1. family and parenting
2. children

CHILD DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVES
Nurturing Mindfulness in Children and Youth:
Current State of Research
Mark T. Greenberg and Alexis R. Harris
Pennsylvania State University
ABSTRACT—This
article reviews the current state of
research on contemplative practices with children and
youth. It reviews contemplative practices used both in
treatment settings and in prevention or health promotion
contexts, including school-based programs. Although
there is great interest and potential promise for contemplative interventions, enthusiasm for promoting such practices outweighs the current evidence supporting them.
Interventions that nurture mindfulness in children and
youth may be a feasible and effective method of building
resilience in universal populations and in the treatment of
disorders in clinical populations. This review suggests that
meditation and yoga may be associated with beneficial
outcomes for children and youth, but the generally limited
quality of research tempers the allowable conclusions.
Well-designed experimental studies that are grounded in
developmental theory and measure multiple indicators of
change must fully test the efficacy of such interventions.
KEYWORDS—mindfulness;
yoga; prevention
There is considerable concern that children and youth experience less than optimal physical and mental health and that it
affects a wide range of outcomes, including academic performance, substance use, violence, and obesity (Greenberg et al.,
2003). There has been a strong call to develop new ideas to nurture children’s health and well-being and increasing interest in
how to develop habits of mind and behavior that build resilience
in the face of everyday adversity (Shonkoff, Boyce, & McEwen,
2009).
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to
Mark T. Greenberg, Prevention Research Center, Pennsylvania
State University, Henderson S., University Park, PA 16802; e-mail:
mxg47@psu.edu.
ª 2011 The Authors
Child Development Perspectives ª 2011 The Society for Research in Child Development
DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-8606.2011.00215.x
Recent years have witnessed an explosion of interest in secular mindfulness strategies (including meditation, attention training, yoga, and other techniques) as methods to support wellness.
Research with adults has clearly shown benefits for promoting
health, alleviating pain, and reducing depression and anxiety
(Arias, Steinberg, Banga, & Trestman, 2006; Kabat-Zinn, 2003).
Furthermore, basic research has shown that certain methods are
likely to have these effects because they alter organization and
action of neural circuitry, which is associated with alterations in
stress reactivity and immune function (Davidson et al., 2003).
Thus, it is not surprising that such practices are rapidly growing
in application for children and youth. One merely needs to enter
such search terms as ‘‘children and yoga’’ or ‘‘children and mindfulness’’ to find thousands of sites extolling their benefits. Consumer interest and marketing have expanded such practices
without sufficient knowledge of their outcomes, which might be
positive, minimal, or even iatrogenic. There is also some concern
regarding the spiritual or religious origin of some practices and
their efficacy. Because there is currently little quality research
on outcomes, widespread use is premature. However, if careful
research demonstrated beneficial effects on well-being or physical health, it might provide wider public support for effective
interventions.
Building from previous reviews and recent research, we construct a broad overview of the current state of knowledge regarding the feasibility and outcomes of systematically implementing
contemplative practice programs with children and youth. In
doing so, we highlight the key elements of high-quality research
necessary to move the field forward.
CONTEMPLATIVE PRACTICES AND CHILDREN
Although it is beyond the scope of this article to fully characterize the range of contemplative practices with children, we
describe some of the shared characteristics of secularized
contemplative practices that generally fall under the labels of
mindfulness, meditation, and yoga. Definitions of mindful or
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Mark T. Greenberg and Alexis R. Harris
contemplative practices include structured activities that
‘‘require individuals to exercise volitional control over their
physical and mental activity’’ (Davison & Mind and Life Education Research (MLERN) Network, in press). In meditative practices, a common goal is to sustain the focus of attention on
mental contents or particular objects, such as the breath, a
sound, or a visual percept. This focused attention could occur
through sitting meditation (Black, Milam, & Sussman, 2008),
walking meditation, certain forms of yoga and martial arts, or
activities common to educational approaches including Montessori (Lillard, 2011). A central goal of these practices is to fully
become aware of the moment-to-moment fluctuations in the
‘‘stream of consciousness’’ and to adopt an open and accepting
stance toward these experiences. Although different techniques
have different goals, they share a focus on sharpening concentration or attention, building emotion regulation skills to effectively
manage stress, and gaining self-knowledge. Some practices
consciously focus on building empathy and compassion. With
sustained practice, these skills are hypothesized to become routinized at neural or mental levels and subsequently to regulate
behavior in relatively automatic ways.
Such conceptualizations lead to questions regarding when and
how in development to nurture such skills and dispositions, at
what ages to introduce differing practices, and how such practices might change in concert with the dramatic changes in cognition and emotion that occur between early childhood and
young adulthood. As Roeser and Peck (2009) noted, contemplative practices require adaptation for use with children and youth.
Such adapted practices may take a wide variety of forms, including nature-related activities, the arts, physical disciplines involving set postures or sequences of movements (such as tai chi or
yoga), guided imagery, or various forms of sitting meditation.
Further, these practices involve a relational context with other
children and a teacher who is likely to emphasize values of personal growth and ethics. Thus, contemplative practices often
feature a ‘‘world view’’ including social or moral values.
RESEARCH ON MINDFULNESS AND YOGA
INTERVENTIONS WITH CHILDREN
Although contemplative practices may take numerous forms, the
primary platforms have been yoga and meditative practice. Given
four recent systematic reviews concerning meditative and yoga
interventions with children and youth (Birdee et al., 2009; Black
et al., 2008; Burke, 2009; Galantino, Galbavy, & Quinn, 2008),
we only briefly review their findings and add more recently published studies.
Two systematic reviews (Black et al., 2008; Burke, 2009)
examined sitting meditation and mindfulness practices with children, and two reviews (Birdee et al., 2009; Galantino et al.,
2008) examined applications of yoga. Most research involved
middle childhood and adolescence. These reviews illustrate the
limitations of current research. Birdee et al. (2009) identified 19
experimental studies but judged most to have inadequately
reported key elements, such as instructor qualifications, attrition
rates, randomization methods, and appropriate data analysis.
Galantino et al. (2008) concluded that no reviewed studies were
of sufficient quality to produce conclusive evidence. Given this
caution, we provide a brief overview of emerging evidence from
interventions in clinical populations as well as outcomes for prevention and health promotion applications in universal or whole
populations.
Clinical and Targeted Interventions
Meditative Interventions With Clinical or Indicated Populations
Meditative interventions with clinical and indicated child
populations have primarily involved some form of mindfulness
meditation or transcendental meditation (TM). Several studies
that Black et al. (2008) reviewed and two studies published more
recently employed randomized controlled trial (RCT) designs
using TM or mindfulness meditation and demonstrated improvements in cardiovascular functioning for African American
adolescents with high blood pressure or risk for hypertension
compared to controls receiving a health education program (e.g.,
Barnes, Bauza, & Treiber, 2003; Barnes, Treiber, & Davis, 2001;
Gregoski, Barnes, Tingen, Harshfield, & Treiber, 2010; Wright,
Gregoski, Tingen, Barnes, & Treiber, 2011). These reports also
indicated decreased rates of absenteeism, suspension, hostility,
and school infractions. It is important to note that TM uses a
mantra and may be considered religious in nature and to violate
the separation of church and state in public education.
Several studies (Black et al., 2009; Burke, 2009) have examined meditation in youth with academic problems, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and learning disabilities.
These studies reported improvements in outcomes such as attention, internalizing and externalizing behavior problems, anxiety,
and academic performance (e.g., Beauchemin, Hutchins, &
Patterson, 2008; Semple, Lee, Rosa, & Miller, 2009). In addition,
evidence supports Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR)
with adolescents with heterogeneous diagnoses in outpatient care
(Biegel, Brown, Shapiro, & Schubert, 2009). Brown, West,
Loverich, and Biegel (in press) report that the adolescents randomized to receive MBSR in the Biegel et al. (2009) study also
showed increases in mindfulness as measured by an adapted
Mindful Attention Awareness Scale for Adolescents. One study
provided evidence for using meditation and relaxation in treating
PTSD following war and tsunami (Catani et al., 2009).
Yoga Interventions With Clinical or Indicated Populations
Although several studies have used yoga with clinical populations
of children, the limited number of RCTs and their noted design
weaknesses temper conclusions about benefits (Birdee et al.,
2009; Galantino et al., 2008). Because controlled breathing,
focused attention, and relaxation are key elements of yoga, logical
populations are children with respiratory difficulties, attention
difficulties, or anxiety. Patients with asthma were the focus of
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several studies, but most were of mixed age groups that included
adults. Although conclusions are not child specific, results suggested improved respiratory functioning following regular yoga
practice (e.g., Jain et al., 1991; Nagarathna & Nagendra, 1985).
Several studies examined yoga as a complementary therapy for
children with ADHD and children with anxiety (Birdee et al.,
2009; Galantino et al., 2008). Both reviews suggest limited preliminary evidence that yoga reduced attention difficulties and
symptoms of ADHD (Harrison, Manocha, & Rubia, 2004; Jensen
& Kenny, 2004; Peck, Kehle, Bray, & Theodore, 2005). There is
somewhat stronger evidence that yoga may lead to reductions in
self-reported and physiological indicators of anxiety, including
resting heart rate (Stueck & Gloeckner, 2005; Telles, Narendran,
& Raghuraj, 1997; Telles & Srinivas, 1998). One additional RCT
demonstrated that an 8-week trial of yoga may reduce eating disorder symptoms in adolescents (Carei, Fyfe-Johnson, Breuner, &
Brown, 2010).
A substantial number of the yoga reports were conducted in
India. As yoga has a long history in India and is a normative part
of Hindu culture, it is possible that its cultural meaning and
acceptance may influence outcomes. Future studies are necessary to examine the impact of yoga interventions with youth in
Western cultural settings.
Universal Preventive and Health Promotion Interventions
Meditation in Universal Populations
The two previous reviews found that very few trials of meditation-based interventions with children had been conducted with
universal populations (Black et al., 2009; Burke, 2009). Some
limited evidence, including one RCT (Napoli, Krech, & Holley,
2005), suggested that interventions that include brief forms of
mindfulness practice may help improve children’s social skills
and school-related functioning. Most studies, however, suffer
from problems in design, sample size, and measurement, reducing confidence in the findings. There are no carefully designed
trials that would meet the criteria of effectiveness from such
organizations as the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and
Emotional Learning (2003), the Department of Education’s What
Works Clearinghouse (Institute of Educational Sciences, 2008),
or the Society for Prevention Research (2004).
Yoga in Universal Populations
As with meditative approaches, few studies used yoga in universal
populations, and the extant evidence is of low quality. Previous
reviews (Birdee et al., 2009; Galantino et al., 2008) and one
recent quasi-experimental study (Donahoe-Fillmore, Brahler,
Fisher, & Beasley, 2010) suggest that yoga may lead to improvements in motor functioning, executive function (EF), spatial perception, muscle strength, and respiratory capacity. The results
have been mixed for stress and coping. An 8-week trial of a yogabased mindfulness intervention with fourth- and fifth-grade girls
showed no main effects for program participation and reported a
potentially iatrogenic effect wherein girls in the yoga intervention
3
reported higher levels of perceived stress than controls (White, in
press). Beets and Mitchell (2010), however, reported improved
quality of life and decreases in perceived stress in high school students after a 2-week yoga intervention. Recent RCTs (see below)
have further explored the potential of yoga to be used as a schoolbased universal program to promote health and well-being.
Recent Developments in School-Based Contemplative
Interventions
Most contemplative interventions with children have been
adapted from models developed for adults, but recent programs
have been developed specifically for children in universal
school-based prevention and promotion contexts. Mendelson
et al. (2010) evaluated a yoga-based intervention program to
reduce social-emotional and behavioral problems in an underserved urban population. Inner-city fourth- and fifth-grade students were randomized to a control group or a 12-week yoga
intervention four times a week, which included yoga postures,
breathing techniques, and guided mindfulness meditation. Compared to controls, yoga students reported decreases in involuntary stress responses, including lower scores on the subscales of
rumination, intrusive thoughts, and emotional arousal.
Noggle and Khalsa (2010) found that rural high school students randomized to a semester of yoga showed significant mental health benefits compared to students randomized to their
school’s regular physical education curriculum. Controls showed
deterioration on tension and anxiety, negative affect, anger control, fatigue, confusion, and resilience, whereas yoga participants
maintained baseline or improved on these measures. Both of
these implementations demonstrated feasibility and acceptability
of yoga programs in schools.
Three recent studies have evaluated meditation-focused programs. Broderick and Metz (2009) evaluated the Learning to
Breathe program in a nonrandomized trial; high school senior
girls received the program and were compared to a comparison
group of juniors. This six-lesson program is an adolescentfocused adaptation of the MBSR model. Participants showed
significant decreases in negative affect and increases in selfreported calm, relaxation, and self-acceptance.
Flook et al. (2010) reported an RCT of the InnerKids Program,
an 8-week school-based curriculum of mindfulness activities for
second and third graders that included short meditative practices
focused on breath awareness and movement-based activities.
Although there were no main effects of program on parent or
teacher reports of EF, there was a significant moderating effect
of baseline EF, such that significant EF improvements were seen
in intervention students with lower baseline. However, there
were no objective tests of actual EF skills (only parent and teacher reports), and teachers were aware of intervention status.
A mindfulness program for fourth through seventh graders was
recently piloted in a nonrandomized, wait-list control trial
(Schonert-Reichl & Lawlor, 2010). This 10-lesson classroombased program focused on mindful awareness of the senses,
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Mark T. Greenberg and Alexis R. Harris
positive emotions, self-regulation, and goal setting. In addition to
weekly lessons, teachers led students three times a day in brief
segments of attention training and mindful breathing. Compared
to controls, intervention students showed improvements in selfreported optimism, positive affect, and externalizing behavior,
as reported by teachers involved in the intervention. There was
evidence of benefits in self-concept for preadolescent students
(Grades 4–5) but not for early adolescents (Grades 6–7). Teacher
ratings also indicated improvements in student attention and
social-emotional competence.
Although these models hold promise, they are pilot studies
that are inconclusive and point to the need for larger, welldesigned trials. In all cases, findings were reported only at posttest (no follow-up), and most used self-report measures or the
reports of adults aware of student participation.
ple, some forms of sitting meditation practices may be
developmentally inappropriate for younger children and even
adolescents. This may be due to children’s more limited attention
span or their lower levels of metacognitive ability, which may render
certain practices ineffective. Alternatively, some interventions
may be more successful for younger students. Schonert-Reichl
and Lawlor (2010) reported intervention effects on self-concept in
younger students but not for early adolescents. They theorized that
with adolescents’ increasing self-consciousness, introspective
practices may have led to critical self-evaluations. Careful consideration of developmental theories is essential in future research
(Zelazo & Lyons, in press), and researchers need to be cognizant
of the possibility of iatrogenic effects that certain practices could
have with children of different ages and characteristics.
Developing Logic Models
Developing a More Rigorous Scientific Base
A report on contemplative education by the Garrison Institute
(2005) comprehensively overviewed the types and scope of
programs being implemented in schools. These included small
voluntary programs, social and emotional learning programs that
include contemplative practices, and schools whose mission and
curricula are designed around contemplative traditions. Despite
the number and variety of programs it documented, the report
noted both the ‘‘paucity of rigorous research’’ and the desire of
many programs to be evaluated. The existing evidence suggests
that programs of contemplative practices, such as meditation and
yoga, may be beneficial in several areas of child development,
and that such programs are feasible and acceptable in a variety
of settings including schools. The poor quality of most existing
evidence raises questions that a new generation of well-designed
research studies can address. We now outline several steps to
strengthen the evidence base.
Designing Studies to Provide High-Quality Evidence
The reviews we cited above all noted the absence of high-quality
research designs. There have been few RCTs, and even fewer
have been of high quality. There is a need to have sufficient
power, validated and unbiased measures, and longer term
follow-up (at least 6 months). The nature of control groups is also
a concern. As we develop clearer theories of the impact of
contemplative practices, active control groups could help further
differentiate the key components of interventions. For example,
studies could compare a program that involves core mindfulness
meditation practices to one that involves progressive relaxation
to identify the unique contributions of contemplative practice
(e.g., Ortner, Kilner, & Zelazo, 2007). Some yoga studies use
exercise as an active control to rule out benefits strictly due to
physical activity (e.g., Streeter et al., 2010).
Taking a developmental perspective can facilitate more thoughtful consideration of theories of change and mechanisms of action.
We support the recommendation of the Garrison Institute (2005)
report that processes related to cognitive ⁄ attentional control and
social ⁄ emotional control be studied as potential mediators (Davison & Mind and Life Education Research (MLERN) Network, in
press). These processes are also highly relevant to educational
goals and academic success (Blair, 2010). One obvious disconnect in this research is that outcomes are driven by investigator
interest and background, and research has been clearly divided
into studies assessing health risk and outcomes and those measuring cognitive and behavioral outcomes. There needs to be
greater integration. For example, one might hypothesize that a
yoga intervention might alter attentional capacity and reduce
depression but also affect obesity-related markers and neural
functioning. Thus, collaborative research involving practitioners
and scientists from diverse backgrounds should lead to more
comprehensive logic models and broader measurement of outcomes including short-term mediators (emotional regulation and
attention), the underlying neural or physiological mechanisms,
and longer term psychosocial, health, and educational outcomes.
Further, there is a need for systematic qualitative research to
illuminate processes of change related to contemplative practice.
Clear Description of the Intervention
The diversity of practices that fall under the contemplative
umbrella necessitates clear description of interventions in
reports. ‘‘Yoga’’ could refer to any number of practices from any
number of traditions. Different traditions of yoga and meditation
employ different practices to varying extents and toward various
goals. In addition to the content, the intervention should describe
the timing and duration of practices and the amount and nature
of teacher training and qualifications.
Taking a Developmental Perspective
Examining Dosage and Intensity
There is a need to further identify what ‘‘age-appropriate’’ practices are, and qualitative work may be very useful here. For exam-
Because there has been little experimental variation of program
intensity or duration, little is known regarding the differential
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effects of these parameters. Programs vary widely from single
sessions to daily practice over weeks or months. Repetition and
practice may be critical to alter neural activity and create
healthy habits of mind and body, so understanding the differential effects of dosage and intensity and how they may vary by
age, population, and intervention goals is a key goal for future
research. For example, Huppert and Johnson (2010) reported
that students’ frequency of home practice varied widely, and they
predicted changes from baseline in well-being and mindfulness
during a 4-week trial. Analyzing variations in intervention frequency and intensity could also address the possibility that limited exposure to mindfulness practice may initially increase
awareness of stress and emotional experience before observable
benefits occur (Hayes & Feldman, 2004; White, in press).
SUMMARY
Interventions that nurture mindfulness may be a feasible and
effective method of building resilience in universal populations
of children and youth and in the treatment of disorders in clinical populations. Enthusiasm for promoting such practices, however, outweighs the current evidence supporting them. These
contemplative interventions represent an opportunity to cultivate
positive habits of mind and body and to promote the health and
well-being of children and youth in our schools, but much more
research is necessary to identify specific appropriate and effective practices. Previous research suggests that meditation and
yoga are associated with beneficial outcomes for children and
youth, but the generally limited quality of research has tempered
the conclusions that can be drawn. Well-designed and carefully
reported experimental studies that are grounded in developmental theory and measure multiple indicators of change over time
will greatly add to the field.
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