1. science
2. physics
3. optics

Adaptive optics retinal imaging in the living
mouse eye
Ying Geng,1,2,* Alfredo Dubra,1,3,4 Lu Yin,1 William H. Merigan,1,3 Robin Sharma,1,2
Richard T. Libby,1,3 and David R. Williams1,2,3
1
Center for Visual Science, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627, USA
2
The Institute of Optics, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14620, USA
3
Flaum Eye Institute, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
4
Current address: Eye Institute, Medical College of Wisconsin, WI 53226, USA
*gengy@corning.com
Abstract: Correction of the eye’s monochromatic aberrations using
adaptive optics (AO) can improve the resolution of in vivo mouse retinal
images [Biss et al., Opt. Lett. 32(6), 659 (2007) and Alt et al., Proc. SPIE
7550, 755019 (2010)], but previous attempts have been limited by poor spot
quality in the Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor (SHWS). Recent advances
in mouse eye wavefront sensing using an adjustable focus beacon with an
annular beam profile have improved the wavefront sensor spot quality
[Geng et al., Biomed. Opt. Express 2(4), 717 (2011)], and we have
incorporated them into a fluorescence adaptive optics scanning laser
ophthalmoscope (AOSLO). The performance of the instrument was tested
on the living mouse eye, and images of multiple retinal structures, including
the photoreceptor mosaic, nerve fiber bundles, fine capillaries and
fluorescently labeled ganglion cells were obtained. The in vivo transverse
and axial resolutions of the fluorescence channel of the AOSLO were
estimated from the full width half maximum (FWHM) of the line and point
spread functions (LSF and PSF), and were found to be better than 0.79 μm ±
0.03 μm (STD)(45% wider than the diffraction limit) and 10.8 μm ± 0.7 μm
(STD)(two times the diffraction limit), respectively. The axial positional
accuracy was estimated to be 0.36 μm. This resolution and positional
accuracy has allowed us to classify many ganglion cell types, such as
bistratified ganglion cells, in vivo.
© 2012 Optical Society of America
OCIS codes: (170.4460) Ophthalmic optics and devices; (110.1080) Active or adaptive optics;
(330.7324) Visual optics, comparative animal models.
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1. Introduction
Mouse models have become increasingly important for understanding the normal and diseased
eye due to their availability for genetic manipulations not yet common in other mammals [1–
4]. The conventional methods for studying mouse eye models are in vitro physiology and
histology, which require a large number of animals for statistical analysis and do not allow for
longitudinal studies in single animals. Non-invasive microscopic imaging of the mouse retina
would allow tracking of retinal development, disease progression, or the efficacy of therapy in
single animals over time. This can reduce the number of animals required and the animal-toanimal variability inherent in studying the dynamics of a process from different animals
sacrificed at different time points. Recently, there have been a growing number of studies
focused on in vivo optical imaging of the mouse retina, utilizing fundus cameras, scanning
laser ophthalmoscopes (SLO), or optical coherence tomography (OCT) [5–14]. However, in
vivo imaging resolution is compromised by ocular aberrations in the mouse eye, and the
classical resolution limit has not been reached [15,16].
The fully dilated mouse eye has a NA of 0.49, two times greater than that of the human
eye. This offers a transverse diffraction-limited resolution 2 times better (0.7 μm vs. 1.4 μm,
for a wavelength of 550 nm), and an axial resolution limit 4 times better than the human eye
(6 μm vs. 25 μm). The size of retinal structures is similar in both species, yet the volume of
the point spread function (PSF) is 16 times smaller. The larger NA also increases light
collection efficiency by fourfold.
To take full advantage of the high NA of the mouse eye, its monochromatic aberrations
can be corrected with AO. For confocal imaging, having an improved PSF not only increases
image contrast and resolution, but also increases the detected signal. AO has enabled
diffraction-limited imaging of cellular and sub-cellular structures in living human and primate
eyes [17–22]. Recent studies have also demonstrated benefits of AO applied to rodent eyes
[23–25].
In vivo imaging of the mouse eye is challenging due to its small pupil size, large average
refractive error, and a retina that is over 50 times thicker than the human retina as measured in
diopters, as shown in Table 1. If a deformable mirror is used to section the retina, a much
larger stroke is needed for the mouse eye than the human eye.
The small pupil size forces tighter tolerances in designing and aligning an optical
instrument and the animal. Given the large focusing range required to cover the mouse retina,
the mouse AOSLO has to perform well over a vergence range 5 times larger than that of the
human retina (Table 1) [21]. Therefore, the monochromatic aberrations of the AOSLO were
minimized over a range of vergences spanning the whole thickness of the mouse retina, as
discussed in the next section. In our system, the wavefront sensing source was focused on
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(C) 2012 OSA
Received 3 Jan 2012; revised 13 Feb 2012; accepted 14 Feb 2012; published 15 Mar 2012
1 April 2012 / Vol. 3, No. 4 / BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 718
Table 1. Comparison of the mouse eye and human eye optics parameters*
Average
Power
P-V Zernike
Average
retinal
needed to
defocus needed
f
refractive
thickness
section the
to section the
(mm)
error
(mm)
retina
retina**
16.7
~0 to +1 D
0.25
0.7 D
5.5 µm
Human
[26,27]
2.0
1.9
520 D
+7 to +15 D
0.22
49.5 D
25 µm
Mouse
[16,28,29]
−7 to −11 D
[15]
*Mouse eye focal length in air (f), total eye power and average retinal thickness are calculated from average data for
100 days old C57BL/6 mice [28]. Human eye optics parameters are taken from the Gullstrand-LeGrand Eye Model
[30].
**P-V: peak-to-valley.
Dilated
pupil size
(mm)
8.0
Total
eye
power
60 D
the outer retina (the most reflective layer), and the reflectance and fluorescence imaging
sources were focused on the retinal layer of interest. Monochromatic aberrations affecting the
image quality in the planes conjugate to the pupil were also compensated for, in order to
achieve good AO correction.
2. Methods
2.1. The fluorescence AOSLO customized for the mouse eye
A custom fluorescence AOSLO was built, combining wavefront sensing methodology
previously developed for the mouse eye and design principles of broadband AOSLOs for the
human eye [15,21]. A schematic layout of the system is shown in Fig. 1. Note that the actual
optical system was folded in 3D, and was flattened in Fig. 1 for illustration.
Three light sources were used for wavefront sensing and imaging after being coupled to
single mode optical fibers and mounted on translation stages allowing for independent
focusing. All source focuses could be adjusted by changing the distance between the source
fibers and their collimating lenses. An 843 nm laser diode (LD) from Qphotonics (Ann Arbor,
Michigan, USA) was used as the wavefront sensing source. A 789 nm superluminescent diode
(SLD) with 11.5 nm bandwidth (InPhenix, Livermore, California, USA) was used as the
reflectance imaging light source. An air-cooled Argon laser (CVI Melles Griot, Albuquerque,
New Mexico, USA) provided multiple spectral lines between 457 and 514 nm for
fluorescence imaging.
The optical path consists of five, 4-f, afocal telescope pairs that relay image the eye’s pupil
onto several system pupil planes. All mirrors are commercially available with protective silver
coating. The achromatic lens is a 400 mm effective focal length, 100 mm diameter achromat
with broadband anti-reflection coating for 400 to 900 nm (Ross Optical, El Paso, Texas,
USA). Note that the flatter side of the achromat faces the eye to minimize spherical
aberrations for all angles required to form the imaging raster. The system pupil planes include
the deformable mirror for wavefront correction, two scanners for raster scanning of the retina,
and the SHWS lenslet array. The deformable mirror used was a large stroke hi-speed DM97
from ALPAO S.A.S. (Biviers, Grenoble, France). The deformable mirror controls both the
monochromatic aberrations and focus adjustment, and the mouse is never moved, once it is
positioned in the instrument. A resonant scanner (Electro-Optical Products Corp, Glendale,
New York USA) line-scanned the retina horizontally at 15 kHz, and a slow galvometric
scanner (GSI Group Corp, Massachusetts, USA) scanned the vertical direction at 25.5 Hz,
forming a rectangular imaging raster. The wavefront sensor consisted of a lenslet array
(Adaptive Optics Associates, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA) with 7.8 mm focal length and
203 μm lenslet pitch, and a Rolera XR camera from QImaging (Surrey, British Columbia,
Canada).
Light from the retina was split by a dichroic mirror into a reflectance channel and a
fluorescence channel, before detection using photomultiplier tubes (PMT) H7422-40 and −50
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1 April 2012 / Vol. 3, No. 4 / BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 719
Fig. 1. Schematic of the mouse eye fluorescence AOSLO. LD: fiber coupled laser diode. SLD:
fiber coupled Super Luminescent Diode. PMT: photomultiplier tube. SHWS: Shack-Hartmann
wavefront sensor. F: band pass filter. 90/10: 90/10 beam splitter. HS: horizontal scanner. VS:
vertical scanner. M1-9: Concave spherical mirrors.
from Hamamatsu Corporation (Hamamatsu, Shizuoka-Ken, Japan). The light reaching the
PMTs was filtered spectrally by band-pass interferometric filters and spatially by confocal
pinholes attached to the front of the PMTs. The confocal pinholes, used on the imaging
channel, were between 1 and 3.9 Airy disks in diameter. The PMT output current was
amplified and converted to voltage using transimpedance amplifiers (Femto, Berlin,
Germany), inverted with in-house electronics, and digitized using a Matrox Odyssey eA
framegrabber (Matrox International Corporation, Quebec, Canada).
The first order optical design follows basic design guidelines for a similar instrument built
for the human eye [21]. The deformable mirror is placed at the pupil conjugate closest to the
eye, to minimize the area used on the optics. The other pupil plane elements are ordered to
achieve a gradual change of magnification. Because of the large magnification factor between
the deformable mirror plane and the pupil of the eye (approximately 7:1), an additional afocal
telescope was added to gradually demagnify the pupil. In order to reduce the astigmatism due
to using the spherical mirrors off-axis, spherical mirrors with long focal lengths (ranging from
375 mm to 1000 mm) were selected.
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Due to the short focal length of the mouse eye, every degree in visual angle subtends only
~31-34 µm on the retina [28], which is an order of magnitude smaller than in the human eye.
Therefore, the AOSLO used in for this work was designed to use a small 3° FOV (field of
view) with diffraction limited performance, which can be continuously increased up to 10° by
changing the scanning angles on both scanners for finding areas of interest. To accommodate
a large FOV using all reflective parts, the system performance was heavily driven by the large
angle of incidence needed on the spherical mirror closest to the eye, and an achromatic lens
had to be used as the last optical element with power to achieve diffraction-limited
performance.
After the spherical mirrors were chosen, the only degrees of freedom left were the folding
angles or angles of incidence on the spherical mirrors. The optical setup was folded in a nonplanar configuration to simultaneously minimize the monochromatic aberrations in retinal and
pupil planes [21,31]. The optical layout was designed using CodeV (Optical Research
Associates, Pasadena, California, USA) and Zemax (Zemax Development Corporation,
Bellevue, Washington, USA). The angles of incidence on the off-axis spherical mirrors were
optimized on both the x and y dimensions, under constraints for ray clearance and mechanical
mount clearance. The combined optical performance (RMS wavefront error) was optimized
on the retinal plane for 9 points uniformly distributed in the scanning field and for three
different vergences (−30 D, 0 D, 30 D).
The final system design had diffraction-limited performance for a vergence range of 60 D
over a 3° × 3° FOV for high resolution AO imaging. The theoretical system optical
performance is shown in Fig. 2 for the shortest wavelength reflected by the spherical mirror
coating (450 nm). Note that all spot diagrams were calculated on the focal plane of the mouse
eye, assuming a perfect mouse eye and a flat deformable mirror correction. The residual
wavefront RMS at 450 nm was lower than λ/20 for all vergences. Because of the mostly
reflective nature of the setup, the system performed better for longer wavelengths.
The pupil plane performance was characterized as the image quality for pupil plane reimaging. This was evaluated along the optical axis over the 3° × 3° scanning FOV, for a
wavelength of 450 nm, using the same method as described previously [21]. Figure 3 shows
spot diagrams on the 4 pupil planes.
When the optical scanners move to form the imaging raster, if the aberrations are well
corrected, the chief ray pivots around a stationary point in the center of the pupil planes. If this
is not the case, then the chief ray moves or “wanders” in the pupil plane. This motion blurs the
aberrations seen by the SHWS, thus degrading the AO correction. Therefore, we describe the
optical performance of the AOSLO in the pupil planes in terms of both the wavefront RMS
and the maximum displacement of the chief ray. This beam wander for a 3° × 3° FOV and
Fig. 2. Spot diagrams for 27 configurations evaluated at the retinal plane, over a 3° × 3° FOV
for a vergence range of 60 D in the mouse AOSLO optical design. Configurations are grouped
by vergences, and all configurations are diffraction limited for 450 nm of wavelength. The
radius of Airy disk (Black circle) is 0.59 µm.
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Fig. 3. Spot diagrams for the 4 pupil planes of the mouse AOSLO at 450 nm over a 3° × 3°
FOV, for an on-axis point object at the SHWS pupil plane. Different scanning configurations
are coded by color. Black circle represents the Airy disk.
60 D of vergence range was ~1% of the pupil diameter (2.0 mm) for a wavelength of 450 nm,
and ~4% for a combination of 450 nm, 650 nm and 850 nm light.
For an 8° × 8° FOV, the system is diffraction-limited over a vergence range of 40 D. The
wavefront RMS for wavelength of 450 nm is better than are λ/14 for a −22 D to +18 D
vergence range. Beam wander at the eye’s pupil is ~3% of the pupil diameter for 450 nm
light, and ~7% for a combination of wavelengths from 450 nm to 850 nm.
2.2. Adaptive optics
Wave aberrations were measured and corrected at 15 Hz frame rate. Before any source focus
compensation and AO correction, the SHWS spots often appear blurry, as shown in Fig. 4(a).
When the AO loop is closed, the spots become brighter and sharper, as shown in Fig. 4(b). It
typically takes 0.2 seconds (i.e. three iterations) to reach a stable AO correction, with a
residual wavefront RMS error at or below 0.05 µm. We always focused the beacon on the
photoreceptors to maximize the quality of the SHWS spots. However, we often want to image
other planes with light passing through the same deformable mirror. In that case, the change in
deformable mirror focus required to image a different layer must be compensated in the
wavefront sensing beacon by moving the source fiber tip, so that the beacon stays focused on
the photoreceptors. The beacon was refocused by either maximizing subjective sharpness of
the SHWS spots, or using a previous calibration done for similar layers.
Fig. 4. Typical SHWS spot patterns before the spots are focused on the wavefront sensing
source or AO correction (a), and after AO correction (b). The spots are brighter and sharper
after AO correction. These SHWS spot patterns are taken at a scanning field of 5° × 5°. Each
wavefront sensor spot is sampled by 16 × 16 pixels on the CCD camera. The width of both
images is approximately 465 pixels.
2.3. Animals, and preparations for in vivo imaging
Adult wild type mice (C57BL/6J) or transgenic mice (B6.Thy1-YFPH) were imaged [32]. All
mice were from 3 to 10 months old and weighed between 20 and 30 grams. Mice were housed
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in standard mouse cages under 12 hour light/dark cycle. All animals were handled according
to the Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology Statement for the Use of
Animals in Ophthalmic and Vision Research and to the guidelines of the University
Committee on Animal Resources at the University of Rochester.
Mice were anesthetized with either Ketamine/Xylazine cocktail injections (100mg/kg and
10mg/kg) only or combined with isofluorane gas (1-2%) and placed on a heating pad prior to
in vivo imaging. Pupils were dilated with one drop of 2.5% phenylephrine (Neo-Synephrine)
and one drop of 0.5% tropicamide. A 0 to +10 D rigid contact lens (Unicon Corporation,
Osaka, Japan) with a base curve between 1.55 to 1.70 mm was placed on the eye to maintain
corneal hydration during in vivo imaging. Mice were stabilized on a bitebar stage with two
rotational degrees of freedom as described previously (Bioptigen, Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina, USA) [15].
2.4. Power levels, image acquisition and analysis
The maximum permissible light exposure (MPE) for the mouse eye was calculated assuming
that the mouse retina possessed the same susceptibility to light damage as the human retina.
These calculations included a scaling factor that incorporated the differences in the spot size
and retinal illuminance at the mouse retina due to its higher NA. For reflectance imaging, 40
µW and 250 µW were used for the 843 nm laser diode and 789 nm SLD, respectively. Even
though the system was to be diffraction-limited for a 3° × 3° high resolution FOV (Figs. 2 and
3), during imaging it was often found that this FOV was too small to cover areas of interest. In
reality we often image with a larger FOV (e.g. 5° × 7°), at the cost of slightly larger system
aberrations and the FOV is probably outside of the eye’s isoplanatic size. The combined
powers were less than the MPE for a 20-minute exposure time for a 5° × 7° FOV according to
the ANSI guide for the safe use of lasers [33,34]. For fluorescence imaging, cells were imaged
using 300 µW of 514 nm laser power measured at the pupil of the eye. This power level,
combined with that from the other two sources, is 1.8 times the ANSI MPE for imaging the 5°
× 7° FOV for 5 minutes [33,34].
To convert from visual angle to dimensions on the retina, a paraxial model for 100 days
old C57BL/6 mice was used [28]. It was calculated that every degree of visual angle
corresponds to approximately 34 µm for this model.
To image different layers of the retina using the two channels simultaneously (reflectance
and fluorescence), source and detector focuses for both channels were adjusted separately
prior to imaging. Sinusoidal frame distortion from the motion of the resonant scanner was
compensated by estimating the distortion from imaging a grating target placed in a model eye,
and resampling the images using equally spaced pixels. Single in vivo fluorescence frames
typically possessed very low signal to noise ratio (SNR). Therefore, multiple fluorescence
frames were averaged to obtain an image with higher SNR. To account for eye movements
between different frames, images were registered using the shifts calculated from
simultaneously acquired reflectance images [35].
2.5. Labeling of ganglion cells, in vivo ganglion cell classification, and ex vivo confocal
imaging
Ganglion cells were fluorescently labeled with yellow fluorescence protein (YFP) by one of
two methods. The first was a transgenic mouse line that expresses YFP in a small subset of
retinal ganglion cells (B6.Thy1-YFPH). In the second method, retinal ganglion cells in an
adult C57BL/6J mouse were sparsely labeled with YFP via transduction from retrograde viral
vector (Equine infectious anemia virus carrying YFP gene; Vector courtesy of Drs. Edward
M. Callaway and Ali H. Cetin at the Salk Institute of Biological Studies, California, USA).
Image stacks were taken from the somas and dendrites of the sparsely labeled ganglion
cells for classification. Typical image stacks contained 10 slices (with 750 frames averaged
for each focus), approximately 6 µm apart in depth and were collected in 5 minutes.
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One mouse having retrograde viral vector labeling of ganglion cells was sacrificed after
multiple in vivo imaging sessions. Retinas were isolated and placed as wholemounts on slides
with coverslips and covered in mounting medium (Vectashield; Vector Laboratories,
Burlingame, California, USA). To visualize boundaries of inner plexiform layer (IPL), cell
nuclei in both the ganglion cell layer and the inner nuclear layer were labeled with DAPI
overnight. Wholemount images were acquired using a confocal microscope (Olympus
FV1000; Olympus, Center Valley, Philadelphia, USA). Image stacks were taken at the same
locations as the in vivo images using a 40X (1.3 NA) oil immersion microscope objective, and
maximum intensity projection images were generated for each stack.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Imaging of nerve fiber bundles
The innermost surface of the retina contains the nerve fiber layer (NFL) and blood vessels. As
shown in Figs. 5 and 6, individual nerve fiber bundles, blood vessels and capillaries were
Fig. 5. In vivo reflectance image of the NFL close to the optic disk in the mouse eye. This
image was an average of 100 frames. Confocal pinhole diameter was 2.1 Airy disks. Arrows:
examples of nerve fiber bundles. Arrowhead: example of capillaries. Image was contrast
stretched for display purposes. Scale bar: 20 µm.
Fig. 6. In vivo reflectance image montage of the NFL in the mouse eye, showing a large blood
vessel in the center, capillaries, and nerve fiber bundles. This location was over 15 degrees
away from the optic disk. Size of this image was 553 µm × 230 µm, or 16.3° × 6.8°. Each
individual image was an average of 50 frames. Confocal pinhole diameter was 2.1 Airy disks.
Scale bar: 20 µm. Image was contrast stretched for display purposes only.
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resolved in this layer. Note that the nerve fiber bundles were sparser in Fig. 6 because the
retinal location imaged was farther away from the optic disk. Microscopic structures shown as
bright white dots could be seen on the nerve fiber bundles, similar to what Dubra et al.
recently observed in human subjects and postulated that they may be ganglion cell axonal
varicosities (unpublished observations) [36]. In between the nerve fiber bundles, some hints of
dark “holes” could be seen, with diameters on the order of 5-20 µm. We speculate that these
dark “holes” may be ganglion cells.
3.2. Imaging of blood vessels
The supplemental video (Media 1) shows an image stack 135 µm thick, starting at the NFL
and moving towards the photoreceptors. Other than the layer of blood vessels and capillaries
seen in the NFL, at least two more layers of blood vessels/capillaries were visualized in the
mouse retina, corresponding to the three layers of microvessels found in histology (in the
ganglion cell layer, inner plexiform layer (IPL), and outer plexiform layer) [37,38]. In this
video, the focus depths of the two layers were 68 and 116 µm sclerad from the best focus for
the NFL, respectively. Another example of the two capillary layers is shown as averaged
images in Figs. 7(b) and (a). The contrast of the capillaries can be enhanced by computing the
standard deviation of each pixel throughout the series of registered frames [39,40]. Figure 7(c)
shows the standard deviation image corresponding to Fig. 7(a). There were unknown
Fig. 7. In vivo reflectance capillary images in the mouse retina. All images are taken at the
same retinal location. (a), (b), (d) Capillary images at different depths. Each image is a
registered average of 50 individual frames. (c) Standard deviation/motion contrast image
corresponding to the depth of image (a). Arrows and arrowhead: dark regions and microscopic
bright point structures within the intermediate capillary layer. Confocal pinhole diameter was
2.1 Airy disks. All images were contrast stretched identically for display purposes. Scale bar:
20 µm.
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stationary structures on the capillary layers, which appear as very small bright points and dark
holes. This can be seen especially in Fig. 7(d), at an axial focus ~45 µm deeper than the NFL,
which was probably in the IPL. The bright spots (arrowhead) may be related to fine processes
of ganglion cells and amacrine cells in the inner nuclear layer. There are subtle dark regions
between the bright spots (arrows) with spacing between 6 µm to 10 µm, consistent with ex
vivo estimates of Müller cell spacing at 8.5 µm [41], however positive identification of these
structures has yet to be established.
With the axial resolution afforded by the mouse eye’s high NA, capillary layers separated
by 30 µm can be clearly resolved with no visible cross talk between Figs. 7(a) and (b). At the
best focuses for capillaries, motion contrast enhancement [39,40] did not increase the image
contrast significantly. Motion contrast can help to increase blood vessel contrast for focus
positions such as Fig. 7(d), and can also highlight functional changes such as hemostasis
events [42]. Different analyses can be done using the high quality in vivo imaging videos
(Media 1), including blood vessel diameter, blood flow velocity/blood cells tracking, and 3
dimensional reconstructions of the inner retina. Methods developed for monitoring both the
morphology and function of capillaries in human and primates can all potentially be used on
the mouse [42–45].
3.3. Imaging of photoreceptors
Due to the small spacing of the mouse photoreceptors, it has not been possible in previous
studies to image the complete mosaic in the living eye. With the AOSLO, the photoreceptor
mosaic in a live mouse can be imaged non-invasively, as shown in Fig. 8(a). The
photoreceptor mosaic was imaged in reflectance, possibly showing both rods and cones.
Mouse photoreceptors spacing shows very small variation with retinal eccentricity, less than
40% for cones, and less than 20% for rods [41]. Ex vivo data assuming triangular packing
indicates average nearest neighbor distances of 1.63 µm for rods and 1.60 µm for rods and
cones combined [41]. The concentration of energy in the mosaic spectrum in Fig. 8(b) had a
radius corresponding to that predicted from histological observations (1.60 µm), confirming
that the observed pattern represents the structure of photoreceptors. The partial circle in Fig.
8(b) indicates the spatial frequency calculated using a 1.60 µm nearest neighbor distance, in
agreement with the spectrum of the in vivo image.
Fig. 8. (a) Photoreceptors imaged in reflectance in the mouse eye. This image is an average of
120 frames. Scale bar: 10 µm. (b) Fourier spectrum of the photoreceptor image in (a), showing
a concentration of energy at a fixed radius from the origin. The partial circle indicates the
spatial frequency calculated using a 1.60 µm nearest neighbor distance. Confocal pinhole
diameter was 2.1 Airy disks. Image (a) was contrast stretched for display purposes.
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3.4. Fluorescence imaging of subcellular features of retinal ganglion cells
In vivo fluorescence imaging of ganglion cells has been previously demonstrated, allowing the
detection of cell drop out [9,46,47]. More recently, axons and dendrites have been resolved in
retinas with sparsely labeled ganglion cells in vivo [12,14]. Using the same transgenic mouse
line, we were able to image individual ganglion cells and processes with much finer resolution
than previous studies. The increased axial resolution afforded by AO has allowed us to
optically section the cell in vivo.
Individual ganglion cells expressing YFP were imaged with the AOSLO, using 514 nm as
excitation wavelength. Fluorescence was collected using an interference filter with 534 nm
central wavelength and 38 nm bandwidth. After image registration and averaging, the fine
details of retinal ganglion cells were resolved. Figures 9(a)-(c) show a ganglion cell imaged at
three different focuses, at focus steps of 11.6 μm. At the innermost focus shown in (a), apart
from a cell body with its nucleus, two axons were in sharp focus. At an intermediate focus
shown in (b), the axons were out of focus and the proximal dendrites of the cell started to
come into focus. Finally at the outermost focus shown in (c), the axons were almost
completely out of focus and the dendritic field was sharply in focus. Figure 9(d) shows a
maximum intensity projection image generated from (a)-(c) and another two intermediate
focus images.
Using large blood vessels as landmarks, we were able to follow the same ganglion cells
over time. Figure 10 shows another ganglion cell imaged on two different sessions one month
apart. Both images were taken using the same power levels and confocal pinhole sizes, and
the same fine processes can be resolved over time. The first image was taken with a combined
power level at 1.8 times the ANSI MPE (scaled down for the mouse eye as described in the
Fig. 9. In vivo fluoresence images of a ganglion cell expressing YFP. (a-c) Individual images
from three of the focuses, at focus steps of 11.6 μm. Each image at an individual focus step was
a registered image average of 500 frames. (d) Maximum intensity projection image generated
from 5 separate in vivo images taken at focus steps of 5.8 μm. Confocal pinhole diameter was
3.9 Airy disks. All images were contrast stretched identically to preserve their relative
brightness. Scale bar: 20 µm.
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Fig. 10. In vivo imaging of the same fluorescent ganglion cells at times separated by one
month. Image shown in (a) and (b) are taken one month apart. Both images are maximum
intensity projection images generated from 10 separate in vivo images at individual focuses.
Each image at an individual focus is a registered average of 750 frames. Confocal pinhole
diameter was 1.9 Airy disks. Images were contrast stretched identically for display purposes.
Scale bar: 20 µm.
Methods section), yet no visible damage could be identified in image stacks spanning the
inner retina and the photoreceptor layer in the same location after one month.
3.5. Characterization of in vivo transverse resolution
To estimate the in vivo resolution of the imaging system, the transverse cross section across
isolated dendrites was measured to be the upper limit of the transverse line spread function
(LSF). Note that this resolution characterization was done for the fluorescence imaging
channel, and was a conservative estimate. Given that focus adjustment for both the source and
confocal pinhole is more difficult for fluorescence imaging than reflectance imaging,
resolution for the reflectance channel may be better than what is shown here. Figure 11(a)
shows a maximum projection image taken from a focus stack of 7 slices spaced 5.8 μm. The
full width half maximum (FWHM) of the transverse cross sections were measured on 9
different locations at their best focuses on the ganglion cell dendritic structure (Fig. 11(b) is
shown as an example of a dendrite at its best focus). The measured FWHM of a dendrite cross
section was 0.79 μm ± 0.03 μm (mean ± STD) for the 9 locations. In comparison, the
theoretical FWHM of the LSF is 0.54 μm (calculated for NA of 0.49, wavelength of 534 nm,
and confocal pinhole disk diameter of 1.2 Airy disks). The measured average in vivo dendrite
cross section was 45% wider than the theoretical LSF. The measurement profile for a typical
dendrite cross section labeled by a yellow line in Fig. 11(b) is plotted as an example. In Fig.
11(d), circle data points are the in vivo measurement, and solid gray line shows the theoretical
LSF.
This in vivo dendrite cross section profile represents a convolution of the dendrite profile
and the system LSF. In the mouse eye, the diameter of ganglion cell dendrites ranges from 0.7
μm to 1.75 μm as estimated form histology [48]. A rough estimate assuming a dendrite width
of 0.70 μm convolved with the theoretical LSF of the system yields a profile (dashed line in
Fig. 11(d)) with a FWHM of 0.8 μm, which corresponds very well to the measured in vivo
FWHM of 0.79 μm ± 0.03 μm. Therefore if the true dendrite diameter is about 0.7 μm at this
location, the in vivo transverse resolution is near diffraction-limited.
The measured in vivo FWHM of 0.79 μm ± 0.03 μm is a conservative estimate of the real
system LSF. It would be preferable to measure both the length and diameter of the same
dendrite from histology, to confirm that our in vivo image scaling from degrees to µm was
correct and the actual in vivo LSF was near diffraction-limited. Unfortunately histology data
for this particular location was not available. However, direct comparison of in vivo images to
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ex vivo histology images at other locations (Figs. 12 and 13) confirmed that our in vivo
transverse image scaling estimated from paraxial eye model [28] matched very well with ex
vivo images.
3.6. Characterization of in vivo axial resolution
To estimate the in vivo axial resolution of the imaging system, the axial cross section
generated by point objects was measured to be the axial point spread function (PSF). These
point objects presumably correspond to local concentrations of fluorescence in some ganglion
cells. The same focus stack used for transverse resolution characterization was used for this
analysis. The theoretical FWHM of the axial PSF is 4.6 μm, and in vivo point structures
measured in this stack were all sub-resolution compared to the theoretical axial PSF.
The FWHM of the axial cross sections were measured on 6 different locations of the
ganglion cell dendritic structure shown in Fig. 11(a). Intensity was measured at the same
locations of the image for all focus depths within each focus stack. The measured FWHM of
the axial cross section of point objects was 10.8 μm ± 0.7 μm (average ± standard deviation).
Axial profile measurement on a typical point object in Fig. 11(c) (arrow) is plotted as an
example. In Fig. 11(e), circle data points are the in vivo measurement, and solid gray line
shows the theoretical PSF. The measured FWHM of the axial cross section of point objects is
2.4 times larger than the theoretical axial PSF FWHM.
Fig. 11. Characterization of the in vivo resolution using an image stack of a fluorescent
ganglion cell. (a) Maximum projection image for a focus stack. (b) One individual focus from
the focus stack. Transverse cross section on a typical dendrite labeled in yellow is plotted as an
example in (d). (c) An individual focus image 11.6 μm shallower than the focus in (b). Arrow
indicates measurement position for a typical axial cross section shown in (e). (d) and (e) are the
characterization of the in vivo transverse and axial resolution, respectively. Circle data points:
in vivo measurement. Solid black line: spline fit to in vivo measurement data. Solid gray line:
theoretical diffraction-limited axial PSF. Scale bar: 20 µm.
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3.7. Characterization of in vivo axial positional accuracy
When imaging objects that are sparsely distributed axially, the axial position of an object or
the peak of its axial intensity profile can be localized more accurately than the axial
resolution. An axial image stack was equally divided into four image stack segments to
characterize the in vivo axial positioning accuracy of the mouse AOSLO. Each of the four
image stack segments was processed identically. The relative axial positions of 10 different
point objects was measured in each of the segments, and the standard deviation of the axial
position or the positioning accuracy was 0.36 μm, 30 times smaller than the measured axial
FWHM of 10.8 μm. This 30-fold difference is consistent with what was previously reported
for an AOSLO developed for the primate eye, which had an axial resolution of 115 μm and a
positional accuracy of 4 μm [19].
This fine in vivo axial positional accuracy of 0.36 μm has a number of important
applications. For example, the stratification of the processes of ganglion cells can be
potentially localized to the positional accuracy, enabling classification of ganglion cells in
vivo.
3.8. Ganglion cell morphological classification, and direct comparison of in vivo to ex vivo
images
Ganglion cell morphological classification has been studied extensively using ex vivo
preparations, and over 14 sub-types have been identified on this basis alone [48–51].
Parameters used for anatomical classification include dendritic pattern (e.g., density of
branching), depth of dendrite stratification in IPL, extent of dendritic field, and soma size.
While the extent of dendritic field and soma size can be measured using conventional in vivo
imaging methods, only the AOSLO reported in the current paper can measure the dendritic
stratification, and reveal the fine details of dendritic patterning. Being able to classify
ganglion cells in vivo would create a platform for combining morphological and functional
imaging of different cell types in an intact model to study retinal circuitry.
Because we currently don’t have an in vivo preparation that labels the boundaries of the
IPL, we approximated the start of the IPL as the axial position of the proximal dendrites. The
Fig. 12. Direct comparison of in vivo and ex vivo mouse monostratified ganglion cell. In vivo
image dimensions (degree to µm conversion calculated using paraxial eye model [28]) matched
very well with ex vivo image dimensions. (a) Ex vivo histological image acquired using a 40x
oil immersion confocal microscope with a 1.3 NA objective. (b) In vivo image in a mouse
retina taken with AO correction over a 0.49 NA. The in vivo image was a maximum intensity
projection image generated from 11 in vivo images taken at different depths. Ex vivo image was
a maximum intensity projection image generated from an image stack of 51 images. Confocal
pinhole size was 1 Airy disk for ex vivo, and 1.9 Airy disks for in vivo imaging. Scale bar: 20
μm.
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Fig. 13. Direct comparison of in vivo and ex vivo mouse bistratified ganglion cells. All imaging
parameters used were the same as that used for the cell imaged in Fig. 12.
total depth of the mouse eye IPL was approximated to be 35 µm, as measured from ex vivo
data published by Haverkamp and Wassle [52]. Parameters measured in this work for each
cell are: depth of dendritic stratification, dendritic field size and soma size. To estimate
dendritic field size for cells with large dendritic field, low-resolution images with large 7° ×
9.3° (~230 µm × 300 µm) FOV were taken.
Both monostratified ganglion cells and bistratified cells were identified through in vivo
imaging. Ganglion cell structures and depth of dendritic stratification measured in vivo were
directly compared to that measured ex vivo in the same retinal locations. Figure 12 shows a
monostratified ganglion cell under comparison. Despite that in vivo imaging NA was much
smaller than that of ex vivo confocal imaging (0.49 vs. 1.3), almost all the fine details of the
ganglion cell dendrites and axon seen ex vivo were also resolved in vivo. This cell stratified
into the ON sublaminae [48,49]. Despite that different methods were used to identify the
Fig. 14. In vivo imaging of six more monostratified ganglion cells. Shadows from large blood
vessels can be seen in images of cell 2, 4 and 6. Cells 5 and 6 are taken from transgenic mice
with ganglion cells expressing YFP, and all other cells are labeled with retrograde viral vector.
Images are contrast stretched for display purposes. Scale bar: 20 μm.
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boundaries of the IPL for in vivo vs. ex vivo measurements, the measured dendritic
stratification within the IPL showed good agreement. The average depth of dendrite
stratification measured in vivo was 29% of the estimated total IPL thickness, matching very
well with ex vivo measurement of 28%. Figure 13 shows a bistratified ganglion cell imaged
both ex vivo and in vivo. Two layers of dendrites separated by ~35% of the IPL or 12 µm
could be resolved. The average depth of the dendrite stratification was 49% and 84% as
measured in vivo, and was 45% and 80% as measured ex vivo.
Figure 14 shows six more monostratified cells imaged in vivo, and Fig. 15 shows three
more bistratified cell examples. Tables 2 and 3 summarize their depth of dendritic
stratification measured in vivo, and the proposed matching ganglion cell types in the literature.
As was described previously, apart from dendritic stratification, dendritic field size and soma
size were also measured from in vivo images and were used to match cell types (not shown in
tables).
Table 2. In vivo classification of a few monostratified ganglion cells
Cell 1
Cell 2
Cell 3
Cell 4
Cell 5
Cell 6
Cell from Fig. 12
In vivo
Dendritic stratification
65%
44%
88%
72%
47%
30%
28%
Maximum projection image
Matching cell types and their dendrite stratification
Coombs et al. [48]
Sun et al. [49]
Kong et al. [51]
M1
RGB2, 67% ± 16%
M2
1, 55%
RGB4, 66% ± 12%
M3
3, 73%
M7
RGA2 inner, 29% ± 7%
5, 26%
M8
OFF stratification
ON stratification
Fig. 15. In vivo imaging of three more bistratified ganglion cells. The left column shows the
maximum projection image of the cell; middle and right columns shows the dendrite
stratifications at 2 different focuses. All images are contrast stretched for display purposes.
Scale bar: 20 μm.
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Table 3. Summary of in vivo classification of a few bistratified ganglion cells
Cell a
Cell b
Cell c
Cell from Fig. 13
In vivo
Dendritic stratification
49% and 72%
42% and 78%
56% and 96%
49% and 84%
Matching cell types
Coombs et al. [48]
Sun et al. [49]
M11
RG D1, 44% ± 8% and 71% ± 8%
M13
RGD2, 39% ± 10% and 71% ± 12%
M14
4. Conclusions and future directions
In vivo imaging of the mouse eye can provide higher transverse and axial resolution than of
the human eye, despite challenges encountered in previous studies [23,24]. We have
constructed a confocal scanning AO instrument with a wavefront sensor operating on backscattered light, providing a fast and effective correction of mouse eye aberrations. The
imaging part of the instrument was custom designed for the mouse eye to provide diffractionlimited optical performance over a 60 D vergence range, and low beam wander on the eye’s
pupil plane. After AO correction, the photoreceptor mosaic, nerve fiber bundles, fine
capillaries and blood flow were visualized in vivo non-invasively in reflectance. Ganglion cell
bodies, dendrites and axons were clearly resolved in registered in vivo fluorescent images.
Compared to a previous system we modified for AO imaging in the rat eye [25], this
system was purposely built for the mouse eye, utilizing the eye’s full NA and delivering
images with higher resolution and contrast. Imaging resolution characterized directly from in
vivo images was sub-micron laterally, and ~10 µm axially.
We report the first in vivo images of the photoreceptor mosaic in mice. The ability to
identify ganglion cell types based on the plane of stratification indicates the unprecedented in
vivo axial resolution.
Together with current powerful molecular techniques that exist for engineering the mouse,
this high resolution in vivo method opens new doors for many investigations and experiments.
AO imaging of mouse models has potential for investigating retinal development, disease
mechanisms and evaluating the efficacy of drug therapies. For example, capillary morphology
and blood flow can be studied longitudinally for mouse models of vasculature diseases such
as diabetic retinopathy. For mouse models of glaucoma, ganglion cells and their processes as
well as microscopic structures in the nerve fiber layer can be monitored during disease
progression or treatment. With the fine in vivo axial positional accuracy reported here (0.36
µm), the axial movement of small isolated features or processes could potentially be finely
tracked for their response to light or over the visual cycle, or a longer time scale for retinal
development or disease progression.
While we have concentrated on reflective structures and fluorescently labeled ganglion
cells in this study, the observed resolution indicates that it is possible to use the fAOSLO to
image a variety of other retinal structures. These include individual pericytes, Müller glial
cells, bipolar cells and amacrine cells that are fluorescently labeled in transgenic mice [53,54],
or using cell-specific adeno-associated virus (AAV) and lentiviral vectors [55–58]. Also
included are autofluorescent retinal pigment epithelium cells that may be resolved without
using extrinsic fluorophores [59].
Other than imaging morphology, the mouse AOSLO may also provide measures of retinal
function at a cellular and subcellular scale. Combining AOSLO imaging with recent
advancement in optogenetics, it will be possible to study and manipulate retina circuitry in an
intact retina. Using genetically encoded calcium indicators, we have started to record the light
response of ensembles of ganglion cells in the living mouse eye [60]. We have also started
probing the function of pericytes in regulating capillary blood flow [61]. Furthermore, this
instrument can be used to image and probe other retinal cells that are presynaptic to ganglion
cells, such as bipolar cells and amacrine cells. In the future, we could capitalize on transgenic
mouse lines with sub-type specific markers for ganglion cells or other retinal cell types
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[62,63], and study function for each particular sub-type. Eventually this technique may allow
us to characterize retinal circuitry by optically monitoring the electrical activity of large
numbers of interconnected neurons simultaneously.
The current system operates as a confocal AOSLO, and needs a confocal pinhole to
achieve axial sectioning. Two-photon imaging is a method to achieve intrinsic axial resolution
by preferentially exciting fluorophores near the focal volume, thus reducing photobleaching
[64]. Adaptive optics two-photon imaging has been demonstrated for imaging photoreceptors
in the living primate eye [65], and we expect an increase in two-photon signal intensity in a
mouse eye with larger NA. Modifying a confocal mouse AOSLO to accommodate two-photon
imaging involves the addition of an ultrafast pulsed laser, and a channel for direct detection of
two-photon fluorescence by-passing the de-scanning optics used for confocal detection [66].
For functional imaging using extrinsic fluorophores, such as optical recording of ganglion
cells, it allows imaging with an IR wavelength outside of the retina’s sensitivity range,
avoiding intense stimulation caused by single-photon fluorescence imaging. Two-photon
imaging also permits excitation of multiple endogenous fluorophores, such as NADH, that are
functional markers of cell metabolism. All kinds of transparent retinal structures contain twophoton excitable intrinsic fluorophores, and can be imaged with high contrast on a two-photon
microscope ex vivo. If enough signal intensity can be collected in the mouse eye using AO
two-photon imaging, potentially both the morphology and function of any retinal cell types
may be monitored in vivo without the use of exogenous fluorophores.
Acknowledgments
We appreciate financial support from the following sources: NIH Grants EY 001319,
EY014375, EY018606, EY021166, NSF STC grant No. AST-9876783, and Research to
Prevent Blindness. Alfredo Dubra-Suarez, Ph.D., holds a Career Award at the Scientific
Interface from the Burroughs Wellcome Fund. Richard T. Libby holds a Research to Prevent
Blindness Career Development Award. We are grateful to Edward Callaway and Ali Cetin for
providing viral vector for retrograde labeling of ganglion cells. We also thank Wanli Chi,
Jesse Schallek, Benjamin Masella, Jennifer Hunter, Jason Porter, Boshen Gao, Jannick
Rolland, Kevin Thompson, Julie Bentley, Stephen Burns, Frederic Rooms and Ram Kumar
Sabesan for their assistance on this work, and Jennifer Strazzeri for assistance with
intracranial injection of viral vector. We would also like to thank the reviewers for providing
valuable comments and suggestions for the manuscript.
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