropriate strategies, which they might have acquired
in speciﬁc training (Crasbron et al., 2008; Valencic & Vogrinc, 2007; Williams &
Prestage, 2002), and in developing a series of functions and activities that give
meaning to mentoring and an entity to mentors as professionals related to student
training (Martínez-Figueira & Raposo, 2013).
The data presented here indicate what mentors do and how mentoring is carried out during student training. The study reveals that mentoring is important
as it is the most eﬀective support that future professionals can receive for their
professional development (Carter & Francis, 2001; Marable & Raimondi, 2007;
McDonald, 2013; Martínez-Figueira & Raposo, 2011a, b, 2013; Raposo-Rivas &
Martínez-Figueira, 2013).
We obtained a proﬁle of those functions carried out during student training
which include: building an open, trustworthy work relationship with training students, integrating them in the training centers during their stay, being available for
198
E. Martínez-Figueira, M. Raposo-Rivas
mentoring, providing the students with the knowledge of the context and access
to documents in the institution. Although favoring an adequate working environment in line with reality (Edwards, 1998; Rajuan, Douwe & Verloop, 2007; Yusko &
Feiman, 2008), reviewing, programming, participation, group work, cooperation,
involving other professionals or entities related to the development of their professional work are some of the features and functions of mentors, the results of the
study indicate that there is no collaboration with the coordinator regarding the
design of the student training program itself, in designing their professional proﬁle
or with other centers in order to enrich student training.
It is noteworthy that there is some discrepancy between what mentors do and
what they consider relevant. In the ﬁrst case, they note that they mainly provide
knowledge of the context and facilitate access to documents in the institution
whereas Raposo-Rivas & Martínez-Figueira (2013) show that being available for
students is the most important task for mentors.
At the same time, from the mentor’s perspective, variables such as previous
training, age and working fulltime as a tutor have a signiﬁcant inﬂuence on
mentoring. Therefore, it is necessary to take this into account when proposing
a training experience to future professionals in training centers.
Finally, we must mention the diﬃculty in conceptualizing and operationalizing
the functions involved in student training and covering a detailed and thorough
list which compiles all the variables and possible contexts involved in the situation
(Martínez-Figueira & Raposo, 2011a). Consequently, we made a necessary selection and speciﬁcation of activities and functions, therefore the reader might regard
that a certain activity or function they consider relevant is missing. Nonetheless,
the results obtained in this research are a reference for assessing the mentoring
functions carried out in student training and the possibility to incorporate new
study indicators or scientiﬁc objectives that can promote improvements towards
a higher quality of the subject of our study.
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Ahmet Tekbıyık
Turkey
Science Teachers’ Expectatitons from Parents:
To What Degree Do Parents Think They Satisfy Such
Expectations?
Abstract
This study aimed to determine teachers’ expectations from parents for eﬀective
science teaching and reveal parents’ beliefs on how much they satisfy such expectations. Face-to-face interviews were conducted with 5 science teachers in order
to determine teachers’ expectations from parents. “The Scale of Expectations from
Parent (SEFP)” was developed by using the ﬁndings obtained from the interviews.
It was a 5-point Likert-type scale made up of 21 items and including the scale of
“parental support” and “sense of responsibility”. The developed scale was delivered
to the parents of the students of the teachers participating in the interview. The
research results indicated that parents’ levels of satisfying the expectations were
a signiﬁcant predictor of science achievement.
Keywords: science education, teacher expectations, parental involvement
Introduction
Progress in education can be achieved only if relevant stakeholders fulﬁll their
responsibilities (Akbaba Altun, 2009). One of the most important stakeholders is
parents. It goes without saying that the improvement of school-family relations
and school culture will have positive eﬀects on children (Brankovic, Rodic &
Kostovic, 2012). School-family relationships should be dealt with in two dimensions: (1) home environment; (2) school environment (Wyrick & Rudasill, 2009).
Moreover, all kinds of behaviors displayed by families outside of the classroom in
Science Teachers’ Expectatitons from Parents
203
relation to the education of their children are addressed within the school-family
relations (Souto-Manning & Swick, 2006).
Parental involvement is a major factor in forming pupils’ school outcomes
(Desforges & Abouchaar, 2003). Among these outcomes, the ﬁrst one is academic
achievement. Many studies revealed the relationship between parental involvement and academic achievement, and determined that parental involvement was
a signiﬁcant predictor of school achievement (Akbaba Altun, 2009; Hill & Tyson
2009; Kabapınar & Ataman, 2010; Keçeli Kaysılı, 2008; Jeynes, 2007; Şeker, 2009).
According to the meta-analysis of Jeynes (2007), 52 studies carried out in urban
areas showed that parental involvement had, in general, positive contributions to
academic achievement.
Hill and Tyson (2009) investigated through meta-analysis the eﬀect of parents
on achievement within the context of the role of parents, school-parent relations,
and parental involvement. Examining the results of 50 studies, the study investigated the relationship between parental involvement and academic achievement in
three types of parental involvement: (1) Home-based involvement, (2) School-based
involvement, and (3) academic socialization. Home-based involvement refers to
talking with children about school, helping them do their homework, taking them
to necessary ﬁeld trips, and creating an appropriate learning environment at home.
School-based involvement includes visiting school frequently, joining school meetings, and taking part in parent-teacher association activities voluntarily. Academic
socialization includes communicating parental expectations from education and
its value or utility, linking schoolwork to current events, fostering educational and
occupational aspirations, discussing learning strategies with children, and making preparations and plans for the future (Hill & Tyson, 2009). Gonzalez-DeHass,
Willems and Holbein (2005) investigated the impact of parental involvement on
the motivational levels of students.
In brief, the importance of school-parent cooperation is highly valued and
considered to be one of the crucial factors impacting on student achievement.
In school curricula, the roles and responsibilities of parents are deﬁned and their
eﬀectiveness in children’s learning process is attempted to be increased. That has
been featured more in the science curriculum along with changing and developing
approaches. As stated in the literature review, although there were studies examining the expectations of parents from their children, there was no study focusing
on the expectations of teachers from parents and to what degree parents satisfy
such expectations.
204
Ahmet Tekbıyık
The Role of Parents in Turkish Elementary Science Curriculum
The current science curriculum, implemented in Turkey in 2005, was based on
the constructivist approach. It brought along alternative assessment and evaluation (e.g. formative assessment) techniques (Ministry of National Education,
2005). Performance assignments have an important position among the tools and
techniques employed in alternative assessment. The performance assignments are
regarded as an eﬀective way of communicating with parents, they allow parents
to get involved in the learning of their children, and help parents to understand
the curriculum and follow the improvement of their children in relevant courses
(Çiftçi, 2010).
The previous research on performance tasks demonstrates that the support,
attitudes, and behaviors provided or displayed by parents during the performance
of these tasks are important for education (Tüysüz, Karakuyu & Tatar, 2010).
Parents are one of the implementers of science and technology curriculum. The
curriculum even deﬁnes the roles to be played by parents as follows:
Parents may learn from the curriculum what their children are to learn in a particular
grade as well as why they are to learn it. In this way, they may discuss their work
with their children, communicate with the teachers of their children, and ask questions about the development of their children to these teachers (Ministry of National
Education, 2005: s36).
In science education, the roles of parents in the teaching process are shaped by
the expectations of teachers. In other words, the expectations of teachers determine the roles of parents. In this regard, the investigation into teachers’ expectations from parents and the degree to which parents satisfy such expectations is
signiﬁcant for carrying out eﬀective teaching.
Purpose of the Study
This study aimed to determine teachers’ expectations from parents for eﬀective
science teaching and reveal parents’ beliefs on how much they satisfy such expectations. In this respect, an attempt was made to answer the following sub-problems:
1. What do science teachers expect from parents?
2. According to parents, to what degree do they satisfy the expectations of
science teachers?
3. Is there any relationship between the science achievement of students and
their parents’ beliefs on how much they satisfy science teachers’ expectations?
Science Teachers’ Expectatitons from Parents
205
4. Do parents’ beliefs on how much they satisfy science teachers’ expectations
predict students’ science achievements?
5. Do parents’ beliefs on how much they satisfy science teachers’ expectations
vary by students’ gender and grade levels?
Research Methodology
The study was carried out at two stages. First, an attempt was made to investigate
science teachers’ expectations of from parents. Semi-structured interviews were
conducted with 5 science teachers working in various elementary schools in the
Rize Province in Turkey. Science teachers were randomly selected from among
voluntaries. Second, a scale based on the expectations of teachers was created and
sent to 170 parents of the 6t, 7t, and 8t grade students of these teachers in order
to reveal the parents’ beliefs on how much they satisfy science teachers’ expectations. 129 parents responded to the scale.
Research Results
Step 1: Investigating the Science Teachers’ Expectations from Parents
In order to investigate science teachers’ expectations from parents, an interview
form was used including ﬁve open-ended questions. Feedback on these questions
was received from three academicians specialized in the ﬁeld of science education. The interview form was ﬁnalized in accordance with the recommendations of the experts. Interviews were recorded digitally and transcribed by the
researcher.
The data obtained through the interviews were subjected to content analysis.
Content analysis aims at bringing together similar data and arranging them within
the framework of speciﬁc themes (Yıldırım & Şimşek 2006). In this regard, the
interviews were analyzed as follows: themes associated with the research purpose
were determined based on the answers given to each question. Participants
emphasizing those themes were identiﬁed. Common views were indicated by
determining the number of such participants.
The teachers’ views were determined to be included in two categories through
the interviews about the teachers’ expectations from parents. These categories were
named parental support and sense of responsibility through examination in terms
of content.
206
Ahmet Tekbıyık
The teachers had some common opinions. In the category of sense of responsibility, all of the teachers said that parents should participate in parents’ meetings held
in school. In addition, all of the teachers were of the opinion that parents should
not do the science homework which their children had diﬃculty in doing, but they
should help them only through directions and guiding. The statement of a science
teacher on this subject is as follows:
…while most parents get information about their children by participating in parents’
meetings, some are just indiﬀerent in this matter…The inclusion of performance
assignments in the curriculum has brought more responsibilities to parents. However,
parents sometimes go beyond their responsibilities and regard the homework which is
to be done by students normally as the homework to be done by themselves. We expect
them to support students as much as necessary…
In the category of parental support, the teachers stated that they expected
parents to supply the materials needed for performance assignments and not to
consider these materials unnecessary. The statement of another science teacher on
this subject is as follows:
When we are to give students performance assignments such as preparing a poster,
creating a model, preparing a project, etc., we pay attention to the possibility of doing
such assignments by using simple tools and materials. They are quite low cost materials, but parents sometimes do not want to supply even such materials…
Step 2: Revealing Parents’ Beliefs on How Much They Satisfy Science
Teachers’ Expectations
In the presented study, the teachers’ expectations from parents were divided into
two themes: (1) parental support, (2) sense of responsibility. While parental support
consisted of 17 items, sense of responsibility included 6 items. The items were also
modiﬁed for the parent participants. For example, an item from teacher expectations “Parents should participate in parents’ meetings at school” was converted into
“I participate in parents’ meetings at school”. In this way, a draft form of The Scale
of Expectations from Parent (SEFP) was created.
In the presented study, the content validity technique proposed by Lawshe
(1975) was employed for ensuring the validity of the scale. According to this technique, a newly drafted scale needs the approval of experts in the ﬁeld. In Lawshe’s
technique, at least 5 experts are required (Wilson, Pan & Schumsky, 2012; Lawshe,
207
Science Teachers’ Expectatitons from Parents
1975). In the presented study, 5 faculty members, 4 of whom were specialized in
the ﬁeld of science education and 1 of whom was specialized in the ﬁeld of educational sciences, expressed their opinions. The critical content validity ratio for each
item is 0.99 according to 5 experts (Wilson, Pan & Schumsky, 2012; Veneziano
& Hooper 1997). The content validity ratios of 2 items were found to be below
0.99. Thus, these items were removed from the scale. The remaining 21 items were
found to have a content validity ratio of 1.00.
The experts also controlled and approved the item categorization (parental
support and sense of responsibility) of the scale. The ﬁnal version of the form was
designed as a 5-point Likert-type scale (1: never, 2: rarely, 3: sometimes, 4: often,
and 5: always). Reverse coding was conducted for the negative items included
in the scale for statistical analysis. Cronbach’s Alpha reliability coeﬃcients were
found to be 0.79 for the entire scale, 0.61 for the sub-scale of parental support, and
0.79 for the sub-scale of sense of responsibility.
The Results Concerning the Parents’ Answers to the SEFP
Table 1 presents descriptive statistics of the data obtained from parents. It can
be seen form Table 1 the mean scores of the parents in all sense of responsibility
items range from 2.61 to 4.39. The item “I take care that my child delivers the
homework timely” was found to have the highest mean score. The item “I talk with
Table 1. The results of the parents’ answers to the SEFP
Items
Sense of
responsibility
N
x̄
SS
28-I take care that my child delivers homework timely.
129
4.39
0.9
15-I learn the marks which my child receives from projects
and performance assignments.
129
4.12
1.18
27-I tell my child that importance should be attached to order and arrangement, besides the lesson function, in project
assignments.
129
4.07
1.24
19-I understand the ﬁelds of interest of my child by looking
at his/her willingness to do various assignments, and I encourage him/her in such ﬁelds.
129
4.02
1.08
32-I participate in parents’ meetings at school.
129
3.91
1.2
12-I encourage my child to be creative in project assignments in the science course.
129
3.85
1.08
21-I do the science homework which my child has diﬃculty
in doing.
129
3.55
1.56
Ahmet Tekbıyık
208
Sense of
responsibility (cd)
Parental
support
24- I help my child to seek advice of his/her teacher when s/
he has diﬃculty in the process of doing homework.
129
3.42
1.3
25-I inform my child of the necessity of the science and
technology homework given.
129
3.39
1.21
8-I help my child only by guiding and directing him while s/ 129
he is doing homework.
3.3
1.15
23-I know the stages of the assignments given for which
I am responsible.
129
3.26
1.31
13-I help my child associate science homework with daily
life.
129
3.12
1.34
9-I cannot help my child duly as I do not have content
knowledge required for the science course.
129
3.11
1.36
29-I follow the subjects covered in the science and technology course.
129
3.1
1.2
31- I talk with my child’ teacher when my child has difﬁculty in any subject in the science and technology course.
129
2.61
1.35
6-I supply the materials necessary for the application-based
homework of my child.
129
4.53
0.89
20-Since I think that the materials used by my child while
doing his/her assignments are unnecessary, I do not want to
buy them.
129
3.64
1.58
16-I make more contribution to the science course assignments about which the teacher requests caution.
129
3.63
1.31
26-I consider projects assignments too costly.
129
3.46
1.45
10-Since I ﬁnd experimental assignments dangerous, I do
not deem it suitable to do such assignments in the house.
129
3.26
1.48
14- I take my child to the requested places when an assignment requiring trip and observation is given.
129
3.18
1.44
the teacher of my child when my child has diﬃculty in any subject in the science
and technology course” was found to have the lowest mean score in this category.
Thus, it may be argued that the parents believed that they satisﬁed the expectations
of the teachers in the category of sense of responsibility.
The mean scores of the parents in all the items included in the category of
parental support varied between 4.53 and 3.18. The item “I supply the materials
necessary for the application-based homework of my child” was found to have the
highest mean. The item “I take my child to the requested places when an assignment requiring trip and observation is given” was found to have the lowest mean
in this category. Thus, it may be argued that the parents believed that they satisﬁed
the teachers’ expectations in the category of parental support, too.
209
Science Teachers’ Expectatitons from Parents
Simple correlation analysis was made between the students’ most recent period
science course grades and the sub-scales of the SEFP in order to determine the
relationship between the parents’ levels of satisfying the expectations and the science
achievement of the students (cf., Table 2). A low positive signiﬁcant relationship was
found between sense of responsibility and science achievement (r = .200; p < 0.05),
and between parental support and science achievement (r = .211; p< 0.01).
Table 2. Correlations between science achievement and the sub-scales of the SEFP
1.
2.
1
.200*
.211*
1
.369**
1. Science Achievement
2. Sense of Responsibility
3.
3. Parental Support
1
*p< 0.05 **p<0.01 (N=129)
Multiple regression analysis was made in order to determine whether the students’ science achievement could be predicted by looking at the parents’ levels of
satisfying the expectations. Table 3 presents the analysis results.
Table 3. Summary of regression analysis for parents’ levels of satisfying
the expectations predicting science achievement
Levels of satisfying the expectations
B
Std
Error
ß
t
p
Constant
1.840
.577
3.187
.002
Parental Support
.042
.025
.159
1.718
.088
Sense of Responsibility
.015
.010
.141
1.516
.132
R = .249 R2 = .062 F2,126 = 4.153 p =.018
Table 3 shows that the students’ science achievement can be predicted by looking
at the parents’ levels of satisfying the expectations of the science teachers (R =. 249;
F₍₂,₁₂₆₎ = 4.153; p = .018). In addition, it was seen that the parental support scores
(t = 1.718; p = .088) or sense of responsibility scores (t = 1.516; p =.132) did not
have any statistically signiﬁcant eﬀect on science achievement individually. Thus,
the regression equation is as follows:
Science Achievement = 1.840 + 0.042* Parental support +. 015* Sense
of responsibility
Two-way ANOVA was conducted for two sub-scales of the SEFP separately to
determine whether the students’ gender and grades had any eﬀect on the parents’
Ahmet Tekbıyık
210
levels of satisfying the expectations. Table 4 presents the results of the two-way
ANOVA where parental support is regarded as a dependent variable.
Table 4. Two-way ANOVA results regarding the sub-scale of parental support
Source of
varience
Sum of
square
df
Mean
of square
F
P
Eta square
Grade
90.130
2
45.065
32.875
.030
.970
Gender
9.266
1
9.266
5.925
.103
.689
.088
.915
.001
Garde*Gender
Error
2.742
2
1.371
1906.463
123
15.500
According to Table 4, the students’ gender did not have any eﬀect on the parents’ satisfying the expectations in the dimension of parental support (F = 5.925;
p =.103), while the students’ grades had a statistically signiﬁcant eﬀect on the
parents’ satisfying the expectations in the same dimension (F = 32.875; p =.030;
η² = 0.970). High eﬀect size (97%) was detected for the grade variable. However,
grade and gender, collectively, did not have any signiﬁcant eﬀect on the dimension
of parental support. The post hoc test (LSD) was conducted in order to determine
the grades between which the above-mentioned signiﬁcant diﬀerence emerged. It
was found out that the sixth grade parents’ levels of satisfying the expectations in
the dimension of parental support (Mean = 22.1) were found to be signiﬁcantly
higher than those of the eighth grade parents (Mean = 20.2). No statistical difference was found between the views of the seventh grade parents and those of
others. In other words, the parents of the sixth grade students satisﬁed the expectations of the science and technology teachers concerning parental support more in
comparison to the parents of the eighth grade students.
Two-way ANOVA was conducted to determine whether the students’ gender
and grades had any eﬀect on the parents’ levels of satisfying the expectations
in the sub-scale of sense of responsibility. Table 5 presents the related analysis
results.
Table 5. Two-way ANOVA results regarding the sub-scale of sense of responsibility
Source of
varience
Grade
Gender
Garde*Gender
Error
Sum
of Square
df
Mean
of Square
F
p
Eta
square
751.229
2
375.615
4.491
.182
.818
.004
1
.004
.000
.995
.000
167.281
2
83.640
.867
.423
.014
11868.931
123
96.495
Science Teachers’ Expectatitons from Parents
211
According to Table 5, gender (F = .000; p = .995), grade (F = 4,491; p = .182),
and gender and grade collectively (F = .867; p = .423) did not have any statistically
signiﬁcant eﬀect on the parents’ levels of satisfying the expectations in the dimension of sense of responsibility. In other words, the gender or grades of the students
did not aﬀect their parents’ levels of satisfying the expectations of the teachers
regarding the sense of responsibility.
Discussion and Conclusions
The study ﬁrstly attempted to determine science teachers’ expectations from
parents in accordance with the research questions. Based on the interviews
conducted, the expectations from parents were seen to be distributed in two
dimensions: “parental support” and “sense of responsibility”. The examination
of the views contained in the dimension of “parental support” showed that the
teachers expected the parents to be sensitive to the project-performance assignments of their children in particular, supply tools and equipment, and provide
parental support when necessary. On the other hand, the examination of the views
contained in the dimension of “sense of responsibility” showed that the teachers’ expectations were mostly about following the assignments, participation in
parents’ meetings, guidance, encouraging creativity, providing necessary support
in project-performance tasks, and keeping communication with teacher open. The
views contained in this dimension were generally about the parents’ being aware of
their responsibilities and roles. It is possible to say that the teachers’ expectations
indicated in the presented study are congruent with the parents’ roles emphasized
in the science curriculum (Ministry of National Education, 2005). In addition, the
teachers’ expectations from the parents were in parallel with the types of parental
involvement included in the literature.
At the second stage of the study, an attempt was made to determine the views of
the parents by means of the scale developed based on the teachers’ views. According to the average values of the items contained in the dimension of “sense of
responsibility”, the parents thought that they suﬃciently satisﬁed the expectations
of the teachers on the subjects of following the assignments, participation in parents’ meetings, guidance, encouraging creativity, providing necessary support in
project-performance assignments, and keeping communication with the teachers.
A similar result is observed in the dimension of “parental support”. The research
ﬁndings reveal that the parents thought they provided adequate parental support
for project-performance assignments.
212
Ahmet Tekbıyık
According to the results of the simple correlation analysis aimed at determining the relationship between the parents’ levels of satisfying the expectations and
the students’ science achievement, there was a low positive signiﬁcant relationship between science achievement and both dimensions of the SEFP. In other
words, when the parents do what they are supposed to do within the scope of
the science education of their children, the students’ science achievement is
improved.
According to the results of the multiple regression analysis aimed at determining whether the students’ science and technology achievement could be predicted
by looking at the parents’ levels of satisfying the expectations, the parents’ levels of
satisfying the expectations (in both sub-scales of the SEFP collectively) explained
6.2% of the variation in science achievement (R²=.062). This result shows that the
satisfaction of expectations by parents in the categories of sense of responsibility
and parental support has a direct, though low, eﬀect on the science achievement
of students.
The presented study also made an attempt to determine whether gender and
grade had any eﬀect on parents’ levels of satisfying the expectations. The results of
the analysis about the dimension of parental support indicated that the students’
gender did not inﬂuence the parents’ levels of satisfying the expectations. In other
words, the parents of both female and male students believed that they provided
enough parental support. However, the parents’ views about parental support
varied signiﬁcantly by the grades of the students. The analysis results showed that
the variation was between the 6t and 8t grade students and in favor of the 6t
grade students. That is to say, the parents of the 6t grade students considered
themselves more adequate in the dimension of parental support in comparison to
the parents of the 8t grade students. The science curriculum (Ministry of National
Education, 2005) shows that there is nothing to increase or decrease expectations
from parents on the basis of grades. Especially performance-project assignments
are included in all grades. That indicates that the variation observed in the study
does not result from the curriculum. However, the fact that the central examination conducted for the 8t grade students’ transition to secondary education in
Turkey (SBS) may have caused the support of the parents for education to focus
on this examination rather than student activities.
Today, the focal point of modern curricula is the student. Teachers and parents,
on the other hand, are the most important stakeholders of eﬀective teaching. The
presented study revealed the parental roles deﬁned by the teachers for eﬀective
science education, and provided the parents with an opportunity to evaluate the
degree to which they fulﬁlled the requirements of such roles. In addition, it was
Science Teachers’ Expectatitons from Parents
213
seen once again that parental roles were of vital importance for the attainability
and quality of the learning output which performance tasks were aimed at.
In sum, the ﬁndings of this study diﬀer from the earlier studies by revealing
information, speciﬁcally about science teaching, that parents’ levels of satisfying
the expectations inﬂuenced the academic achievement of students in science
teaching. Parents’ awareness may be raised in order to improve parents’ levels
of satisfying the expectations. Since parents’ levels of satisfying the expectations
vary by the grades of students, parents’ awareness may be raised to ensure that
they fulﬁll the requirements of their roles concerning providing parental support
throughout the education of their children.
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Maja Matrić, Katja Košir
Slovenia
Perceived Autonomy Levels among Elementary School
Students and Their Teachers
Abstract
Many authors have spoken against controlling environments and in favour of
autonomous ones. In order to estimate perceived autonomy levels in the classroom, we decided to compare teachers’ perceptions with students’ ones, gaining
a more accurate idea of the autonomy levels present in the classroom. The study
participants (231 students, 18 teachers) provided data which showed how the
teachers’ perceptions diﬀer from the students’ ones in all cases, generally the teachers rating autonomy levels higher than the students. We also found indicators of
diﬀerences present among teachers of the same subject areas as well as in terms of
the students’ gender, school and age.
Keywords: self-determination, autonomy, elementary school, teacher, student
Introduction
Ryan and Deci (2000) have recognized the importance of extrinsic motivation,
which classical authors, such as deCharms, often regarded as an impoverished
and weak form of motivation. Self-determination theory, however, introduces
a variety of motivation types within extrinsic motivation, ranging from weak to
proactive. Extrinsically motivated individuals can, therefore, perform activities
with resentment and disinterest or willingly, by accepting the value of an activity.
This aspect of self-determination theory comes in very handy when working in
environments where extrinsic motivation is the predominant type of motivation,
e.g., knowing how to successfully motivate students is a helpful tool for any teacher.
216
Maja Matrić, Katja Košir
As emphasized in self-determination theory, it is the interpersonal context that
can encourage either autonomy supportive or controlling environment (Black &
Deci, 2000). Transposing this into the educational environment, we can conclude
that teachers and parents can critically inﬂuence the degree to which students are
autonomous and controlled. Students are often not intrinsically motivated for all
tasks and it is vital to get them extrinsically motivated without the use of force or
threats. Ryan and Deci (2000) have described this as internalization and integration of values and behavioural regulations. The degree of internalization is related
to the fulﬁlment of the need for competence and autonomy as well as the sense
of relatedness – the feeling of belonging to a group will catalyse the acceptance
of group values and regulations (Vansteenkiste, Lens & Deci, 2006; Ryan & Deci,
2000). In the classroom context, this would mean that relatedness to the teacher is
crucial in the student’s acceptance of school-related norms.
Many authors suggest that autonomous teachers allow more self-initiative on
the part of students leading to stronger extrinsic motivation, higher academic
achievement and positive general well-being (for an overview, cf. Vansteenkiste
et al., 2006; Niemec et al., 2006; Deci, Schwartz, Sheinman and Ryan, 1981).
Therefore, an autonomous teacher, while still delivering necessary knowledge,
manages to understand the student’s point of view, encourages the student to
search for answers and minimizes pressure and demand. Controlling behaviours,
on the contrary, have been linked to learning problems and emotional disorders
(Grolnick, Kurowski, Dunlap & Hevey, 2000), weak conceptual learning (Benware
& Deci, 1984) and lower academic achievement (Grolnick & Ryan, 1987). Numerous studies examining the beneﬁts of autonomy support can only provide us with
perceived autonomy levels from either students’, teachers’ or raters’ perspective
– and research has shown that either of those viewpoints can bring about diﬀerent
perceived autonomy levels (Stroet, Opdenakker and Minnaert, 2013). Instead of
gaining information from either students or teachers, we attempted at compiling
data from a group of students and their particular teacher. We did so in several
diﬀerent classes, based on the subject area, asking the students what levels of
autonomy they were experiencing and, at the same time, asking the teacher what
levels of autonomy he/she was allowing.
The presented study
Our study focused on elementary school students’ and teachers’ perceived
autonomy support. We explored to what degree students experienced autonomy
Perceived Autonomy Levels among Elementary School Students and Their Teachers
217
support from their teachers at diﬀerent points of their elementary school education
and in diﬀerent subject areas. Thus, we covered perceived autonomy support from
opposite standpoints. Juxtaposing the students’ and teachers’ perceptions oﬀers
a more complete insight into autonomy support, enabling us to objectively assess
the extent of autonomy present in classrooms. We were interested in acquiring
data on how students assessed autonomy levels with regard to particular teachers
and, in return, how those same teachers evaluated their autonomy support oﬀered
in their subject areas.
The speciﬁc research questions in the study were the following:
(1) To what extent do the students’ perceptions coincide with or diﬀer from
the teachers’ assessment of autonomy support in particular subject areas?
(2) How does perceived autonomy support diﬀer depending on the students’
gender and age?
(3) What are the overall levels of autonomy support among the students and
teachers?
Method
Participants
A total of 231 students (53.7% male) from Slovenian elementary schools in the
Posavje region participated in the study. Using convenience sampling, we selected
participants from two elementary schools, each having only one generation of
Year 4, Year 6 and Year 8 students. The participants were divided into three age
groups according to their year of schooling, namely 35 students attending Year 4
(54.2% male), 99 students attending Year 6 (54.5% male) and 97 students attending
Year 8 (52.6% male). Year 4 students assessed their class teacher (one teacher, who
teaches the majority of subjects), while Year 6 and Year 8 students assessed their
Mathematics, English and Art teachers.
At the same time, our study focused on the teachers’ assessment of the autonomy
they allow in the classroom. Selected participants were either class teachers in
Year 4, or those teaching Mathematics, English and Art in Year 6 and Year 8. The
study included data compiled from 18 teachers, among whom there were 10 Class
teachers, 2 Mathematics teachers, 4 English teachers and 2 Art teachers. Their age
ranged from 25 to 52 (M = 36.6; SD = 8.36), while their working experience ranged
from 1 to 31 years (M = 11.50; SD = 9.41). Among all the teachers there were 17
females and one male. Six teachers were rated by their students, while the remaining teachers only provided their self-reports.
218
Maja Matrić, Katja Košir
Procedure
The participating students completed the questionnaires after compulsory
school lessons. The participating teachers completed the questionnaires in their
own time. Six teachers were instructed to complete the questionnaires with regard
to a particular class (who, in return, were rating the teacher), while the remaining
teachers rated their general levels of autonomy. The data was collected in March,
2013.
Measures
The original short form 6-item Learning Climate Questionnaire (LCQ) was
adapted into a 7-item questionnaire by adding another item from the original
15-item Learning Climate Questionnaire (LCQ). These open access questionnaires were developed by Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan and are available
at the Self-Determination Theory website. The questionnaires are used in speciﬁc
learning settings when we are enquiring about the autonomy support of a particular teacher or instructor. The questionnaire was adapted into Slovenian for the
purposes of this study. The adapted LCQ items were presented in two variants,
each measuring the students’ or the teachers’ perceived autonomy support. The
participants rated the items on a 5-point Likert scale. Alpha reliability for all the
students showed high overall internal consistency (α = 0.93). Alpha reliabilities for
the subgroups in our data were: Year 4 (0.73), English (0.90), Mathematics (0.95),
Art (0.75) and the teachers’ subscale (0.63).
Results
The research aimed at establishing the perceived autonomy levels in the classroom. The data collected in our survey is ﬁrst presented according to particular
teachers and their students, observing the general perceived autonomy levels for
the teachers and students respectively. We continue to analyse the results according to the students’ gender and age in order to establish signiﬁcant diﬀerences and
answer the research questions.
Perceived autonomy support with Year 4 students and their teachers
In general, class teacher 1 has shown perceived autonomy levels higher than
her students. We can notice that the variable with the highest mean diﬀerence
is “Encouraging students to ask questions”, which the students clearly perceived
as less present in comparison to their teacher. The variable both the teacher and
b
a
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
5.00
4.14
Oﬀering choice
Having understanding
for students
Conveying conﬁdence
in students‘ work
Encouraging students
to ask questions
Listening to how
students would like to
do things
Trying to see how
students understand
things before suggesting a new way
Making sure students
understand course
goals
OVERALL
0.38
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
SD
4.02
4.74
3.78
4.30
3.43
4.30
3.57
4.04
M
0.46
0.69
1.35
0.97
0.79
0.88
1.27
0.88
SD
Students’
perceived
autonomy
support
(n = 23)a
0.12
0.26
0.22
0.30
0.57
0.30
0.43
0.04
(ΔM)
Diﬀerence
between
groups
Intraclass Correlation Coeﬃcient showed 61.5% of absolute agreement.
Intraclass Correlation Coeﬃcient showed 77.3% of absolute agreement.
M
4.00
Item
Class Teacher
1 perceived
autonomy
support
–
0.49
4.29
–
–
–
–
4.00
5.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
–
–
5.00
SD
M
4.00
Class Teacher
2 perceived
autonomy
support
4.56
4.83
4.50
4.50
4.25
4.58
4.75
4.50
M
0.18
0.39
0.67
0.91
0.75
0.70
0.62
0.52
SD
Students’
perceived
autonomy
support
(n = 12)b
Table 1. Means and standard deviations for class teachers and their students
0.36
0.83
0.50
0.50
0.25
0.58
0.25
0.50
(ΔM)
Diﬀerence
between
groups
220
Maja Matrić, Katja Košir
the students agreed on mostly is “Oﬀering choice”. None of the variables yielded
a statistical diﬀerence. Interestingly, class teacher 2 rated her autonomy levels lower
than the students. Means comparison for particular variables shows the greatest
diﬀerence for the last variable, “Making sure students understand goals”, while
analysis of the students’ perceptions alone shows greatest standard deviation for
the variable “Listening to how the students would like to do things”. The items
with the lowest means diﬀerence are “Having understanding for students” and
“Encouraging students to ask questions“. A signiﬁcant diﬀerence was found only
in the case of the variable “Oﬀering choice” (χ2 = 13.000, df = 2, p = .002), which the
students assessed higher than the teacher.
Perceived autonomy support in English lessons
Table 2 shows a noticeable means diﬀerence while comparing means for all
the 7 items for English teacher 1 and her students. The means comparison for
particular variables shows the greatest diﬀerence for the variable “Encouraging
students to ask questions”. Both the teacher’s and her students’ answers coincide
mostly for the variable “Having understanding for students”. Signiﬁcant diﬀerence
was not found in any of the items. English teacher 2 also estimated the autonomy
in her class higher than her students. Observing particular items, we can notice
the highest means diﬀerence in two variables: “Conveying conﬁdence in students’
work” and “Encouraging students to ask questions “.The lowest means diﬀerence
can be observed for the variable “Oﬀering choice”, however none of the items
yielded statistical diﬀerence.
Perceived autonomy support in Mathematics lessons
Table 3 shows that Mathematic teacher 1 perceived autonomy levels in her
classroom higher than the students. Looking at the means diﬀerence for particular
variables we can notice that the teacher and her students disagreed mostly in the
case of the variable “Trying to see how students understand things before suggesting a new way”, and agreed mostly on the last variable, “Making sure students
understand course goals”. Mathematics teacher 2 estimated his general autonomy
levels slightly higher than his students. The means for particular items diﬀer
mostly for the variable “Encouraging students to ask questions”. As is the case with
Mathematics teacher 1, here too both the teacher and the students agreed mostly
on the last variable, “Making sure students understand course goals”. None of the
items was statistically diﬀerent, though.
b
a
4.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
4.86
Oﬀering choice
Having understanding
for students
Conveying conﬁdence
in students‘ work
Encouraging students
to ask questions
Listening to how students would like to do
things
Trying to see how
students understand
things before suggesting a new way
Making sure students
understand course
goals
OVERALL
0.38
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
SD
2.84
3.26
3.00
2.95
2.13
3.03
2.79
2.74
M
0.36
1.35
1.23
1.36
1.17
1.20
1.30
1.13
SD
Students’
perceived
autonomy
support
(n = 38) a
2.02
1.74
2.00
2.05
2.87
1.97
1.21
2.26
(ΔM)
Diﬀerence
between
groups
Intraclass Correlation Coeﬃcient showed 88.2% of absolute agreement.
Intraclass Correlation Coeﬃcient showed 90.1% of absolute agreement.
M
5.00
Item
English teacher
1 perceived
autonomy
support
4.57
5.00
4.00
4.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
4.00
M
0.54
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
SD
English
Teacher 2
perceived
autonomy
support
2.38
2.59
2.11
2.07
2.30
2.30
2.52
2.78
M
0.25
0.97
1.05
1.00
0.95
1.30
1.16
0.97
SD
Students’
perceived
autonomy
support
(n = 27) b
Table 2. Means and standard deviations for English teachers and their students
2.19
2.41
1.89
1.93
2.70
2.70
2.48
1.22
(ΔM)
Diﬀerence
between
groups
b
a
4.00
4.00
4.00
5.00
5.00
4.00
4.29
Oﬀering choice
Having understanding
for students
Conveying conﬁdence
in students‘ work
Encouraging students
to ask questions
Listening to how
students would like to
do things
Trying to see how
students understand
things before suggesting a new way
Making sure students
understand course
goals
OVERALL
0.49
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
SD
3.80
4.08
3.90
4.00
3.41
3.67
3.85
3.72
M
0.23
1.31
1.43
1.47
1.43
1.32
1.41
1.30
SD
Students’
perceived
autonomy
support
(n = 39)a
0.49
0.08
1.10
1.00
0.59
0.33
0.15
0.28
(ΔM)
Diﬀerence
between
groups
Intraclass Correlation Coeﬃcient showed 95.6% of absolute agreement.
Intraclass Correlation Coeﬃcient showed 81.6% of absolute agreement.
M
4.00
Item
Mathematics
teacher 1
perceived
autonomy
support
4.43
5.00
4.00
4.00
5.00
4.00
5.00
4.00
M
0.53
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
SD
Mathematics
teacher 2
perceived
autonomy
support
4.40
4.78
4.26
4.26
4.04
4.52
4.67
4.30
M
0.26
0.51
0.81
0.98
0.98
0.64
0.48
0.87
SD
Students’
perceived
autonomy
support
(n = 27)b
Table 3. Means and standard deviations for Mathematics teachers and their students
0.03
0.22
0.26
0.26
0.96
0.52
0.33
0.30
(ΔM)
Diﬀerence
between
groups
Perceived Autonomy Levels among Elementary School Students and Their Teachers
223
Perceived autonomy support in Art lessons
According to the responses of Art teacher 1 and her students (Table 4), general
autonomy levels were again higher for the teacher. Analysing particular items, we
can notice the greatest means diﬀerence for the variable “Encouraging students to
ask questions” and lowest for the variable “Trying to see how students understand
things before suggesting a new way”. The results are similar for Art teacher 2 and
her students, where we can see that the general autonomy perceptions of the
teacher were higher than the students’ ones. The means diﬀerence for individual
items is most noticeable for the variable “Having understanding for students”,
while the scores for “Encouraging students to ask questions” were exactly the same.
No signiﬁcant diﬀerence was found in any of the items.
General levels of perceived autonomy support
The teachers estimated their own autonomy support higher (M = 4.46, SD = 0.17)
than the students (M = 3.70, SD = 0.24). Comparing particular variables between
groups, we can notice the highest means diﬀerence for the variable “Encouraging
students to ask questions” (ΔM = 1.37), which was scored higher by the teachers.
The means diﬀerence was lowest for the variable “Oﬀering choice” (ΔM = 0.54). We
found four variables where the diﬀerences between the teachers’ and the students’
perceptions were signiﬁcant: “Having understanding for students” (χ2 = 9.645,
df = 4, p = .047), “Conveying conﬁdence in students’ work” (χ2 = 10.437, df = 4,
p = .034), “Encouraging students to ask questions” (χ2 = 11.522, df = 4, p = .021)
and “Trying to see how students understand things before suggesting a new way”
(χ2 = 11.620, df = 4, p = .020). The intraclass correlation coeﬃcient for the group of
teachers showed 59.6% of absolute agreement, whereas the intraclass correlation
coeﬃcient for the group of students showed 92.1% of absolute agreement.
Perceived autonomy support according to the students’ gender and
age (grade)
According to our data, gender induced diﬀerences were slight, with the girls’
rating perceived autonomy levels higher (M = 3.75, SD = 0.17) than the boys’
(M = 3.67, SD = 0.31). The means diﬀerence was greatest for the variable “Encouraging students to ask questions” (ΔM = 0.39) and lowest for the variable “Conveying conﬁdence in students’ work” (ΔM = 0.01). An independent-samples t-test was
conducted to compare the perceived autonomy levels of the boys and girls. The
variable “Encouraging students to ask questions” yielded a signiﬁcant diﬀerence
in scores for the boys and girls, t (229) = -2.23, p = .027. The intraclass correlation
coeﬃcient for the group of teachers showed 91.4% of absolute agreement, whereas
b
a
4.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
4.00
5.00
4.57
Oﬀering choice
Having understanding
for students
Conveying conﬁdence
in students‘ work
Encouraging students
to ask questions
Listening to how
students would like to
do things
Trying to see how
students understand
things before suggesting a new way
Making sure students
understand course
goals
OVERALL
0.53
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
SD
4.20
4.26
4.32
4.34
3.13
4.29
4.58
4.50
M
0.49
0.92
1.02
1.07
1.34
1.04
0.68
0.76
SD
Students’
perceived
autonomy
support
(n = 38)a
0.37
0.74
0.32
0.66
1.87
0.71
0.58
0.50
(ΔM)
Diﬀerence
between
groups
Intraclass Correlation Coeﬃcient showed 50.7% of absolute agreement.
Intraclass Correlation Coeﬃcient showed 91.0% of absolute agreement.
M
4.00
Item
Art teacher
1 perceived
autonomy
support
4.29
4.00
5.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
5.00
4.00
M
0.49
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
SD
Art teacher
2 perceived
autonomy
support
4.05
4.11
4.04
4.07
4.00
3.93
3.96
4.26
M
0.11
0.97
1.09
0.96
1.04
0.73
0.80
0.81
SD
Students’
perceived
autonomy
support
(n = 27)b
Table 4. Means and standard deviations for Art teachers and their students
0.24
0.11
0.96
0.07
0.00
0.07
1.04
0.26
(ΔM)
Diﬀerence
between
groups
Perceived Autonomy Levels among Elementary School Students and Their Teachers
225
the intraclass correlation coeﬃcient for the group of students showed 93.2% of
absolute agreement.
Age-based analysis suggests that the perceived autonomy support seems to be
dropping with age. A one-way ANOVA was conducted to compare the eﬀect of
age on the perceived autonomy support. There was a signiﬁcant eﬀect of age on
the perceived autonomy support for the following variables: “Oﬀering choice”
[F(2, 228), p = .003], “Conveying conﬁdence in students’ work” [F(2, 228), p = .002],
“Encouraging students to ask questions” [F(2, 228), p = .000], “Listening to how
students would like to do things” [F(2, 228), p = .001] and “Making sure students
understand course goals” [F(2, 228), p = .000]. Tukey post-hoc comparisons of
the three groups indicated that the Year 4 students (M = 4.20, SD = 0.80) showed
signiﬁcantly higher ratings than the Year 8 students (M = 3.64, SD = 1.21) for the
variable “Oﬀering choice” (p = .043); the Year 4 students (M = 4.40, SD = 0.81)
showed signiﬁcantly higher ratings than Year 6 (M = 3.76, SD = 1.29) for the variable “Conveying conﬁdence in students’ work” (p = .024) and the Year 8 students
(M = 3.49, SD = 1.31) for the variable “Conveying conﬁdence in students’ work”
(p = .001); the Year 4 students (M = 3.71, SD = 0.86) showed signiﬁcantly higher
ratings than the Year 8 students (M = 3.06, SD = 1.22) for the variable “Encouraging students to ask questions” (p = .034); the Year 4 students (M = 4.37, SD = 0.94)
showed signiﬁcantly higher ratings than the Year 8 students (M = 3.40, SD = 1.37)
for the variable “Listening to how students would like to do things” (p = .001); the
Year 4 students (M = 4.77, SD = 0.60) showed signiﬁcantly higher ratings than the
Year 6 (M = 4.05, SD = 1.25) for variable “Making sure students understand course
goals” (p = .006) and the Year 8 students (M = 3.65, SD = 1.24) for the variable
“Making sure students understand course goals” (p = .000). These results suggest
that the perceived autonomy support lowers with growing age.
Discussion
The research aimed at establishing perceived autonomy support levels in Slovenian elementary schools in the Posavje region. To do so, we examined students’
and teachers’ perceived autonomy support levels. Evidently, the teachers’ perceptions did not match the students’ in any teaching area since they either over- or
underestimated autonomy support the students reported. A quite extreme example
can be found in the English lessons data, where the teachers’ ratings were roughly
doubled, signalling that the two teachers have an extremely distorted idea of the
226
Maja Matrić, Katja Košir
autonomy support they oﬀer in the classroom. Generally, we can notice a repeated
emergence of the diﬀerences being greatest for the variable “Encouraging students
to ask questions”. The variable itself is a very straightforward behaviour which supports autonomy and is also easily detected by the students. Lack of it suggests that
the teachers seem to be failing at oﬀering autonomy support even by the use of
less complex methods, as encouraging more questions on the part of the students.
The diﬀerences were lowest for several variables which the students may not easily
detect as autonomy supporting behaviours (“Making sure students understand
course goals”, “Trying to see how students understand things”) and therefore
do not ﬁnd them as important in their classes. However, the variables “Oﬀering
choice” and “Having understanding for students” are fairly explicit behaviours and
having the students and teachers rate them at similar levels points to a certain
praiseworthy concordance. Reasons for such trends may be found in using the
teachers’ self-report as a means of measuring autonomy support. While examining
the teachers’ own assessment, we are aware that self-report is an extremely biased
and subjective matter. Instead of assessing their actual work, the teachers might
be assessing the behaviour they feel they should be showing in the classroom,
leading to an unrealistic image of the autonomy support oﬀered in the classroom.
Apart from the fact that the diﬀerences might stem from bias in self-reports, having some teachers assessed higher/lower by the students can also result from an
individual teacher’s work or even their popularity among students.
In terms of gender and age diﬀerences, our data revealed that the girls perceived
autonomy support higher, but we should mention that the diﬀerence was only
slight and non-signiﬁcant for the majority of behaviours. It was also evident that
the perceived autonomy support dropped with age. Much has been said about the
eﬀects of growing age on lowering students’ motivation for schoolwork (Stroet,
Opdenakker & Minnaert, 2013), which may be showing in our data as well.
Due to the small sample size, the results of our study cannot be generalized.
In spite of the limitations, we can still draw from the results of our research and
suppose that, considering that almost all the teachers rated their autonomy levels
higher than their students, perhaps a better knowledge of the concept of autonomy
in the classroom might be required among the teachers in Slovenian elementary schools. Particularly when taking into account the fact that we measured
autonomy support in four diﬀerent subject areas. Previous research revealed that
teachers trained in autonomy-supportive behaviours displayed signiﬁcantly more
autonomy support in their classroom than non-trained teachers (Reeve, Jang,
Carrell, Jeon & Barch, 2004). Therefore, further research might focus on ﬁnding
Perceived Autonomy Levels among Elementary School Students and Their Teachers
227
out how equipped teachers are with autonomy supportive teaching methods and
whether they ﬁnd self-determination theory a relevant concept in their classrooms. In practical pedagogy, our results suggest that in spite of much research
speaking in favour of boosting autonomy, teachers still seem to be unaware of the
importance of self-regulated motivation in students and this should become a part
of teacher education courses.
References
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Šárka Portešová, Marie Budíková,
Dana Juhová
Czech Republic
Myths about Gifted Learners from the
Perspective of Teachers
Abstract
The aim of the presented paper was to ﬁnd out whether Czech and Slovak teachers are aﬀected by myths about the gifted. We selected myths concerning the nature
of giftedness, its identiﬁcation, social and emotional characteristics of the gifted,
and their education. The myths were examined in regard to determinants regarding educators. Data from 434 teachers (350 women) were collected by a foreign
questionnaire. The results showed that these educators tend to hold myths about
overachievement of the gifted without special care, simultaneity of gift and creativity,
and the correlation of giftedness with social and emotional problems. The group
with a higher risk to be susceptible to certain myths are teachers over 40 years of
age, with experience longer than 10 years, teaching in villages and having no contact
with giftedness. Thus, we recommend focusing especially on further training of
these high-risk groups of teachers in order to rebut their misconceptions about
the gifted. The research was supported by the research grant of the Grant Agency
of the Czech Republic registered under number P407/11/1272.
Keywords: myths, intellectually gifted, teachers
Introduction
The European as well as Czech and Slovak education systems have undergone
a major change over the last decade. Thanks to the new legislative regulations,
today this issue is no longer a matter of several dozen of specially trained teachers,
as it used to be, but it has become a task and duty of all teachers. However, at the
230
Šárka Portešová, Marie Budíková,Dana Juhová
same time due to the trend directed at integrating all pupils with “diﬀerences” into
regular classes, the homogeneity of classes has declined and hence teachers’ task is
to provide speciﬁc educational approaches in a much greater degree than before
to a much greater number of pupils and students.
A frequently cited deﬁnition from which we stem in this study is Marland’s
deﬁnition of this group of pupils precisely depicting also their special educational
needs: “Gifted and talented children are those identiﬁed by professionally qualiﬁed
persons, who by virtue of outstanding abilities are capable of high performance.
These are children who require diﬀerentiated educational programs and/or services beyond those normally provided by the regular school program in order to
realize their contribution to self and society” (Passow, 1993, p. 30).
Teachers’ attitudes to educating gifted learners
For several decades, many empirical studies have dealt with teachers’ attitudes
to learners with various educational diﬀerences. Recently, they have paid attention also to the issue of attitudes towards gifted pupils. It must be mentioned
that researchers are still unanimous as regards the issues of general attitudes
to extraordinarily gifted learners. Yet in this respect, it is necessary to point
out that a number of latest foreign studies stress the frequent diﬀerentiation
of teacher respondents into statistically comparable groups with positive and
negative attitudes towards this issue (Copenhaver & McIntyre, 1992; MegayNespoli, 2001). Simultaneously, many researchers have recently asked also other
questions, e.g. which key variables form and shape these attitudes (McCoach &
Siegle, 2007).
Determinants of attitudes
Teachers’ attitudes to certain groups of pupils are learned to a certain degree,
and they can change with time (Ball & Cohen, 1999). It is especially this fact that
serves as a basis for the Czech research by Hříbková (1994), which is dedicated
to the issue of the signiﬁcance and inﬂuence of individual variables on forming
particular attitudes. As to foreign studies, the key study in this area is the research
by Bégin and Gagné (1994, 1994a). Among the key variables shaping teachers’
attitudes, the so-called “Socioeconomic status” is the primary one. The second signiﬁcant factor was closely associated with three variables: (a) perception of one’s
own child as gifted, (b) contact with the gifted, (c) perception of oneself as gifted.
This factor was labelled as “Contact with giftedness”. Similar conclusions were
reached also in our study on Czech teachers (Portešová, Budíková & Koutková,
2009).
Myths about Gifted Learners from the Perspective of Teachers
231
Myths in gifted education
The issue of myths and attitudes in gifted education has been examined for
a relatively long time. Already in 1982, this issue was dedicated a monothematic
issue of the American journal Gifted Child Quarterly entitled Demythologization
of gifted education (Treﬃnger, 1982). If we try to categorise myths in this issue
frequently appearing in empirical studies, we will obtain three largest rounds of
myths:
1. The ﬁrst round pertains to questions related to the nature of giftedness and
its identiﬁcation: e.g. Every child is gifted.
2. The second round of myths is related to social and emotional characteristics
of gifted individuals, e.g.: Gifted children are often unsociable.
3. The third round of myths is usually connected with gifted education,
e.g.: Acceleration is an inappropriate educational provision for most gifted
learners.
All teachers’ wrong ideas unsubstantiated by research concerning giftedness
have a negative impact on the entire issue, not only by giving rise to misconceptions about what gifted children are like, but especially by leading to misconceptions about their special educational needs.
Study Aims
The aforementioned studies dealing with the inﬂuence of myths on gifted
education do not examine the relationship between a particular myth and
signiﬁcant determinants related to teachers who tend to hold this myth. The
given ﬁndings would have a great intervention potential, they would point out
high-risk groups of educators and open up the possibility to modify their way
of further education in the given issue so that their misconceptions would be
rebutted. We try to underpin the aforementioned complex relations in the presented study, in which we aim to:
1. Discover and describe what myths Czech and Slovak teachers hold most
frequently.
2. We are interested in the inﬂuence of the following independent variables
(determinants) on the tendency to hold myths, i.e.:
• sex
• level of education
• age (40 years of age was set as the limit, as the age category of over 41
was the most numerous in the research sample)
• length of experience (10 years was set as the limit)
• participation in a program for the gifted
Šárka Portešová, Marie Budíková,Dana Juhová
232
• the so-called teacher’s contact with giftedness (with identiﬁed or presumed gifted family member; the teacher him or herself is identiﬁed as
gifted or they at least think so)
• the so-called teacher’s contact with special educational needs (SEN;
contact in class with a pupil with SEN; with a presumed family member
with SEN; the teacher him or herself has been diagnosed with SEN, or
they think they have SEN)
• size of the town/village and the type and level of schools where the
educator works.
Research Methodology
Research sample
434 Czech and Slovak elementary, secondary and tertiary school teachers (366
women) of working age (the category over 41 years was the most numerous one).
224 teachers were from elementary schools; 66 from grammar schools, 119 from
secondary vocational schools (including apprentice schools), and 25 from universities (including colleges). The sample was composed via simple random and snow
ball sampling, from the database of schools of the Ministry of Education and by
means of suﬃcient paper data collection in large cities of the Czech and Slovak
Republics.
Method of data collection
The research was conducted in the form of a questionnaire survey, which took
place during 2012. Data were collected by Bain’s questionnaire called Attitudes and
Perceptions of Giftedness Survey, focused on examining attitudes and gift percepTable 1. Description of myths, their names and abbreviations
Description
Name
Abbreviated names
M1
Pupils who are really gifted will overachieve even if
they are not provided with any special care.
Myth about overachievement
without care
M2
Pupils who are intellectually gifted usually form
a homogenous group.
Myth about a homogenous
group
M3
Gifted individuals are highly likely or more likely
to suﬀer from emotional problems.
Myth about emotional problems
233
Myths about Gifted Learners from the Perspective of Teachers
Description
Name
Abbreviated names
M4
Gifted individuals are highly likely or more likely
to have diﬃculties with social relationships.
Myth about social relationships
M5
Gifted individuals are highly likely or more likely
to commit suicide.
Myth about the risk of suicide
M6
A gifted learner will be more advanced in other
Myth about being more addevelopmental areas (e.g., development of ﬁne and vanced in other areas
gross motor skills, emotional development, artistic/
musical development, etc.) than an average learner
of the same age.
M7
Giftedness visible in small children is often caused
by parental eﬀort to expose their children to advanced learning activities soon.
Myth about parental eﬀort
M8
Learners who are very intelligent are highly likely
or more likely to be very creative.
Myth about creativity
tion (Bain, Choate & Bliss, 2006). Based on this questionnaire, we determined
the demographic data (this part was extended by items exploring special educational needs and giftedness in respondents, their families and in class) and eight
myths pertaining to giftedness. Each myth was represented by one item coded as
a dichotomous variable: 0 (not holding the myth) and 1 (holding the myth). These
are items shown in Table 1, representing concurrently also myths explored by us.
The table includes also abbreviations of names and description of myths that will
be used below.
Even though the questionnaire was administered to teachers as a whole, in this
study we work only with the obtained data concerning myths and independent
variables – determinants.
Data analysis methods
When analysing the data from our questionnaire survey, we used tables of
absolute and relative frequencies in exploring individual variables, and an independence test plus the calculation of Cramer’s coeﬃcient in exploring pairs of
variables. When verifying the dependence of the numbers of myths on the age or
length of experience, a two-sample t-test was applied together with the calculation
of Cohen’s kappa coeﬃcient.
Šárka Portešová, Marie Budíková,Dana Juhová
234
Results
Number of Teachers
Number of teachers holding individual myths
First, we focused on analysing the distribution of myths among the teachers in
our sample. The results are shown in Graph 1, which implies that most teachers
hold 3-5 myths out of the 8 aforementioned ones.
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
56; 29%
37; 19%
3; 2%
1
47; 24%
22; 11%
10; 5%
2
3
4
5
6
16, 8%
7
3; 2%
8
Number of Myths
Graph 1. Absolute and relative frequencies of teachers holding 1–8 myths.
Analysis of the most and least frequent myths
Further on, we examined the relative frequencies of occurrence of the individual
myths in our research sample. As evident from Graph 2 including also the missing
Relative Frequency (%)
100
90
80
73
67
70
57
60
49
50
40
43
45
M6
M7
29
30
20
20
10
0
M1
M2
M3
M4
M5
Myth
Graph 2. Relative frequencies of teachers holding 1–8 myths.
M8
235
Myths about Gifted Learners from the Perspective of Teachers
data, the most teachers are susceptible to the Myth about overachievement without
care and Myth about creativity. On the contrary, the fewest teachers hold the Myth
about a homogenous group and Myth about the risk of suicide.
Therefore, by analysing the aforementioned myths we discovered that our teachers often tend to regard gifted pupils as learners who overachieve so extremely in
cognitive skills (but also in creativity) that they will overachieve also even if they
are not provided with any special education or approach. Simultaneously, they
do not perceive gifted pupils as a homogenous group, i.e., they fully understand
possible diversities in the proﬁle of their abilities. At the same time, they more
likely do not believe that gifted learners run a higher risk of suicidal tendencies.
Inﬂuence of supporting variables on the tendency to be susceptible
to myths
The focus of the study is an analysis of accompanying variables in relation to
the examined myths. The results are shown in Table 2. The following variables
inﬂuence especially the origin of myths: the teacher’s age, length of experience,the
teacher’s experience with teaching in a program for gifted learners, presence of a presumed family member who has SEN, and the teacher with diagnosed SEN.
Table 2. Inﬂuence of individual factors on holding myths about the gifted
according to the value of Cramér’s coeﬃcient.
Factor (teacher)
Sex
Age
Level of education
Type of school
Place of school
Length of experience
Programme for the gifted
Teaching a learner with SEN
Identiﬁed gifted family member
Presumed gifted family member
Presumed family member with SEN
Identiﬁed gifted teacher
Presumed gifted teacher
Teacher with diagnosed SEN
Teacher thinks he/she has SEN
Note: *p <.05
M1
M2
M3
.051 .059 .044
.121* .015 .015
.105* .060 .083
.076 .109 .150
.061 .094 .145*
.129* .117* .073
.180* .063 .113*
.053 .006 .037
.090 .081 .061
.010 .019 .004
.096* .129* .117*
.109* .043 .048
.105* .027 .090
.064 .046 .143*
.021 .001 .009
Myth
M4
M5
M6
M7
.037 .013 .021 .027
.035 .128* .008 .124*
.038 .051 .053 .006
.098 .127 .164* .038
.137* .104 .077 .040
.018 .028 .038 .050
.133* .051 .073 .064
.039 .034 .039 .009
.032 .065 .058 .009
.041 .066 .047 .053
.107* .051 .077 .048
.093 .113* .064 .040
.060 .003 .023 .019
.108* .053 .055 .106*
.017 .056 .021 .005
M8
.088
.114*
.009
.117
.109
.132*
.049
.002
.094
.154*
.098
.057
.139*
.004
.015
236
Šárka Portešová, Marie Budíková,Dana Juhová
Inﬂuence of the educator’s age and length of experience
As we were interested in diﬀerences between younger and older teachers,
we concentrated on the joint inﬂuence of variables length of experience and the
teacher’s age.
On average, the older teachers (N = 107, M = 4.73) proved to hold more myths
than the younger teachers (N = 87, M = 4.08), t(192) = 3.22, p <.05. Cohen’s kappa
coeﬃcient reached the value of 0.46. Moreover, we also discovered that on average
the teachers with experience longer than 10 years (N = 131, M = 4.13) tend to hold
a greater number of myths than their colleagues with shorter experience (N = 63,
M = 4.13), t(192) = 2.12, p <.05. Cohen’s kappa coeﬃcient reached the value of 0.46.
If we concentrate on the myths that these educators tend to hold, it is clear from
Table 2 that they are the following myths: Myth about overachievement without
care and Myth about creativity.
The teachers aged over 40 and the teachers with experience longer than 10
years thus assess the gifted as pupils with a potential to overachieve, who are also
naturaly highly creative independently of the way of education.
Inﬂuence of experience in the program for the gifted
Another inﬂuence in which we are interested is the inﬂuence of the variable
experience with teaching in a programme for gifted pupils. Teachers with this experience are most often susceptible to the Myth about overachievement without care,
Myth about emotional problems and Myth about social relationships.
Analysing the nature of these myths, it is evident that these teachers assess
gifted pupils as learners who overachieve signiﬁcantly in cognitive skills and who
will overachieve even if they are not provided with any special care or approach.
Simultaneously, it is this group of educators that is most susceptible to the Myth
about social relationships and emotional problems of these children.
Inﬂuence of contact with giftedness in family
In this respect, we are interested in variables – identiﬁed gifted family member
and presumed gifted family member. The variable identiﬁed gifted family member
has no statistically signiﬁcant inﬂuence on holding any of the myths. Similarly,
also the variable presumed gifted family member and presumed gifted teacher is correlated only with the Myth about creativity. Hence, it is evident that contact with
giftedness has a very positive impact on teachers’ attitude, as it tends to prevent
the origin of myths.
Myths about Gifted Learners from the Perspective of Teachers
237
Inﬂuence of contact with special educational needs in family
If teachers suppose they have a family member with SEN, they tend to be susceptible to the Myth about overachievement without care, Myth about a homogenous
group, Myth about emotional problems and Myth about social relationships. Similarly, if the teacher has been diagnosed with SEN, he or she holds more frequently
the Myth about emotional problems, Myth about social relationships and Myth
about parental eﬀort.
Teachers who themselves have experienced SEN tend to be susceptible to myths
related to social and emotional handicaps of the gifted. However, those teachers
who also have a family member with special educational needs also hold a myth
that could be referred to as a gifted learner stereotype. In this case, teachers see
these learners as extremely gifted, not requiring any special education, belonging to
a homogenous group, with similar abilities as other gifted learners (homogeneity),
but at the same time with a high risk in regard to social and emotional problems.
Yet, it is interesting in this respect that the variable teacher has a gifted pupil
with SEN in class does not have the inﬂuence described above. Therefore, it is the
inﬂuence of experience from family, not from school environment.
Inﬂuence of school size
The inﬂuence of the size of the school where the teacher teaches contributes
signiﬁcantly to the Myth about emotional problems and Myth about social relationships. Teachers teaching in town schools tend to hold these myths more often than
teachers teaching in villages.
Discussion
The aim of this study was to understand the inﬂuence of variables on the creation of myths in teachers.
Our research has shown that the group with the highest risk to be susceptible to
certain selected myths are teachers over 40 years of age and teachers with experience longer than 10 years. They especially tend to regard gifted pupils as those
who do not need to be systematically developed, as they are going to overachieve
even if they are not provided with special care and who are highly likely or more
likely to be very creative. In this respect, foreign researchers often prove that the
inﬂuence of age or years of experience is not such an important variable for forming attitudes or holding myths. According to these ﬁndings, a more important
variable is being further educated in the given issue. According to some studies,
238
Šárka Portešová, Marie Budíková,Dana Juhová
teachers who have undergone such training tend to have a better attitude to gifted
education, more corresponding to research ﬁndings, as well as a better ability to
develop their pupils eﬀectively (Hansen & Feldhusen, 1994). However, other studies do not see this correlation as completely causal (McCoach & Siegle, 2007). We
suppose that in our context also the following fact may be reﬂected in the obtained
diﬀerences between older and younger educators. As the issue of gifted education
became a part of legislation in the Czech Republic in 2005 (Ministerial Regulation
No. 73/2005 Collection of Law and Act No. 561/2005 Collection of Law) and in
Slovakia in 2007 (Conception of Development of Gifted Children and Youth in
Slovakia), we can assume that it is mostly young teachers who are more familiar
with this issue, in comparison with older educators. This positive change, penetration of specialised information about the given issue among graduates, might have
been detected by comparing the age groups of teachers. Older teachers could not
get acquainted with this issue during their studies. In the case of further education
of older and more experienced educators, it is thus necessary to concentrate more
on rebutting the myths mentioned above.
However, we regard as a positive ﬁnding especially the fact that our educators do not signiﬁcantly tend to hold the myth about a homogenous group of
extraordinarily gifted learners. Hence, they are well aware of possible diﬀerences in
abilities and achievements within the group of gifted learners. This myth was the
least frequent out of all the presented myths in our study. Yet, on the contrary, it is
very often discussed in foreign studies and referred to as one of the most frequent
and at the same time most problematic myths. Indeed, contemporary foreign
researchers agree that gifted pupils fundamentally diﬀer from each other in their
proﬁle of abilities, achievements, motivation, interests and styles of learning (Reis
& Renzulli, 2009).
Contrariwise, in our opinion it is surprising and risky that the majority of teachers hold the myth about overachievement without care, which presupposes: Pupils
who are really gifted are likely to overachieve even if they are not provided with any
special care. Moreover, this myth seems to concern a very wide range of the teachers of our sample. This myth is held by the teachers with longer experience, older
educators, but also the teachers who have experience with teaching in programs
for the extraordinarily gifted, and the teachers who have a family member with
special educational needs. A question arises why this myth has become so widespread among our teachers. This question might not be satisfactorily answered on
the basis of the data obtained in our research. Therefore, we can only guess that
most teachers in our sample are overloaded by requirements to pay systematic
attention to diﬀerent groups of pupils with special educational needs. Moreover,
Myths about Gifted Learners from the Perspective of Teachers
239
they can also feel that gifted pupils are able to develop their abilities independently
of the educational oﬀer thanks to their accelerated abilities, internal motivation
and interests to develop their abilities.
However, research studies have repeatedly agreed on the ﬁnding that extraordinarily gifted pupils need support and systematic guidance for their development.
Just like successful sportspeople need experienced coaches for their development,
also gifted children need well-educated teachers who are able to systematically
develop their abilities. Moreover, this myth is rebutted in a number of studies
reporting about extraordinarily gifted children who have started to underachieve
due to the lack of possibilities for development (Whitmore, 1980), or they even
resigned themselves to their own education and dropped out of secondary school
(Marland, 1972).
We were interested also in tendencies to be susceptible to myths in those teachers who have experience with teaching in a program for extraordinarily gifted
learners. This group of teachers see gifted learners also as learners with potential to
overachieve without special educational care. Moreover, they also tend to suppose
that gifted children are a higher-risk group with regard to the existence of emotional and social problems. This myth may be aﬀected by a higher accumulation of
the gifted in one class or school group where there can arise speciﬁc types of social
and emotional problems due to higher competitiveness among gifted children
and faster progress in learning. That can mislead the teacher into making wrong
generalization of these characteristics and problems for the entire population of
the gifted.
In this respect, we were struck by the fact that similar misconceptions are held
also by the teachers from towns in comparison with the teachers from villages.
Therefore, the belief about the correlation of giftedness and socio-emotional problems seems to be inﬂuenced also by a higher number of pupils in class. We suppose
that these are crucial ﬁndings that deserve further research attention. Empirical
research has not reached the conclusion that gifted children may be a higher-risk
group as regards the occurrence of these problems. On the contrary, a number
of studies (e.g. Neihart et al., 2002; Nail & Evans, 1997) prove that the gifted are
emotionally more stable and have a lower level of anxiety than the general population. In this context, too, we see a distinct practical impact on teacher education.
Furthermore, our study repeatedly conﬁrmed a correlation between a slighter
tendency to hold myths and the variable that was referred to, according to authors
Bégin and Gagné (1994, 1994), as “contact with giftedness”. Teachers who believe
they have a gifted family member or are intellectually gifted themselves tend to
hold only a single myth, i.e. the myth about creativity (Pupils who are extremely
240
Šárka Portešová, Marie Budíková,Dana Juhová
intelligent are highly likely or more likely to be also extremely creative). Moreover,
in this case it is not a myth that would have a severe impact on understanding
the characteristics and educational needs of the gifted., contact with giftedness,
especially in one’s family, but at school as well, remains an important aspect aﬀecting the attitude to giftedness in a very positive way. In this respect, it is deﬁnitely
appropriate to consider increasing the oﬀer of education of our future teachers,
who can form their attitudes unbiased by the aforementioned myths thanks to
being in contact with the given issue and particularly gifted children.
Contrariwise, we were surprised that the teachers who reported contact in
family with a child with presumed special educational needs tend to hold several
myths at once. The set of myths to which our educators tend to be more susceptible often corresponds to a certain stereotypical view of the gifted pupil, namely,
able to overachieve thanks to abilities, belonging to a homogenous group of pupils
with a similar proﬁle, but simultaneously prone to be faced with social and emotional problems. These teachers in particular were expected to run a smaller risk
of holding myths due to the presumed higher sensitivity to diversities. However,
this assumption has not been conﬁrmed in our study. Nevertheless, the ﬁndings
are in accordance with numerous foreign research studies that regard the contact
with pupils with special educational needs as a certain risk in understanding and
acceptance of empirically veriﬁed characteristics related to giftedness (McCoach
& Siegle, 2007).
Acknowledgment
The research was supported by the research grant of the Grant Agency of the Czech
Republic registered under number P407/11/1272.
References
Bain, S.K., Choate, S.M., & Bliss, S.L. (2006). Perceptions of developmental, social,
and emotional issues in giftedness: Are they realistic? Roeper Review, 29, pp.
41-48.
Ball, D.L., & Cohen, D.K. (1999). Developing practice, developing practitioners:
Toward a practice-based theory of professional education. In L. DarlingHammond & G. Sykes (Eds.), Teaching as the learning profession: Handbook of
policy and practice (pp. 3–32). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Bégin, J., & Gagné, F. (1994). Predictors of attitudes toward gifted education:
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Bégin, J., & Gagné, F. (1994a). Predictors of a general attitude toward gifted education. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 17, pp. 74 - 86.
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Roeper Review, 14, pp. 151–153.
Hansen, J.B., & Feldhusen, J.F. (1994). Comparison of trained and untrained teachers of gifted students. Gifted Child Quarterly, 38(3), pp. 115-121.
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instruction of academically talented learners. Roeper Review, 23, pp. 178-182.
Nail, J.M., & Evans, J.G. (1997). The emotional adjustment of gifted adolescents:
A view of global functioning. Roeper Review, 20, pp. 18-21.
Neihart, M., Reis, S.M., Robinson, N.M., & Moon, S.M. (Eds.). (2002). The social
and emotional development of gifted children: What do we know? Waco, TX:
Prufrock Press.
Passow, A.H. (1993). National/state policies regarding education of the gifted. In
K.A. Heller, F.J. Monks & A.H. Passow (Eds.), International handbook of research
and development of giftedness and talent. Oxford: Pergamon Press Ltd.
Portešová, Š., Budíková, M., & Koutková, H. (2009). Kontakt s nadáním jako jedna
z důležitých proměnných ovlivňujících postoj pedagogů a rodičů k mimořádně
nadaným žáků a k jejich vzdělávání [Contact with giftedness as a signiﬁcant
variable aﬀecting the attitude of educators and parents towards extraordinarily
gifted learners and their education]. Pedagogika, LVIV(1), pp. 38-53.
Reis, S.M., & Renzulli, J.S. (2009). Myth 1: The gifted and talented constitute one
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Treﬃnger, D. (1982). Guest editorial. Gifted Child Quarterly, 26(1), p. 1.
Vyhláška č. 73/2005 Sb., o vzdělávání dětí, žáků a studentů se speciálními vzdělá-
242
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vacími potřebami a dětí, žáků a studentů mimořádně nadaných [Ministerial
Regulation No. 73/2005 Collection of Law, on Educating Children, Pupils and
Students with Special Educational Needs and Extraordinarily Gifted Children,
Pupils and Students].
Whitmore, J.R. (1980). Giftedness, conﬂict and underachievement. Boston: Allyn &
Bacon.
Zákon č. 561/2005 Sb., o předškolním, základním, středním, vyšším odborném
a jiném vzdělávání (školský zákon) [Act No. 561/2005 Collection of Law, on
Pre-school, Basic, Secondary, Tertiary Professional and Other Education
(School Act)].
Beata Pituła, Agnieszka Wilczyńska
Poland
Teacher as an Authority?
Supporting the Student’s Sense of Belonging
to the School Community as a Condition for Their
Development and the Teacher’s Success in Educating
Abstract
The article aims to show the importance of the teacher’s authority in the modern school. The authors present a diﬀerent view from the one well established in
the literature looking at the problem of the formation of teachers’ authority. In
addition to the deﬁnitions relating to the professional competence and cognitive
abilities, a signiﬁcant aspect of the analysis was focused on the teacher’s ability to
form and shape the student’s sense of belonging to school. The paper also includes
the research ﬁndings univocally indicating that the teacher is a highly regarded
authority if they can build and maintain positive relationships in the classroom
between them and students as well as between the students themselves, especially
the ones manifesting diﬃculties in the current social functioning.
Keywords: authority, teacher, sense of belonging, student
The contemporary times are marked by uncertainty, ambivalence and axiological relativism and thus they inevitably draw our attention and reﬂection
to those who are socially obliged to provide professional assistance to a human
being in search of the answers to important existential questions as well as the
ones that arise in daily contact with life, namely to teachers. It is their authority,
preparation, professional qualiﬁcations and competence which make it possible
to implement the sublime pedagogical ideas and concepts of education, and
simultaneously they are the guarantee of the highest quality of education under-
244
Beata Pituła, Agnieszka Wilczyńska
stood in terms of both individual and universal good, and also as an economic
product.
This article is dedicated to young teachers because the source and nature of
the process of shaping the character and strengthening the motivation of a young
man for socially engaged development and, in particular, for the stimulation of
curiosity and desire to learn begins with a Master who in the contemporary world
of education is placed at school. Still, we are committed to strife for making him
a wise Guide who does not only show how to seek reliable sources of knowledge,
but also promotes the development of socially desirable attitudes which are
expressed by the behaviors supporting social capacity, accountability, and at the
same time deﬁes negative social phenomena.
One of many disturbing phenomena relating to the period of adolescence is
a conviction of being a social misﬁt, excluded, isolated and lonesome in the world
full of potential opportunities, which is exhibited by contemporary young people.
Experiencing the phenomenon of being a social misﬁt as well as lacking the sense
of belonging may prove to have dangerous repercussions as it narrows the possibility of full development and might entail serious social functioning disorders
- manifesting behavior which is hostile and even dangerous for both themselves
and others, such as the increasingly common cases of school shooting in the USA
and Western Europe (Wilczyńska, A., 2013).
In the pedeutological literature the concept of teacher is inextricably bound
to the concept of authority, as the teacher has always performed, especially for
children and youth, educational functions the implementation of which assumes
the inﬂuence of the teacher on the student, and the ﬁnal result depends largely
on whether and to what extent an individual is prone to subject to this inﬂuence.
Thus, the question of whether the contemporary teacher is an authority and how
it can be built is a basic and essential question in the context of pondering over
the modern school and education in general (cf. Pituła, B., Sacher, W.A., 2014).
More and more pedagogical and psychological debates are being shifted towards
the recognition of how the relationship between the teacher and the student may
inﬂuence students’ involvement in school activities and increase their motivation
to learn (cf. Pituła, B., Kitlińska-Król, M., 2010).
Through the concept of belonging we mostly understand the student’s sense
of being appreciated and ﬁtting in some respects into other people important to
them, as well as a sense of place and time in the space in which they pursue their
goals in life. The need to belong is an important interpersonal theme, heavily regulating the behavior, emotions and thoughts of an individual (Wilczyńska, A., 2013).
The sense of belonging has a direct and strong impact on the student’s involve-
Teacher as an Authority
245
ment in social activities and school. Satisfying the need to belong is conducive to
the development of intrinsic motivation (including the motivation for learning),
self-regulation, internalization, autonomy and leads to higher self-esteem and selfeﬃcacy and a better image of oneself (Osterman, K.F., 2000: 323 – 367).
In the manner of thinking about this issue, two complementary meanings
of authority are pointed out: knowledge, experience, competence vs. power and
entitlement to control as well as enforce the set rules. Therefore, one can speak
about an authority only in the context of the existing relationships between
people; the value dependent on the people whose behavior determines whether
it is strengthened, weakened or simply disappears. It also results from the sociocultural changes undertaken within the axiological system of a particular society,
and its basis is formed by the desirable values.
The problem of the teacher’s authority in the authors’
own research
The research ﬁndings on the quality of teachers’ professional performance based
on the assumption that a well-functioning teacher is the one who is an authority
for their students were used in an attempt to answer the question whether the
contemporary teacher is an authority. As a basis for the methodological research
frame the concept of constant individual personality traits was adopted as the
one allowing for appearance of changes in students’ functioning (Wilsz, J., 2009).
Basing on the concept terminology, it can be concluded that eﬀective professional
functioning of the teacher is granted by constant personality traits assuming the
expected corresponding values.
According to the adopted quantitative paradigm of scientiﬁc cognition the
research exploration conducted here was designated by the principal aim which
was to see the values of constant individual personality traits of the studied
teachers and the diagnosis of the quality of their professional functioning and
performance.
The main problem of the research took the form of the following questions:
Do the values of constant individual personality traits determine the professional
functioning of the teacher? And therefore do they determine the fact of being an
authority? Consequently, do (and if so, how) the formation and/or support of the
student’s sense of belonging to the class, school, and community enhance their
motivation to learn and the level of their self-esteem? (Hagerty, B.M.K., Patusky,
K.L., 1995:9 – 13)
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Beata Pituła, Agnieszka Wilczyńska
Solving the research problem required the use of several methods: testing,
diagnostic survey and statistical methods. The study was carried out at four
stages by means of properly selected tools. The ﬁrst of them served for the diagnosis of constant individual personality traits of the teachers; for this purpose
the standardized scales developed by Jolanta Wilsz was applied. The second
stage included the diagnosis of the teachers’ competencies/skills necessary for
the implementation of professional tasks. In this case the questionnaire on the
implementation of professional tasks and the questionnaire which addressed the
teachers’ directors were used to verify the teachers’ declarations. On the basis of
the collected results the quality of the teachers’ professional tasks performance
was concluded. The third stage of the study procedure was the veriﬁcation of
the thesis on the existence of a relationship between the values of constant individual personality traits and the quality of the teacher’s professional functioning,
functioning as an authority. The ﬁnal stage of the study included a longitudinal
study conducted among junior secondary school students and secondary school
students, who were evaluated in terms of social functioning and particularly
in terms of their involvement in school activities, depending on their sense of
belonging to their environment (Baumeister, R.F., Leary M.R., 1995:497 – 529).
Here the study of various psychological variables was applied based on the
standardized psychological tools.
The research was conducted in 2009 among 85 teachers employed in diﬀerent
types of schools in the province of Silesia, then in order to verify it the study
was repeated in 2013. The sample was randomly selected, the only criterion was
willingness to participate in the research. All the respondents completed university education specializing in a given subject and accomplished full professional
training.
The study involving students was conducted in 2012 and 2013 on a group of
60 students aged 14 – 16 years. The study included students with the diagnosed
problems in social functioning, i.e. frequent outbursts of anger, malice or vindictiveness, initiation of physical ﬁghts and other behavior involving serious
violation of norms and social rules. The study also included students manifesting
school problems which could be solved or reduced only through cooperation with
the teacher enjoying the appreciation of their high authority on the part of the
students.
The research study was designed to examine how and in what way the functioning as well as the resources of young people potentially at risk of social exclusion
resulting from their involvement in various group activities of limited duration
undergo change. The conducted classes were accompanied by monitoring changes
Teacher as an Authority
247
in the selected psychological variables (need for belonging, sense of belonging,
mood (hedonistic tone, energetic stimulation, time perception), emotional intelligence, self-esteem, anger expression), changes in the cardiovascular parameters
were also examined, the analyses of which were also included in the set of tests
(systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, pulse). The study of cardiovascular variability is now recognized as one of the most promising directions of
research allowing for an insight into almost all human emotional, cognitive and
motivational processes (Sosnowski, T., 2008), and an increase in the systolic blood
pressure is indicated as a manifestation of a sense of “being included” (involved)
(Schwerdtfeger, A., Friedrich-Mai, P., 2009:501 – 509).
In the conducted study the psychological variables and psychophysiological
parameters were evaluated several times: before the launch of the classes they were
aimed at “social inclusion”, during the course and after its completion. The aim of
the study was to determine how the sense of belonging changes and in what way it
is related to the change of other psychological parameters of the students and their
functioning (Kaczmarek, Ł.D., Drążkowski, D., 2013). This was an experimental
study in which the study group participated in two types of activities involving
them in intense positive relationships with others – these were Eudaimonia classes
(the so-called group “E”) and hedonistic classes (the so-called group “H”) based
on the scenarios of positive psychology. The control group (group “C”) participated passively in a lecture and was not engaged in establishing and maintaining
relationships. Meetings in all the groups lasted for six weeks, two hours per week,
involving two tutors (Wilczyńska, A., 2014).
Research ﬁndings
The results indicate that 30.6% of the teachers obtained the so-called zero
emission, the most desirable one from the perspective of the performed professional activities, being as if a guarantee of stability, objectivity, openness and
accountability, which condition the process of eﬀective communication with the
student, accurate reading of their needs and intentions, and making optimum
decisions. Within the range of average positive emission there were 21.2% of the
respondents. This level is referred to as the so-called average, suﬃcient for the
correct execution of professional activities marked by the rule of the professional
role. Average negative emission was found in 28.2% of the teachers. This value
was determined as the necessary minimum, guaranteeing a mostly correct but
schematic course of the implementation of professional activities. None of the
248
Beata Pituła, Agnieszka Wilczyńska
surveyed teachers presents an extensive positive value of emission, which is
characterized by signiﬁcant “external expansiveness” of an individual, emotional
instability, uncertainty in decision making. Extensive negative emission is manifested by 20% of the respondents. They are teachers distancing themselves from
interpersonal relations, with an attitude directed “towards themselves”, focused
on achieving their own goals and aspirations. None of the teachers interviewed
obtained the optimum (i.e. very high) value of tolerance. This value is conducive to the complete acceptance of the student, understanding their desires and
aspirations, and it protects against the hastiness of the decisions and superﬁcial
assessment and helps to support the student’s development. A high level of tolerance (i.e. suﬃcient) was found in 28.3% of the respondents. The values obtained
predispose the teachers to respect the principles of empowerment and partnership in the pedagogical actions.
A low value of tolerance was found in 18.8% of the respondents, a very low one
was not manifested. Hence, it can be assumed that the professional functioning of
this group of teachers will be at high risk of errors (both didactic and educational
ones) resulting from the “only legitimate standard action pattern”.
The teaching profession is inextricably associated with directing, being
a leader, the necessity to defend one’s position, the independence of judgment
and assessment. Thus, it requires the ability not to submit to the pressure and
inﬂuences of the environment. In this context, the optimum value of vulnerability for the teacher should be very low (48.2% of the teachers obtained such
a result); low (29.4% of the respondents); or average (i.e., the minimum value
for the teaching profession) - this value of the trait was observed in 15.3% of the
respondents. The remaining teachers (7.1%) achieved a high value of the feature.
Therefore, it may be expected that they will have problems to maintain order and
discipline in the classroom, implement the decisions and tasks which have been
undertaken, and they will have to deal with the resistance and manipulation of
the students.
Mental capacity, the ability to associate things rapidly, creative thinking, and
excellent memory are qualities highly desirable in the teaching profession. In this
model they were deﬁned as processability and reproducibility.
The highest value of the feature was demonstrated by 10.6% of the respondents. A slightly lower, i.e. high value was diagnosed in 22.4% of the respondents,
an average level was found in 34.1% of the teachers. It can therefore be assumed
that the action of these three groups of teachers will be adequate for the needs
and tasks: unusual, unconventional, eﬃcient. Too low values of processability
were obtained by the total of 32.9% of the respondents. Thus, problems may be
Teacher as an Authority
249
predicted in coping with the complexity and uncertainty of didactic and educational situations.
Beyond any doubt, a long-term and large-capacity memory is highly desirable
in the teaching profession. The optimum value of the property is within the range
(50 – 43 very high), and this was manifested by 43.6% of the teachers. A low value
of the feature is estimated among 22.3% of the study participants (the very low
one was not found). Those teachers can come across some diﬃculties in their
work arising from confusing facts and events, and forgetting important information, which can lead to a negative assessment of the measures taken by them on
the part of the students, their passive resistance, or resignation from maintaining
interpersonal relations.
Juxtaposing the features marked in the study with the values described in the
model of a perfect teacher it can be assumed that the majority, i.e. two thirds of
the teachers, exhibit the values of the qualities compatible with this model. Thus,
the answer to the question posed in the title could be in the aﬃrmative if the
teacher manifests the appropriate personality traits, is well educated, and constantly improves their skills. The teachers meeting these conditions were included
to conduct classes at the next stage.
The results of the study conducted among the adolescents before the launch of
the classes, during the classes and after their completion (the measurements were
taken just after the completion of the classes, then three months later, and ﬁnally
six months after their cessation) showed signiﬁcant changes in the resources
and functioning of the youth. Still, all the results univocally conﬁrmed that only
active participation of groups “E” and “H” reinforced the students’ resources (in
the control group no changes were registered). The research ﬁndings also showed
explicitly that the cessation of the classes in groups “E” and “H”, despite the fact
that it had been planned and settled with the youth, evoked as a consequence
the sense of “exclusion” of the young people from positive relationships, which
resulted in a cascade of non-adaptive behavior along with the deterioration of the
results within almost every psychological variable tested (cf. Leary, M.R., Twenge,
J.M., Quinlivan, E., 2006:11 – 132).
The study was aimed at a previously not carried out on such a scale long-term
evaluation of the functioning of young people with disturbed behavior after the
completion of a positive relationship for them. The detailed research ﬁndings
showed a large number of signiﬁcant results merely three months after the cessation of the classes. In group “E” the students exhibited signiﬁcantly lower results
compared to group “C” for the following variables: “Energetic Stimulation”, “Hedonistic Tone”, “Emotional Intelligence”, Self-Esteem”, “Need for Sense of Belonging”,
250
Beata Pituła, Agnieszka Wilczyńska
“Sense of Belonging” (r ε <0.29; 0.45>). Group “H”, similarly to group “E”, obtained
signiﬁcantly lower scores in “Energetic Stimulation” and “Hedonistic Tone”. At the
same time, the former group showed higher scores compared to the control group
in two variables: “External Anger” and the systolic blood pressure. The size of the
eﬀect was slightly lower when compared to group “E” (0.28 to 0.34).
When comparing the long-term results with the initial ones, signiﬁcant differences were obtained in the following variables (the group and direction of the
change given in brackets): “Time Perception - Future” (E–), “Need for Sense of
Belonging” (E–), the systolic blood pressure (E +), “Time Perception - Hedonistic
Presence” (H +), “External Anger” (H +), the diastolic blood pressure (H +), the
systolic blood pressure (H +).
The size of the eﬀect in the case of intra-group comparisons ranged from 0.41
to 0.88. The highest values of Cohen’s coeﬃcient r (above 0.7) were obtained for
the systolic and diastolic blood pressure (group “H” after 6 months) and “Time
Perceptions – Fatalistic Presence” (group “E” after 3 months).
The obtained results conﬁrmed our predictions: participation in social group
activities reinforced the potential of the people while participating in the classes
- but after their completion, the participants apparently experienced the phenomenon of their disconnection from important relationships – and therefore
experienced a sense of “exclusion” in both experimental groups, regardless of the
class specialization. One would think that the relationship that was developed
between the participants in the group and the tutors was the only one experienced
by the young people in their environment. A considerable part of them grew up in
care centers or in families with problems (single parent families, unemployment,
alcohol abuse by family members, violence, etc.).
The presented research material evidence conﬁrms that young people at risk of
social exclusion present no eﬀective ways to cope with their environment – they
do not know how to resolve diﬃcult situations and how to deal with them, on their
own they are not able to make interactions serving the development of their sense
of belonging in their environment. Young people do not know how to form and
maintain non-conﬂicting and friendly relations. These problems relate to children
and young people who did not inherit from their environment eﬀective patterns
of coping in diﬃcult situations, have problems in the family or at school and/or
suﬀer from their disturbed behavior (cf. Garbarino, J., 1999).
The obtained results allow for the following conclusions:
1. For their full development young people need to participate in several direct
relationships with other people in which they feel appreciated, respected
and important.
Teacher as an Authority
251
2. The loss of important relationships and not replacing them with other ones
results in numerous non-adaptive social behavior patterns, such as reduction of the sense of belonging, a decrease in their self-esteem and positive
mood, and an increase in the level of anger.
3. Students at risk of social exclusion need long-term psychological or pedagogical support (interventions) through which valuable relationships for
a young man are formed (possible to continue for at least one school cycle).
The teacher’s authority can therefore be measured not only by their expertise as
a specialist who is in the possession of knowledge and points to students the way
to explore it, but it is mainly reﬂected by forming valuable relationships with their
students, in which the teacher makes each student feel important and appreciated.
Conclusions
The paper presented original and innovative research in which for the ﬁrst time,
inter alia, psychophysiological measurements were used to determine the way of
the students’ functioning. To measure the sense of belonging a new tool, adapted
for the purpose of this research, was applied to investigate the need and the sense
of belonging of the students. To implement the experimental classes, the teachers
used original scenarios based on the latest ﬁndings of positive psychology (the
Eudaimonia concepts and the hedonistic ones). The research plan included analysis of the long-term eﬀects of the student diagnosed with behavioral disorders.
The study also had its limitations: the functioning of the students in the longterm aspect had not been investigated before the launch of the study, which has an
inﬂuence on certain interpretation limitations of the obtained data.
The research ﬁndings showed the importance of long-term psychological/
pedagogical interventions for young people, especially the fact of the teacher’s
undertaking activities reinforcing the sense of belonging of the individual and
continuing these activities together with the student. What is important here is the
unconditional acceptance of the student, which means respecting their otherness,
appreciating their individual eﬀorts and highlighting the fact of ﬁtting in with
others as well as being important for other members of the group and the school,
which is strengthening the sense of belonging.
The conclusion drawn from the study entails a postulate to combine pedagogical concepts and principles of positive psychological interventions for developing
and supporting the resources and welfare of young people, in particular to develop
and support the sense of autonomy and competence of the student and emphasize
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Beata Pituła, Agnieszka Wilczyńska
the essence of meeting their need for relationships with others, which is necessary
for full human development, especially at the stage of adolescence.
Notes:
The project was ﬁnanced by the National Science Centre (Narodowe Centrum Nauki) on
the grounds of the decision DEC-2011/01/B/HS6/00455
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Baumeister, R.F., Leary, M.R., 1995. The Need To Belong: Desire For Interpersonal
Attachments As A Fundamental Human Motivation. Psychological Bulletin 117.
Dickerson, B., Wilkins, C., Zimbardo Ph.G., 2013. Constructing Psychological
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Chosen
Aspects of
Psychology
Lada Kaliská
Slovakia
First Results from Veriﬁcation of Psychometric Properties
of D. Lennick’s and F. Kiel’s MCI Questionnaire
for Measuring Moral Intelligence in Slovak Conditions
Abstract
The scientiﬁc study theoretically and empirically veriﬁes the new construct
of moral intelligence. Following its theoretical analysis, it oﬀers the ﬁrst ﬁndings
from veriﬁcation of psychometric properties of the tool for measuring moral intelligence, the Moral Competence Inventory (MCI) by D. Lennick and F. Kiel. Factor
analysis of the Slovak version of the MCI proved the existence of 15 factors with
acceptable variability, which, however, is not in agreement with 10 factors determined by the authors. Also, its insuﬃcient reliability (in terms of internal consistency and stability of results in time (test-retest reliability estimate)) indicates that
the current form of the MCI should be subjected to further scientiﬁc-research
veriﬁcation.
Keywords: moral intelligence, MCI questionnaire by D. Lennick and F. Kiel,
reliability, factor structure.
Several scientiﬁc disciplines (psychological, philosophical, educational, sociological ones or those of natural sciences) have operationalized the construct of
intelligence for over a century. Analysis of this construct still belongs to the most
veriﬁed aspects of the psychic reality of human personality. In general, it is concluded that intelligence is the ability to learn from experience, remember, identify
concepts and their relations, penetrate by thinking to the heart of a problem, but
also the ability do adapt, requiring various types of adjustment in various social
and cultural contexts. The essence of new theories includes not only cognitive
258
Lada Kaliská
abilities, but also emotions (emotional intelligence), common sense (practical
intelligence), creative abilities (creative intelligence), social skills (social intelligence), volition, wisdom, and the individual’s morality (moral intelligence) are
emphasized. It has to do with the socio-personality approach in the research into
intelligence (Ruisel, 1999) focused on the outer world of social interactions and
social structures, on the role behaviour in social systems and on maintenance and
development of human relations.
At the turn of the century, the concept of moral intelligence began to be
accepted and theoretically and empirically veriﬁed. Researchers (Gardner, Borba,
Lennick, Kiel, Cole, Bradshaw, Pana, Mueller, Ricoeur, Dobrin and others) worked
with this concept and found it useful. Already H. Gardner (1986), when creating
his theory of multiple intelligence types, suggested that the concept of moral intelligence might be worth including in it.
At present, there are three directions formed that analyse its existence. The ﬁrst
group consists of theoreticians of philosophical sciences (Kučkovský, Dobrin,
Norcia, Kučkovský and others) building on Darwin’s theory and his evolutionary view of ethics. Ch. Darwin associates morality with aspects of social life,
where the sense of morality evolves in combination of social instincts and welldeveloped mental processes. Their connection gives rise to the concept of moral
intelligence because only a moral being is “capable of comparing his past and
future actions and motives and of approving or disapproving of them” (Darwin,
1981 in Di Norcia, 2011, p. 11), and subsequently of adapting his behaviour to
changing social conditions.
The second group of opinions on the concept of moral intelligence is based on
educational counselling. The ﬁrst deﬁnition of the concept of moral intelligence
can be found in the publication “Doing the Right Things: Cultivating Your Moral
Intelligence” (1999) by A. Hass. In the context of moral behaviour analysis, he drew
attention to the existence of moral intelligence as the ability not only to think
morally, but also to act morally. In his opinion, moral behaviour requires analysis,
understanding and emotional empathy (Hass, 1999), which leads to facilitation of
the ability to think morally. Another theoretical analysis is oﬀered by M. Borba in
her book “Building Moral Intelligence“ (2001), R. Coles in “The Moral Intelligence
of Children“ (1997) and J. Bradshaw in “Reclaiming Virtue: How We Can Develop
the Moral Intelligence to Do the Right Thing at the Right Time for the Right Reason“
(2009). They emphasize personality, social, cognitive, emotional and moral skills
building a strong human character and forming moral behaviour. They deﬁne
moral intelligence as the capacity to understand right from wrong, to have strong
ethical convictions and to act on them. They say that every one of us has an innate
First Results from Veriﬁcation of Psychometric Properties
259
predisposition for moral intelligence, which constitutes an internal control system
of our conduct. It has to be developed and cultivated purposefully by teachers and
parents through discussions with moral dilemmas.
The last group of opinions is determined by pragmatic social needs where
the essential element to individual and social well-being and progress is
facilitation of intelligence important in application of ethical principles. Some
experts (Boss, 1994) perceive the importance of moral intelligence as a vital
part of human nature, the signiﬁcance of which grows in the economic sector.
In their book “Moral Intelligence: Enhancing Business Performance & Leadership
Success“(2008) D. Lennick and F. Kiel (2008) deﬁne it as the “mental ability to
determine how universal human principles should be applied to our personal
values, goals and actions” (2008, p. 7). They assert that everyone has an innate
moral compass as an internal predisposition to distinguish right from wrong.
In their theory (2008), they focus on four primary characteristics essential for
sustained personal and organizational success. These include: integrity - facilitating conduct by universal principles, responsibility for one’s own actions and their
consequences, ability to forgive and tolerate one’s own mistakes as well as those
of others and compassion for all living things. Connection of these elements with
the application of the “golden rule of morality” forms the moral compass of an
individual.
In addition to the theoretical analysis of the concept of moral intelligence, they
also worked out a tool for assessment of a moral quotient, i.e. a representative of
moral intelligence consisting of 10 moral competences. The Moral Competence
Inventory (MCI) is a self-reporting method. It consists of 40 items rated by
probands on a ﬁve-point Likert scale. The inventory returns the MCI total score
in the range of 20 – 100 interpreted as: 100 – 90 points - high level, 89 – 80 very good
level, 70 – 79 - good level, 69 and less - insuﬃcient level of moral intelligence. It
also analyses 10 individual moral competences facilitating moral intelligence in
situations of a moral dilemma. Moral competences in the MCI include: integrity (p
representing the MCI item: p1, p11, p21, p31), honesty (p2, p12, p22, p32), justice
(p3, p13,p23, p33), keeping promises (p4, p14, p24, p34), responsibility (p5, p15, p25,
p35), self-control (p6, p16, p26, p36), willingness to help others (p7, p17, p27, p37),
care for others (p8, p18, p28, p38), empathy (p9, p19, p29, p39) and spirituality (p10,
p20, p30, p40).
Since neither on the Czech and Slovak nor on the global scale is there a tool for
measuring moral intelligence, our primary goal was to verify the basic psychometric properties of the MCI. They had not been veriﬁed by the authors so far.
However, e.g. E. Martin and B. Austin tried to do so (2008, 2010). However, pos-
Lada Kaliská
260
sible application of the MCI should also be considered: whether for informative,
diagnostic or counselling purposes for professional or educational community; or
for scientiﬁc research purposes only, and in our cultural environment.
We posed the following research questions:
RQ1: What is the reliability of the MCI in terms of internal consistency of the tool
and its 10 dimensions, and stability of the tool of the results obtained in time
(test-retest reliability estimate)?
RQ2: Is it possible to extract 10 factors from the MCI by factor analysis, as the
authors of the inventory claim?
The research sample, formed by combination of convenience and grab sampling,
consisted of 209 students of upper secondary education - 9 schools in the region of
Banská Bystrica in the SR. The average age of the students was 17.22 (SD = 1.21).
More detailed characteristics of the research sample in terms of demographic data
are presented in Table 1; although 7 participants did not indicate their gender and
23 their religion, they were included in the total analysis. The data were collected
in 2012 – 2013.
Table 1. Research Sample Characteristics
1st
grade
%
3rd
grade
%
4t
grade
%
Total
%
Total
48
22.97
89
42.84
72
34.45
209
100
Boys
17
37.78
27
30.68
20
28.99
64
31.68
Girls
28
62.22
61
69.32
49
71.01
138
68.32
Believers
35
87.50
78
90.70
36
60.00
149
80.12
Atheists
5
12.50
8
9.30
24
40.00
37
18.88
Based on testing the distribution of variables for normality by the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, non-parametric procedures were preferred in the statistical
analysis.
Table 2 presents descriptive indicators of the variables and signiﬁcance of differences in 10 competences and the total level of moral intelligence of our research
sample and US probands from the only research study aimed at veriﬁcation of the
MCI in USA, carried out by E. Martin and B. Austin (2010).
It can be concluded that our students achieved a signiﬁcantly lower level of
perception and assessment of justice (p≤0.5) and highly signiﬁcantly lower level
of self-control and empathy (p≤0.01) than the US students. However, their total
level is comparable with that of the US students - a good level of moral intelligence
(in the range of 70 – 79).
261
First Results from Veriﬁcation of Psychometric Properties
Table 2. MCI Descriptive Indicators and Signiﬁcance of Diﬀerences in the MCI
in our and US probands
Descriptive Indicators of the MCI questionnaire
Slovak probands (N = 209)
MCI Dimensions
US probands (N = 171)
Min
Max
AM
SD
AM
SD
p
Integrity
8
20
15.31
2.27
16.45
2.73
0.816
Honesty
9
20
15.56
1.97
16.72
2.33
0.067
Justice
5
20
13.70
2.56
14.65
2.68
0.036*
Keeping promises
8
20
16.21
2.20
16.56
2.36
0.794
Responsibility
7
20
15.47
2.23
16.36
2.36
0.050*
Self-control
7
19
13.39
2.63
16.33
2.53
0.000***
Willing to help
6
20
14.02
2.43
14.95
2.91
0.315
Care for others
9
20
14.88
2.48
15.74
3.03
0.236
Empathy
5
18
12.02
2.29
15.07
2.57
0.000***
Spirituality
5
20
14.10
2.76
14.83
2.88
0.913
MCI total score
55
89
72.32
7.20
76.99
7.03
0.852
*p≤0.05
**p≤0.01 ***p≤0.001
RQ1: What is the reliability of the MCI in terms of internal consistency of the tool
and its 10 dimensions, and stability of the tool of the obtained results in time
(test-retest reliability estimate)?
The MCI reliability was assessed based on
Table 3. Test-Retest Stability
the statistical estimate of the level of internal
of the MCI Questionnaire
consistency of the tool and its 10 dimenand its Dimensions in Time
sions, calculating Cronbach´s alpha (Table 4);
ς
and based on the stability of the tool of the Integrity
0.513
obtained results in time (test-retest reliability Honesty
0.677
estimate), calculating Spearman’s correlation Justice
0.207
coeﬃcients between results of two measure- Keeping promises
0.413
ments within four months in 28 probands Responsibility
0.341
(Table 3).
Self-control
0.434
Based on the analysis of test-retest stability, Willing to help
0.591
the level of which is 0.207≤ς≤0.677, and inter- Care for others
0.676
nal consistency in the range of 0.198≤α≤0.578, Empathy
0.652
it can be concluded that these values of the Spirituality
0.544
tool reliability are in both cases unacceptably MCI total score
0.594
low for professional community.
Lada Kaliská
262
Due to the very low alpha values in the
Honesty and Empathy dimensions, indicating internal inconsistency of these items, also
mutual relations were assessed of individual
items of the Honesty dimension (Table 5) and
the Empathy dimension (Table 6), and also
possible elimination of some items was considered, with the aim to increase the internal consistency of the Honesty (Table 7) and
Empathy dimensions (Table 8) by means of
a correlation between an item and the total
score of the scale with the aim to eliminate
the item (Item-total correlation method).
Statistical analysis of the correlation of
items of the weakest dimensions Honesty
and Empathy and consideration of possible
elimination of some of the items by item-total
Table 4. Internal Consistency
of the Tool MCI
and its Dimensions
α
Table 5. Cross correlations of Honesty
items
r
p2
p12
0.131
p12
p22
0.174
0.139
p32
0.050
0.138
p22
–0.012
Integrity
0.578
Honesty
0.287
Justice
0.453
Keeping promises
0.560
Responsibility
0.425
Self-control
0.457
Willing to help
0.521
Care for others
0.557
Empathy
0.198
Spirituality
0.458
MCI total score
0.842
Table 6. Cross correlations
of Empathy items
r
p9
p19
0.072
p19
p29
–0.067
0.059
p39
0.150
0.034
p29
0.099
Table 7. Internal consistency of Honesty with possible elimination
of one of the items
α
AM, if eliminating an
item
SD,
if eliminating
an item
Modiﬁed
Item-Total
correlations
Raised crosscorrelations
Cronbach's α
if eliminating
an item
p2
11.51
2.97
0.190
0.043
0.197
p12
11.25
2.78
0.221
0.049
0.156
p22
12.09
2.34
0.137
0.045
0.254
p32
11.87
2.71
0.075
0.021
0.331
263
First Results from Veriﬁcation of Psychometric Properties
Table 8. Internal consistency of Empathy with possible elimination of
one of the items
α
AM, if eliminating an item
SD,
if eliminating
an item
Modiﬁed
Item-Total
correlations
Raised crosscorrelations
Cronbach's α
if eliminating
an item
p9
9.28
3.78
0.092
0.034
0.160
p19
9.88
3.37
0.090
0.010
0.168
p29
8.45
4.20
0.050
0.020
0.210
p39
8.49
3.58
0.153
0.035
0.077
correlation did not give expected results. The results indicate that there is almost
no correlation among individual items of the Honesty and Empathy dimensions
(0.012 ≤ r ≤ 0.174), while some correlations produce even negative values. Elimination of items indicated no obvious increase in the internal consistency of the
dimensions examined.
RQ2: Is it possible to extract 10 factors from the MCI by factor analysis, as claimed
by the authors of the inventory?
The data obtained by the MCI with 40 items were subjected to factor analysis
with the aim to ﬁnd out what the MCI factor structure is like. The factor analysis
indicates which inventory items ﬁt in a speciﬁc extracted factor and which do not.
By means of factor analysis, general characteristics called factors or dimensions
are identiﬁed, which explain inter-correlations of some variables. First the KaiserMayer-Olkin index (KMO) was calculated, showing the level to which it is useful
to carry out the factor analysis. In our case, the KMO reached the value 0.726,
which is a result acceptable in scientiﬁc community (it is recommended that the
KMO should reach the value KMO ≥ 0.50). Exploratory factor analysis with Varimax rotation method was used (variance maximizing rotation), which minimizes
the number of variables highly correlating with dimensions and attempts to obtain
a simpler structure of factors allowing them to correlate. Factor loadings with
items are presented in Table 9.
The exploratory factor analysis with rotation Varimax enabled to extract 15
factors explaining 66.1% of total variability. The total variability of only 52.3%
was obtained in extraction of 10 factors. The basic prerequisite for factor analysis
is reduction of redundant information in more correlated variables, if the total
variability is over 60%. We also tried to establish factor loadings for each generated
factor. Variables with the highest factor loadings for each factor, also called markers, are decisive in interpreting a given factor.
.249
.265
.247
.103
p20
p21
p22
.188
p17
–.050
.106
p16
p19
.227
p15
p18
.144
.084
.272
p12
p13
.106
p14
.006
p11
.609
p7
p10
.105
p6
.677
–.020
p5
–.092
.047
p4
p9
.067
p3
p8
.061
p2
1
.081
p1
Items
2
.247
–.094
.327
.793
.318
.342
–.100
.134
–.075
–.042
–.039
.115
.826
.172
.074
–.116
.032
.106
–.053
–.040
.024
.175
3
.002
.175
.117
.088
.342
.577
.023
.072
.160
.062
.169
.120
.038
–.089
.066
.102
.044
.098
–.055
.149
.023
–.035
Factors
.465
.113
.175
–.092
.238
.045
–.039
.182
.401
–.138
.245
.058
–.052
.145
–.082
.143
.001
.020
.082
.144
.009
–.209
4
.116
.511
.117
.127
.027
.068
.248
–.032
.076
.223
.129
.131
–.065
–.139
.044
.072
.098
.051
–.095
.037
.041
.466
5
–.029
.102
.066
.109
–.240
.049
.047
.513
.122
.094
.371
.140
.032
–.127
–.180
.194
–.038
.707
.312
.112
.114
.276
6
–.129
.187
–.077
–.072
.035
–.028
.509
.262
.045
.035
.209
.486
.195
.079
.134
.099
.063
.054
.005
–.066
.090
.099
7
.386
.035
.087
.128
.370
.033
.159
.222
.067
.078
.030
.243
.038
–.264
.131
–.024
.043
.073
–.045
.057
.824
.111
8
.272
.339
.066
–.019
.056
.028
.299
.134
.319
–.048
–.151
.166
.020
.234
–.102
.069
.082
.179
.125
.097
–.043
.316
9
.045
–.232
–.102
.020
–.025
.122
.226
.077
.241
.123
.303
.227
–.023
.080
–.069
–.010
.047
–.048
.600
–.055
.078
.062
10
Table 9. Factor Structure of the MCI Questionnaire
11
–.042
–.082
–.026
.064
–.062
.000
–.200
.138
.086
.762
–.246
.221
.027
.590
–.022
.189
–.031
–.001
.176
.072
–.032
.124
12
–.030
–.063
–.514
–.141
.074
.104
–.210
–.082
–.242
–.030
.313
.009
.017
.124
–.066
.096
–.085
.141
–.044
.659
.011
.333
13
.013
.015
.089
.035
–.130
.163
.088
.204
.144
–.073
–.141
.010
–.011
.126
.171
–.042
.080
.022
.137
.069
–.003
.153
14
–.026
.089
.227
.221
.072
–.041
–.020
–.150
–.404
–.180
–.012
–.060
–.065
.211
–.093
.260
.830
.024
–.068
.036
.028
–.089
15
–.255
.143
.241
–.086
.178
–.102
.170
.031
.144
.146
–.021
.259
.059
.114
.030
–.307
.131
.192
–.092
.252
.095
–.023
.030
.028
.397
.245
.342
.183
.043
–.132
.085
.026
–.027
.134
.626
.678
.183
.266
15.46
p27
p28
p29
p30
p31
p32
p33
p34
p35
p36
p37
p38
p39
p40
Variability
explained by
the factor
dimension%
.074
26.549
–.140
.003
.180
.154
.102
.057
.151
.135
.388
–.020
.108
.649
.585
.212
.659
.113
.074
.314
31.021
.132
.014
–.030
.104
.089
–.031
.140
.465
.011
.110
.332
.128
–.149
–.011
.210
.051
.803
.000
35.199
.059
.090
–.026
.095
.103
–.025
.048
.437
.509
.788
.151
.096
.127
.035
–.105
.073
.033
.169
39.129
.020
.190
.156
.007
.064
.058
–.195
.225
.245
–.150
.036
.115
–.004
–.383
.006
.156
.030
.273
42.765
.162
.008
.070
–.002
.773
.017
.117
.152
.020
.091
–.070
–.026
.146
.090
.368
.113
.100
.355
.024
.087
.046
–.023
–.016
–.030
.140
.185
–.021
.007
–.232
.106
–.067
.292
.024
–.045
–.036
46.154
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation Method: Varimax
21.519
–.014
.131
.071
.065
.004
.091
–.196
.146
.583
–.033
–.010
.008
.139
–.057
.056
–.054
–.086
p26
–.032
p24
Factors
.042
p25
.039
p23
Items
49.335
–.180
.037
.164
.003
.016
.067
.040
–.126
–.230
.069
–.248
.150
.030
.150
.039
.797
.037
–.121
52.351
–.001
.030
.025
.240
.008
.133
.730
–.049
.022
.060
–.097
.068
.312
–.056
–.255
.103
.166
–.012
.363
55.267
–.138
.191
.129
–.152
.067
.033
.030
.100
.111
.049
–.048
.000
–.040
.195
.064
.057
–.047
58.178
.409
.153
.006
.037
.077
–.029
.014
.070
–.051
–.003
–.010
.018
.059
.232
–.067
.046
.088
.231
.039
61.036
.522
.084
.004
–.107
.041
.769
.081
.049
.264
–.118
.168
.026
–.234
.331
.033
.001
–.024
63.625
–.064
.130
.001
.107
.102
.081
.073
–.016
.063
.078
–.170
.000
.069
.029
.027
.059
.027
.323
66.149
.043
.787
.163
.178
–.122
.050
.088
–.058
.073
.033
.119
–.074
.091
.029
.152
.020
.060
–.147
266
Lada Kaliská
Discussion and Recommendations
The problems of moral intelligence are of interest not only for theoreticians but
also researchers seeking eﬀective methods for its assessment. The presented study
veriﬁed psychometric properties of the Moral Competence Inventory (MCI) by
D. Lennick and F. Kiel, who presented in their book (2008) the concept of moral
intelligence consisting of 10 moral competences. They also presented a questionnaire that should enable to identify strong and weak moral competences with the
aim to optimize the level of moral intelligence.
However, their book does not present information about or evidence of compilation of the MCI or veriﬁcation of its basic properties, reliability or validity.
Considering this fact, we attempted to verify the reliability in terms of test-retest
stability and internal consistency of the Slovak version of the MCI as well as to
verify the factor structure of the MCI by statistical analysis aimed at extraction
of any and all dimensions or competences. Based on the obtained results, it can
be concluded that the reliability, whether the test-retest stability or internal consistency of individual dimensions, reaches the value under 0.60, which is a value
unacceptable for professional community. So far the reliability of the MCI has
been veriﬁed only by E. Martin and B. Austin (2008, 2010) on a sample of 171
undergraduate (N = 153) and graduate (N = 18) students of business administration disciplines at a western US university. The age of their research sample
ranged from 21 to 50, the majority being between 21 and 25 (58%). They veriﬁed
the reliability of the English version of the MCI, as well as the reliability of individual subscales with acceptable alpha values of 0.66 ≤ ɑ ≤ 0.84 (2008). One possible explanation of the low reliability of the Slovak version may be inadequate
translation from the English language, as well as the research sample consisting
of adolescents compared to the research sample of the foreign authors. Also, it
would be useful to verify the reliability on a larger research sample as well as
by multiple re-test measuring in our conditions in order to eliminate situational
conditionality of answers that could determine its low values. Since this is
a self-reporting method, it is diﬃcult to minimize the desirability eﬀect where
probands can consciously or unconsciously quickly estimate socially desirable
answers. Our probands were at the age when their perception of themselves
could still be distorted, while already being aware of expected forms of behaviour for their position in society, which could determine their approach to the
questionnaire administration and distort the obtained results. We are of the
opinion that a self-reporting method is not suitable for assessment of an individual’s moral intelligence.
First Results from Veriﬁcation of Psychometric Properties
267
Also, the factor structure of the MCI was veriﬁed. 10 factors were extracted, as
determined by the authors of the MCI, but those explained only 52% of the total
variability. Then the questionnaire was subjected to factor analysis with rotation
Varimax extracting any and all factors, which were 15. They achieved a suﬃcient
level of variability (over 66%). Acceptable factor loadings over the level of 0.30
were marked. What is, however, a signiﬁcant shortcoming, is that the 15 extracted
factors cannot be unambiguously described, because the loadings of individual
factors by variables vary considerably (e.g. factors 8 and 15 were formed only by
one item, while factors 1 and 3 were formed by ﬁve items), and the factors are
loaded on by items that can be interpreted with diﬃculty (e.g. factor 14 is loaded
on by p6, which is “If someone wants to oﬀend or hurt me, I keep my hair on and
don’t show that I am irritated” and p14: “I always keep my word”). We are aware that
with insuﬃciently loaded factors it is not possible to capture the given dimension
adequately, and thus recommend another rotation or elimination of items with
minimum loadings. E. Martin and B. Austin (2008, 2010) obtained similar results
when extracting 8 factors with the total reliability of 65.28%. In our attempt to
extract eight factors, variability of only 41.15% was obtained, which is insuﬃcient
for explaining the dimensions with the factors obtained.
Conclusion
Based on the ﬁrst ﬁndings about properties of the Slovak version of the MCI it
can be concluded that it would be useful to re-evaluate compilation of the MCI due
to the inconsistency of items in individual dimensions, content validity of items
with the value of loadings slightly over 0.30, with the aim to reduce and balance
the number of items in speciﬁc factors, while it would be useful to re-evaluate also
the MCI dimensions. Subsequently, it is necessary to further verify psychometric
properties of the new questionnaire for measuring moral intelligence, so that it can
be used for consulting, diagnostic or educational purposes.
We are aware of the fact that the problem of measuring moral intelligence is in
its infancy, and that in addition to theoretical analysis, also space should be opened
for empirical veriﬁcation of tools for its possible measuring, which should become
a subject of further scientiﬁc interest.
The contribution is part of the VEGA 1/1080/12 project solution.
268
Lada Kaliská
References
Borba, M. (2001). Building Moral Intelligence: The Seven Essential Virtues That
Teach Kids To Do The Right Thing. San Francisco, CA, USA: Jossey-Bass, A Wiley
Comp. ISBN 0 - 7879 - 5357 - 1.
Bradshaw, J. (2009). Reclaiming Virtue: How We Can develop the Moral Intelligence
to Do the Right Thing at the Right Time for the Right Reason. New York: Bantam
Dell. ISBN 978 - 0-553- 09592 - 0.
Clarken, R.H. (2009). Moral Intelligence in the Schools. In: Paper presented at the
annual meeting of the Michigan Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters, Wayne
State University, Detroit, MI, March 20, 2009.
Coles, R. (1997). The Moral Intelligence of Children: How To Raise a Moral Child.
New York, USA: Random House. ISBN 0 - 452 - 27937 - 2.
Darwin, Ch. (1981). The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex. Princeton
University Press. 475p. http://home.planet.nl/~gkorthof/korthof91.htm; http://
darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq = 1&itemID = F937.1&viewty
pe = text.
Di Norcia, V. (2011). Darwin on Moral Intelligence. Ontario: Ethics and Sustainability, www.dinorcia.net.
Hass, A. (1999). Morální inteligence. Praha: Columbus. 152 s. ISBN 80 - 7249 - 010 - 9.
Lennick, D., Kiel, F. (2008). Moral Intelligence: Enhancing business performance
& leadership success. New Jersey: Warton School Publishing, 2008. 290 s. ISBN
0 - 13 - 234986 - 8.
Martin, D.E., Austin, B. (2010). Validation of the Moral Competency Inventory
Measurement Instrument. In Management Research Review Vol. 33, No. 5., 2010,
p. 437 – 451. www.emeraldinsight.com/2040 – 8269.htm.
Martin, D.E., Austin, B. (2008). Validation of the Moral Competency Inventory
Measurement Instrument: Content, Construct, Convergent and Discriminant
Approaches. In: Proceedings of ASBBS. Vol. 15, Num. 1., 2008, p. 1626 – 1641
Ruisel, I. (1999). Inteligencia a osobnosť. Bratislava: Veda. 239 s. ISBN 80 - 224 0545 - 0.
Liliana Ciascai, Lavinia Haiduc
Romania
Thinking Metacognitively:
Metacognitive Skills and Science Performance
Abstract
The presented study aims to identify the relations between metacognitive skills
and science performance. Data were collected from 211 Romanian adolescents in
the seventh and eighth grades, who completed the Junior Metacognitive Awareness
Inventory (the version for 5th– 9th grades). The results indicate that adolescents
generally use metacognitive skills when learning science subjects and that some
metacognitive skills are associated with better performance in science. Nevertheless, adolescents seem to encounter diﬃculties in using diagrams and pictures that
facilitate the learning process, in evaluating the outcomes of their learning process
and in using diﬀerent learning strategies, in accordance with speciﬁc learning situations. Given the importance of metacognitive skills in science performance, we
argue that it is essential for teachers to understand how to develop a culture of
metacognition in science classrooms.
Keywords: metacognition, high-school students, science, achievement.
Introduction
Learning is inﬂuenced by a variety of factors, from multiple levels: individual
level, family level, social and cultural level. Concerning the individual level, one
factor which has drawn the attention of researchers is metacognition, which is
considered to have a major inﬂuence on the learning process. Metacognition has
become a highly studied subject in the ﬁeld of educational, cognitive and developmental psychology, being related with a variety of academic tasks, from reading
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Liliana Ciascai, Lavinia Haiduc
and writing to mathematics, physics, chess and problem-solving (Martini & Shore,
2008).
Metacognition can be included in the category of higher-order executive processes, having the role of coordinating the cognitive processes involved in learning,
processes such as recall, rehearsal and problem solving (Tobias & Everson, 2009:
108). Hence, metacognition involves the ability to actively control the cognitive
processes involved in learning or problem-solving. However, the ability to control various cognitive processes depends on several dimensions. From Flavell’s
perspective (1979), these dimensions are metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive experiences and metacognitive skills. The ﬁrst dimension, metacognitive
knowledge, can be deﬁned as the comprehension of cognitive processes, more
speciﬁcally the understanding of knowledge or beliefs about tasks, strategies and
goals. Metacognitive experiences encompass the aﬀective or cognitive dimensions
of a cognitive process and, lastly, metacognitive skills involve the use of various
techniques for controlling cognitive processes (Desoete & Ozsoy, 2009). These
three dimensions of metacognition inﬂuence the learning process through two
functions: monitoring and control. The monitoring function expresses itself
through metacognitive knowledge and experiences, while the control function is
represented by metacognitive skills (Efklides, 2006: 4).
Along with the lines indicated above, Kluwe (1982, as cited in Son & Schwartz,
2004: 16) pointed out that metacognition comprises two essential dimensions:
knowledge about thinking and monitoring and regulation. He uses the term
executive processes in relation to both monitoring and control strategies, talking
about executive monitoring and executive control strategies. Executive monitoring
involves decisions focused on identifying a speciﬁc working task, on checking the
progress of that speciﬁc task, on evaluating the progress and predicting the learning outcomes. Similar to executive monitoring, executive regulation involves decisions concerning one’s own thinking, decisions such as the allocation of resources
during a task, the order of the steps needed in order to complete a task and the
arrangement of the intensity and speed for performing a task (Papaleontiou-Luca,
2003: 11). Another active researcher in the ﬁeld of metacognition, Flavell (1979:
907), distinguishes between metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive awareness. The ﬁrst concerns the explicit knowledge about one’s own cognitive strengths
and weaknesses while the second concerns the feelings and experiences which
accompany the cognitive process.
Brown (1987) diﬀerentiates between two broad categories of metacognition:
knowledge of cognition and regulation of cognition. Knowledge of cognition refers
to how much a learner understands about his or her memory, involving declara-
Thinking Metacognitively: Metacognitive Skills and Science Performance
271
tive, procedural and conditional knowledge (Lee, Teo & Bergin, 2009: 93). This
dimension of metacognition plays an important role in learning and performance.
Swanson (1990, as cited in Lee, Teo & Bergin, 2009: 92) showed that pupils with
a high level of the knowledge of cognition have signiﬁcantly higher performance
in problem-solving than pupils with low knowledge of cognition. In addition to
the knowledge of cognition dimension, Brown’s metacognitive framework includes
regulation of cognition, which involves activities such as planning, evaluating and
monitoring (Spada, Georgiou & Wells, 2010: 65). The model developed by Brown
comprises two essential processes: monitoring and control. In his view, these
two processes have four basic functions. First, the processes of monitoring and
controlling indicate the existence of a cognitive problem. Second, after becoming
aware of the existence of a problem, appropriate strategies have to be activated in
order to adequately address the identiﬁed problem. Third, one of the functions
of monitoring and control processes is to formulate predictions regarding one’s
performance. Finally, these processes have the role of monitoring and regulating
the ongoing cognitive activity (Mazzoni & Kirsch, 2004: 127).
The important role of monitoring and control came into researchers’ attention
along with the theory developed by Nelson and Narens, which integrates much of
the research on metacognition. The control and monitoring processes are deﬁned
“in terms of the direction of the ﬂow of information between the meta-level and
the object-level” (Nelson & Narens, 1990: 127). The meta-level (metacognition)
and object-level (cognition) are considered speciﬁc interrelated levels which
organize cognitive processes, through two speciﬁc systems: monitoring and
control. Metacognitive monitoring allows an individual to observe, reﬂect on
and experience his or her own cognitive processes, while metacognitive control
involves the conscious and non-conscious decisions that are based on the outcomes of monitoring processes (Schwartz & Perfect, 2004: 4).
Researchers state that metacognition and self-regulation operate by increasing
the academic motivation and learning of students (Shunk & Ertmer, 2000: 631).
Research (Erskine, 2009) shows that students who had participated in training
focused on increasing metacognitive skills had a better performance on school
tests, compared to students who had not participated in such training. Furthermore, Gott, Lesgold and Kane (1996) concluded that students with metacognitive
skills are more active learners, engage more in reﬂecting and monitoring their
cognitive processes compared to their peers with less developed metacognitive
skills. High levels of task-relevant metacognition are considered essential variables
for improving problem solving and performance (Coutinho, Wiemer-Hastings,
Skowronski & Britt, 2005: 329). Increasing metacognitive skills leads to better
272
Liliana Ciascai, Lavinia Haiduc
accuracy of self-appraisal skills, which allow a student to understand when he/she
performed poorly and to change his/her learning and problem solving strategies
(Kruger and Dunning, 1999: 1131).
Several researchers investigated how teachers could structure the classroom
assignments for developing and promoting the metacognitive and self-regulation
skills of students. Stoeger and Ziegler (2011), applying an experimental design
with two groups (control and experimental group), trained fourth grade teachers to apply self-regulatory processes during mathematical instruction. Teachers
used the cyclic model developed by Zimmerman et al. (1996) and students from
both groups (experimental and control groups) kept diaries in which they noted
when and for how long they studied, what kinds of breaks they took, what type
of distractors were present, where they studied and with whom they studied. The
results showed that time management and self-reﬂection skills increased in the
experimental group, who beneﬁted from the metacognition training, compared to
the control group. In addition, the students from the experimental group showed
higher interest and eﬀort in learning, higher learning goal orientation, higher
self-eﬃcacy perceptions and higher math achievement. Taking into account the
inﬂuence of metacognitive skills on pupils’ learning, the presented study aims to
investigate the relations between metacognitive skills and pupils’ performance in
science (physics, chemistry and biology).
2. Methodology
2.1 Participants. A total of 211 students enrolled in the seventh and eighth
grades in three public Romanian schools were recruited. The convenient sample
was presented with the consent form for participating in the study, which constituted the inclusion criteria in the study. The mean age of the students was 13.68
years (SD = 1.24). The group was composed of 98 boys (46.4%) and 113 girls
(53.6%), with 120 students from the eighth grades and 91 from the seventh grades.
2.2 Instrument. Measures were obtained from a self-administered form of the
Junior Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (Jr. MAI). This inventory comprises two
scales, the “Knowledge of cognition” scale and the “Regulation of cognition” scale.
The inventory has been widely used in assessing metacognitive knowledge and
skills and is based on Brown’s theoretical framework of metacognition (Sperling,
Howard, Staley & DuBois, 2004). The ﬁrst scale measures declarative, procedural
and conditional knowledge, while the second one measures knowledge about
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Thinking Metacognitively: Metacognitive Skills and Science Performance
planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluating strategy use. The instrument
consists of 18 statements assessed on a ﬁve-point scale (from 1 – “the statement
does not describe me” to 5 – “the statement describes me well”). The participants
were asked to answer to the items of Jr. MAI, taking into account their experience
in science learning (physics, chemistry and biology). Achievement was measured
using the students’ grade point average (GPA) (in physics, chemistry and biology).
GPA was measured with the use of a self-reported scale.
2.3 Procedure. The MAI inventory was completed by the participants in a pencil and paper session, during one of the school classes. The criteria for choosing
the sample were based on the school accessibility. Thus, teachers from diﬀerent
schools were informed about the research and those who agreed to participate
were asked to apply the scale to the seventh and eighth grade students in their
school. Participation was anonymous and voluntary and those who participated
in the research did not receive any kind of reward.
Results
The overall alpha for the internal consistency of the Jr. MAI inventory was
0.79. The alpha for each subscale ranged from.64 to.74. The mean scores for the
two scales of MAI are presented in Table 1. We can observe that the means for
the “Knowledge about cognition” scale is 3.98, which indicates that generally the
students use their declarative, procedural and conditional knowledge during the
learning process. The mean score for the second scale of Jr. MAI, the cognitive
regulation scale, is 3.50. This indicates that the seventh and eighth grade students
from our study use planning, monitoring and evaluation strategies when studying
physics, chemistry and biology.
Table 1. Mean scores for the subscales of Jr. MAI
Mean
Std. Deviation
N
Knowledge about cognitions
3.98
.61
211
Cognitive regulation
3.50
.83
211
Table 2 illustrates the correlation between knowledge about cognitions and
cognitive regulation. The analysis revealed signiﬁcant correlations between these
two scales (p < 0.01), with a correlation coeﬃcient of 0.44.
Liliana Ciascai, Lavinia Haiduc
274
Table 2. Correlations between the subscales of Jr. MAI
1. Knowledge about
cognitions
2. Cognitive regulation
Pearson Correlation
1
2
1
.44**
Sig. (2-tailed)
.00
N
211
211
Pearson Correlation
.44**
1
Sig. (2-tailed)
.00
N
211
211
In order to identify the relations between metacognition and academic performance in science, we used the Pearson correlation for each subscale of the Jr.
MAI and Science GPA. We identiﬁed signiﬁcant positive correlations between
particular types of metacognitive knowledge and skills and academic performance
in science. Table 3 illustrates the correlation coeﬃcients for the “Knowledge of
cognition” scale.
Table 3. Correlation coeﬃcients for Science GPA and knowledge of cognition
Knowledge of cognition
Physics
Chemistry
Biology
I realize when I understand something
.139*
.141*
.122
My performance depends on my will and my eﬀort
.182**
.215**
.184**
I try to use those strategies that had already proved
to be successful
.216**
.106
.150*
I know that teachers expect me to learn
.110
.128
.192**
I can learn more about a subject on which I have
previous knowledge
–.050
–.126
–.073
I can learn more about a subject in which I have
special interest
.061
.089
.086
I use my intellectual strengths to compensate
for my weaknesses
.143*
.142*
.237**
I use diﬀerent learning strategies depending on the
situation
.093
.081
.124
–.026
.070
.003
.635**
.690**
I ﬁnd myself automatically using helpful learning
strategies
Physics
1
Chemistry
.635**
1
.628**
Biology
.690**
.628**
1
* Correlation is signiﬁcant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
** Correlation is signiﬁcant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
275
Thinking Metacognitively: Metacognitive Skills and Science Performance
As Table 3 shows, there are signiﬁcant correlations between science performance
and the following items that measure knowledge about cognition: “I realize when
I understand something”, “My performance depends on my will and my eﬀort”,
“I try to use ways of studying that had proved to be successful”, “I know what
teachers expect me to learn”, “I use my intellectual strengths to compensate for
my weaknesses”. The students who realize when they understand what they read
have better performance in physics and chemistry compared to the students who
do not realize when they understand what they read. However, the students who
know what the teacher expects them to learn have better performance in biology,
but not in physics or chemistry. Interestingly, there were no signiﬁcant correlations
between academic performance in science and the science prior knowledge of
the students. Furthermore, insigniﬁcant correlations were identiﬁed for science
performance and the students’ interest in a given science topic, the use of diﬀerent
learning strategies according to the context and the automatic use of learning
strategies.
The results regarding the relationship between the regulation of cognition and
science GPA were also surprising. As indicated in Table 4, there were few signiﬁcant correlations between these two variables.
Table 4. Correlation coeﬃcients for science GPA and regulation of cognition
Regulation of cognition
Physics
Chemistry
Biology
I make pictures and schemas that help me learn better
–.053
–.026
–.025
After I ﬁnish my work I wonder whether I have learned
everything I wanted to learn
.019
.085
.052
I think of several ways to solve a problem and choose
the best one
.109
.193**
.130
Before solving a problem, I think about what I need in
order to solve it
–.021
.144*
.104
I ﬁnd myself pausing regularly to check my understanding
–.052
–.128
–.062
I concentrate my attention on the most important
information
.174*
.207**
.170*
I ﬁnd myself checking if I will ﬁnish my work in time
.119
.148*
.141*
After I ﬁnish my work I wonder whether there was an
easier way to do it
.221**
.140*
.126
I think about the speciﬁc strategies I’ll use for solving
a problem
–.010
.034
–.022
1
.635**
.690**
Physics
276
Regulation of cognition
Chemistry
Biology
Liliana Ciascai, Lavinia Haiduc
Physics
**
.635
.690
**
Chemistry
Biology
1
.628**
**
.628
1
* Correlation is signiﬁcant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
** Correlation is signiﬁcant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
There were signiﬁcant positive correlations between academic performance in
science and focused attention, evaluation and planning. Hence, the students who
focus their attention on the material being studied and who reﬂect upon the learning strategies have better performance in physics, chemistry and biology. Likewise,
the students who use planning in learning have better performance in chemistry
and biology compared to the students who do not plan their time. Nevertheless,
the last association was insigniﬁcant for physics. There are also positive correlations between academic performance in chemistry and the following items that
measure regulation of cognition: thinking of several strategies for solving a problem and thinking about the strategies needed to solve a problem. Surprisingly,
there are no signiﬁcant correlations between academic achievement in science and
the use of schemas and diagrams during the learning process. Furthermore, data
analysis revealed insigniﬁcant correlations between science GPA and reﬂecting
on a learning experience, checking for comprehension and thinking about what
speciﬁc strategies will be used for solving a given problem.
Discussions and conclusion
The presented study analyzed the relationships between metacognition and
academic performance in physics, chemistry and biology. The results revealed
signiﬁcant correlations between some dimensions of metacognition and science
performance. However, surprisingly, some expected correlations were not identiﬁed in data analysis. For instance, the participants in our study do not seem to
achieve higher performance in science if they monitor their learning process. This
is indicated by the lack of signiﬁcant correlations between checking the understanding during the learning process and the science GPA. Moreover, data analysis
indicated that there are no correlations between GPA in science and the following
metacognitive strategies: using schemas and diagrams for facilitating learning,
evaluating the outcomes of the learning process, thinking about speciﬁc strategies
for solving a problem, using prior knowledge when learning a new topic in science
and using various learning strategies depending on the situation.
Thinking Metacognitively: Metacognitive Skills and Science Performance
277
The lack of signiﬁcant correlations between some dimensions of metacognition
and academic performance in science could indicate that the use of metacognitive skills is not necessary for achieving performance in science. The evaluation
methods used by Romanian teachers might rather promote a superﬁcial process
of learning than an in-depth process. Accordingly, the evaluation strategies used
by teachers could deepen even more the gap between metacognitive skills and
academic performance in science, since students might achieve performance
through using memorizing skills instead of metacognitive skills.
However, the insigniﬁcant correlations identiﬁed between speciﬁc metacognitive strategies and performance in science might also be explained by the instrument used to investigate the relation between these two variables. For instance,
Sperling, Howard, Miller, & Murphy (2002: 74) found that the correlations between
the Jr. MAI versions and achievement are generally low. Thus, the low correlations
between Jr. MAI and achievement, which were reported by Sperling et al., might
explain the insigniﬁcant correlations identiﬁed in the presented study.
Given the importance of metacognitive skills in science performance, we consider that it is essential for teachers to understand how to develop a culture of
metacognition in the classroom. Gunstone and Northﬁeld (1994) claim teachers
should be trained for promoting metacognitive instruction in the school context.
As Hartman (2001) concluded, we cannot expect students to be competent in
applying metacognitive skills since they are rarely explicitly taught such skills, and
since not all students develop them independently. In addition to the role played
by teachers in promoting metacognitive skills, the role of the learning context
is essential in metacognition and self-regulation. Teachers should be aware that
metacognition plays an essential role particularly when tasks are complex and
require the use of speciﬁc strategies (Bernacki, Aguilar & Byrnes, 2011: 3).
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Acknowledgment:
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2418/2008.
Lenka Kollerová, Pavlína Janošová,
Pavel Říčan
Czech Republic
Moral Disengagement from Bullying:
The Eﬀects of Gender and Classroom
Abstract
We examined the eﬀects of gender and classroom membership on moral disengagement–cognitive justiﬁcations of detrimental conduct. Sixth-graders aged 11
to 13 years (N = 273) participated in the study. Bullying was registered using the
Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire and moral disengagement was measured on a
14-item scale designed for this study. The study showed that moral disengagement
related to bullying and varied as a function of gender, which supports the relevance
of considering gender in moral education anti-bullying programs. Next, the study
revealed signiﬁcant diﬀerences in moral disengagement between classrooms. This
ﬁnding points to the need to elucidate associations between moral disengagement
and classroom characteristics.
Keywords: adolescence, aggressive behavior, bullying, moral cognition, moral
disengagement
Introduction
School bullying–an aggressive behavior characterized by repetitiveness, imbalance of power, and intentionality–is a harmful and common problem of early
adolescence (Olweus, 2011). Approximately 11% of early adolescents report having
been bullied at school two or three times a month (e.g., Janošová, Kollerová &
Zábrodská, n.d.; Solberg & Olweus, 2003). Examination of pro-bullying behaviors
and attitudes in this age period presents a crucial research task, because as children
Moral Disengagement from Bullying: The Eﬀects of Gender and Classroom
281
enter adolescence their acceptance of aggressive behavior increases, probably
because of their heightened tendency to challenge the norms of adults (Salmivalli
& Peets, 2009). Furthermore, because it violates universal ethical principles, bullying can be understood as immoral behavior. Within the literature addressing the
links between behaviors in bullying situations and personal morality, substantial
attention has been paid to moral reasoning, moral emotions, and recently also to
a promising construct of moral disengagement (for review cf., Hymel, SchonertReichl, Bonanno, Vaillancourt, & Henderson, 2010).
Moral Disengagement and Bullying
Moral disengagement has been formulated by Bandura, Barbaranelli, and
Caprara (1996) and refers to cognitive selective deactivation of the moral selfregulation that disinhibits detrimental behavior. This construct can explain the
often observed gap between moral attitudes and immoral behaviors. Through
moral disengagement justiﬁcations, an individual can behave in contradiction to
his/her own moral attitudes, while feeling little or no guilt. The self-justiﬁcation
moral disengagement mechanisms comprise four categories: cognitive restructuring–moral justiﬁcation, sanitizing language, or advantageous comparison; disavowal of a sense of personal agency–diﬀusion or displacement of responsibility;
disregarding or minimizing the injurious eﬀects of one’s own actions; and blaming
or dehumanizing the victim (Bandura, 1999). The relevance of this construct is
emphasized by the fact that similar concepts have emerged in methodological
paradigms far diﬀerent from the socio-cognitive theory prevailing in aggression
research. For example, ego-defense mechanisms developed in psychoanalysis
(Freud, 1914/1957) or themes of moral condemnation of the target of bullying or failure to recognize the injury proposed by critical and interpretative
paradigms (Zabrodska, Ellwood, Zaeemdar, & Mudrak, 2014) seem to partly
overlap with moral disengagement. Our study aims to extend the branch of the
socio-cognitive tradition that has applied moral disengagement in the context of
bullying.
Multiple studies have revealed that the more children and adolescents bully
others, the more morally disengaged are the attitudes they adopt (e.g., Caravita,
Gini, & Pozzoli, 2012; Gini, 2006; Hymel, Rocke-Henderson, & Bonanno 2005).
A consistent positive link between these two variables has also been conﬁrmed in
a recent extensive meta-analysis (Gini, Pozzoli, & Hymel, 2014). The authors point
282
Lenka Kollerová, Pavlína Janošová,Pavel Říčan
out that although time predictive relationships of these variables have not been
studied, bidirectional associations, such as that moral disengagement disinhibits
future bullying and involvement in bullying increases future moral disengagement,
can be expected.
Moral Disengagement in Relationship to Gender and Classroom
Bandura (2002) stated that as children grow older, a gender diﬀerence in
moral disengagement emerges, but past research on adolescent samples obtained
somewhat mixed results. In most studies, boys were found to be more morally
disengaged than girls (e.g., Bandura et al., 1996; Caravita et al., 2012; Thornberg &
Jungert, 2014), while in others, no signiﬁcant gender diﬀerences appeared (Gini,
2006; Gini, Pozzoli, & Hauser, 2011). More data from diverse samples would
broaden the existing picture on gender diﬀerences in moral disengagement, and
its magnitude.
To our knowledge, the existing research has paid limited attention to another
demographic variable of theoretical importance, namely the classroom (as membership in a ﬁxed group of students). In the Czech Republic, as well as in many
other countries, students spend the majority of their lessons within one classroom.
As many as 70 – 80% of students who have become targets of bullying report that
they were harmed by their own classmates (Salmivalli & Peets, 2009). Classrooms
as stable groups with ascribed membership can be assumed not only a primary
context for school peer interactions, but also a crucial normative context that may
inﬂuence how students view bullying and how they behave in bullying incidents
(Pozzoli, Gini, & Vieno, 2012; Salmivalli & Peets, 2009). If this assumption is
accurate, we can expect that individual moral disengagement from bullying will
vary across classrooms.
Goals of the Presented Study
The presented study investigated moral disengagement in relationship to bullying and two demographic variables (gender and classroom) in early adolescence.
Drawing upon the literature reviewed above, we formulated three hypotheses:
(1) Moral disengagement would positively correlate with bullying; (2) Boys would
report higher moral disengagement than girls; (3) Moral disengagement would
vary as a function of the classroom. Unlike the existing studies addressing mostly
283
Moral Disengagement from Bullying: The Eﬀects of Gender and Classroom
general moral disengagement (measured by items referring to general harmful
behaviors) we, inspired by the study by Hymel et al. (2005), focused speciﬁcally
on moral disengagement from bullying (measured by items directly referring to
bullying).
Since classroom anti-bullying eﬀorts may beneﬁt from including a moral
education component that cultivates moral motivation (Gasser & Keller, 2009;
Kollerová, Janošová, & Říčan, 2014), examination of moral disengagement from
bullying in association with gender and classroom may provide practically relevant
information.
Methods
Sample and Procedure
Using convenience sampling, we recruited 273 sixth-graders (125 boys and 148
girls) aged 11 to 13 years from 13 classes of public elementary schools located
in large urban areas: ﬁve schools in Prague, one in České Budějovice, and one in
Liberec. The urban population in the Czech Republic covers a wide range of social
classes, but is relatively homogeneous, with the middle class prevailing. The sample
composition by gender and classroom is detailed in Table 1.
Table 1. Sample composition by gender and classroom
Classroom
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
l
m
Total
Boys
12
9
10
6
5
8
8
8
7
10
11
13
18
125
Girls
11
10
11
10
15
11
11
12
11
18
9
15
4
148
Total
23
19
21
16
20
19
19
20
18
28
20
28
22
273
Note. The 13 classrooms involved in the study are labeled with the letters a-m.
The students participated voluntarily and oral informed consent was obtained
from their parents during the parents’ evening for each classroom. Data collection
took place in classroom settings and was conducted by the researchers and trained
assistants.
Measures
Bullying. We used a 6-item Czech adaptation of the most widely used selfreport measure of bullying and victimization–the Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire (Olweus, 1986). At the beginning of the questionnaire, a thorough
Lenka Kollerová, Pavlína Janošová,Pavel Říčan
284
deﬁnition of bullying is introduced to participants. For the purpose of this study,
we used the score on Item 5 as an indicator of bullying. This item asked adolescents to mark, by choosing 1 of 5 options, how often they had been involved in
bullying other students at school during the past couple of months. The resulting
score ranged from 1 to 5 with higher values indicating higher involvement in
bullying others.
Moral disengagement. We used a score on a Disengagement scale designed for
this study. The scale consisted of 14 items, mostly adapted from the unidimensional instrument developed by Hymel et al. (2005). The participants marked their
agreement on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from “not at all true” to “totally true”.
Each answer was scored 1 to 5 with higher scores indicating higher moral disengagement. The items referred to Bandura’s four moral disengagement clusters:
cognitive restructuring (4 items; e.g., Sometimes it’s okay to bully.), disavowal of a
sense of personal agency (3 items; e.g., It is adults’ responsibility to stop bullying.),
disregarding or minimizing the injurious eﬀects of one’s own actions (3 items; e.g.,
Bullying is sometimes the best way to solve a problem.), and blaming or dehumanizing the victim (4 items; e.g., The people that get bullied usually deserve it.). The
instrument produced a single scale score that reached high internal consistency
(Cronbach’s α = .83).
Results
Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics of moral disengagement and bullying in the total sample
and across genders are detailed in Table 2.
Table 2. Descriptive statistics of moral disengagement and bullying in the total
sample and across genders
Boys (N = 125)
Girls (N = 148)
Min.
Total (N = 273)
Max.
M (SD)
M (SD)
M (SD)
Moral disengagement
14
61
26.65 (8.33)
29.44 (9.35)
24.30 (6.53)
Bullying
1
5
1.24 (0.57)
1.36 (0.73)
1.13 (0.36)
Means and standard deviations of moral disengagement and bullying across
classrooms are presented in Table 3.
285
Moral Disengagement from Bullying: The Eﬀects of Gender and Classroom
Table 3. Descriptive statistics of moral disengagement and bullying
across classrooms
Moral disengagement
Bullying
M (SD)
M (SD)
Classroom a
25.33 (6.25)
1.28 (0.54)
Classroom b
26.74 (7.47)
1.08 (0.25)
Classroom c
32.14 (12.95)
1.19 (0.40)
Classroom d
30.06 (9.35)
1.13 (0.34)
Classroom e
23.84 (5.15)
1.20 (0.41)
Classroom f
23.50 (4.29)
1.16 (0.69)
Classroom g
22.32 (5.32)
1.11 (0.32)
Classroom h
28.95 (10.74)
1.32 (0.58)
Classroom i
28.69 (8.94)
1.39 (0.78)
Classroom j
23.77 (6.61)
1.23 (0.42)
Classroom k
27.79 (8.06)
1.50 (1.15)
Classroom l
24.94 (5.42)
1.07 (0.26)
Classroom m
30.05 (9.38)
1.45 (0.67)
Because normal probability plots and normality tests indicated non-normal
distributions of both moral disengagement and bullying (Shapiro-Wilk tests, p <
.001), we further analyzed the data using non-parametric statistical techniques.
Preliminary Analyses
Prior to verifying the three main hypotheses, we performed two preliminary
steps. First, we examined whether the two demographic variables of interest–
gender and classroom membership–are related. A chi-square test indicated no
diﬀerences in the gender composition of the classrooms, χ2 (12, n = 273) = 18.51,
p = 0.10.
Next, we investigated whether these two variables have eﬀects on bullying
behavior. Based on previous research (e.g., Thornberg & Jungert, 2014), we
hypothesized that boys would report more bullying than girls. Due to a lack of past
studies, we did not state any speciﬁc hypothesis concerning the eﬀect of classroom
on bullying. The Kruskal-Wallis tests with bullying as a dependent variable and
the gender and classroom as grouping factors showed (1) a signiﬁcant gender
diﬀerence, H(1) = 8.92, p < .01, η2 = .03, indicating that boys bullied others more
than girls, and (2) no diﬀerence between classrooms, H(12) = 14.56, p = .27 (for
means and standard deviations cf., Table 2).
Lenka Kollerová, Pavlína Janošová,Pavel Říčan
286
Moral Disengagement in Association with Bullying, Gender,
and Classroom
We veriﬁed our ﬁrst hypothesis that moral disengagement would positively correlate with bullying. We found a signiﬁcant positive Spearman correlation coeﬃcient,
rs = .17, p < .01, indicating that the more adolescents reported being involved in
bullying others, the more morally disengaged attitudes they showed.
Next, we tested the second and the third hypotheses on inter-gender and interclassroom variability in moral disengagement. Figure 1 shows means of moral
disengagement across genders and classrooms. (For means and standard deviations for boys and girls cf., Table 2. For means and standard deviations for classrooms cf., Table 3.)
Sex
boys
boys
Mean moral disengagement
40
30
20
10
0
a
b
c
d
e
f g h i
Classroom
j
k
l m
Figure 1. Means of moral disengagement in boys and girls across classrooms
First, we hypothesized that boys would be more morally disengaged than girls.
The Kruskal-Wallis test results, H(1) = 22.65, p < .001, η2 = .09, showed that the
inter-gender diﬀerences in moral disengagement reached statistical signiﬁcance.
Second, we hypothesized that moral disengagement would vary as a function of
classroom membership. This hypothesis was also conﬁrmed. The Kruskal-Wallis
Moral Disengagement from Bullying: The Eﬀects of Gender and Classroom
287
test revealed that there was a signiﬁcant eﬀect of classroom on moral disengagement H(12) = 26.25, p < .01, η2 = .10.
To sum up these ﬁndings together with the results of the preliminary analyses,
signiﬁcant eﬀects of gender were found on both bullying and moral disengagement while classroom proved to have a signiﬁcant eﬀect on moral disengagement
and no signiﬁcant eﬀect on bullying.
Discussion
The presented study addressed moral disengagement in early adolescents. We
found that moral disengagement positively related to bullying others and varied
as a function of gender and classroom.
Moral Disengagement and Bullying
In compliance with our ﬁrst hypothesis, the more involvement in bullying
adolescents reported, the more morally disengaged attitudes they adopted. The
nature of the association conforms to the evidence brought by earlier research
(e.g., Gini, 2006; Hymel et al., 2005), but its magnitude (rs = .17) is lower than that
(r = .28) found in a recent meta-analysis (Gini et al., 2014). This may be an artefact
of the methodological speciﬁcs of our study (usage of self-report measures of
bullying and applying non-parametric statistics) or it may reﬂect the younger age
of our participants. Age was found to moderate the relationship between moral
disengagement and bullying, i.e., with getting older, the link becomes stronger
(Gini et al., 2014). Given that most of the existing research, including the presented
study, used unidimensional operationalization of moral disengagement, further
studies may broaden our understanding by exploring diﬀerential links of various
moral disengagement clusters to bullying (Thornberg & Jungert, 2014).
Moral Disengagement, Gender, and Classroom
Next, we conﬁrmed our second hypothesis that boys would show higher moral
disengagement than girls, a ﬁnding that complies with the existing research (e.g.,
Bandura et al., 1996; Caravita et al., 2012; Thornberg & Jungert, 2014). Gender
accounted for 9% of the variance in moral disengagement, while it explained only
3% of the variance in bullying. Further studies are needed to examine whether
the uneven distribution of bullying across genders distorts results on the association between gender and moral disengagement. The underlying mechanisms of
the development of gender diﬀerence in moral disengagement have not yet been
288
Lenka Kollerová, Pavlína Janošová,Pavel Říčan
elucidated. Peer inﬂuence might be at work, because boys’ peer culture has been
shown to lead boys to presenting themselves as tough and to hiding their prosocial
concerns (Naylor et al., 2006). Given the found gender diﬀerence, there arises the
issue of whether the associations between moral disengagement and bullying differ between boys and girls. So far, no signiﬁcant moderating eﬀect of gender on
this link has been found (Gini et al., 2014).
Our third hypothesis was also conﬁrmed. The classroom proved to have a signiﬁcant eﬀect on moral disengagement from bullying. The classroom accounted
for 10% of the variance in moral disengagement. This ﬁnding probably cannot
be explained as an artefact of undesired eﬀects of gender and bullying, because
gender and bullying did not vary as a function of the classroom. Future research
should investigate the classroom characteristics that underpin this relationship.
In particular, the role of classroom norms, including classroom moral disengagement, should be taken into account (Pozzoli et al., 2012; Gini, Pozzoli, & Bussey,
2014). Next, as one of the reviewers of this study suggested, the inﬂuence of peer
group relationships (e.g., dyadic friendships or cliques) may be crucial. The eﬀect
of peer friendships has already been demonstrated in a unique study by Caravita,
Sijtsema, Rambaran, and Gini (2014), reporting that early adolescent friends tend
to show similar levels of moral disengagement over time due to social inﬂuence.
From a theoretical perspective, the inter-classroom variability of moral disengagement found in our study conforms to Bandura’s interactionist perspective in
which moral cognition is aﬀected by an interplay of personal and social inﬂuences
(Bandura, 2002). Even though they require further conﬁrmation, our results have
supported the idea that classroom characteristics should be explored in connection with moral disengagement.
Limitations and Conclusions
Four main limitations of the ﬁndings should be acknowledged. First, the results
should be validated with other age ranges, because we worked with a narrow age
cohort of sixth-graders. Second, we examined only main eﬀects, not interactive
ones. Third, time predictive relationships also remain a question for further
research, because the variables were registered at a single time point. Finally,
other unregistered variables, such as socioeconomic status, might have inﬂuenced
the results. To minimize similar problems common in the moral disengagement
correlational research, complex studies tapping longitudinal main and interactive
eﬀects of multiple factors are warranted (Gini et al., 2014).
Despite these limitations, the presented study supported the notion that antibullying programs may be more eﬀective if they are focused not only on strength-
Moral Disengagement from Bullying: The Eﬀects of Gender and Classroom
289
ening social competencies, but also on cultivating morality–understanding and
care for ethical principles associated with rejection of bullying (Caravita et al.,
2012; Gasser & Keller, 2009). As Thornberg and Jungert (2014) point out, it remains
a task for future research to verify whether such moral education interventions
result in a decline of bullying behavior. Next, our ﬁndings underscore the need to
consider gender in designing interventions aimed at reducing moral disengagement, because in accordance with earlier research, boys showed a higher tendency
to adopt morally disengaged attitudes than girls. Finally, the ﬁndings point to
the importance of elucidating associations between moral disengagement and
classroom characteristics, because the various classrooms showed diﬀerent levels
of moral disengagement. In sum, we believe that challenging moral disengagement and cultivating morally responsible attitudes within anti-bullying programs
may improve the “safeguards built into social systems that uphold compassionate
behavior and renounce cruelty” (Bandura, 2002, p. 101).
Acknowledgements
The study was supported by a grant of the Czech Science Foundation (n. P 407/12/2325).
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Simona Prosen, Helena Smrtnik Vitulić
Slovenia
Strategies of emotion regulation in students –
future human relations professionals
Abstract
In the presented study, selected emotion regulation (ER) strategies were
designed in accordance with Gross and Thompson’s model. Students of primary
education (n = 116), social pedagogy (n = 72) and preschool education (n = 54) –
future human relations professionals – assessed the frequency of the use and eﬃciency of these ER strategies. Students use various ER strategies, the most frequent
and eﬃcient being physical activation and social support, and the least frequent
and eﬃcient being substance use. Correlations between the use and eﬃciency of
ER strategies within the groups of students are mostly moderately high or high.
There are only a few diﬀerences between the student groups in terms of perception
of the use and eﬃciency of ER strategies.
Keywords: emotion, emotion regulation strategy, eﬃcient emotion regulation,
students, education.
Introduction
Emotion regulation (ER) has become a central topic in psychological research
(Gross, 1998; Matsumoto, 2006), as it has many important implications for a broad
spectrum of the individual’s functioning. For instance, ER is positively associated
with a good social relationship with peers (e.g., Eisenberg, Hofer, & Vaughan,
2009; Lopes, Salovey, Cote & Beers, 2005) and the quality of the student-teacher
relationship (e.g., Chang, 2013; Meyer & Turner, 2007). Since the students in our
sample are future human relations professionals (future preschool and primary
Strategies of emotion regulation in students – future human relations professionals
293
school teachers as well as social pedagogues), who will be working with various
groups of people, the issue of ER is particularly relevant to them. There are various
perspectives on emotions and ER, with the cognitive perspective being one of the
most accepted. From this perspective, emotions can be understood as a response
to a subjectively important event that is appraised by an individual (Frijda, 1988;
Lazarus, 1991) and includes a sequence of diﬀerent processes: appraisal of the
situation, and an experiential, behavioural and physiological response (Gross &
Feldman Barrett, 2011; Prosen, Smrtnik Vitulić, & Poljšak-Škraban, 2013). In this
perspective, ER can occur in any situation-attention-appraisal-response sequence.
The contemporary model of ER by Gross and Thompson (2009), which represents
a basis of our study, complies with this perspective. This model will be described
in greater detail, as it encompasses the ER strategies in our research.
The process model of ER views emotion regulatory acts at ﬁve diﬀerent points
in the emotion generative process (Gross & Thompson, 2009): (1) situation selection refers to the actions an individual makes to avoid situations that are expected
to give rise to unpleasant emotions; (2) situation modiﬁcation refers to the eﬀorts
made to change a situation and its emotional potential; (3) attentional deployment
refers to ER via redirecting attention in an emotion-eliciting situation; (4) cognitive
reappraisal refers to changing the appraisal of the situation – either its meaning
or its importance; and (5) response modulation refers to inﬂuencing experiential,
behavioural or physiological response tendencies once they arise.
Among ER strategies derived from the aforementioned model, only reappraisal
and suppression – the process by which outward signs of emotion are inhibited
(Gross, 1998) – have been studied more extensively. Reappraisal is generally
considered to be a more eﬀective ER strategy protective against psychopathology,
whereas suppression is considered a less eﬀective ER strategy connected with psychopathology (e.g., Aldao, Nolen-Hoeksema, & Schweizer, 2010; Gross, 1998). In
our study, we explore ER strategies derived from all of the ﬁve emotion regulation
points mentioned in Gross and Thompson’s (2009) model. These points will be
presented in greater detail in the methodology section below.
In addition to the frequency of the use of particular ER strategies, their eﬃciency is also explored in our study. The eﬃciency of a certain ER strategy may
be determined by its functionality, deﬁned as goal accomplishment, and its adaptability, deﬁned as accordance with the individual’s speciﬁc contexts (Scherer, 2011;
Thompson, 2011). Another criterion of ER eﬃciency can be its level of automation,
as automated responses are fast, consistent, and reliable (Bargh & Williams, 2009).
Eﬃcient ER is also ﬂexible, referring to the capacity to produce context-dependent
emotional responses (Westphal, Seivert & Bonanno, 2010). In the presented study,
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Simona Prosen, Helena Smrtnik Vitulić
however, eﬃciency is not assessed by the above speciﬁc criteria, but by a holistic
assessment of “what is helpful for me”, as previously suggested by Loewenstein
(2009).
The issue of the use and eﬃciency of ER strategies is important for everyone,
but it is especially relevant for individuals who work with other people. The students participating in our study ﬁt into this category, as they are future human
relations professionals. The characteristics of human relations professionals should
include sensitivity towards others and cooperation in interpersonal relationships.
Eﬃcient ER strategies are crucial in order to accomplish these goals. Despite the
importance of ER strategies for human relations professionals, data on this topic
is rather scarce. The results of empirical studies indicate that teachers often experience and express a variety of pleasant and unpleasant emotions (e.g., Chang, 2013)
and develop a range of ER strategies in the classroom, e.g., situation modiﬁcation,
attention deployment, cognitive reappraisal (Sutton, Mudrey-Camino, & Knight,
2009). Teachers believe that the use of eﬃcient ER strategies makes them more
eﬀective in achieving academic goals, in building quality social relationships, and
in discipline practices (Sutton et al., 2009). Similarly, the use of eﬃcient ER strategies is also important for other (future) human relations professionals, such as the
social pedagogues participating in our study.
Research Problem
In the presented study, we explored some ER strategies of future human relations professionals: students of primary education, preschool education and social
pedagogy. Speciﬁcally, we sought to explore: (1) how frequently they used selected
ER strategies and how eﬀective they found them; (2) whether there were any differences between groups of students with regard to how often they used selected
ER strategies and how eﬀective they found them; and (3) what the correlation was
between the use the selected ER strategies and their eﬃciency.
Methodology
Sample
The study sample consisted of 242 students from the Faculty of Education in
Ljubljana, Slovenia – 116 students of primary education, 72 students of preschool
education and 54 students of social pedagogy – enrolled in the ﬁrst year of the
study programme in 2011. The age of the students ranged from 18 to 24 years, and
Strategies of emotion regulation in students – future human relations professionals
295
the majority were female (94.6% for primary education, 92.0% for social pedagogy
and 98.7% for preschool education).
Instrument
For the purpose of the study, ER strategies were selected following Gross and
Thompson’s (2009) model of ER: (1) situation selection, (2) situation modiﬁcation,
(3) attentional deployment, (4) cognitive reappraisal (of situation meaning and
importance), and (5) response modulation (experiential, physiological and behavioural). All of these groups of ER strategies are described in the introduction to the
presented article. However, within the behavioural response modulation strategy
we further distinguished between (a) physical activation, (b) suppression that
entails the reduced expression or non-expression of emotions, (c) ﬁnding social
support in others, (d) comfort eating, and (e) psycho-active substance use, as some
possible behavioural ER strategies. All of these ER strategies are gathered in the
questionnaire, each represented by one item. When completing the questionnaire,
the students indicated how often they used each ER strategy on a ﬁve-point Likerttype scale (1 – almost never to 5 – always), while also indicating how eﬃcient each
ER strategy was for them (1 – not at all to 5 – very much).
Procedures
The students of primary education, social pedagogy and preschool education
completed the questionnaire during a lecture on developmental psychology.
Their participation was based on their informed consent, and was voluntary and
anonymous. One of the authors of this article was present during completion of
the questionnaire.
Data Analysis
Firstly, the normality of distribution for each item in the questionnaire was
tested. Since the normality was not conﬁrmed (Shapiro-Wilk tests: all ps <.00), a set
of non-parametric statistical procedures was applied. Medians were calculated for
the use and eﬃciency of each ER strategy for each group of students, and KruscalWallis tests were used to compare the use and eﬃciency of each ER strategy by all
three groups of students. If the diﬀerences between groups were signiﬁcant, MannWhitney tests were applied to determine the diﬀerences between each pair of the
student groups. Spearman’s rhos were used to identify the correlations between the
use and eﬃciency of ER strategies within each group of students.
Simona Prosen, Helena Smrtnik Vitulić
296
Results and Discussion
In the results and discussion section, the frequency and eﬃciency of the selfassessed use of the selected ER strategies, as well as correlations between use
and eﬃciency, will be presented (Table 1) and commented on for the primary
education, social pedagogy and preschool education students. Possible diﬀerences
between the groups of students with regard to the use (Table 2) and eﬃciency of
ER strategies will also be identiﬁed.
Table 1. Medians for the use and eﬃciency of ER strategies, and correlations
between the use and frequency, in groups of students.
ER strategy
Primary Education
(n = 116)
Sp.rho
Meuse
3.0
.54**
4.0
4.0
3.0
.45**
4.0
3.0
.68**
Meuse
Situation
selection
4.0
Situation
modiﬁcation
Attentional
deployment
Meeﬀ
Social Pedagogy
(n = 72)
Meeﬀ
Preschool Education
(n = 54)
Sp.rho
Meuse
Meeﬀ
Sp.rho
3.0
.39**
4.0
3.0
.44**
3.5
3.0
.43**
4.0
3.0
.41**
3.0
4.0
.61**
4.0
3.0
.61**
Cognitive reappraisal
Meaning
3.5
3.0
.63**
3.0
3.0
.59**
4.0
3.0
.68**
Importance
3.0
3.0
.58**
2.5
2.0
.41**
3.0
2.5
.41**
Response modulation
Experiential
2.0
2.0
.55**
2.0
2.0
.52**
2.0
2.0
.57**
Physiological
3.0
3.0
.69**
2.0
3.0
.76**
2.0
2.0
.79**
Physical
activation
4.0
4.0
.58**
4.0
4.0
.69**
3.0
4.0
.66**
Suppression
3.0
2.0
.21*
4.0
3.0
.03
3.0
4.0
.21
Social
support
4.0
4.0
.69**
3.5
4.0
.49**
4.0
3.5
.69**
Comfort
eating
3.0
3.0
.68**
2.0
3.0
.72**
3.0
2.0
.73**
Substance
use
1.0
1.0
.41**
1.0
1.0
.38**
1.0
1.0
.55**
Behavioural
Notes: Meuse = median of frequency of ER strategy use; Meeﬀ = median of eﬃciency of ER strategy;
Sp. rho = Spearman rho correlation; *p <.05; **p<.01.
Strategies of emotion regulation in students – future human relations professionals
297
Table 2. Signiﬁcant diﬀerences in mean ranks of the use of ER strategies
in groups of students
ER strategy
Primary
Education
R
Social
Pedagogy
R
Preschool
Education
R
Results of
Kruskall-Wallis
test
Mann-Whitney
test
Attentional
deployment
128.79
126.61
99.02
χ2 (2) = 7.92
p = .02
Pri>Soc
Pre>Soc
132.72
111.69
110.48
χ2 (2) = 6.11
p = .05
Pri>Pre
130.41
127.36
94.55
χ2(2) = 11.43
p = .00
Pri>Soc
Pre>Soc
Response modulation
Physiological
Behavioural
Social support
Notes: R = mean rank; > the ﬁrst group assessed the ER strategy as more frequently used than the
second group.
The data is analysed following Gross and Thompson’s (2009) process model of
ER, as the strategies in the presented study were also designed in accordance with
this model. Each strategy is commented on with regard to its frequency of use and
eﬃciency. When analysing the more and less frequent use and eﬃciency of ER
strategies in the groups of students, the criteria of Me≥4 and Me≤2 were applied,
respectively. If 2.5≤Me≤3.5, it is referred to as moderate. Since almost all of the
correlations between the use and eﬃciency of the ER strategies in our study are
signiﬁcant and moderately high,1 only the high and low correlations are discussed.
When commenting on the diﬀerences between the groups of students in the use
and eﬃciency of ER strategies, only signiﬁcant diﬀerences are mentioned.
In all the three groups of students, situation selection (avoidance of situations that
could give rise to unpleasant emotions) and situation modiﬁcation (eﬀorts to change
such situations) are more frequently used and considered moderately eﬀective. The
correlations of use and eﬃciency are high only in the primary education students,
indicating accordance of the students’ assessments: they actually use the ER strategy
that they ﬁnd eﬀective. It seems that the students quite often try to inﬂuence situational circumstances in order to regulate their emotional experience, and that they
1
Cohen (1988) suggested that the values of correlations ≥0.10 and <0.30 indicate relationships of a small magnitude, and the values between 0.30–0.49 and >0.50 indicate a moderate
and high magnitude, respectively.
298
Simona Prosen, Helena Smrtnik Vitulić
ﬁnd these strategies quite eﬃcacious. The results regarding situation selection and
modiﬁcation ER strategies may serve as encouragement to study these strategies
more thoroughly, as they are not well represented in empirical research.
In the student groups, attentional deployment (redirecting attention from the
emotional situation) is moderately or more frequently used, and it is considered
moderately or more eﬀective. The correlations of these two measures are high in
all the three groups of students. The primary and preschool education students
use this ER strategy signiﬁcantly more often than the social pedagogy students.
Perhaps education students are encouraged to apply this strategy when interacting
with children, and consequently use it more often themselves.
Cognitive reappraisal of both meaning and importance is moderately used and
considered moderately eﬀective by the majority of the students. The correlations
for reappraisal of meaning are high in all the groups of students, and for reappraisal of importance in the primary education students. The only moderate use
and perception of the eﬃciency of reappraisal is somewhat surprising, as it is generally considered an eﬀective ER strategy connected with well-being, self-esteem
and having social support (Gross & John, 2003). In earlier studies, however, the
reappraisal of meaning and importance was studied as a single unit, whereas our
results suggest that this distinction should be taken into consideration in future
research.
Response modulation refers to inﬂuencing emotional experiential responses
(change in subjective emotional experience), physiological responses (change in
processes such as breathing) or behavioural responses (physical activation, suppression, seeking social support, comfort eating and substance use). In our results,
experiential response modulation is perceived as less frequently used and less eﬃcient in all the three groups of students, while the use and eﬃciency of physiological
response modulation are low or moderate in all the students. For both strategies, the
correlations of frequency and eﬃciency are high in all the students. Furthermore,
the results conﬁrm that the primary education students use physiological modulation signiﬁcantly more frequently than the preschool education students. It can
be concluded that these two ER strategies are not as present in students, perhaps
because it is diﬃcult to modulate psycho-physiological processes.
In our study, behavioural response modulation includes all of the ﬁve aforementioned ER strategies. Physical activation and social support seeking are
more frequently used and considered more eﬀective in almost all the groups of
students, and the correlations between frequency and eﬃciency are mostly high.
The students’ high assessment of these two strategies concurs with the conclusions
of many authors stressing the beneﬁcial inﬂuence of physical action and having
Strategies of emotion regulation in students – future human relations professionals
299
social support when experiencing unpleasant emotions (e.g., Milivojević, 2008).
Interestingly, the primary and preschool education students use the social support ER strategy signiﬁcantly more often than the social pedagogy students. Given
that the social pedagogy students will provide social support for the people they
work with, it is somewhat surprising that they themselves use this strategy less
frequently than the other groups of students.
Suppression is a moderately or more frequently used ER strategy in all of the
groups of students. Perception of its eﬃciency, however, ranges from low to more
eﬃcient. Correlations between frequency and eﬃciency are low but still signiﬁcant for the primary education students, but are non-signiﬁcant for the other two
groups. The low correlations may be indicative of a discrepancy between the
students’ actual use of this strategy and their opinion of its eﬃciency. Suppression
is usually seen as less eﬀective, as it creates a sense of discrepancy between inner
experience and outer expression, and its frequent use is usually negatively linked
to well-being and social functioning (Gross & John, 2003).
In our study, comfort eating is a less or moderately used ER strategy in all the
three groups of students, while its eﬃciency is also perceived as such. The high
correlations between these two measures indicate accordance of the students’ perception of the use and eﬃciency of comfort eating. However, there is a signiﬁcant
diﬀerence in the perception of comfort eating eﬃciency between the groups of
students (Kruskall-Wallis test: χ2(2) = 6.46; p = .04; Rprimary education = 124.71;
Rsocial pedagogy = 110.45; Rpreschool education = 131.37), with the preschool
education students assessing it as more eﬃcient than the social pedagogy students.
Even though comfort eating is not so frequent among the students, its occurrence
demands attention, as this ER strategy is usually considered less adaptive (Evers,
Stok, & de Ridder, 2010).
The last ER strategy in our study – substance use – is the least frequently used
and it is perceived as the least eﬃcient in all of the groups of students. The correlation between frequency and eﬃciency is high in the preschool students. These
results show that the students generally do not apply this strategy, as they are
probably aware of its negative consequences.
Conclusions
From all the above, it can be concluded that the primary education, social
pedagogy and preschool education students participating in our study use various
ER strategies that diﬀer considerably in their frequency and eﬃciency. Physical
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Simona Prosen, Helena Smrtnik Vitulić
activation and social support are the strategies that stand out as the most frequent
and eﬃcient ones. In the case of the latter, the possible bias of our sample (future
human relations professionals) must be considered. At the other extreme, the ER
strategy of substance use stands out as the least frequent and eﬃcient one.
Our results regarding the two previously most frequently studied ER strategies – suppression and cognitive reappraisal – do not entirely concur with the
ﬁndings of other studies. Speciﬁcally, suppression is, interestingly, highly marked
by the students in our sample, whereas cognitive reappraisal is not perceived by
them as that frequently used and eﬃcient ER strategy. Moreover, reappraisal was
divided into meaning and importance in our study. Correlations between the frequency of use and eﬃciency of the ER strategies within the groups of students are
mostly moderately high or high, indicating that the students use those strategies
they perceive as eﬃcient and vice versa. There are only a few diﬀerences between
the student groups in their perception of the use and eﬃciency of ER strategies.
The strategies investigated in our study follow Gross and Thompson’s model; for
the ﬁrst time, however, the whole model is studied simultaneously. Furthermore,
the students in our study assessed ER strategies not only for their use but also for
their eﬃciency. This kind of assessment is not usually found in other studies on
ER and opens up an important window for future research. However, the speciﬁc
characteristics of the sample (speciﬁc groups of students, mainly female) should
be considered as a shortcoming of our study, allowing only limited generalisations
of the results. Moreover, the ER strategies are evaluated on the basis of student
self-assessment, and therefore the subjectivity of the participants should be taken
into consideration.
As the students participating in our study are still developing their repertoire
of ER strategies (their ER strategies may become increasingly more sophisticated
and ﬂexible), this presents an opportunity for study programmes at university
to further encourage their development, perhaps by oﬀering courses designed to
teach eﬀective ER strategies. Eﬀective strategies to regulate emotions, particularly
unpleasant ones, may help human relations professionals to improve their interactions with other people. The presented discussion on ER strategies may be taken
further with the inclusion of the individual diﬀerences perspective, as each of us
has a “window of tolerance” in which the intensity of emotional arousal is optimal,
enabling us to function well (Siegel, 1999).
Strategies of emotion regulation in students – future human relations professionals
301
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Rode Danuta, Bolek Magdalena,
Cugowski Mikołaj
Poland
Individual and Educational Risk Factors
for Violence Perpetration.
Prophylactic Aspects of Pedagogization
Abstract
The article addresses the issue of risk factors for high aggression of women
taking action of a violent nature. The study group consisted of 44 women selected
on the basis of studies in Family Diagnostic and Consultation Centres, being
remanded in custody, or imprisoned. The study examined the dependencies
between intensiﬁcation of aggression and such groups of variables as: educational
circumstances, family socialisation conditions, manifestations of demoralization
in childhood and adolescence periods, current life circumstances, demographic
characteristics, and psychological variables. The application of multiple regression analysis allowed for distinguishing three main factors of women’s aggression
(negativism, attitude to school, and theft in childhood/adolescence periods). On
the basis of the research ﬁndings, psychological and pedagogical directions of
prophylactic action were put forward.
Keywords: violence, aggression, risk factors for use of violence, women’s
aggression
Theoretical basis
Contemporary subject literature indicates diversity of the pattern of crime
commission, including violent crimes, depending on the gender of the perpetrator, which shows that it is desirable to conduct research into patterns and risk
factors for committing crimes separately for men and women (Resing et al.,
304
Rode Danuta, Bolek Magdalena,Cugowski Mikołaj
2006; Rossegger et al., 2009; Van Voorhis et al., 2010). Thus far, most studies on
predictors of violence occurrence have been focused on groups of male inmates
or men staying in mental hospitals (Yang et al., 2013). Not numerous studies on
aggressive behaviour and violence used by women indicate typical groups of risk
factors, such as: younger age, residing in social-assisted housing, presence of early
conduct problems, early onset of alcohol abuse, excessive drinking, histories of
victimization or abuse, victim of domestic violence, mental illness, drug abuse,
self-harming, dating aggression, traumatized by separation/divorce, cohabiting,
marital/relationship strain, victimization by partner, past criminal justice involvement, unemployment, living in a rural area, poverty and parental issues (O’Leary
et al., 2014; Yang et al., 2013; Van Voorhis et al., 2010; O’Leary et al., 2008).
The increase in the intensiﬁcation of women’s aggressive behaviour observed in
Poland in recent years, in interpersonal relations, and particularly in partnership
relationships (Public Opinion Research Centre CBOS 2005, 2009, 2012), makes the
issue of delving into the nature of the phenomenon, and consequently creating an
opportunity to counteract it eﬃciently, an extremely up-to-date subject of social
signiﬁcance. This study mainly focused on educational and family environment
oriented aspects, since determining early risk factors regarding aggression and the
use of violence give a chance to detect them yet in the school period and to take
adequate prophylactic measures.
The theoretical framework for the adopted model of risk factors for aggressive
behaviour and the use of violence constitutes: Buss’ behavioural theory (1961),
according to which aggression is a habit of reacting aggressively to certain social
situations; Leary’ s (2004) conception of the interpersonal model of personality
deﬁning two dimensions of interpersonal functioning of the individual, namely:
locus of control (the continuum from dominance to submission) and emotional
attitudes (the continuum from aﬃliation to hostility); and Bandura’s social learning theory (2007), according to which persons who were witnesses to or victims of
violence used by family members and their immediate environment adopt aggressive and hostile interpersonal patterns from the perpetrator, which are reﬂected
in their family relations out of the family and in their further partner relationships
(O’Leary et al. 2014; Ehrensaft et al., 2003).
The ﬁndings of this study were also considered from the developmental perspective, particularly taking into account such aspects as alcohol abuse, negative
attitude to school and other manifestations of demoralization occurring in the
adolescence period (Capaldi et al., 2012; O’Leary et al, 2014).
Individual and Educational Risk Factors for Violence Perpetration
305
Method
The research data was gathered in the police custody and in the correction unit,
where from among female inmates the ones were selected who were convicted
of crimes committed with the use of violence (classiﬁcation of crimes as cited
in Błachut et al., 2004) and in Family Diagnostic and Consulting Centres in the
Silesian Province through examining divorce and child custody cases (classiﬁcation based on evidentiary material collected in court cases). There were 44 women
in total in the study group (N = 44).
The main research problem refers to determining educational, demographic
and psychological factors aﬀecting the intensiﬁcation of aggression of the women
who take action of a violent nature and deﬁning risk factors for high aggression.
The following speciﬁc questions were posed: RQ1:What are the conditions of
family socialisation and are they related to the intensiﬁcation of aggression of the
women using violence? RQ2: What were the educational conditions in which the
subjects grew up? Is there any relation between selected educational aspects and
the intensiﬁcation of women’s aggression? RQ3: Were there any manifestations
of demoralization identiﬁed in the childhood and adolescence periods of the subjects
and were they connected with the current intensiﬁcation of aggression? RQ4: What
are the demographic characteristics and are they connected with the aggression of the
subjects? RQ5: What are the current life circumstances of the women using violence
and are they in relation with the intensiﬁcation of aggression? RQ6: Is there a relation between the styles of interpersonal functioning and intensiﬁcation of women’s
aggression? RQ7: What factors condition the use of violence by women?
Intensiﬁcation of aggression has been deﬁned as “the Aggression Factor”
measured with the use of the Buss-Durkee Aggression Scale (SABD). This factor
is composed of four subscales, namely: physical aggression, verbal aggression,
indirect aggression and irritability (Stanik et al., 2006). The aggression factor was
studied in terms of six groups of independent variables, namely: speciﬁc nature
of educational situation, conditions of family socialisation, manifestations of
demoralization in childhood and adolescence periods, current life circumstances,
demographic characteristics and psychological variables (styles of interpersonal
functioning measured by the Scale of Interpersonal Attitudes (SUI), a tool created
by Stanik (Stanik 1994; Różańska-Kowal & Stanik, 2006)) and hostility, negativism
and a sense of guilt measured by the SABD tool. The data in respect of other variables was gathered by means of the authors’ own questionnaire made up of closed
questions. There were yes/no questions and the respondents were asked to indicate
the intensiﬁcation of certain phenomena adequate for them on a ﬁve-degree scale.
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Rode Danuta, Bolek Magdalena,Cugowski Mikołaj
The Pearson correlation coeﬃcient was employed in order to determine the
strength of the relation between the variables and the Spearman’s rank correlation
coeﬃcient in the case of the variables expressed in a measurement scale. Distinctions between the examined groups were assessed by t test for two independent
variables. The size eﬀect between the groups was calculated using the Hedges g
expression. Normality of the distributions in terms of the size of the group was
examined by the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. To determine risk factors for high
aggression of women using violence, a step-wise multiple regression analysis was
conducted.
Results
The average age of the study group was 34.6 years (σ = 9.8). The vast majority of the respondents remains in matrimony (45%) or partnerships (20%).
75% of the respondents were women who have experienced motherhood. 60%
of the examined women were raised in full families, 23% stayed in care centres.
The average age of the onset of alcohol use in the study group was 17.4 years. In
childhood and adolescence periods, 42% of the respondents participated in ﬁghts,
46% frequently played truant, 47.5% ran away from home, 33% committed theft,
27% were detained. 55% of the respondents have never taken up any employment, 51% declared bad ﬁnancial condition, 26% are addicted to psychoactive
substances.
Violent crimes of which the examined women were convicted are: armed robbery (43%), murder (29%), grievous bodily harm (14%), beating (11%) and abuse
(3%). 42% of the respondents already had a criminal record.
On the basis of the analysis, the signiﬁcance of diﬀerences and the correlation
coeﬃcient, out of all the variables, 15 independent variables have been selected
indicating a signiﬁcant relation to the intensiﬁcation of the aggression factor. The
results are presented in Table 1.
In order to select risk factors for the high aggression of women, 12 explanatory
variables related to the aggression factor were analysed (the following variables
were excluded from the analysis: aggressive-sadistic style, runaways from home and
detention in childhood and adolescence periods due to data redundancy). Finally,
three main risk factors were obtained. The results are presented in Table 2.
Table 1. Characteristics of relations for the Aggression Factor variable in the study
group (signiﬁcance level α < 0.05)
Variables
Relation with Aggression
Factor
p – value for
signiﬁcance
of diﬀerences test
t
Hedges’
g
.0624
–1.93
–.75
r
Speciﬁcity of educational circumstances
stay in care centre
attitude to school
–.35*
Manifestations
of demoralization in childhood
and adolescence
periods
onset of alcohol use
–.43
Conditions of
family socialisation
Current life circumstances
participation in ﬁghts
.0074
2.86
.67
frequent truancy
.0033
–3.17
–.77
running away from home
.0489
–2.05
–.51
theft
.0013
–3.53
–1.02
detention
.0001
–4.52
–1.47
upbringing by biological
parents
.2717
–1.12
upbringing in full family
.7948
–.26
having siblings and number of siblings
.8021
–.25
criminal record of family
members
.2831
–1.09
alcohol abuse by father
.3095
1.03
alcohol abuse by mother
.1867
1.35
being witness to domestic
abuse
.4170
–.82
experiencing violence
inﬂicted by mother
.2160
1.26
experiencing violence
inﬂicted by father
.7604
.31
–.002
subjective assessment of
relationship with mother
–.28**
subjective assessment of
relationship with father
–.02**
experiencing sexual abuse
.9917
–.01
employment
.0362
–2.19
ﬁnancial condition/collecting social beneﬁts
.6659
0.43
criminal record
.0114
2.68
–.51
.61
Variables
Relation with Aggression
Factor
Psychological vari- addiction to psychoactive
ables
substances
Demographic
characteristics
p – value for
signiﬁcance
of diﬀerences test
t
.2146
1.27
Hedges’
g
r
managerial-autocratic
style
.37
responsible-hypernormal
style
–.24
cooperative-overconventional style
–.14
docile-dependent style
–.003
self-eﬀacing-masochistic
style
–.04
rebellious-distrustful style
.26
aggressive-sadistic style
.66
competitive-narcissistic
style
.46
self-acceptance
.13
resourcefulness
–.12
pessimism
.04
negativism
.42
resentment
.34
suspiciousness
.16
sense of guilt
–.17
age
education
motherhood
–.14
.5069***
.0797
number of children
marital status
–1.81
–.47
.5769****
* attitude measured by means of Likert scale, where 1 – I did not like school very much;
5 – I liked school very much
** relations measured by means of Likert scale, where 1 – very bad relations; 5 – very good
relations
*** use of Kruskal-Wallis AVOVA test, χ² = 3.3129; df = 4
**** use of Kruskal-Wallis AVOVA test, χ² = 4.7454; df = 6
309
Individual and Educational Risk Factors for Violence Perpetration
Table 2. Coeﬃcients and statistics of the model obtained in the step-wise multiple
regression analysis for the explanatory model of the level of the Aggression Factor.
Variables
Negativism
Attitude to school
Theft in childhood and adolescence periods
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
p
β
Β
β
.641
.626
.534
.0007
-.44
-.32
.0288
.336
.0290
Statistics
of model
df = 3,19
R2
p
.647
.00004
Discussion
The selected risk factors for the high aggression of women taking action of
a violent nature constitute educational circumstances, manifestations of demoralization in childhood and adolescence periods and psychological variables.
Responding to RQ1, it is possible to conclude that the variables from the
category of family socialisation conditions are not signiﬁcantly related to the
intensiﬁcation degree of the aggression factor in the study group.
Regarding RQ2, the determined speciﬁcity of educational circumstances coconstitutes the risk factor for high aggression in the study group. The dominating
role here is played by a negative attitude to school education in childhood and
adolescence periods, which constitutes a factor actively modifying educational
circumstances of the child. It should be noted that denying school duty in adolescence period positively correlates with manifestations of social maladjustment
and demoralization, therefore, the obtained results are to be discussed together
with the aspects included in RQ3. Domagała-Kręcioch (2008) indicates that lasting failure, generating a negative attitude to school duty by socially maladjusted
girls, originates from hostility to demonstrate social interactions. The experience
deriving from forensic assessment of punishable oﬀences of minors and demoralization, as well as the analysis of the documentation collected for the purposes of
court proceedings, indicates that a negative attitude to education manifesting itself
in frequent truancy and school absence, disrespectful approach to teachers and
pupils’ duties is most often the ﬁrst alarming symptom of social maladjustment,
which escalates within a short time period into a progressive process demoralization (including, inter alia, committing theft). According to Urban’s (2000)
evolutionary model of a criminal career, individuals who start a life of crime and
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Rode Danuta, Bolek Magdalena,Cugowski Mikołaj
get arrested at an early stage of life are considerably susceptible to a relapse into
crime and the chronic commission of aggressive crimes in adulthood. The above
author indicates that the presented phenomenon is primarily aﬀected by a hostile
attitude and committing theft as early as in childhood. In his research studies on
violence risk factors for underage girls, Gierowski (2009) similarly emphasises
the signiﬁcance of school problems and criminal conduct. The ﬁndings obtained
by these authors are compliant with risk factors for the aggressive expression of
women.
The results regarding demographic characteristics (RQ4) and current life
circumstances (RQ5) indicate a signiﬁcant, positive correlation between lack of
employment and having a criminal record and the intensiﬁcation of aggression
of the examined women. The results comply with the above-cited literature of the
subject (Urban, 2000; O’Leary, 2008; Yang et al., 2013). The research referred to,
by Harwas-Napierała and Trempała (2002), indicates that women feel the need to
have a career and fulﬁlment in this aspect and when deprived of such an opportunity in favour of complete dedication to household chores, they experience
numerous tensions and frustration, which are reﬂected in conﬂicts occurring in
their close relationships. It appears that the following thesis may be proposed that,
in accordance with the frustration-aggression hypothesis by Dollard and Miller,
subjectively perceived deprivation of needs by the examined women, relating to
creation of their own ﬁnancial and economic circumstances and through lack of
professional activity, leads to giving vent in the form of aggressive conduct mostly
directed at their immediate environment. This interpretation of the data seems to
be conﬁrmed by studies on women’s aggressive behaviour, which points out that
in most cases the people who are victimised by female perpetrators are the closest
to them, mainly partners, friends and other family members and children (Yang et
al., 2013; Rossegger et al., 2009; Logan & Weizmann-Henelius, 2012).
As regards RQ6, the gathered results indicate a signiﬁcant relationship between
the aggression factor and the aggressive-sadistic and competitive-narcissistic styles
of social functioning, as well as the expression of behaviours bearing the hallmarks
of negativism and suspiciousness. It should be noted that negativism manifesting
itself in attitudes and actions contradictory to the expectations of the environment,
constitutes the major component of behaviour, i.e., hostility (Gierowski, 2009).
The aggressive-sadistic style is linked to a tendency to attack the environment
through physical aggression, and a verbal one too, manifesting itself by calling
names, ridiculing and criticising others. At the root of this behaviour lies hostility
towards oneself and the environment, and also perception of one’s own person
as a dominating one over the others in interpersonal contacts, which is also the
Individual and Educational Risk Factors for Violence Perpetration
311
basis of the expression of competitive-narcissistic attitudes in interpersonal relationships (Stanik, 1994). In the face of lack of data in respect of studies on adult
women-perpetrators, the available research conducted on groups of underage girls
is to be cited in this discussion. Gierowski (2009) claims that underage girls in
comparison with boys are more likely to demonstrate a sense of hostility; they
attribute bad intentions to the environment and treat it in a distrustful and suspicious way. They are characterised by considerably higher willingness to react with
aggression and violence to any situations perceived as threatening to or hampering
the satisfaction of their needs and achievement of life goals. In other, comparative
studies, Różańska - Kowal (2009) indicates that minor girls in juxtaposition with
the control group achieve lower results in a docile-dependent style and higher
results in self-eﬀacing-masochistic, rebellious-distrustful and aggressive-sadistic
styles, while the competitive-narcissistic style of social functioning is characteristic
of the group of minor boys. It appears that in the study group of adult women, by
way of speciﬁc socialisation, co-forming of male aggressive patterns of behaviour
may occur. It may be also aﬀected by factors resulting from current functioning of
the respondents in correction units, being part of the vast majority of the group.
To recapitulate the presented discussion, also with reference to the posed RQ7, it
can be concluded that while searching for risk factors of the expression of women’s
aggressive behaviour, the most signiﬁcant ones which have been deﬁned are: negativism, disrespectful attitude to school and starting a life of crime by committing
theft as early as in childhood and adolescence periods. Recognition of risk factors
distribution for the occurrence of irregularities involves applicable beneﬁts in the
form of eﬃcient prophylactic actions implemented.
Applicable aspects of the research
The obtained research results indicate that there is a need to take prophylactic
measures against aggressive behaviours. Since there are signiﬁcant dependencies
between aggression in an adult’s life and manifestations of demoralization identiﬁed in childhood and adolescence periods, it is advisable to undertake preventive
action commencing at the early education stage. What should be emphasized is the
relevance of preventive educational actions in the form of emotion control training
(in particular coping with anger) and skills workshops for maintaining relationships
with others, particularly including: forming communication abilities, increasing
positive exchange of reciprocal reinforcement and conﬂict resolution. It would be
also beneﬁcial to conduct workshops for children and youth devoted to prophylactic
312
Rode Danuta, Bolek Magdalena,Cugowski Mikołaj
programmes focusing on early recognition of violence symptoms in their current
relationships, as well as in future procreative families, including basic information
on the phenomenon of violence, its mechanisms, forms, kinds, eﬀects, and also
psychological characteristics of persons victimised by their perpetrators.
The studies conclude that there is the need to undertake steps aimed at building
up a positive attitude towards school duty prior to problems arising from performing this duty, negativism in attitude and in progressive social maladjustment,
which may lead to the occurrence of the phenomenon of demoralization.
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