1. No category

Mapping Multilateral
Collaboration on Low-Carbon
Energy Technologies
© OECD/IEA 2012
Ingrid Barnsley and Sun-Joo Ahn
The views expressed in this paper do not necessarily reflect the views or policy of the International Energy Agency (IEA)
Secretariat or of its individual member countries. The paper does not constitute advice on any specific issue or situation.
The IEA makes no representation or warranty, express or implied, in respect of the paper’s content (including its
completeness or accuracy) and shall not be responsible for any use of, or reliance on, the paper. Comments are welcome,
directed to ingrid.barnsley@iea.org.
© OECD/IEA, 2014
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© OECD/IEA 2014
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
Table of contents
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................... 2
Executive summary ................................................................................................................... 3
Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 7
Context: Global energy challenges and the role of technology collaboration .......................... 7
Objective and outline ................................................................................................................ 8
Scope ......................................................................................................................................... 9
Existing efforts to map and understand multilateral collaboration .......................................... 11
Analytical framework .............................................................................................................. 15
Survey analysis of multilateral collaboration ........................................................................... 16
Mandate and institutional basis .............................................................................................. 17
Membership ............................................................................................................................ 20
Technology focus ..................................................................................................................... 22
Types of activities .................................................................................................................... 24
Interaction between multilateral initiatives ............................................................................ 25
Conclusion............................................................................................................................... 27
References .............................................................................................................................. 29
Annex 1: Overview of initiatives by institutional category ....................................................... 32
Annex 2: International collaboration: A case study of Asia ...................................................... 39
Acronyms, abbreviations and units of measure ....................................................................... 45
List of figures
Figure 1 • The energy sector carbon intensity index (ECSII) ............................................................ 7
Figure 2 • Establishment of multilateral initiatives ....................................................................... 18
Figure 3 • Interaction between multilateral initiatives .................................................................. 26
Figure 4 • Participation of Asian countries in IEA Implementing Agreements over time……………. 42
List of tables
Table 1 • Overview of multilateral initiatives that consider low-carbon energy technologies ..... 16
Table 2 • Participation of Asian countries in regional and international initiatives ...................... 41
Table 3 • Participation of Asian countries in IEA Implementing Agreements by category ............ 43
Table 4 • Technology focus and participation of Asian countries in the CEM initiatives .............. 44
List of boxes
Box 1 • UNFCCC inventory of international collaborative initiatives ............................................. 14
Box 2 • Intergovernmental collaboration between cities and regions .......................................... 21
Box 3 • IEA Implementing Agreements .......................................................................................... 23
Box 4 • Financing low-carbon energy technology deployment ..................................................... 24
Page | 1
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
© OECD/IEA 2014
Acknowledgements
This publication was prepared by the International Low-Carbon Energy Technology Platform of
the International Energy Agency (IEA). Ingrid Barnsley, Head of the International Partnerships and
Initiatives Unit, oversaw the project, and was the author together with Sun Joo Ahn. Amanda
Page | 2 Blank conducted research for and provided analytical inputs to the paper, as did Carrie Pottinger
and Marie-Laetitia Gourdin. Didier Houssin, Director for Sustainable Energy Policy and
Technology, provided valuable guidance. The paper also benefited from the valuable
contributions of Dagmar Graczyk, Christina Hood, Joerg Husar, Florian Kitt, Simone Landolina,
Christopher Segar and Cecilia Tam.
A workshop organised together with the IEA Committee on Energy Research and Technology on
27 February 2014 was held to gather essential input for this insights paper (IEA workshop
webpage). The IEA acknowledges the representatives of IEA Member countries and the wide
range of energy and climate initiatives who participated in this workshop, thereby providing
valuable inputs to the paper. Similarly, in following up on the workshop to undertake further
research for this paper, the IEA benefited from the very constructive inputs from representatives
of many of the entities included in the paper.
The authors would also like to thank the IEA Communications and Information Office for
assistance with the production process, in particular, Angela Gossmann and Astrid Dumond.
Finally, the IEA wishes to acknowledge that this work benefited from the financial support of the
Korea Energy Economics Institute (KEEI), for which the Agency expresses its gratitude.
For more information on this document, contact:
International Low-Carbon Energy Technology Platform
International Energy Agency
9, rue de la Fédération
75739 Paris Cedex 15
France
Email: Ingrid.Barnsley@iea.org
© OECD/IEA 2014
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
Executive summary
As the IEA’s Energy Technology Perspectives (ETP) 2014 makes clear, low-carbon energy
technologies have a crucial role to play in addressing current global challenges on energy
security, sustainability and access, and international collaboration is one important aspect of
Page | 3
enabling technology to fulfil its role addressing such challenges.
Recent years have seen considerable growth in the number and variety of multilateral initiatives
seeking to foster the deployment of low-carbon energy technologies, particularly since 2005, the
year that the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) entered into force. This trend has included: i) new cross-cutting technology initiatives;
ii) new technology- and sector-specific initiatives; and iii) an increased focus on international
energy technology collaboration within existing multilateral entities that have wider economic or
political mandates.
Little has been written to comprehensively consider this variable geometry of initiatives and how
they interact. While a rich and growing body of work on the international energy and climate
architecture exists, very little of it is concerned specifically with systematically mapping
multilateral collaboration for low-carbon energy technologies nor with understanding
interactions between such entities. This paper seeks to complement the existing literature and
efforts, by setting out a basic analytical framework for characterising the mandate and
institutional features, membership, technological scope, activities of and interactions among
government-led, multilateral initiatives for low-carbon energy technologies, then applying this
framework to a mapping of an indicative list of such initiatives. The key observations of the paper
are summarised below.
Institutional basis
Whereas the early initiatives in this area, established several decades ago or more, tended to
be founded by way of an international legal agreement which brought with it formal legal
status as an international organisation or subsidiary, most recent additions to this “web” of
multilateral initiatives were founded on a political declaration or non-legally binding terms of
reference and are of a less formal institutional nature. While there is considerable variation in
the structure of such non-binding partnerships and fora, many possess small secretariats, often
hosted by existing entities. Such lighter institutional structures possess the advantage of being
able to be formed quickly in response to emerging policy priorities, as well as subsequently
amended or adapted with relative ease procedurally speaking. However, such non-legally binding
initiatives may also more easily face resource or mandate limitations and/or be more readily
overlooked in the years after establishment as political priorities shift.
Membership
Consistent with the wider trend toward increasing the voice and influence afforded to
emerging and developing countries within international institutions, both existing and new
initiatives are seeking memberships and or collaborations that better reflect today’s economic
realities. There are two positive trends worth noting. First, there is an increase in major emerging
economy participation in multilateral collaborative activities in this field – with the enhanced
participation of such countries in the IEA Implementing Agreements and other areas of IEA
technology work providing a sound example. This includes both formal participation as official
members of certain entities, as well as a range of means for creatively engaging such countries in
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
© OECD/IEA 2014
existing initiatives in a manner distinct from formal membership. Second, the past decade has
seen the development of sustainable energy programmes within a range of existing initiatives
that have more extensive memberships and broader mandates. This includes a various United
Nations (UN) bodies, such as its regional economic commissions, as well as regional political and
economic organisations. While the specific energy technology expertise of such entities may be
Page | 4 more limited, their regional focus, wide membership and often extensive local networks provide
a sound opportunity for reaching countries beyond the advanced and major emerging
economies. There is clearly potential to further engage a broader range of developing countries
in international dialogue on low-carbon technologies, as shown by the Asia case study set out in
Annex 2.
Technology focus
With regard to technology focus, there is a growing emphasis on the specific priorities and
circumstances of individual technologies alongside a renewed push for a “whole of economy” or
“whole of energy system” approach to supporting the development of low-carbon options. These
two priorities may at first appear contradictory, but an examination of recent initiatives in this
field rather suggests efforts to consistently address the two. While many technology-, sectorand fuel-specific collaborative initiatives have indeed emerged in recent years, they have rarely
been established as autonomous, stand-alone entities. Rather, most exist as “opt-in”
programmes under wider umbrella initiatives such as the Clean Energy Ministerial (CEM), the
International Partnership for Energy Efficiency Cooperation (IPEEC) or the IEA International LowCarbon Energy Technology Platform, among others. Such an approach of a general umbrella
entity with a menu of specific, opt-in activities underneath can be a constructive means of
allowing countries to readily identify and take part in action that is consistent with domestic
interests and resources.
A notable exception to this otherwise more recent trend is the IEA Implementing Agreement
mechanism, which has been providing for the possibility of co-operation on specific energy
technologies and fuels since 1975, with the first energy efficiency Implementing Agreement
established in 1976 and the first renewable energy Implementing Agreements created in 1977.
Scope of activities
Among the 28 multilateral initiatives examined in depth for this paper, the most prevalent types
of activity are policy dialogue and networks of experts or stakeholders, followed by activities
aimed at knowledge transfer, such as capacity building or awareness-raising efforts. A much
smaller number of initiatives engage in systematic and comprehensive policy or market
analysis. Notably, recent years have seen a considerable increase in the number of high-level
official or Ministerial-level meetings on low-carbon energy-related topics, suggesting the growing
political importance of this field, but also an increasingly “crowded” international agenda.
Pleasingly, the study points to a growing trend, over the past five years, toward multidirectional learning, with major emerging economies such as the People’s Republic of China
(China) and Brazil sharing their best practice experiences with both developing countries and
with so-called advanced economy countries or countries of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). This differs from the more exclusive focus in the past on the
transfer of knowledge from OECD to non-OECD countries. Importantly, this trend is also
consistent with the growth in global low-carbon technology markets – as ETP 2014 shows, nonOECD countries, in particular the major emerging economies, are becoming leaders in a range of
© OECD/IEA 2014
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
low-carbon energy technologies. With this in mind, the possibilities are considerable for further
expanding such multi-directional learning in the future.
The study also revealed considerable variation in the manner and degree to which initiatives
assess their own impact in terms of environmental, energy security, energy access and other
objectives, a point that may be worthy of further analysis.
Page | 5
Interactions among initiatives
Multilateral initiatives operating in this space are not acting in isolation of one another. Rather,
fairly extensive and varied forms of interaction exist and are arguably on the rise. These
interactions range from more formal arrangements (e.g. Memoranda of Understanding or Letters
of Intent) to ad hoc communications and sharing information at the working level, or references
in one entity’s high-level or official documents to the activities of another such entity, such as
references by the CEM to the work of the IEA, IPEEC and others. Such interactions, and
particularly more formalised or at least more regular partnerships with other entities, appear
most prevalent among the many more recently established fora, which with relatively light
secretariat or administrative structures, tend to rely heavily on extensive, meaningful
partnerships to pursue their own priorities.
Nonetheless, given the growing number of initiatives that are active in this area, it may be
challenging for some entities to gain a clear view of all other initiatives of potential relevance to
their work. In this sense, initiatives that serve as “clearing houses”, such as the Clean Energy
Solutions Centre of the CEM, the “reegle” website or the Open Energy Information website, play
an important role in providing information on existing activities and showcasing projects to a
wide range of stakeholders, thereby promoting opportunities for such initiatives to interact.
The study did not point to an unacceptably high degree of duplication among the existing
multilateral initiatives operating in this space, particularly given the complexity and scale of the
global energy challenges at hand. As the February 2014 workshop in support of this paper
brought forth, some degree of complementarity among existing initiatives can encourage entities
to focus carefully on their own value-added and can serve as an informal system of “checks and
balances”. At the same time, too much duplication clearly has the potential to minimise the
efficacy of any individual initiative in terms of competition for resources, visibility and political
support. As such, in moving forward with multilateral low-carbon energy technology
collaboration, a focus on the following may be valuable: i) consolidation of and support for
existing entities rather than the creation of yet more new entities in the near term; and ii)
activities adapted to the needs and priorities of countries beyond only the OECD and major
emerging economies. With the world not yet on a path consistent with stabilising the global
temperature at 2oC, intensified, coherent and consistent multilateral technology efforts remain
crucial.
Looking ahead
Building on the analytical framework set out in this paper, one could envisage several areas for
further research, namely:

a mapping of the many initiatives that are being led by the private, non-government and/or
academic sectors;

a mapping of the growing number of initiatives linking cities and/or provinces across
countries;
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
Page | 6
© OECD/IEA 2014

further mapping of multilateral initiatives for financing technology deployment;

exploration of how international technology collaborative initiatives measure their own
impact; and

an examination of how international technology collaborative initiatives compare to other
parts of the international energy and climate “architecture” and the reasons for any such
differences.
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
© OECD/IEA 2014
Introduction
Context: Global energy challenges and the role of technology
collaboration
Page | 7
As recent IEA analyses have consistently highlighted, the world is facing unprecedented energy
challenges. The continued use of conventional sources of energy combined with the increasing
need for energy in regions with relatively high economic growth rates are serving to make ever
more difficult efforts to curb the rise in global greenhouse gas emissions. Without further policy
action, the implications for global carbon emissions will be equally striking. Despite expansion in
the deployment of renewables, the carbon intensity of the energy system has remained steady
for the past 40 years across energy generation and end use, thanks to continued energy demand
growth (Figure 1). As the 6oC Scenario (6DS) of ETP20141 shows, current trends would see energy
use grow by more than two-thirds (compared to 2011) in the decades ahead, bolstered by an
expanding global population and growing economy, with greenhouse gas emissions rising by
even more over the same time period.
Figure 1 • The energy sector carbon intensity index (ECSII)
Carbon intensity (2010 = 100)
120
6DS
100
80
4DS
60
40
2DS
20
0
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
2020
2030
2040
2050
Note: the ESCII illustrates the aggregate impact of technology shifts on carbon emissions in the energy sector. It measures how many
tonnes of CO2 are emitted for each unit of energy supplied. Under the ESCII, 100 represents CO2 intensity in 2010, providing a base to
measure progress. Unless otherwise indicated, all tables and figures in this publication derive from IEA data and analysis.
Source: (IEA (2014a), Energy Technology Perspectives, OECD/IEA, Paris).
Efforts to develop new technologies, and to improve the efficiency and efficacy of existing
technologies, are central to resolving the impasse. The challenge is to transform the energy mix
by reducing the world’s heavy dependence on fossil fuels and this will require the rapid and
widespread application of low-carbon energy technologies.2
1
ETP2014 contains three central scenarios. The 6DS contemplates a continuation of current growth trends in energy use and
greenhouse gas emissions, leading to a projected average global temperature rise of 6oC in the long term. The 4oC Scenario
(4DS) takes account of stated intentions by countries to cut emissions and boost energy efficiency, even if not yet fully
implemented. Projecting a long-term temperature rise of 4oC, the 4DS is broadly consistent with the World Energy Outlook
2013 New Policies Scenario through 2035. Finally, the 2oC Scenario (2DS) describes an energy system consistent with an
emissions trajectory that recent climate science research indicates would provide at least a 50% chance of limiting average
global temperature increase to 2oC in the long term.
2
Low-carbon energy technologies are defined in this paper as: electricity and/or heat technologies that provide for lower CO2
emissions, and / or higher energy efficiency. The following sectors are addressed in this paper and IEA work more generally:
buildings, industry, power and transport. According to the IEA, renewable energies are energy resources where energy is
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
© OECD/IEA 2014
Multilateral collaboration for the development and deployment of low-carbon energy
technologies is now widely recognised as a crucial component in providing the integrated
solutions needed to constrain greenhouse gas emissions while also fostering economic growth
and access to secure, affordable energy. The past decade has seen the emergence of a range of
multilateral initiatives designed to foster collaboration and innovation in low-carbon energy
Page | 8 technologies. The years 2010 and 2011 alone saw the creation of the CEM as a high-level forum
to promote policies and programmes that advance clean energy technologies, the Global Green
Growth Institute (GGGI) as a new international organisation to foster green economic growth
solutions, the Climate Technology Centre and Network (CTCN) under the UNFCCC to stimulate
technology co-operation and to enhance the development and transfer of technologies, the
Global Green Growth Forum (3GF) to facilitate public-private partnerships on a green growth
economic path, and the UN Sustainable Energy for All (SE4All), aimed at encouraging universal
access to modern energy services.3
Such initiatives are beginning to make impressive contributions to global efforts to address
energy and climate challenges. At the same time, these initiatives have varying, and at times
overlapping mandates, activities and focus. In some instances, stakeholders may face difficulties
in identifying the most appropriate initiative to assist with their low-carbon policy planning and
implementation. Moreover, some possibilities for collaboration may remain unrecognised or the
potential of some multilateral networks untapped.
There is surprisingly little information – readily available in a single location – in either academic
or public policy literature that seeks to map comprehensively the array of multilateral
collaborative initiatives that are now addressing low-carbon energy technologies. Enhancing
global understanding of the suite of initiatives that exists, and possibilities for improving
synergies and co-operation between them, could be valuable, for IEA member countries and
beyond. This context provides the rationale for the present Insights Paper.
Meanwhile, negotiations under the UNFCCC are now focused on considering the possible
features of a post-2020 multilateral climate framework. The 21st Conference of the Parties, to be
held in Paris in 2015, has been set as the target for a first decision on this framework. In this
context, negotiators have recognised that the post-2020 framework may need to take account of
the plethora of multilateral initiatives that have emerged over the past decade or so in parallel to
the UNFCCC process itself, and which are now contributing to global climate mitigation efforts.
With this in mind, the UNFCCC is currently seeking to develop a global inventory of all
international initiatives that support climate change mitigation. This inventory includes but also
extends well beyond the energy sector and energy technologies specifically. This Insights Paper
complements that effort, focusing specifically on activities in the energy technology field and
including analytical observations on the nature and scope of such activities.
Objective and outline
This Insights Paper seeks to provide a concise survey of the nature, scope and features of the key
international, government-led, multi-party (i.e. multilateral) initiatives for low-carbon energy
technologies.
The paper:
derived from natural processes that are replenished constantly. They include biomass and biofuels, geothermal, hydropower,
solar photovoltaic, concentrating solar power, wind and marine (tide and wave) energy.
3
Notably, the International Energy Forum Charter was also finalised in 2011, providing for a reinforced, legal basis for this
international dialogue. Until now, the IEF has not itself been particularly active in the field of low-carbon energy technologies
per se, though it has supported efforts on relevant areas, such as energy efficiency financing.
© OECD/IEA 2014
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies

summarises existing efforts to map multilateral collaboration, in relation to low-carbon
energy technology specifically, as well as in relation to energy and climate change – as wider
areas of collaboration of relevance to this study;

sets out a basic analytical framework for characterising the mandate and institutional
features, membership, technological scope, activities of and interactions among such
Page | 9
initiatives;

applies this common framework to a mapping of relevant initiatives (together with additional
reflection on the Asian region in Annex 2); and

briefly explores opportunities for further collaboration between these multilateral initiatives
themselves.
It is hoped that the paper will provide energy policy makers and relevant stakeholders with an
overview of the existing landscape of multilateral collaboration on low-carbon energy
technologies and assist them in their policy making processes by identifying possibilities for
further collaboration. It is also hoped that the analytical framework set out in the paper could be
adapted for further efforts to map international energy and climate initiatives and to understand
the linkages between them.
Scope
In order to provide for an in-depth, focused analysis, this paper considers initiatives:

concerned with low-carbon energy technologies in the areas of renewable energy, carbon
capture and storage (CCS) and / or energy efficiency;

focused on encouraging policy frameworks for the market penetration or deployment of lowcarbon energy technologies, more so than on primary research and development (R&D)4;

that involve at a minimum three countries (in other words, single country-led and bilateral
initiatives are not covered); and

which either include only countries as their members (i.e. intergovernmental entities), or,
which may include a more diverse membership but which were initiated and/or remain
predominantly led by more than two national governments or intergovernmental
organisations (e.g. the Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Partnership - REEEP).
Excluded from the paper are entities whose principle focus is international financing for energy
technology projects, such as the multilateral development banks, rather the paper focuses on
entities concerned with policy and/or analytical activities for low-carbon energy technology
deployment. The international and regional development banks such as the World Bank, Asian
Development Bank (ADB), Inter-American Development Bank (IADB) and European Bank for
Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), among others, have considerable and growing
programmes on energy that would be worthy of a study in their own right; their adequate and
comprehensive inclusion was beyond the possibilities and scope of this paper (see Box 4).
4
IEA Energy Technology Perspectives 2008 defines the stages of technology development to commercialisation as follows. 1)
Research and development: seeks to overcome technical barriers and to reduce costs. Commercial outcomes are highly
uncertain, especially in the early stages; 2) Demonstration is when a technology is being used in practice. Costs are high.
External (including government) funding may be needed to finance part or all of the costs of the demonstration; 3)
Deployment is successful technical operation, but possibly in need of support to overcome cost of non-cost barriers. With
increasing deployment, technology learning will progressively decrease costs; 4) Commercialisation: the technology is costcompetitive in some or all markets, either on its own terms or, where necessary, supported by government intervention.
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
© OECD/IEA 2014
This intentionally delimited approach is designed to avoid an overly lengthy, purely descriptive
list of entities that would provide little opportunity for meaningful comparison. Acknowledging
that there are nonetheless a range of initiatives that fall outside the defined scope, the paper
also includes several text boxes which briefly describe areas of collaboration not covered within
the main analysis, such as international collaboration between cities and regions, and also
Page | 10 identifies in the Conclusion several areas for further study.
© OECD/IEA 2014
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
Existing efforts to map and understand multilateral
collaboration
There has been relatively little work focused specifically on surveying multilateral collaborative
efforts for low-carbon energy technologies. One study of particular relevance is a 2008 paper Page | 11
that considered the types, motivations and effectiveness of technology-oriented agreements in
support of climate mitigation (de Coninck et al, 2008). In considering the Carbon Sequestration
Leadership Forum (CSLF), the IEA Implementing Agreements, the Global Environment Facility
(GEF) and the Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate (APP)5 among others,
the authors identified four types of activities undertaken by such initiatives - knowledge-sharing,
research, development and demonstration (RD&D), technology transfer, and technology
mandates and incentives. In so doing, the authors argued that for the purpose of reducing carbon
emissions, the latter type of agreement – those concerned with technology-specific mandates,
standards and incentives – may be the most effective in environmental terms as a substitute for
emissions target-based agreements, while the other three types of activities may contribute to
enhancing such efforts.
More broadly, there is a larger and growing body of academic and policy literature that seeks to
consider the role of international collaboration in addressing energy and climate challenges
generally. With the UNFCCC now in existence for more than two decades, the literature that
seeks to assess the UNFCCC and other climate-related international mechanisms is considerable.
One such recent study examines the current global structure of so-called “climate clubs”
(Widerberg, 2013). Primarily concerned with the conduciveness of various initiatives to
supporting the negotiations toward a global climate deal in Paris in 2015, the study considers not
only technical initiatives such as GBEP, but also global political fora such as the Group of Seven /
Eight (G7/8) and the Group of Twenty (G20). In addition to examining the “effectiveness” of
these efforts, their function and memberships are also assessed in light of their compatibility
with the goals of the UNFCCC and their role in filling the so-called “governance gap”. The report
concludes that there is little sign of conflict between these clubs and the UNFCCC architecture. It
also calls for further research into the relationship between such clubs and the UNFCCC as well as
the current climate governance architecture, an effort to which this Insights Paper aims to
contribute, albeit through a narrower analysis.6
In parallel, the past five or so years have seen the emergence of a small body of academic writing
on “global energy governance”. Much of this literature is concerned with evaluating the origins,
drivers and efficacy of existing institutions, and addressing the question of whether a global
energy institution might add value.7 Less of the literature seeks to comprehensively categorise
and map all relevant international entities. Two key examples of such efforts to develop an
5
The APP was launched in 2006 by Australia, Canada, China, India, Japan, Korea and the United States as a voluntary, nonbinding mechanism to enhance partnerships between the public and private sectors, promote best practices and technologies
across a range of key sectors, and deepen co-operation among its members. It was terminated in 2011 with several of its
individual projects transferred to other fora.
6
There is a wealth of literature that proposes options for a future possible architecture for international collaboration on
climate change, but as this paper aims to consider the existing architecture on low-carbon energy technologies, that body of
literature is not addressed in detail here.
7
Examples include the following: Florini, A. and Sovacool, B.K. (2011), “Bridging the Gaps in Global Energy Governance” Global
Governance: A Review of Multilateralism and International Organizations, Vol. 17(1), pp. 57-74; Goldthau, A. and Witte, J.
(2010), Global Energy Governance: the new rules of the game, Brookings, Washington, D.C.; Lesage, D., van de Graaf, T. and
Westphal, K. (2010), Global Energy Governance in a Multipolar World, Ashgate, Farnham; Van de Graaf, T. (2013), The Politics
and Institutions of Global Energy Governance, Palgrave MacMillan, Basingstoke; Special Edition: “Global Energy Governance:
Governing Energy in a Fragmented World” in Global Policy (2011), Vol. 2, pp. 1-154; van de Graaf, T. (2013), “Fragmentation in
Global Energy Governance: Explaining the Creation of IRENA”, Global Environmental Politics, Vol. 13:3, pp. 14-33.
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
© OECD/IEA 2014
analytical framework for mapping energy governance are noted here, and both were considered
when developing the analytical framework for this Insights Paper, which follows in the next
section. First, in their 2011 article, Dubash and Florini seek to consider the objectives of
international “interventions” on energy based through an empirical study of high-level political
announcements of new initiatives. They conclude that there are clusters of international energy
Page | 12 entities based around the following four objectives: energy supply security and geopolitics;
energy poverty; environmental externalities; and domestic governance. They then apply this
categorisation to map key international initiatives operating in this space, including in some
instances, non-state actors (2011). A second such example is the recent article of Bazilian,
Nakhooda and Van de Graaf (2014) which sets out a system for mapping the so-called “regime
complex” of actors involved in responding to energy poverty. The categorisation system
developed in their article seeks to be considerably more comprehensive than that of Dubash and
Florini, covering international, regional and national entities, of both a public and private nature.
At this stage, the work has extended only as far as setting out the categorisation framework and
providing indicative examples, it has not yet involved a full mapping of all relevant actors.
Alongside such academic pieces, there are now several activities underway to track international
climate initiatives on an ongoing basis. First, in 2012 at the UN Conference on Sustainable
Development in Rio de Janeiro (Rio +20), the Natural Resources Defense Council, a US-based nonprofit organisation launched an initiative to compile a database of the hundreds of international
commitments made by national governments under Rio+20. Known as the “Cloud of
Commitments” (Cloud website), the initiative covers international commitments in eight areas –
forests, energy, water, food, transportation, ocean, cities and capacity, categorised by seven
regional groups – world-wide, Africa, Oceania, North America, Asia, Europe, and Latin America
and the Caribbean.
Second, along somewhat similar lines but with a narrower focus in terms of subject matter, the
Think Tank Map, launched in 2011, seeks to provide an overview of every active non-government
think tank in the field of climate change economics and policy (Think Tank Map website)8.
Developed by the International Center for Climate Governance (ICCG), a research centre based in
Italy, the initiative clusters think thanks into categories according to their activities or area of
focus: impacts of climate change; adaptation to climate change; renewable energy and energy
efficiency; policy and institutions; carbon finance; climate and development; sustainable cities;
forestry and land use; and water. As a complement to the Think Tank Map, since 2012, the ICCG
has annually assessed the more than 200 think tanks in the field of climate change economics
and ranked them to provide an overview of the most influential and cutting-edge institutions
based on the indicators of activities, publications and dissemination.
A third initiative of relevance is known as Open Energy Information. It consists of an open source
web platform initiated and developed by the United States Department of Energy and the US
National Renewable Energy Laboratory to help search and access energy-related data and
information more easily. Importantly, this initiative includes a searchable list of clean energy
organisations (OpenEI website). Finally, REEEP and the Renewable Energy Policy Network for the
21st Century (REN21) together support the “reegle” information portal on renewable energy,
energy efficiency and climate change. Alongside country energy profiles and statistics, it provides
a directory of relevant stakeholders at the city, national, regional and global level (reegle
website).
8
To be included in the Think Tank Map, a research organisation should meet the requirements as following: 1) it must conduct
both research and dissemination activities; 2) the final objective of its activities must be a practical policy solution; 3) policy
makers and experts must be its main targets, and the general public must be involved only as a means to influence policy
makers; 4) its projects and partners list must be updated and well-defined; and 5) its activities must be focused on climate
change economics and policy.
© OECD/IEA 2014
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
Such mapping efforts are valuable sources of information on the nature and mandates of these
institutions, and might even therefore serve as a means for encouraging interaction between
such organisations and for deliberations on options for a post-2020 climate mechanism. One
potential limitation is that such mapping and ranking initiatives rarely take account of the level of
interaction among such international initiatives — something which this paper seeks to address
in a later section. Second, with sometimes lighter classification or categorisation systems, it may Page | 13
sometimes be difficult to search through the long range of entities listed and their related
activities to focus on narrower fields, such as low-carbon energy technology activities specifically.
Importantly, it is not only think tanks and research entities that have recently commenced efforts
to map the international energy and climate architecture. Interestingly, several international
organisations and fora have themselves initiated such efforts in recent years.
First, as mentioned in the introduction, the UNFCCC Secretariat is currently developing an
inventory of all international initiatives that seek to support climate change mitigation and
adaptation. While the inventory itself does not include a comparative assessment of initiatives
covered, it does provide a methodology for mapping such entities and it is also notable for its
comprehensiveness. Further information on this inventory is set out in Box 1 below. This
inventory is being developed within the context of efforts toward a post-2020 climate agreement
at COP21 and in particular considerations of the vast array of climate initiatives that now exist
outside of the UN climate process. Related the OECD/IEA Climate Change Experts Group has
undertaken work to explore the so-called “linkages” between UNFCCC programmes and other
climate initiatives (Briner et al., 2014).
Second, in 2014, the G20 working group on energy (G20 Energy Sustainability Working Group)
held several discussions on the so-called “international energy architecture”. Although the focus
of these discussions was on energy institutions in broader terms, the effort points to an interest
in understanding the respective mandates and interactions of international energy initiatives and
institutions.
Third and arguably most relevant to this paper, in December 2013, the UN General Assembly
passed a resolution to hold four, one-day “structured dialogues” on possible arrangements for a
facilitation mechanism to promote the development, transfer and dissemination of clean and
environmentally sound technologies.9 These dialogues were held in April, June and July 2014 and
sought to take stock of and review recent developments, identify areas of convergence among
existing activities, and consider recommendations moving forward (UN Sustainable Development
Knowledge Platform website). The outcomes of these structured dialogues were considered by
the UN General Assembly under its 68th session (ending mid-September 2014) and may be
further considered under its 69th session (mid-September 2014 to mid-September 2015).
In conclusion, while a rich and growing body of work on the international energy and climate
architecture exists, very little of it is concerned specifically with systematically mapping
multilateral collaboration for low-carbon energy technologies nor with understanding
interactions between such entities. This paper seeks to complement the existing literature and
efforts, by providing a focused study on this topic.
9
UN General Assembly Resolution 68/210.
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
© OECD/IEA 2014
Box 1 • UNFCCC inventory of international collaborative initiatives
Page | 14
In late 2013, the UNFCCC launched a large, global inventory of all international initiatives that support
climate change mitigation. This inventory includes but extends well beyond the energy sector and
energy technologies specifically. The so-called “International Cooperative Initiative Database” (ICID)
provides a comprehensive search engine with the following fields: type of initiative, thematic focus,
regional presence and participation. At the time of writing, the database includes 60 such initiatives,
presented in the following manner: name of the initiative, description and year of establishment,
type of initiative, thematic focus, regional presence, and participation.
The inventory comprises more than twenty initiatives directly related to low-carbon energy
technologies. Among these, a considerable number are led by or focus on sub-national entities (cities,
local regions) or the private sector. In the framework of the discussions taking place in advance of
COP21, notably within the framework of the so-called Durban Platform, the ICID provides an
overview of existing initiatives that aim at combating climate change, in terms of both adaptation and
mitigation. It is striking that the majority of the initiatives included appear to be global in scale - very
few are focused on specific regions. This may be explained by the fact that most initiatives included in
the ICID are led by an international entity (often related to the UN family of organisations). Regional
initiatives may be led by regional multilateral development banks which are not listed in the
database, or by industry consortia.
Source: (UNFCCC ICID website).
© OECD/IEA 2014
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
Analytical framework
A considerable range of multilateral initiatives seek to consider or advance low-carbon energy
technologies in some way, either as energy technology-specific entities, such as the IEA
Implementing Agreements, or as more general energy, economic or political entities that address
low-carbon energy technologies as one aspect of a wider work programme, such as the UNFCCC Page | 15
or GGGI.
Drawing on existing efforts to map multilateral initiatives for energy, climate and other related
topics, this paper employs a basic methodology for characterising and mapping these various
initiatives. The characteristics of each initiative are considered in relation to five elements as set
out below.

Element 1 - mandate and institutional basis: whether an entity is an international
organisation based on a binding legal agreement (referred to throughout the paper as an
“international organisation”), or rather an entity such as a forum, partnership network or
alliance that is founded on a non-binding document such as a political declaration (“referred
to throughout the paper as an “international forum”).10

Element 2 - membership: whether an entity aims at global or regional membership, whether
it includes only G20 and/or OECD countries or rather also developing and least developed
economies, and whether its members comprise only national governments or also nongovernment or other entities participating on an equal footing.

Element 3 – technology focus: whether an entity focuses on a single technology cluster or
sector, or whether it is more cross-cutting in its technology focus.

Element 4 - scope of activities: whether the activities of an entity are centred on one or a
combination of the following:





policy and market analysis;
policy dialogue;
networks of experts;
knowledge transfer (capacity building, education and awareness-raising); and
project implementation.11
 Element 5 - interactions with other initiatives: whether the initiatives under examination
interact with one another through any of the following means:

institutional (such as Memoranda of Understanding, Letters of Intent, other formal
arrangements and or observer status);

political support (referencing another initiative in the high-level documents of another
initiative);

technical/working level (regular working level interaction); and

occasional or ad hoc interactions, be they are the executive or working level.
10
The terms “international initiative” and “entity” are used throughout this paper to refer collectively to all forms of cooperation covered in this paper, i.e. both binding “international organisations” and non-binding “international fora”.
11
The UNFCCC database of international collaborative initiatives for mitigation contains the following categories of activity:
capacity-building; economic and financial instruments; education and awareness-raising; implementation; institutional, policy
and economic frameworks; intergovernmental process; monitoring, reporting and verification; partnerships and voluntary
agreements; political dialogue; research and development; technical dialogue; technology development and transfer; and
other.
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
© OECD/IEA 2014
Survey analysis of multilateral collaboration
Based on the defined scope of the paper, an indicative list of 28 entities was identified for deeper
consideration in the paper, as listed in Table 1. Each entity was then mapped against the
analytical framework, drawing on data obtained from the IEA February 2014 workshop on the
Page | 16 same topic, documentary research and a survey of and dialogue with many of the entities
themselves. Set out after Table 1 are the key observations derived from the mapping exercise,
while Annex 1 contains a further description of the entities studied and Annex 2 contains
additional reflections on multilateral collaboration among Asian countries as a case study.
Table 1 • Overview of multilateral initiatives that consider low-carbon energy technologies
tation
Implemen-
transfer
Knowledge
experts
Networkof
dialogue
Policy
Analysis
Activity
storage
Carbon
captureand
efficiency
Energy
energy
Renewable
Te chnology
non-G20
Non-OECD,
G20
Non-
OECD,
OECD
In
it
ia
ti
ve
M e m be r s hip
FORA
M a nda te br oa der tha n onl y energy
3GF
CEM*
G7/8
G20*
I
N
T
E
R
N
A
T
I
O
N
A
L
MEF*
UNDP*
UNEP*
M a nda te on ener gy i ssues
CSLF
GBEP
IPEEC
SE4ALL
UN-Energy
ORGANISATIONS
M a nda te br oa der tha n onl y energy
GGGI
UNIDO*
UNFCCC
M a nda te on ener gy i ssues
IEA
IRENA
FORA
M a nda te br oa der tha n onl y energy
APEC*
R
E
G
I
O
N
A
L
Uf M*
ORGANISATIONS
M a nda te br oa der tha n onl y energy
ASEAN
AU*
EU*
LAS
OAS
M a nda te on ener gy i ssues
OLADE
OTHER
RCREEE
Non-gove rnm e nt for a/ne tw ork s w ith le ad gove r nm e nt or inte rgove r nm e ntal
involve m e nt
REEEP
REN21
Note: All acronyms and abbreviations listed in Table 1 are explained in the list of abbreviations and acronyms at the end of this paper.
In Table 1, * indicates that an entity has a standing subsidiary working group or programme that is either devoted to energy issues
and includes consideration of low-carbon energy technologies in some way, and / or is devoted to low-carbon energy technology
issues specifically.
© OECD/IEA 2014
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
Mandate and institutional basis
A survey of the 28 initiatives indicated a variety of institutional bases. Broadly speaking, these
can be categorised in the following ways:
 international or regional fora12 that address energy issues as part of a wider mandate;
 international or regional fora that are dedicated to energy issues or to a subset of energy
issues;
 international or regional organisations that address energy issues as part of a wider mandate;
and
 international or regional organisations that are dedicated to energy issues or to a subset of
energy issues.
Among these initiatives, several trends are worth highlighting. A first trend, as shown in Figure 2,
concerns the increase in the number of multilateral initiatives that are considering low-carbon
energy issues in some way, particularly since 2005. This includes entities whose main focus is
energy or a subset of energy issues, such as the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA),
founded in 2009, IPEEC, founded in the same year, and the CEM, established in 2010. It also
includes consideration of energy issues among entities with a wider mandate, including the G7/8
and the G20. Notably, this increase in multilateral initiatives addressing clean energy coincided
with the entry into force in 2005 of the Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC, with the first G8 focus on
climate change at its Gleneagles Summit in 2005, and then with the G8+5 Heiligendamm Process
launched in 2007, which included energy efficiency and low-carbon technology collaboration as
one of four key pillars.
Second, Figure 2 points to a clear shift over time from a reliance on treaty-based organisations
with independent juridical status toward the establishment of non-binding initiatives,
partnerships or political fora. This may reflect a trend in international affairs more broadly away
from setting up new international organisations towards lighter, more flexible entities. Most such
fora possess a small secretariat which is often housed in or hosted by a national government or
an international organisation on behalf of the initiative’s members. Examples include the 3GF,
the secretariat of which is hosted by the Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and the CSLF and the
CEM secretariats, which are separately administered by the United States Department of Energy,
and the small IPEEC secretariat, which shares some administrative arrangements with the IEA.
Such lighter institutional structures possess the advantage of being able to be established quickly
in response to emerging policy priorities and amended or adapted relatively easily. However,
they may also more easily face resource or mandate limitations and/or be more easily
overlooked in the future as political interests shift. Ultimately, a balance needs to be struck
between encouraging international entities with a light, flexible structure and avoiding a
proliferation of initiatives that receive short-lived political support and / or an insufficient level of
resources to really make a difference to international deployment. Where possible, it may be
beneficial if new initiatives could be placed under the umbrella of, or officially supported by,
existing entities to ensure coherence and avoid further competition for resources.13
12
Here “fora” is the general term used to refer to platforms, partnerships, fora, or other initiatives that are based on a
political agreement and / or are not considered to be an international organisation based on a binding international legal
agreement.
13 A number of existing initiatives follow this approach, for example, CEM, IPEEC and the International Low-Carbon Energy
Technology Platform of the IEA.
Page | 17
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
© OECD/IEA 2014
Figure 2 • Establishment of multilateral initiatives
Mandate on energy issues
International
APP
GBEP
REN21
UN Energy
CSLF
REEEP
Regional
IEA
RCREEE
OLADE
Mandate broader than energy
MEF
G20
International
UNFCCC
G6 (G7/8)
UNEP
UNIDO
UNDP
UfM
AU
Regional
Page | 18
3GF
SE4ALL
CEM
GGGI
IRENA
IPEEC
APEC
ASEAN
EU
OAS
LAS
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1973
oil crisis
1990
2000
Kyoto Protocol
adopted
2010
Kyoto Protocol
came into effect
2020
Kyoto Protocol 2nd
commitment ends
Organisation
Forum or platform
Note: The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) has been an international organisation, based on a binding legal agreement
(the ASEAN Charter), since 2008. From its founding in 1967 until that time, it was an international forum based on a political
declaration. All acronyms used here are set out in the List of abbreviations and acronyms.
A third observation is that there are few regional entities specifically devoted to low-carbon
energy. More often the approach at the regional level is for energy technology programmes to
exist within wider economic or political entities. For instance, regional bodies have developed a
number of programmes for clean energy co-operation as part of their economic and political
agenda. By way of indicative example (see Annex 1 for more details):
 the Energy Working Group (EWG) of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) aims to
maximise the energy sector's contribution to the region's economic and social development,
while mitigating the environmental effects of energy supply and use (APEC website) and is one
of the longest-standing regional energy entities;
 the African Union’s Department of Infrastructure and Energy seeks to enhance regional efforts
for integrated infrastructure development and the effective sustainable development of
energy resources (AU website) and is also strengthened by the work of the New Partnership
for Africa’s Development (NEPAD);
 ASEAN co-operation on energy dates back nearly as far as the entity itself, is recognised as a
key pillar of regional economic co-operation and is guided by five-early plans for energy cooperation, among other instruments; and
 the extent of the energy-related engagement of the European Union (EU), not only within its
collective boards but indeed beyond its membership is particularly extensive.
© OECD/IEA 2014
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
Two important exceptions to this approach of regional energy programmes sitting within wider
economic bodies are the Latin American Energy Organization (OLADE - Organización
Latinoamericana de Energía) and the Regional Center for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency
(RCREEE), which comprises 15 Arab member countries and territories. The latter is particularly
notable as a regional organisation dedicated specifically to renewable energy and energy
efficiency. In both instances, these bodies work with relevant intergovernmental organisations in Page | 19
their respective regions to pursue sustainable energy matters, for example:
 a range of regional institutions in Latin America, including OLADE, the UN Economic
Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (UNECLAC), and the Organization of
American States (OAS) have together established a regional energy efficiency programme
aimed at encouraging an energy efficiency market in the region; and
 RCREEE has partnered with the League of Arab States (LAS) and IRENA in considering options
for implementation of the Pan-Arab Renewable Energy Strategy.14
Finally, it is important to mention the considerable extent of action relating to sustainable energy
that can be seen right across the UN system. While it is notable that there is no specialised UN
agency dedicated specifically to energy matters, a host of UN bodies consider low-carbon energy
technologies in some form, often in interconnected ways. These include, though are not limited
to, the following:
 UN-Energy, a mechanism established in 2004 to encourage UN system-wide coherence on
energy programmes and activities;
 the UN Environment Programme (UNEP), the chief environmental programme of the UN,
which addresses low-carbon energy technologies through its Division of Technology, Industry
and Economy, principally through its work on resource efficiency and climate change;
 the UN Development Programme (UNDP), the UN’s global development network, which
includes within its activities a focus on environment and energy for sustainable development;
 the UNFCCC which now principally addresses low-carbon energy technologies via its
Technology Mechanism established in 2011, which covers technologies for climate mitigation
and adaptation generally;
 the UN Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO), a specialised agency of the UN that
considers low-carbon energy technology issues within work on resource efficient and lowcarbon industrial production;
 the SE4All initiative launched by the UN Secretary-General in 2011, which aims to make
energy accessible, cleaner and more efficient for all by 2030;
 the UN regional economic commissions, which seek to promote intra-regional dialogue,
knowledge sharing and co-operation, and which address regional sustainable energy concerns
to varying degrees;
 the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of the UN, which considers biofuels in the
context of sustainable agriculture, as well as access to clean cooking fuel and technologies,
and encouraging “smart” energy use in the agricultural sector; and
14
There are also several other, smaller regional government-led or created entities that have sought to address low-carbon
energy technology issues in some way, which have not been able to be fully covered in this paper. One such example is the
regional agency of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) known as the Centre for Renewable Energy and
Energy Efficiency (CREEE website). Other sub-regional efforts include the support of UNECLAC for implementation of the
Central American Sustainable Energy Strategy 2020, which was agreed by governments of Central American in 2007 with the
support of UNECLAC (UNECLAC website). In addition, there are a range of initiatives supported by individual governments
which nonetheless are aimed fostering international dialogue. This includes the Innovation for Cool Earth Forum (ICEF),
hosted by several Japanese government agencies, which consists of an annual international meeting and online forum for
fostering innovation to address global warming (ICEF website).
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
© OECD/IEA 2014
 the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA), which addresses energy
through the prism of sustainable development.
More details on the relevant activities of UN entities can be found in Annex 1.
Page | 20
Membership
There are few, if any, truly global, initiatives dedicated specifically to the full spectrum of lowcarbon energy technologies. Of the 28 initiatives studied, several observations on their
memberships are worth noting.
First, most entities under study in this paper were not established with the aim of universal
membership in mind. In particular, quite a number of recent initiatives seek to focus on countries
willing and able to take considerable action on low-carbon policies and technologies, or to focus
on collaborative action among the largest economies, energy consumers and / or producers, or
emitters of greenhouse gases. Examples include the CEM, Major Economies Forum on Energy and
Climate (MEF) and the G20. Such entities are increasingly referred to as “clubs” (Bazilian,
Nakhooda and de Graaf, 2014; de Conick et al., 2008), reflecting a perceived desire among
participants to focus on concrete and prompt action among major, willing global powers.
Second, and somewhat related, consistent with the wider trend toward increasing the global
voice and influence afforded to the major emerging economies, the past decade has seen
considerably increased opportunities for such countries to play a role in global dialogue on lowcarbon energy. Given their importance to global energy consumption and greenhouse gas
emission trends in the decades ahead, this is clearly a positive development. This trend has been
evident in several ways:
 As noted, several newer entities have been created with the express aim of including the
major emerging economies from the outset – e.g. the G8+5 process, the MEF, the CEM, the
G20, IPEEC and 3GF, among others.
 A number of existing entities that have more limited formal memberships are nonetheless
seeking creative means of enhancing engagement with countries beyond their formal
members. A clear example here is the work of the IEA to engage key emerging economies, and
indeed a range of other Partner countries, in its low-carbon energy technology work through
its Implementing Agreements (see Box 3) and its International Low-Carbon Energy Technology
Platform (see Annex 1). Other examples include the efforts of IPEEC and the CEM to invite
interested countries to participate in their sub-tasks even if such a country is not yet ready to
pursue formal participation in the wider umbrella initiative itself.
 A range of entities are engaging in creative partnerships with countries, private sector entities,
non-government organisations (NGOs) and other international initiatives, as distinct from
focusing on formal notions of “membership” that might more traditionally be associated with
international organisations or purely national government-led fora. The initiatives 3GF, the
Global Bioenergy Partnership (GBEP), SE4All, REEEP and REN21 are five such examples.15
While initiated by governmental or intergovernmental entities and including government
representatives among their governing bodies, each of these entities provide opportunities
15
Two further such examples are provided here. First, the Partnership on Sustainable, Low Carbon Transport (SLoCaT), which
seeks to promote sustainable transport in global policies on sustainable development and climate change through a multistakeholder partnership of over 80 intergovernmental organisations, NGOs, foundations, academic institutions and the
private sector (SLoCaT website). Second, the IEA Combined Heading and Power (CHP) / District Heating and Cooling (DHC)
Initiative, created in 2007, seeks to bring together government agencies, industry and non-governmental organisations to
share data on and best practice policies for CHP and DHC. The Initiative classifies participants into partners, collaborators and
network members.
© OECD/IEA 2014
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
for the substantial participation of NGOs and the private sector, often on an equal footing
with government participants. Along somewhat similar lines, while an international
organisation, GGGI aims at engaging extensively with the private sector in carrying out its
activities. Such flexible approaches to partnership in multilateral initiatives may greatly
increase possibilities for collaboration and implementation so long as priorities and focus do
not become overly diluted.
Page | 21
Third, while the above mentioned developments have seen an increase in major emerging
economy participation, and indeed private sector involvement, in multilateral collaborative
activities in this field, the position of developing countries more broadly could be further
enhanced, as pointed out in the Asia case study in Annex 2. In this regard, the growing focus on
sustainable energy within several existing regional initiatives, alongside more global collaborative
programmes like the Implementing Agreements and the UNFCCC Technology Mechanism,
provide opportunities for engaging developing countries on dialogue around low-carbon energy
technologies. Examples include the energy work of the UN regional economic commissions and
of several regional fora and organisations such as APEC, ASEAN, the AU, the EU, the League of
Arab States (LAS) and the Organization of American States (OAS). While the specific energy
technology expertise of such regional economic entities may in certain instances be more limited
than some specialist energy agencies, their regional knowledge, broader membership and strong
local networks make them valuable for engaging a wider range of countries on low-carbon
energy technologies.
Finally, though beyond the scope of this Insights Paper, sub-national entities – at both the
state/provincial and at the city level – are increasingly engaging in international diplomacy of
their own. This reflects the growing awareness of the role of urban centres in responding to
sustainability issues, as outlined further in Box 2.
Box 2 • Intergovernmental collaboration between cities and regions
An increasing number of international collaborative initiatives concerned with sustainable
development are focusing on action at the sub-national level, namely at the level of cities, provinces
or regions within countries. Examples of such initiatives include the Cities Development Initiative of
Asia (CDIA website), the European Green Cities Network (EGCN website), the C40 Cities Climate
Leadership Initiative (C40) and the R20 – Regions of Climate Action (R20). The latter two are
described in further detail below.
C40 was established in 2005 as a global network of the world’s so-called megacities taking action to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions. It provides its members with technical support, peer-to-peer
exchange and research on options for addressing climate change impacts and risks. The activities of
C40 focus mainly on large scale projects for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and improving energy
efficiency as well as developing greenhouse gas protocols for cities. More than 60 of the world’s
largest cities are now part of C40, across Africa, Asia and the Pacific, Western and Eastern Europe,
North America, and Latin America and the Caribbean. Its implementing partner is the Clinton Climate
Initiative.
Established in 2010, R20 is a partnership of sub-national regions that seeks to help states, provinces,
regions and other sub-national governments around the world develop, implement and communicate
low-carbon and climate-resilient economic development projects, policies and best practices. With a
somewhat similar geographic coverage to the C40, the R40’s focus is cross-cutting, addressing
agriculture, buildings, energy efficiency, energy supply, forestry, industry, renewable energy,
transport, and waste. Notably, both R20 and C40 involve partnership with non-government entities,
the private sector and research institutes.
Sources: (C40 website; R20 website; UNFCCC ICID website).
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
© OECD/IEA 2014
Technology focus
An analysis of the technology focus of the selected initiatives reveals a relatively even spread
between those initiatives concerned with renewable energy and those concerned with energy
efficiency (including in this observation those initiatives that cover both). Nonetheless, it is
Page | 22 arguable that that the status of multilateral collaboration on renewable energy is stronger than
that for energy efficiency, with IRENA existing as a multilateral organisation of 135 members (and
more than 30 now in the accession process) and IPEEC an intergovernmental forum with 16
member countries. More global participation in an energy efficiency initiative is arguably one
area lacking within the existing suite of collaborative initiatives in this space. Meanwhile, CCS is
addressed through the dedicated CSLF, which broadly serves as a forum for high-level
discussions, as well as through several other entities, notably the IEA, which has a unit dedicated
specifically to CCS technology and policy analysis.16
A second observation concerns an increase in initiatives with a broader, or cross-cutting, focus
such as the CEM, the GGGI and the UNFCCC Technology Mechanism, alongside the emergence of
initiatives dedicated to a single technology cluster, such as CCS in the case of the CSLF or
bioenergy in the case of GBEP. This suggests an emphasis on a “whole of economy” or “whole of
energy system” approach to supporting the development of low-carbon options on the one hand,
at the same time as a growing emphasis on the specific priorities and circumstances of individual
technologies on the other.
An examination of the existing initiatives suggests that these two potentially competing concepts
are in fact being operationalised more consistently than one might at first assume. This is
because while many technology-, sector- and fuel-specific initiatives have emerged in recent
years, these are rarely established as autonomous, stand-alone entities. Most exist as “opt-in”
activities under an umbrella initiative with a wider focus. Examples include:
 the 12 initiatives currently in operation under the CEM, which focus not only on fuel sources
but also on sectors, such as buildings and industry, and technology clusters, such as smart
grids or electric vehicles (discussed further in the Asian case study in Annex 2 of this paper);
 the nine-odd task groups under IPEEC, some of which are administered together with the CEM
or other multilateral entities (see Annex 1);
 the activities of the IEA International Low-Carbon Energy Technology Platform (see Annex 1);
 the dozen or so specific initiatives under the Energy and Climate Partnership of the Americas
(ECPA) (see Annex 1);
 the Global Alliance for Clean Cook Stoves, a public-private partnership led by the UN
Foundation; and
 the CSLF and GBEP, both of which were created as a result of G8 mandates (though each now
exists as a separate entity).
In each of the above cases, individual initiatives are led by interested countries and organisations
and the costs of each individual initiative is met, through in-kind and / or monetary support, by
those participating in that specific entity only. This approach of devolved leadership allows
entities to join onto a wider initiative with more general objectives, but then to focus their
expertise and resources on specific issues or technologies of particular national interest.
16
In 2014, the activities of the CEM Carbon Capture, Usage and Storage Action Group were transferred to the CSLF. Another
entity worth noting is the Global Carbon Capture and Storage Institute (GCCSI). Though incorporated in Australia and
originally supported by the Australian federal government, the GCCSI includes private sector, academic and non-government
sector members from across the globe and seeks to accelerating the deployment of CCS (GCCSI website).
© OECD/IEA 2014
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
Along the same lines but notably much older than all of the above-mentioned initiatives, is the
IEA Implementing Agreement mechanism. This framework provides the possibility of cooperation among public and private sector entities from IEA member and partner countries on
specific technologies and fuels right across the energy spectrum, making it more comprehensive
in terms of the scope of technologies and participants than any of the above initiatives. The
mechanism was established in 1975, with the first energy efficiency Implementing Agreement Page | 23
following in 1976 and the first renewable energy Implementing Agreements in 1977 (see Box 3).
Finally, the launch of the SE4ALL initiative in 2011 is worth noting. This is the first energy-specific
multilateral initiative which has as its primary objective human development – namely the goal of
improving energy access, as opposed to a mission centred on energy security, sustainable
development, economic development and / or climate change mitigation. Other existing entities,
such as UNDP, might have as their chief objective human development, but without such a
singular focus on energy.
Box 3 • IEA Implementing Agreements
In addition to preparing its own analyses on energy technology, the IEA seeks to support international
collaboration on technology RD&D and information dissemination via its so called Implementing
Agreements. Functioning within a framework created by the IEA - the International Framework for
International Energy Technology Collaboration - the IEA Implementing Agreements provide a
mechanism for multilateral collaboration, research and analysis on energy technologies between IEA
member countries, non-member countries, businesses, industries, international organisations and
non-government entities.
Established in 1975, making it one of the oldest multilateral energy technology collaborations, there
have been some 80 odd Implementing Agreements created over time, with 39 underway at the
present time, covering the areas of efficient end-use, fossil fuels, fusion and renewables. Over the
past 40 years, participants in these groups have examined more than 1 400 topics in the energy field
through applied research, testing, expert networks, databases, workshops and scientist exchanges.
Key outcomes have included policy recommendations; international standards; recycling models;
life-cycle assessments; technology case studies; best practice guidebooks and manuals; the gathering
of important data; and, in several instances, pilot or demonstration projects.
A 2012 study of multilateral technology initiatives by the OECD pointed to the flexible governance
structure and participation arrangements, the creation of networks for sharing knowledge and the
possibility of equal sharing rights (i.e. intellectual property) as key strengths of the Implementing
Agreement mechanism (OECD 2012b). A second OECD study from the same year found a positive
correlation between participation in an Implementing Agreement and patent co-invention across
countries (OECD 2012b).
Importantly, the Implementing Agreements are open to entities from countries beyond the IEA’s
formal membership. Beginning in 1985, and increasing steadily over time, by the end of 2013, partner
countries comprised 14.8% of participation (both government and other) in all Implementing
Agreements. China has particularly embraced the advantages of the mechanism and now participates
in 16 Implementing Agreements through government organisations and a further three through
private sector or research entities – the highest number of participations among IEA partner
countries and indeed higher than several IEA member countries. In total, there are more than 6 000
experts participating in the Implementing Agreements through organisations representing 48
countries, 58 non-governmental entities, and four multilateral organisations. There remains
considerable further potential to increase partner country participation in these collaborative
arrangements, and the IEA Secretariat and individual Implementing Agreements are liaising with a
range of partner countries toward this end.
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
© OECD/IEA 2014
Types of activities
Among the 28 initiatives studied for this paper, the most prevalent types of activity are policy
dialogue (some high-level, some working level) and networks of experts or stakeholders. This is
followed by activities aimed at knowledge transfer, such as capacity building or awareness-raising
Page | 24 efforts. A smaller number of initiatives examined systematically engage in policy or market
analysis, with the IEA being notable for the extent of its analyses right across the full range of
low-carbon energy technologies and covering countries well beyond its membership. Finally,
several of the initiatives studied also engage in project implementation. It is arguably
unsurprising that the results suggest less activity in this field, given that this paper has not
focused on low-carbon technology financing activities or technology R&D.
Box 4 • Financing low-carbon energy technology deployment
While the size of global investments in energy efficiency and renewable energy is broadly heading
upwards, the IEA World Energy Investment Outlook estimates that in order to ensure a 2oC future
(the WEO 450 Scenario), investments in low-carbon technologies and energy efficiency would need to
increase 75% or $12 trillion above business as usual through to 2035. In this context, the question of
how to ensure adequate low-carbon finance has become a much discussed one.
The bilateral development funds of individual countries, those of the international and regional
development banks, and a wide range of private sector entities are now providing an increasing range
of opportunities for clean energy financing based on an extensive and growing set of financial tools.
Alongside this, there are now considerable efforts to track global investment flows, and to assess the
investment climate of individual countries, the variety and appropriateness of differing types of
financial tools, and the linkages between climate finance and the UN climate negotiations. See, by
way of example only, the work of Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF), the annual Climatescope
report of the IADB Multilateral Investment Fund, BNEF and other partners, and analyses of IEA, the
UNEP Finance Initiative, and the OECD, among others).
Of more precise relevance to this paper, a smaller body of work has sought to systematically map the
institutions and initiatives that provide clean energy finance, as opposed to tracking the financial
flows or national investment frameworks. These include the following:

the Climate Policy Initiative (CPI) has considered funding institutions as part of its efforts to
survey the ‘landscape of climate finance’;

the Think Tank Map, which focuses only on non-government entities, allows the possibility to
search for exclusively for entities involved in “climate finance”;

the UNDP/World Bank Climate Finance Options (CFO) Platform serves as an online repository of
information on international climate financing initiatives, including those dedicated to clean
energy. The information portal includes a function to search for financing activities aimed at
technology projects, among a range of other search categories;

the UNFCCC ICID (Box 1) includes the possibility to search exclusively for institutions focused on
“economic and financial instruments”; and

a 2013 World Resources Institute (WRI) Working Paper surveys 27 public and public-private fund
models for climate finance.
As noted in the Introduction, given the complexity of this area of activity and the wealth of existing
analyses, this Insights Paper has not sought to comprehensively map institutions operating in this
field.
Sources: (Buchner et al., 2011; CFO Platform website; UNFCCC ICID website ; IEA, 2014b; Polycarp, C. et al., 2013.)
© OECD/IEA 2014
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
Alongside the increase in the number of multilateral initiatives operating in this space can be
seen an increase in the number of high-level official or ministerial level meetings on low-carbon
energy matters. In several cases, high-level dialogue is one of the chief aims of an initiative itself,
with the G7, G20, CEM, CSLF and the MEF being such examples. Other entities also include highlevel meetings as an important part of their activities, such as IRENA, the IEA and many of the
listed UN bodies. Collectively, this is arguably creating a fairly crowded yearly schedule of Page | 25
multilateral high-level meetings on energy and climate-related matters, which may have the
potential to reduce the impact of any individual meeting and / or to encourage the creation of
overlapping initiatives linked to political processes. Nonetheless it also reflects the considerably
increased desire to convene high-level policy and political attention specifically on concerns
relating to energy, and to clean energy in particular.
Pleasingly, an examination of the activities of the 28 initiatives studied also points to a growing
trend, over the past five years, toward multi-directional learning, with OECD non-member
countries sharing their best practice experiences with OECD countries. The Bioenergy Working
Group under the CEM, for example, includes Brazil, Indonesia and Italy as participants, the IPEEC
Top Ten Energy Efficiency Best Practices and Best Available Technologies Task Group is co-chaired
by China together with Australia, and several of the IEA Implementing Agreements now include a
high-proportion of participants from countries beyond the IEA’s formal membership while India
leads a project on branding energy efficiency under the Demand Side Management Implementing
Agreement. This differs from the more exclusive focus in the past on the transfer of knowledge
from OECD to non-OECD member countries. Importantly, this trend is also consistent with the
growth in global low-carbon technology markets – as ETP 2014 shows, non-OECD countries, in
particular the major emerging economies, are becoming leaders in a range of low-carbon energy
technologies. With this in mind, the possibilities are considerable for further expanding such
multi-directional learning through multilateral collaborative initiatives in the future.
Interaction between multilateral initiatives
Through research, bilateral dialogue and the IEA’s February workshop on the same topic, this
research has sought to consider the relatively unstudied matter of the nature and level of
interaction among the studied initiatives themselves. The results are reflected in an indicative
way in Figure 3 and described further here.
The central observation is of the high level of interaction taking place between the initiatives
under study; clearly these initiatives are not operating in isolation of one another. Second and
related, there is considerable variety in the nature of interactions from more formal
arrangements (e.g. Memoranda of Understanding, Letters of Intent, observership, or any other
type of formal, institutional arrangement) to technical collaboration, ad hoc communication and
political support (such as cross-referencing in one another’s declarations or official
documentation).
Second, interactions, in particular regularised partnerships with other entities, appear
particularly prevalent among the more recently established multilateral fora, which with
relatively light secretariat or administrative structures, tend to look to extensive, meaningful
partnerships to pursue their objectives. Such collaboration may involve funding support, expert
inputs, or joint publications or meetings, among other examples.
Third, while Figure 3 suggests less interaction among regional entities, the picture would likely
appear very different were sub-national level entities included in the survey.
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
© OECD/IEA 2014
Figure 3 • Interaction between multilateral initiatives
Global institution/ initiative
Regional institution/ initiative
Page | 26
Note: The diagram is intended to be indicative only and may not cover every form of interaction among every initiative listed, nor of
course interactions with initiatives beyond the scope of this paper.
© OECD/IEA 2014
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
A fourth observation is not fully evident in the diagrams contained in Figure 3 but was borne out
in the research more generally. It concerns the relationship between high-level political fora such
as the G20, G7 and CEM and other, more technical bodies. The interactions appear to be twoway, with the latter providing analytical inputs to assist with the policy and political deliberations
of high-level bodies and such bodies themselves in turn providing political support for the work
of such technical entities. Indicative examples include (previous) G8 references to the CSLF, GBEP, Page | 27
IPEEC and the IEA, or the analytical support of the IEA for the annual deliberations of the CEM.
The study did not point to an unacceptably high degree of duplication among the existing
multilateral initiatives operating in this space, particularly given the scale and complexity of the
global energy challenges at hand. The IEA’s February 2014 workshop in support of this paper
brought forth the view that some degree of duplication or competition among existing initiatives
is healthy in that it can encourage entities to focus carefully on their own value-added and it can
serve as an informal system of “checks and balances”. At the same time, too much duplication
clearly has the potential to minimise the efficacy of any individual initiative in terms of
competition for resources, visibility and political support. In this sense, a focus on consolidation
of and support for existing entities may be more useful in moving forward with multilateral lowcarbon energy technology collaboration than on the creation of more new entities in the near
term.
Finally, it is noted that the study revealed considerable variation in the manner and degree to
which initiatives assess their own impact in terms of environmental, energy security, energy
access and other objectives, a point that may be worthy of further analysis.
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
© OECD/IEA 2014
Conclusion
The accelerated deployment of technologies, in particular for energy efficiency, renewable
energy and CCS, will be crucial for ensuring a shift to a more sustainable energy future. Now
more than ever, significant additional efforts are needed to deploy available technologies and to
Page | 28 continue efforts towards technology breakthroughs that will enable a move away from current
trajectories toward stabilisation of the global temperature increase at 2oC or even 4oC.
Multilateral co-operation is arguably becoming an increasingly important part of that
contribution and this paper has sought to contribute to the existing literature providing a
analytical framework and initial mapping of the complex array of multilateral, government-led
initiatives now active in this space.
The analysis undertaken for this paper points to several issues that may be worthy of further
research. First, this paper has not comprehensively addressed the many initiatives that are being
led by the private, non-government and/or academic sectors. Nor has it assessed the growing
number of initiatives linking cities and/or provinces across countries. Both may warrant further
exploration. Second, a more detailed effort to map multilateral initiatives for financing
technology deployment could be undertaken. In both of these cases, the analytical framework
set out in this paper could serve as the basis for such a mapping exercise. Finally, there could be
merit in further exploring the individual and collective impact of these initiatives, through a
coherent methodological approach which would allow for comparison, as well as for
consideration of how each initiative itself measures its own impact.
© OECD/IEA 2014
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
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Annex 1: Overview of initiatives by institutional
category
Page | 32
International fora with mandate broader than energy
The Global Green Growth Forum (3GF) was established in 2011 by the governments of Denmark,
Korea and Mexico, with China, Kenya and Qatar joining as partner countries in 2012. It is
designed as a forum to bring together public (national and international) and private sector
(corporate and research) participants to encourage public-private action toward a greening of the
global economy. The 3GF Secretariat is housed in the Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Energy is
one of a range of issues that 3GF addresses, including finance, water, food, industry,
procurement, trade, deforestation, transport and cities. Its activities include both analysis and
networking events. Its work on energy thus far has focused on energy efficiency in buildings,
power market transformation, support for SE4All and financing for energy efficiency.
The Group of Six first met when representatives of the six most industrialised nations (by net
wealth or Gross Domestic Product) – France, German, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom and the
United States – convened in 1975. The forum became known as the Group of Seven (G7) the
following year with the inclusion of Canada. It was expanded in 1998 to the Group of Eight (G8)
with the participation of the Russian Federation (Russia) but this format was suspended in March
2014. This political forum, held annually at Leaders, and sometimes Ministerial level, seeks to
consider critical global challenges. Its presidency rotates yearly among the members and there is
no standing secretariat. The Group included a particular focus on clean energy issues from 2005
to 2009, with climate change one of the key pillars of discussion at the Gleneagles Leaders
Summit in 2005. This focus intensified from 2007 to 2009, under the so-called G8+5
Heiligendamm Process (the then G8 countries together with Brazil, China, India, Mexico and
South Africa), with one of four designated pillars of the process being energy efficiency and
technology co-operation in support of CO2 emissions reductions.
The Group of Twenty (G20) is a forum of major economies (Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada,
China, France, the European Union, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Korea, Mexico,
Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States) that – in
its present incarnation – has involved annual meetings of Ministers and Leaders since 2009. It
seeks to respond to critical issues facing the global economy, including energy. It has no
permanent secretariat, rather a yearly rotating presidency among its members. Since 2013, it has
had an Energy Sustainability Working Group to channel and prepare work on energy-related
matters for the consideration of Ministers and Leaders. G20 countries have shared information
on national energy efficiency and renewable energy policies in the past, and are presently
considering the development of a (voluntary) G20 energy efficiency action plan, which if agreed,
would see a list of opt-in areas for energy efficiency activity among G20 members.
The Global Green Growth Institute (GGGI) is an international organisation that seeks to support
emerging and developing countries to develop green growth economic development strategies.
Its members include Australia, Cambodia, Costa Rica, Denmark, Ethiopia, Guyana, Indonesia,
Kiribati, Mexico, Norway, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Korea, Philippines, Qatar, United Arab
Emirates, United Kingdom and Viet Nam. Among a range of economic and policy analysis
activities, GGGI considers frameworks for technological innovation and green growth.
The Major Economies Forum on Energy and Climate (MEF) was initiated in 2009 to facilitate
dialogue among major developed and emerging economies on facilitating a successful outcome
© OECD/IEA 2014
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
at the UN climate change negotiations and to explore possibilities for collaboration on increasing
the supply of clean energy. Participating economies are Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, the EU,
France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Korea, Mexico, Russia, South Africa, the United
Kingdom, and the United States. Its chief activity consists of biannual dialogue meetings between
officials of the participating economies. The MEF interacts closely with the CEM (see below). In
2013, a first concrete initiative was established under the CEM, namely to encourage Page | 33
improvement in buildings energy performance. This initiative is being supported by IPEEC.
Founded in 1966, the United Nations Development Progamme (UNDP) is the UN’s global
development network and seeks to implement the development objectives of the UN through on
the ground operations in more than 170 countries. Among its four key areas of activity is a focus
on environment and energy for sustainable development.
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is the UN’s chief programme for addressing
environmental affairs. UNEP was strengthened in 2012 with the passing of a UN General
Assembly Resolution which, among other points, established universal membership of its
governing body. One of its five divisions, the Division of Technology, Industry and Economics
(DTIE), headquartered in Paris, includes a focus on energy-related matters, particularly through
its work on resource efficiency and combatting climate change.
International fora on energy issues
The Clean Energy Ministerial (CEM) is a high-level forum aimed at encouraging dialogue and
action on clean energy solutions. In addition to an annual Ministerial-level meeting, hosted on a
rotating basis among willing members since 2010, the CEM provides an umbrella framework for a
range of voluntary initiatives on specific clean energy technology clusters or sectors, which CEM
members, and in most instances those beyond the CEM, can opt to participate in. There are
presently 12 such initiatives (see Annex 2). The small central secretariat is housed by the United
States Department of Energy.
The Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum (CSLF) was established as a ministerial-level forum
in 2003 to encourage the development and deployment of technologies for CCS through
collaborative efforts on technical, economic, and environmental barriers. Its members are
Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, the EU, France, Germany, Greece, India, Italy, Japan, Korea,
Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, United
Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom and the United States.
The idea of the International Partnership for Energy Efficiency Cooperation (IPEEC) was
announced by the G8+5 in 2009 and took form in 2010. IPEEC members include Australia, Brazil,
Canada, China, the European Union, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Russia, South
Africa, Korea, the United Kingdom, and the United States. IPEEC is a forum of countries interested
to facilitate policies and projects on energy efficiency. It principally operates through a range of
Task Groups which are dedicated to specific energy efficiency issues, such as on buildings,
industry, energy efficiency indicators, and equipment and appliances (administered for the CEM).
Each task group is funded and operated directly by participating members. A range of
international organisations and non-private entities also take part in IPEEC activities. Its small
secretariat is hosted in the IEA building in Paris, and it is overseen by a Policy Committee and an
Executive Committee.
The Global Bioenergy Partnerships (GBEP) was created in the 2006 during the 14th session of the
UN Commission on Sustainable Development. It is governed by a (legally non-binding) Terms of
Reference, and derives from a reference in the 2005 Gleneagles Plan of Action of the then G8+5
to “... promote the continued development and commercialisation of renewable energy by: …
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
© OECD/IEA 2014
launching a Global Bioenergy Partnership to support wider, cost effective, biomass and biofuels
deployment, particularly in developing countries where biomass use is prevalent”. Its members,
or partners as they are known, comprise 23 countries and 14 international organisations and
fora. The partnership seeks to promote policy dialogue on bioenergy, support policy making and
market development, and foster information, skills and technology exchange. It expressly seeks
Page | 34 to work in collaboration with other relevant initiatives.
Sustainable Energy for All (SE4ALL) is a “global initiative” launched in 2011 by UN Secretary
General Ban Ki-moon aimed at achieving three objectives: providing universal access to modern
energy services; doubling the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency; and doubling the
share of renewable energy in the global energy mix. The initiative acts as a network to connect
leadership in sustainable energy development by bringing together governments, NGOs, civil
society and the private sector.
UN-Energy is a mechanism for UN inter-agency co-ordination on energy affairs. It was established
in 2004 as part of efforts to encourage coherence in responding to the World Summit on
Sustainable Development. UN-Energy’s activities are centred around three themes: energy
access, led by UNDP and UN DESA in partnership with the World Bank, renewable energy, led by
the FAO and UNEP with the support of the United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural
Organisation, and energy efficiency, led by UNIDO and the International Atomic Energy Agency.
International organisations with mandate broader than energy
The United Nations Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO) was created in 1966 as an
autonomous body within the UN. It became a specialised agency of the UN in 1985, a process
that had commenced some years previously. UNIDO includes a focus on resource efficient and
low-carbon industrial production. It helps to establish “National Cleaner Production Centres” and
to implement cleaner production projects, particularly in the agro-processing sector, as well as to
improve industrial energy efficiency by contributing to the transformation of markets for energyefficient products and services, and encouraging the deployment of new energy efficient
industrial technologies through technical, financial and policy advisory assistance. UNIDO also
seeks to advise countries in planning their industrial energy mix and to promote industrial
applications of renewable energy in energy-intensive manufacturing, particularly in small and
medium enterprises.
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is the framework
international treaty governing multilateral action on climate change and has 196 parties. It aims
at stabilising the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at a level that would
prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. The Secretariat, based in
Bonn, provides organisational and technical support for the Convention and related agreements
and institutions. Technology is now predominantly addressed under the UNFCCC via the
Technology Mechanism, which was established in 2010 to encourage technology transfer
through public-private partnerships, promoting innovation, fostering the use of technology
roadmaps and action plans, working with developing countries on technology transfer issues, and
facilitating joint R&D activities. The Technology Mechanism consists of the Technology Executive
Committee (TEC) and the CTCN. The TEC is the policy arm of the Technology Mechanism and
oversees the UNFCCC’s technology transfer framework. Meanwhile, the CTCN is the
implementation arm of the Technology Mechanism. Hosted by UNEP, it responds to requests
from developing country parties to the UNFCCC for guidance on issues relating to the
development and transfer of technology. Along with the Technology Mechanism, the CTCN is
under the authority of the Conference of the Parties. Finally, the technology information clearing
house (TT:CLEAR) seeks to provide information in support of ongoing technology transfer
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activities under the UNFCCC and to enhance the flow of information on the development and
transfer of environmentally sound technologies.
International organisations on energy issues
The International Energy Agency (IEA) is an autonomous agency which works to ensure reliable, Page | 35
affordable and clean energy for its 29 member countries and beyond. Its four main areas of focus
are: energy security, economic development, environmental awareness, and engagement
worldwide. The IEA’s low-carbon energy technology analyses centre on the annual Energy
Technology Perspectives publication and the related global energy technology roadmap series.
The IEA also undertakes a range of analyses of renewable energy and energy efficiency markets
and policies. The IEA’s chief mechanisms for engaging with partner countries in relation to lowcarbon technologies include the Implementing Agreements (see Box 3) and the International
Low-carbon Energy Technology Platform. The latter was created after requests by the then G8
and IEA Energy Ministers in 2009. It serves as a mechanism to disseminate IEA analyses and
policy recommendations beyond IEA members, to share best policy practices on clean energy
technologies and to foster guidance on energy technology roadmap development and
implementation at the national level.
The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) is an international organisation that seeks
to support countries in promoting the widespread adoption and sustainable use of all forms of
renewable energy in the pursuit of sustainable development, energy access, energy security and
low-carbon economic growth and prosperity. It fosters international co-operation, and hosts a
centre of excellence, and a repository of policy, technology, resource and financial knowledge on
renewable energy. At the time of writing, it has 135 members (including the EU). Examples of its
growing efforts to work with other entities include efforts with the AU and others on the Africa
Clean Energy Corridor (ACEC) and with the LAS and others on the Arab Strategy on Renewable
Energy (see descriptions below under the AU and LAS sections respectively).
Regional fora with mandate broader than energy
The Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) began as an informal Ministerial level dialogue in
1989 with 12 founding Asia-Pacific economies taking part. There are now 21 members and, since
1993, there have been annual APEC Economic Leaders’ Meetings. The APEC Energy Working
Group (EWG), established in 1990, seeks to maximise the contribution of the energy sector to the
region's economic and social well-being, while mitigating the environmental effects of energy
supply and use. One of the longest-standing initiatives for regional energy co-operation
(alongside the EU), it presently has four Expert Groups (Clean Fossil Energy, Efficiency &
Conservation, Energy Data & Analysis, New & Renewable Energy Technologies) and two Task
Forces: one on Biofuels and the other on Energy Trade and Investment.
The Union for the Mediterranean (UfM) is a multilateral partnership aimed at increasing the
potential for regional integration and cohesion among Euro-Mediterranean countries. It seeks to
achieve this in particular by promoting regional projects. Its participants include national
agencies from a range of Mediterranean countries in Europe, the Middle East and North Africa,
several international and regional organisations, as well as industry and civil society. In the field
of energy, it has sought to boost the development and deployment of renewable energy and
energy efficient technologies and to encourage rational energy consumption in the region.
The UN Regional Economic and Social Commissions operate in the five UN regions, namely,
Africa, Europe, Western Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, and Asia and the Pacific. The
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
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regional commissions have a common overarching mission to promote multilateral dialogue,
knowledge sharing and networking at the regional level, and to foster intra-regional and interregional co-operation. The commissions are guided by principles of sustainable development and
economic integration, including by the targets outlined in the Millennium Development Goals.
Specific project areas and depth of engagement with low-carbon energy technology differ across
Page | 36 the commissions, given region-specific priorities and social and economic needs. By way of
indicative example, the work of two such commissions is mentioned here.
 The UN Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (UNESCWA) considers low-carbon
energy technologies via the energy section within its sustainable development division, and
via its technology development division, as part of efforts to seek the integrated sustainable
management of natural resources. UNESCWA engages in a range of knowledge transfer and
capacity building activities on renewable energy, sustainable transport, encouraging the role
of small and medium enterprises in energy, and encouraging regional co-operation on energy,
among a range of other areas, as well as project implementation.
 UNECLAC principally considers energy through its natural resources and infrastructure division
(with a dedicated Energy and Water Unit), and works to provide analysis, and foster
knowledge transfer and networks in a range of areas, including, energy efficiency, renewable
energy, public-private partnerships, smart grids and other topics, in conjunction with national,
regional and international stakeholders. For example, it operates the regional Energy
Efficiency Indicator Base (known by its Spanish acronym BIEE).
Collectively, the UN regional commissions also hold fora on energy for sustainable development,
with the fifth such forum to take place in Tunisia in November 2014.
Regional organisations with mandate broader than energy
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is an international organisation covering a
range of economic, political and socio-cultural issues. It was created as an initiative in 1967 by
Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand, with Brunei Darussalam, Viet Nam, Lao
People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR), Myanmar and Cambodia later joining. With the entry
into force of the legally-binding ASEAN Charter in 2008, ASEAN became an international
organisation. ASEAN has held an Energy Ministers Meeting at least once per year since 1980, as
well as ASEAN+3 (China, Japan, Korea) Energy Ministers Meetings since 2004, and has been
working on energy efficiency and renewable energy technologies since at least 1995. The ASEAN
Center for Energy was established in 1999. The Center addresses renewable energy and energy
efficiency among other topics. For example, the Renewable Energy Support Programme for
ASEAN, sponsored by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development
(BMZ), aims to foster the increased use of renewable energy for power generation in the ASEAN
region through, for example, the synchronisation of technical standards aimed at creating a
common roadmap for specific renewable energy technologies for the whole ASEAN region.
ASEAN work on energy is also guided by the five-yearly ASEAN Plan of Action on Energy
Cooperation (currently in 2010-2015). ASEAN regularly partners with a range of organisations,
including regular co-operation with the IEA. Other examples include the recently announced
partnership with the Super-efficient Equipment and Appliance Deployment (SEAD) initiative, an
activity under the CEM which is supported by IPEEC, to promote energy efficient air conditioners
in ASEAN countries.
The African Union (AU), established in 2002, considers energy through the AU Commission’s
Department of Infrastructure and Energy, as well as through NEPAD. The latter includes a
thematic focus on energy, including renewable energy and energy efficiency. Various initiatives
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exist, including on hydropower, solar, geothermal and sustainable bioenergy. These topics are
pursued with a focus on fostering access to modern energy services and capturing the
unexploited potential of renewable energy on the African continent. Considerable work is also
carried out by way of the Africa-EU Energy Partnership, in particular, through its renewable
energy co-operation programme and, separately, the ACEC, being implemented with IRENA. The
ACEC aims for half of African electricity to be produced from clean, indigenous, cost-effective Page | 37
renewable options by 2030. ACEC partners comprise 19 African countries, with support from
several other countries, the AU Commission, NEPAD, the African Development Bank, UNDP and
UNECA, among others.
The European Union (EU) is an intergovernmental organisation made up of 28 European
countries that seek to work together for their common good across all sectors of the economy.
The EU is unique among regional organisations in terms of the level of integration and degree of
transferral of powers to shared European institutions. At present, the EU’s energy policy is
focused on the achievement of its so-called “20-20-20” targets, which aim to achieve the
following by 2020:
 a 20% reduction in EU greenhouse gas emissions compared to 1990 levels;
 a 20% of energy consumed in the EU must come from renewable sources; and
 a 20% improvement in the EU's energy efficiency.
The European Commission is the EU's executive body and represents the interests of the EU as a
whole. The European Commission is responsible for implementing EU energy policy generally,
including Horizon 2020, its main framework programme related to low-carbon energy technology
research, development and deployment, as well as the Strategic Energy Technology Plan,
established in 2010, which includes a range of EU-wide technology- and sector-specific initiatives.
Alongside the Directorate-General for Energy, other European Commission agencies of relevance
to low-carbon energy technologies include the Directorate-General for Climate Action, the
Directorate-General for Research and Innovation, and the Joint Research Centre, among others.
It is also notable that the EU’s development aid and engagement activities with its various
partner countries include a considerable focus on sustainable energy, in particular its work with
its “neighbourhood” countries and, separately, with African countries.
The League of Arab States (LAS) is a regional organisation formed in 1945, which now counts
more than 20 members. It facilitates co-operation among its members on political, economic,
cultural, scientific and social matters. In addition to an Energy Department within the LAS
Secretariat, the LAS established in 1993 an Arab Ministerial Council on Electricity, which includes
responsibility for renewable energy and energy efficiency. Its Renewable Energy and Energy
Efficiency Expert Committee has several working groups, including for the Arab Strategy on
Renewable Energy, for Energy Efficiency, and for the Arab Solar Vision. Several years ago, the
Executive Bureau of the Arab Ministerial Council of Electricity, decided that a regular regional
forum on renewable energy and energy efficiency should be held. The first such meeting of the
Arab Forum on Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency was held in 2012, and a second was held
in June 2014. In January 2013, Arab Leaders adopted the Pan-Arab Renewable Energy Strategy at
the Arab Economic and Social Development Summit. Based on the approved national targets, the
strategy includes cumulative targets to increase renewable energy to about 75 gigawatts Gw of
installed power generation capacity in LAS members by 2030. In support of the strategy, the LAS
Energy Department has developed the Arab Renewable Energy Framework to provide guidance
to members in pursuing medium to long-term national renewable energy action plans. It is also
cooperating with IRENA and RCREEE on related activities.
While co-operation among the countries in the Americas dates back to at least 1889, the
Organization of American States (OAS) came into being with the adoption of the Charter of the
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
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OAS in 1948, which entered into force in 1951. It seeks to foster collaboration among its
members around the four pillars of democracy, human rights, security, and development. Its
Department for Sustainable Development includes a focus on energy and climate change
mitigation, among other areas. This includes work to support renewable energy technologies and
energy efficiency. One such activity is the Energy and Climate Partnership of the Americas (ECPA),
Page | 38 established in 2009, which includes a focus on renewable energy, energy efficiency, and cleaner
and more efficient use of fossil fuels, among other topics. A range of specific initiatives have been
established under the ECPA in which members may participate voluntarily. Each such initiative is
administered by a lead country or countries within ECPA (ECPA website). This includes, for
example, the Energy Efficiency Working Group, led by Mexico and supported by the OAS.
Regional organisations on energy issues
The Regional Center for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency (RCREEE) is described as an
“independent not-for-profit regional organisation which aims to enable and increase the
adoption of renewable energy and energy efficiency practices in the Arab region” (RCREEE
website). The organisation partners with regional governments and international organisations in
fostering dialogue, strategies and capacity to development in the field of clean energy. It counts
15 Arab countries and territories among its members. RCREEE is financed through its member
contributions, government grants provided by Germany through the German Federal Enterprise
for International Cooperation (GIZ), Denmark through the Danish International Development
Agency, and Egypt through its New and Renewable Energy Authority, as well as through several
fee-for-service contracts.
The Latin American Energy Organization (OLADE - Organización Latinoamericana de Energía)
comprises 27 members countries from Central and South America, and the Caribbean, and is
dedicated to assisting with regional and sub-regional energy integration, sustainable
development and energy security. It seeks to provide analyses, policy guidance and information
on energy efficiency, renewable energy and hydrocarbons, among other areas. For example it
oversees the Latin American and the Caribbean Network for Energy Efficiency.
Non-government fora/network with lead government
involvement
The Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Partnership (REEEP), a Vienna-based non-profit
organisation, aims to accelerate the marketplace for renewable energy and energy efficiency
with a particular emphasis on emerging markets and developing countries. Its primary focus is
the scaling up of clean energy business models. It has projects running in nearly 60 countries to
foster local and national efforts on renewable energy.
The Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN 21) was launched in June 2005
and is a global renewable policy network with multiple stakeholders including government,
international organisations, industry and civil society. Its objective is to provide policy-relevant
information and analysis on renewable energy to policy makers, industry experts and the public
to facilitate policy changes. Its focus is more on the technical aspects of clean energy through
providing a platform for dialogue among relevant stakeholders. Nine national governments
(currently Brazil, Denmark, Germany, India, Norway, Spain, Uganda, United Arab Emirates and
the United Kingdom) participate in the General Assembly along with industry associations,
international organisations and NGOs.
© OECD/IEA 2014
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
Annex 2: International collaboration: A case study
of Asia
This paper has pointed to the increase in the number of multilateral initiatives that in some way
address low-carbon energy technologies against a backdrop of rising concerns over challenges Page | 39
from climate change, high energy prices and the drive for universal access to secure, affordable,
modern energy services.
In previous analyses, the IEA has pointed to the particular challenges facing emerging economies
in the Asia-Pacific in seeking to develop clean energy resources and technologies (for example,
IEA, 2013b). Recognising the importance of this region to seeking global energy solutions, this
Annex consists of a short case study of the current status of participation of Asian countries in
both international and regional initiatives concerned with low-carbon energy technologies. In
particular, it addresses Asian participation in regional and international initiatives that address
low-carbon energy technologies, Asian participation in specific IEA Implementing Agreements,
and Asian participation in the specific initiatives under the CEM.17
The case study follows the IEA definitions and categorisation of the region, in which Asia includes
two groups of countries: OECD Asia Oceania (Australia, Japan, Korea and New Zealand) and nonOECD Asia (Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, China, Chinese Taipei, India, Indonesia,
Korea, Malaysia, Mongolia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand,
Viet Nam and other Asian countries and territories).
Summary of Findings
Consistent with the wider trend evident in this Insights Paper, regional and international cooperation on low-carbon energy technology within the Asian region appears to be on the
increase. Four main trends are evident. First, as the number of multilateral initiatives in this
sphere has increased in general terms, so has the participation of Asian countries in such
initiatives. International initiatives for energy technology collaboration that have been
established over the past decade have nearly all included at least some Asian members from the
outset, while Asian engagement within several longer-standing initiatives also appears to be
expanding.
Second, in seeking to promote the deployment of low-carbon energy technologies at the regional
level, Asian practice appears to centre on expanding the mandate of existing regional fora,
principally APEC and ASEAN, but also the long-standing Clean Air Initiative of the World Bank,
ADB and USAID, rather than creating new Asian energy technology-specific institutions. The only
separate initiative dedicated specifically to low-carbon energy development in the region, APP,
was launched in 2006 to enhance partnerships between the public and private sectors, promote
best practices and technologies across a range of key sectors, and deepen co-operation among its
members, but was terminated in 2011.18 This is no doubt in part a reflection of the long-standing
and strong consideration of energy matters within APEC and ASEAN, the latter for example, by
way of its five-yearly plans of action on energy co-operation (currently in 2010-2015) and the
ASEAN Centre for Energy.
17
For a recent assessment of ASEAN energy co-operation, see Shi and Malik, 2013.
Also of note, though led by research institutes, is the Low Carbon Asia Research Network (LoCARNet), which seeks to
encourage science-policy and South-South-North dialogue (LoCARNet website).
18
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
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Third, when new initiatives are launched at the international level, the major economies of Asia
are generally now involved from the planning stage. In the case of the G8, G20, the MEF and the
CEM, it is entirely logical that it is the larger Asian economies that are involved as these fora seek
to focus on the largest economies, energy consumers and / or emitters globally. Energy-specific
initiatives tend to show more of a diverse range of country participants from Asia, especially the
Page | 40 IEA Implementing Agreements and IRENA. Notably, the participation of China and Korea in more
technical initiatives such as the IEA Implementing Agreements has also shown a considerable
increase in recent years.
Nonetheless, the fourth and final observation is that the lack of participation of non-G20 Asian
countries in the more international initiatives, such as IPEEC and GBEP, which could be very
relevant to the national energy context in many cases, is noteworthy. Further research may be
merited on the obstacles that hinder non-G20 Asian countries from participating in such
initiatives.
Asian membership in regional and international initiatives that address
low-carbon energy technologies
For the purposes of this case study, the membership of all Asian countries was tracked against a
selection of the multilateral and regional initiatives chosen for examination in the Insights Paper.
The results are shown in Table 2.
The overview of Asian membership in Table 2 suggests that there is a notable difference in the
level of participation in international initiatives between G20 and non-G20 Asian countries.
Excluding ASEAN, which has restricted membership based on geography, G20 Asian countries
participate in the greatest number of multilateral initiatives. The high rate of participation of
China and Korea is also notable: of the 11 initiatives listed in Table 2, China and Korea participate
in nine, Australia, and Japan in eight and India in seven. Indonesia participates in four such
initiatives though it is understood that it is considering membership of IRENA. Otherwise, the
participation of non-G20 Asian countries in such multilateral initiatives is lower, with New
Zealand, Philippines, Malaysia and Singapore participating in four and the numbers reducing
thereafter.
Overall, it would seem that non-G20 Asian countries are engaged in multilateral collaboration on
low-carbon energy technology initiatives mainly through regional entities, principally APEC and
ASEAN. However, it must be borne in mind that these countries are also likely the recipients of
bilateral and multilateral aid for energy technology projects, with financing a topic not covered
by this paper. Nonetheless, the challenge remains how to bridge the gap between global
initiatives and regional initiatives for greater inclusion of these non-G20 countries in Asia. It may
be that a regional mechanism for knowledge transfer between G20 Asian countries and non-G20
countries would be valuable to improving the institutional capacity of non-G20 countries for
policy planning and implementation and for ensuring enhanced deployment of low-carbon
energy technologies throughout the region.
Asian membership in IEA Implementing Agreements
As a second part of this case study, Asian membership in the IEA Implementing Agreements was
mapped as a means of considering the differing interests of Asian countries in technical
initiatives. 19 The Implementing Agreements are used to illustrate recent trends in Asian
19
In the case of the IEA Implementing Agreements, the government signatories of each such agreement, (formally known as a
“Contracting Party”) can join or withdraw from the agreement in a fairly straightforward manner as their national strategies
and policies shift.
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
© OECD/IEA 2014
membership in international initiatives because the possibility for joining and leaving
Implementing Agreements is relatively flexible and straightforward, unlike the static membership
of many international initiatives. As summarised in Figure 4, as of October 2014, Japan was
participating in a total of 30 Implementing Agreements, the highest membership among Asian
OECD countries, and indeed all Asian, countries. Korea participates in 29 Implementing
Agreements, a spectacular increase given that it joined its first Implementing Agreement in 1994. Page | 41
Total
particip
ation
APP
ASEAN
APEC
MEF
CSLF
GGGI
GBEP
3GF
IRENA
IPEEC
Countries
IEA IAs
Table 2 • Participation of Asian countries in regional and international initiatives
G20 Asian countries
Australia
+
+
+
China
+
+
+
India
+
+
+
+
+
+
Indonesia
+
+
+
+
8
+
+
+
+
9
+
+
+
+
7
+
+
+
+
+
+
8
+
+
+
+
9
+
Japan
+
+
+
Korea
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
4
Non-G20 countries
Brunei
Darussalam
+
Cambodia
+
+
3
+
2
+
1
+
4
+
1
+
+
4
+
+
4
+
+
3
+
+
3
+
Lao PDR
Malaysia
+
+
+
Myanmar
Philippines
+
Singapore
+
Thailand
+
+
Viet Nam
New
Zealand
Other Asian
countries
+
+
+
-
+
-
2
+
1
+
4
3
-
Note: The term IEA IAs refers to IEA Implementing Agreements.
Both Korea and Japan are well above the average number of participations in Implementing
Agreements among IEA member countries, which stands at about 16.20
Among IEA partner countries, the most notable case is China, whose government participation in
the Implementing Agreements increased from six in 2010 to 16 as of October 2014 (and a further
three through Chinese non-governmental entities). Notably, the majority of China’s participation
20
The European Commission and Estonia (newest member to the IEA) are excluded from this calculation.
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
© OECD/IEA 2014
in the Implementing Agreements focuses on renewable energy technologies. India’s membership
also increased from three to five Implementing Agreements over the same period. Indonesia
remains the only Asian G20 country that has not joined any of the IEA Implementing Agreements.
Taken together, Asian countries account for 22% of all public and private sector participations in
Implementing Agreements, with 128 participations out of a total 583. This is impressive but is
Page | 42 nonetheless lower than Asia’s share of global energy demand at the present time and even lower
than projected Asian energy demand to 2035, even taking account of stagnant or backwards
demand growth in OECD Asia Oceania (WEO 2013). Having said this, a study of Asian participation
suggests considerable interest in low-carbon energy technologies: as Table 3 shows, the
participation of Asian countries in Implementing Agreements with activities relating to renewable
energy or end-use-related technologies is proportionately higher than in Implementing
Agreements focused on other topics.
Figure 4 • Participation of Asian countries in IEA Implementing Agreements over time
35
30
20052014
Number of Implementing Agreements
25
20
15
10
19752004
5
0
Australia
Japan
Korea
New Zealand
China
India
Indonesia
Malaysia
Singapore
Thailand
Asian participation in the CEM initiatives
As a final part of this case study, the participation of the CEM Asian countries in the technology
and sector-specific initiatives under the CEM were mapped. Currently, there are 12 such
initiatives under the CEM, all of which include at least one Asian country participant, as shown in
Table 4. 21 The table suggests that Asian CEM participations have fairly broad interests in
renewable energy, energy efficiency and CCS. Also, it is notable that the smart grids initiative has
the highest rate of Asian participation.
Case study conclusion
The importance of Asia’s transition to a low-carbon energy system as part of wider efforts toward
a global sustainable energy future is without doubt. Larger Asian countries are members of
prominent multilateral initiatives including the G20 and the CEM. In several instances, their
participation in more technical initiatives such as the IEA Implementing Agreements and the CEM
is also promising. While there is no single, regional initiative dedicated specifically to clean energy
technology in Asia, it is important to note that the work of APEC and ASEAN on energy is longstanding and extensive and their focus on low-carbon technology issues specifically is growing
(see Annex 1). Two main issues may be worth exploring further: whether it would add value to
develop a regional initiative among Asian countries specifically devoted to promoting low-carbon
21
In mid-2014, the activities of the CCUS Action Group were merged into the CSLF. Nonetheless, the CCUS Action Group is
included in Table 3 to highlight the interest of Asian CEM participants in the topic.
© OECD/IEA 2014
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
energy technologies within Asia, and / or how to encourage further synergies between relevant
global and existing Asian regional initiatives.
It is worth noting that G20 Asian countries – both OECD and non-OECD – are making a range of
efforts to share their experiences and knowledge with Asian developing countries through
regional fora, including, for example, through the ASEAN+3 and other collaborative processes.22
Nonetheless, the greater inclusion and representation of non-G20 Asian countries in existing low- Page | 43
carbon energy technology initiatives could be valuable. These countries could be further
encouraged and assisted to more actively engage in other multilateral initiatives beyond regional
fora, which would enable them to participate in relevant technical activities and to access
necessary experience in formulating and implementing clean energy policies. Leveraging
expertise and resources through participation in existing regional fora and networks would
ideally be considered before creating new institutions which could entrench overlaps in activities
and require greater funding allocations.
Table 3 • Participation of Asian countries in IEA Implementing Agreements by category
Cross-cutting (2)
End-use (14)
Fossil fuels (5)
Fusion power (8)
Renewables
and hydrogen
(10)
OECD Asia
Australia
1
5
4
1
9
Japan
2
9
4
8
8
Korea
2
14
3
4
7
2
1
China
5
3
4
India
2
1
3
New Zealand
4
Non-OECD Asia
Malaysia
5
1
Singapore
1
1
Thailand
1
1
Total
6
39
16
20
36
Note: The number in brackets after each category of Implementing Agreement in the columns in Table 3 represent the total number
of Implementing Agreements in that category.
Source: IEA (2013c), Energy Technology Initiatives, OECD/IEA, Paris.
22
Comparative examples exist in other regions, such as the recently established EU-Africa dialogue on energy and the USAfrica energy meeting of earlier in 2014.
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Table 4 • Technology focus and participation of Asian countries in the CEM initiatives
Work stream
Focus
SEAD
Page | 44
EE
Australia
China
+
India
∇
Indonesia
+
+
Global Lighting and
Energy
Access
Partnership
Global Superior Energy
Performance
Partnership
Global
Cities
Bioenergy
Group
Working
Multilateral Solar and
Wind Working Group
21st Century
Partnership
Sustainable
Development
Hydropower
Electric
Initiative
EE
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
CCS
+
+
+
RE
RE
+
Power
EE &
RE
+
of
RE
+
+
Vehicles
International Smart Grid
Action Network
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Women in Clean Energy
Clean Energy Solutions
Center
Total
Korea
+
Sustainable
Carbon Capture, Use
and Storage (CCUS)
Action Group
Japan
+
+
LCET
+
5
4
+
+
+
7
5
9
5
Note: It is worth noting that The Energy and Resources Institute of India is also a founding partner of the Global Lighting and Energy
Access Partnership, among other actors. Global Superior Energy Performance Partnership addresses buildings and industry.
“LCET”: refers to low-carbon energy technology as a whole.
Source: CEM website.
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Acronyms, abbreviations and units of measure
Acronyms and abbreviations
2DS
4DS
6DS
3GF
ETP2014 2oC Scenario
ETP2014 2oC Scenario
ETP2014 2oC Scenario
Global Green Growth Forum
ACEC
ADB
APEC
APEC EWG
APERC
APP
ASEAN
AU
Africa Clean Energy Corridor
Asian Development Bank
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Energy Working Group
Asia-Pacific Energy Research Centre
Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate
Association of Southeast Asian Nations
African Union
C40
CCS
CDIA
CEM
CFO Platform
CHP
CO2
CPI
CSLF
CTCN
CTI
C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group
Carbon capture and storage
Cities Development Initiative of Asia
Clean Energy Ministerial
Climate Finance Options Platform (UNDP/World Bank)
Combined Heading and Power
Carbon dioxide
Climate Policy Initiative
Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum
Climate Technology Centre and Network (UNFCCC)
Climate Technology Initiative
DHC
District Heating and Cooling
EBRD
ECREEE
ECOWAS
ECPA
ECSII
ERIA
EU
EGCN
European Bank for Reconstruction and Development
ECOWAS Regional Centre for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency
Economic Community of West African States
Energy and Climate Partnership of the Americas
Energy sector carbon intensity index
Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia
European Union
European Green Cities Network
FAO
Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations
G7/8
G20
GBEP
GCCSI
GGGI
GIZ
Group of Seven/Eight
Group of Twenty
Global Bioenergy Partnership
Global Carbon Capture and Storage Institute
Global Green Growth Institute
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit GmbH
(German Federal Enterprise for International Cooperation)
Page | 45
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
IADB
ICCG
ICEF
ICID
IEA
Page | 46 IPEEC
IRENA
© OECD/IEA 2014
Inter-American Development Bank
International Center for Climate Governance
Innovation for Cool Earth Forum
International Cooperative Initiative Database (UNFCCC)
International Energy Agency
International Partnership for Energy Efficiency Cooperation
International Renewable Energy Agency
LAS
LoCARNet
League of Arab States
Low Carbon Asia Research Network
MEF
Major Economies Forum on Energy and Climate
NEPAD
NGO
New Partnership for Africa's Development
Non-government organisation
OAS
OECD
OLADE
OpenEI
Organization of American States
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
Organización Latinoamericana de Energía
(Latin American Energy Organization)
Open Energy Information
R20
RCREEE
RD&D
REEEP
REN21
R20 – Regions of Climate Action
Regional Center for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency
Research, development and demonstration
Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Partnership
Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century
SE4All
SEAD
SLoCaT
Sustainable Energy for All
Super-efficient Equipment and Appliance Deployment initiative
Partnership on Sustainable, Low Carbon Transport
TT:Clear
UNFCCC technology information clearing house
UfM
UN
UNDP
UN-Energy
UNECA
UNECE
UNECLAC
UNESCAP
UNESCWA
UNEP
UNIDO
UNFCCC
UN DESA
Union for the Mediterranean
United Nations
United Nations Development Programme
United Nations-Energy
United Nations Economic Commission for Africa
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia
United Nations Environment Programme
United Nations Development Organisation
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs
WRI
World Resources Institute
Mapping Multilateral Collaboration on Low-Carbon Energy Technologies
© OECD/IEA 2014
Units of measure
o
C
Gt
degree Celsius
Gigatonnes
Page | 47
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